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Multi‐Choice‐Quiz for CSWIP 3.
1 Welding Inspector (2009)
1. Which mechanical test can be used to measure 6. Undercut may need to be assessed according to
the toughness of weld metal, HAZ and parent ___
material? a. Depth
a. Macro b. Length
b. Nick break c. Sharpness/profile/blend
c. Hardness d. All of the above
d. Charpy impact
7. When visually inspecting the root bead of a
2. Which is the best destructive test for showing single‐vee‐butt weld it should be checked for ___
lack of side‐wall fusion in a 25mm thick butt a. Lack of root penetration
weld? b. HAZ hardness
a. Nick break c. Tungsten inclusion
b. Side bend d. All of the above
c. Charpy impact
d. A face bend test 8. The strength of a fillet weld is determined by ___
a. Leg length
3. The principle purpose of a welder qualification b. Weld profile
test is____ c. Weld width
a. To test the skill of the welder d. Throat thickness
b. To assess the weldability of the materials
c. To decide which NDT methods to use 9. The European Standard for NDE of Fusion Welds
d. To give the welder practice before doing by Visual Examination is ____
production welding a. EN 288
b. EN 499
4. A fabrication procedure calls for the toes of all c. EN 287
welds to be “blended in” by grinding. The most d. EN 970
likely reason for doing this is to___
a. Make the weld suitable for liquid (dye) 10. Visual Inspection of a fabricated item, for a high
penetrant inspection integrity application, should cover inspection
b. Improve the fatigue life activities ____
c. Reduce residual stress a. Before, during and after welding
d. Improve the general appearance of the b. Before welding only
welds c. After welding only
d. During welding and after welding only
5. For full penetration single‐sided butt joints, root
bead penetration and profile are mainly 11. Incomplete root penetration in a single‐vee‐butt
influenced by ___ joint may be caused by ____
a. Root face a. An excessive root face
b. Bevel angle b. An excessive root gap
c. Root gap c. The current setting being too low
d. Included angle d. Both A and C

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Multi‐Choice‐Quiz for CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector (2009)
12. Incomplete root fusion in a single‐vee‐butt weld c. Penetration depth
may be caused by ____ d. Both A & B
a. Linear misalignment
b. The root gap being too large 19. In a bend test, when the face of the specimen is
c. Root faces being too small in tension and root is in compression, the test is
d. All of the above called ____
a. A root bend
13. When visually inspecting the face of a finished b. A side bend
weld it should be assessed for ____ c. A face bend
a. Maximum excess weld metal height d. A longitudinal bend
b. Toe blend
c. Inter‐run blend 20. Heavy porosity on the surface of some MMA
d. All of the above welds made on a construction site is most likely
to be caused by ____
14. A burn‐through may occur if ____ a. Use of the wrong class of electrodes
a. A current is too low b. The use of excessive current
b. The root face is too large c. Moisture pick‐up in the electrode covering
c. The root gap is too large d. A bad batch of electrodes
d. All of the above
21. Slag inclusions may be present in ____
15. A code of Practice is ____ a. Manual metal arc welds
a. A standard for workmanship quality only b. Metal inert gas welds
b. A set of rules for manufacturing a specific c. Submerged arc welds
product d. Both A and C
c. A specification for the finished product
d. All of the above 22. The main cause of undercut is ____
a. Excessive amps
16. A solid inclusion in a weld may be ____ b. Excessive volts
a. Entrapped slag c. Excessive travel speed
b. Entrapped gas d. All of the above
c. Lack of inter‐run fusion
d. All of the above 23. Which group of welders is most likely to require
continuous monitoring by a welding inspector?
17. Which of the following is a planar imperfection? a. Concrete shuttering welders
a. A lack of sidewall fusion b. Overland pipeline welders
b. A slag inclusion c. Tack welders
c. Linear porosity d. Maintenance welders
d. Root concavity
24. Which of the following fillet welds is the stronger
18. For fillet welds, it is normal practice in the UK & (assuming they are all made using the same
USA to measure ____ material and welded using the same WPS)?
a. Throat thickness a. 8mm throat of a mitre fillet
b. Leg length b. 7mm leg + 2mm excess weld metal
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c. Mitre fillet with 10mm leg 30. The majority of welder qualification tests are
d. Concave fillet with 11mm leg carried out using an unbacked joint. This is
because ____
25. A typical included angle for MMA welding of a a. It is quicker, and cheaper, if back‐gouging is
full penetration pipe butt joint is ____ not required
a. 35° b. If the welding process is not TIG, back
b. 70° purging is not required
c. 90° c. All welder qualification tests are done on
d. Dependent on the pipe diameter small diameter pipe
d. It requires more skill and increases the
26. A fillet weld has an actual throat thickness of welder’s qualification range
8mm and a leg length of 7mm. What is the
excess weld metal? 31. Deflection of the arc by magnetic forces, that can
a. 2.1mm make welding difficult to control, is commonly
b. 1.8mm known as ____
c. 3.1mm a. Arc initiation
d. 1.4mm b. Arc misalignment
c. Arc blow
27. The fusion boundary of a weld is ____ d. Arc constriction
a. The boundary between the weld metal and
HAZ 32. Which of the following electrodes is classified to
b. The boundary between individual weld runs BS EN 499?
c. The depth of root penetration a. E 38 3R
d. The boundary between the HAZ and parent b. E 6013
material c. E7018‐G
d. E 51 33B
28. If a Welding Inspector detects a type of
imperfection not allowed by the Application 33. Which of type of electrode is used for ‘stove‐pipe’
Standard he must always ____ welding for overland pipelines construction?
a. Request further NDE a. Rutile
b. Reject the weld b. Cellulosic
c. Prepare a concession request c. High recovery rutile
d. Only reject the weld if the considers it to be d. All of the above
harmful
34. The three main types of MMA electrodes used
29. BS EN 970 allows the use of a magnifying glass for welding C & C‐Mn steels are ___
for visual inspection but recommends that the a. Basic, cellulosic and rutile
magnification is ____ b. Neutral, cellulosic and rutile
a. X2 c. Basic, cellulosic and neutral
b. X2 to X5 d. Rutile, low hydrogen and basic
c. X5 to X10
d. Not greater than X20 35. A WPS may specify a maximum width for
individual weld beads (the ‘weave’ width) when
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welding C‐Mn steels. If the width is exceeded it d. Eliminate moisture pick‐up in the root bead
may cause ___
a. Lack of inter‐run fusion 41. The chemical composition of the weld metal
b. A reduction in HAZ toughness deposited by a C‐Mn steel MMA electrode is
c. Lack of sidewall fusion usually controlled by ____
d. All of the above a. The core wire composition
b. Additions in the flux coating
36. You notice that MMA electrodes, with the flux c. Iron powder in the flux coating
covering removed, are being used as filler rods d. Dilution from the base material
for TIG welding. This should not be allowed
because ___ 42. Silicon is added to steel, and the covering of
a. It is wasteful MMA electrodes, in order to give ____
b. The rod diameter be too large a. Deoxidation
c. The weld metal composition may be wrong b. Improve strength
d. The rod is too short c. Improve toughness
d. More resistance to hydrogen cracking
37. For TIG welding, what benefit does a current
slope‐out device have? 43. A fusible insert for TIG welding helps to ____
a. It reduces tungsten spatter a. Reduce porosity
b. It reduces the risk of crater cracking b. Give controlled root penetration
c. It reduces the risk of arc strikes c. Avoids the need for a back purge
d. It reduces the interpass temperature d. All of the above

