Petroleum Geology (Distance Delivery)

Understanding Earth’s Structure

This publication © The Northern Alberta Institute of Technology 2006. All rights are reserved. No part of
this publication may be reproduced, or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database
and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Address all inquiries to:

THE NORTHERN ALBERTA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

11762 – 106 Street, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T5G 2R1
Attention: Rick Wilson, Petroleum Engineering Technology

Basic Computer knowledge. Ability to navigate the internet.

TEXTBOOK: Basic Petroleum Geology by Peter K. Link

Available at NAIT’s “Campus Reads and Needs” bookstore
Or from:
Petroskills website (http://www.petroskills.com/prodserv_main.asp)
Follow the links: Products and Services/Technical Publications/

Must have access to internet and printer.

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Learning Outcome Guide
Upon successful completion of this Learning Outcome Guide, you will be able to
describe how earth’s processes determine the formation of reservoirs.

Learning Objectives
To successfully complete the Learning Outcome Guide, you should be able to:
• Describe the structure of the earth using a cross section.
• Relate plate tectonics and continental margins to common geological events and
familiar geologic features.
• describe and explain how the rock cycle relates to the main types of rocks (igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary).

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If you live on the prairies of Western Canada, the countryside tends to be relatively flat
with only rivers and creeks interrupting the continuity. If you dig a hole in your backyard,
you would encounter dirt, clay, gravel and rocks. You would probably get very tired
before you hit solid bedrock. We live on top of glacial deposits which are a thin layer
(relatively) of sediments deposited by glaciers during the last ice age. Underneath all
this dirt and gravel and clay lies solid rock. A lot of that solid rock is made from older
sediments that have lithified (turned to rock) to become sedimentary rock. We tend to
direct our hydrocarbon exploration to sedimentary rock as it has the best chance of
possessing the features required to produce and hold hydrocarbons.
Under the sedimentary rock lies metamorphic rock with characteristics found in the
Canadian Shield. In fact, the Canadian Shield is ancient rock that is exposed at surface
in places like Northern Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Northern Ontario and Quebec.

Look at the map above showing the location of exposed Canadian Shield. This is not
good hydrocarbon rock. Draw a line from the USA border up into the North showing the
location of the Rocky Mountains. The mountains are also fairly poor hydrocarbon
locations because the sedimentary rock tends to be uplifted and exposed. Look at the
region between the mountains and the shield. This is prime geology for finding
hydrocarbons.
Understanding the structure of the earth, how that structure changes and moves
provides a basis for understanding geology and hydrocarbon resource locations.

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OBJECTIVE ONE
To successfully complete this Learning Outcome Guide, you should be able to describe
the structure of the earth using a cross section.

Read pages 1-6 of Basic Petroleum Geology textbook. Focus on section "Structure of
the Earth"

Reading a textbook can be difficult. Let the questions in the “experiential activity”
(immediately following) guide your reading. Look at the question and then search
through the readings to find the answer.

1. Draw a cross section of the earth from the Asthenosphere to surface. Show how a
continental crust and undersea crust differ from each other.

3. What is the density of rock in the crust compared to the density of the entire earth?
How do we account for this difference?

4. What is the typical temperature gradient of the earth's crust (in metric units)?

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OBJECTIVE TWO
To successfully complete this Learning Outcome Guide, you should be able to relate
plate tectonics and continental margins to common geological events and familiar
geologic features.

Read pages 6 to 16 (section called “Plate Tectonics”) of Basic Petroleum Geology

textbook.

Google “Plate Boundaries” to find additional information to help with the

experiential activity.

1. Who “originated” the plate tectonic or continental drift theory?

2. Give two factors which geologists point to as evidence that continents were once
connected.

3. Draw a sketch of a divergent plate boundary and name a location where such a
boundary can be found today.

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4. Draw a sketch of a convergent plate boundary and name a location where such a
boundary can be found today.

5. Oil fields can be found near plate boundaries. Use the textbook to find 2
examples each of fields found at divergent, convergent and transform plate
boundaries.

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OBJECTIVE THREE
To successfully complete this Learning Outcome Guide, you should be able to describe
and explain how the rock cycle relates to the main types of rocks (igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary).

Read pages 53 to 59 and 69 to 76 in the Basic Petroleum Geology text.

Definitions:

Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic crystalline element or compound. It has a

definite chemical composition and characteristic physical properties such as
crystal shape, melting point, colour and hardness. Most minerals found in rocks
are not pure.

Rock: a hardened collection of different minerals. Rocks are divided into three
groups on the basis of their mode of origin: igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary.

Think of a mineral as a pure compound or element while a rock is made up of minerals.

- Quartz is a mineral (SiO2) but it is uncommon to find a pure, clear quartz crystal.
You would often find it with a collection of other minerals in something like a
sandstone.
- In both cases (sandstone or quartz) you would be looking at a “rock”. In only one
case (pure quartz), you would be looking at a “mineral”.

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1. Draw a simple diagram showing how the different types of rocks relate to the
rock cycle (see page 76).

2. Explain how a metamorphic rock and an igneous rock is formed.

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Google "Earthquakes Canada" to find the Natural Resources Canada website. Explore
this website and links to get an understanding of regions in Canada that have a
tendency to experience earthquakes.
Assignment:
Print out a PDF map of Canadian earthquakes (find it by following the link to “Historic
Earthquakes”). Use this map to discuss plate tectonics in Western Canada, plate
boundaries in relation to the Rocky Mountains and plate tectonics in relation to Alberta,
where most of Canada’s oil and gas is found.
This discussion is to be approximately one page long and attached to the map of
Canadian Earthquakes.

The relationship between plate tectonics and hydrocarbon reservoirs is not immediately apparent. What is key (from a
big picture perspective) in finding hydrocarbons, is finding the type of rock that has porosity and permeability to
contain hydrocarbons. Sedimentary rock provides this. Sedimentary rock is found in areas where there was once
water (inland oceans, continental boundaries, rivers, deltas etc.)
Plate tectonics is important in that the constantly shifting plates are continuously changing the shape of the continents
and subsequently, the places where sediments (and sedimentary rocks) are deposited. Places where there are
prairies or deserts may have once been seas.

Don’t be misled by this earthquake assignment. Earthquakes are an indicator of shifting plate boundaries and plate
boundaries are not necessarily good places to find reservoirs. Often the underlying rock has been fractured and
uplifted, exposing any hydrocarbons to a free path to the atmosphere.

But…knowing where the plate boundaries are can lead to an understanding of places where the earth's structure has
been deformed. This is a good place to find structural traps for hydrocarbons (such as the foothills of Alberta).
Sedimentary rock in Alberta and the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) was formed because an inland
sea existed there. Later, when the Rockies were formed from plate movement, many meters of sand, gravel, pebbles,
mud and clay were deposited from the erosion of the fresh mountains. This formed a thick layer of sedimentary rock
during the Cretaceous period.

Plate movement, sedimentary basins, sedimentary rock, sediments and hydrocarbon development all work in a
unified cycle.

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