38. What type of power source characteristic is 44. According to AWS 2.4 a weld symbol for the
normally used for manual welding? ‘other’ side is placed ____
a. Constant voltage a. Above the dashed line
b. Flat characteristic b. Below the dashed line
c. Constant current c. Above the solid line
d. A motor generator d. Below the solid line

39. In MMA welding, penetration is principally 45. When low hydrogen MMA electrodes are
controlled by ____ specified for what type of covering will they have?
a. Arc voltage a. Cellulosic
b. Welding speed b. Rutile
c. Ferro‐silicon in the electrode coating c. Acid
d. current d. Basic

40. Pipe bores of some materials must be purged 46. A hydrogen controlled MMA electrode can
with Argon before and during TIG welding in always be recognised by the ____
order to ____ a. EN code letter (or AWS code number)
a. Prevent linear porosity b. Electrode length
b. Prevent burn‐through c. Trade Name
c. Prevent oxidation of the root bead d. Colour of the covering
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47. According to BS EN 22553 which of the following 52. Weld spatter during MMA welding is most likely
symbols requires weld toes to be smoothly to be caused by ____
blended on the ‘other side’? a. Excessive current
b. Incorrect baking and storage of electrodes
c. A bad batch of electrodes
d. All of the above

53. A qualified Welding Procedure Specification is
used to ____
a. Give instruction to the welder
b. Give information to the welding inspector
c. Give confidence that welds will have the
specified properties
d. All of the above

48. Which of the following units is used to express 54. An arc strike (stray flash) on a steel component is
heat input? regarded by some codes as unacceptable
a. Joules because ____
b. N/mm2 a. It will cause copper contamination
c. J/mm2 b. It may cause hard spots
d. kJ/mm c. It may give cracking
d. Of both B & C
49. Which one of the following elements is added to
steel to give resistance to creep at elevated 55. In a transverse tensile test, brittleness would be
service temperatures? indicated if ____
a. Nickel a. There is a reduction in cross‐section at the
b. Manganese position of fracture
c. Molybdenum b. The fracture surface is flat and featureless
d. Aluminium but has a rough surface
c. Fracture occurred in the weld metal
50. Nick break and fillet fracture tests are used for d. The fracture face shows beach marks
____
a. Assessing weld quality 56. The surface of a fatigue crack will ____
b. Assessing weld metal ductility a. Be rough and torn
c. Assessing weld metal toughness b. Have sharp chevron markings
d. All of the above c. Be smooth
d. Have shear lips
51. Which of the following steels is non‐magnetic?
a. 18% Cr, 8% Ni 57. What does the number 141 refer to on this
b. 2.25 Cr, 1 Mo drawing symbol?
c. 9% Cr, 1 Mo
d. 9% Ni

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a. The WPS number a. The tensile strength of the welded joint
b. The welding process b. The level of residual stress in butt joints
c. A filler material c. The fracture toughness of the HAZ
d. The acceptance standard d. The trough thickness ductility of a steel plate
(the ‘Z’ direction)
58. The polarity used for TIG welding of all materials,
except aluminium and magnesium, is ____ 64. The risk of hydrogen cracking in higher when
a. DC negative MMA welding of _ ___
b. DC positive a. C‐Mn steels
c. AC b. Austenitic stainless steels
d. Any polarity can be used c. Low alloy steels for elevated temp. service
d. Low carbon steels for cryogenic service
59. A typical temperature range for baking low
hydrogen electrodes is ____ 65. The property of a material that has the greatest
a. 150 to 200°C influence on welding distortion is the ____
b. 200 to 250°C a. Yield strength
c. 300 to 350°C b. Co‐efficient of thermal expansion
d. 400 to 450°C c. Elastic modulus
d. Co‐efficient of electrical conductivity
60. If welding travel speed is doubled, but the
current and voltage remain the same, the heat 66. Which of the following is a suitable shielding gas
input will ____ for FCAW of stainless steels?
a. Be reduced by 50% a. 100% Argon
b. Be increased by a factor of two b. 70% Argon + 30% He
c. Be about the same c. Argon + 5% Hydrogen
d. Be reduced by approximately 25% d. Argon + 20% CO2

61. Which type of submerged arc welding flux is 67. The presence of iron sulphides in a weld bead
susceptible to moisture pick‐up? may cause ____
a. Neutral a. Solidification cracking
b. Agglomerated b. Hydrogen cracking
c. Fused c. Lamellar tearing
d. They are all about the same d. Weld decay

62. A large grain size, in the HAZ of a C‐Mn steel 68. A macro section is particularly good for showing
weld joint, may have ____ ____
a. Low ductility a. The HAZ microstructure
b. Low toughness b. Overlap
c. High toughness c. The weld metal microstructure
d. High tensile strength d. All of the above

63. A STRA test is used to measure ____

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69. Which of the following procedures would be 74. Lamellar tearing has occurred in a steel
expected to produce the least distortion in fabrication. What technique could have been
15mm straight butt weld? used to find it before the weld was made?
a. TIG weld‐ single sided, multi‐pass a. X‐ray examination
b. MMA weld‐ single sided, multi‐pass b. Liquid penetrant examination
c. MMA weld‐ double sided, multi pass c. Ultrasonic examination
d. SAW weld‐ 1 pass per side d. It could not have been found by any
inspection method.
70. A suitable gas/gas mixture, for GMAW of
aluminium is ____ 75. Pre‐heating a low alloy steel prior to welding is
a. 100% CO2 done to minimise the risk of ____
b. 100% Argon a. Porosity
c. 80% Argon + 20% CO2 b. Excessive distortion
d. 98% Argon + 2% O2 c. HAZ cracking
d. Lack of fusion
71. Which of the following is associated with SAW
more often than it is with MMA weld is? 76. Typical temperatures used for normalising a C‐
a. Hydrogen cracking in the HAZ Mn steel plate are ____
b. Solidification cracking in the weld metal a. 600 to 650°C
c. Re‐heat cracking during PWHT b. 1000 to 1100°C
d. Lamellar tearing c. 700 to 800°C
d. 880 to 920°C
72. EN ISO 5817 (Level C) specifies that the limit for
the diameter (D) of a single pore in a weld is: D ≤ 77. For GMAW the burn‐off rate of the wire is
0.3s, but max. 4mm where s=material thickness. directly related to ____
For which of the following situations is the pore a. The stick‐out length
acceptable? b. Wire feed speed
a. s= 30mm, measured pore diameter= 5.0mm c. The arc voltage
b. s= 15mm, measured pore diameter= 4.5mm d. The travel speed
c. s=10mm, measured pore diameter= 3.0mm
d. s= 10mm, measured pore diameter= 3.5mm 78. For MMA welding of a 60mm wall nozzle to a
100mm wall vessel shell, pre‐heat temperature
73. To measure arc voltage accurately it is should be checked.
recommended that the voltmeter should be a. Before welding starts/re‐starts
connected ____ b. On the shell and the nozzle
a. Across the arc and as near as practical to the c. At point at least 75mm from the joint edge
arc d. All of the above
b. Across the power source terminals prior to
arc initiation 79. A cracking running along the centreline of a weld
c. Across the power source terminal during the bead could be caused by ____
welding operation a. Use of damp flux
d. All of the above are suitable b. Lack of preheat
c. Arc voltage being too high
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d. Weld bead being too deep and very narrow 85. A carbon manganese steel is being welded by
MMA and the electrode run‐out‐lengths that
80. In order to improve resistance to service failure have been used are much shorter than specified
caused by cyclic loading, it is good practice to by the WPS. This deviation may give ____
____ a. An increased risk of hydrogen cracking
a. Use low heat input welding b. An increased risk of solidification cracking
b. Use steel with a low CEV c. Lower values of HAZ toughness
c. Ensure there are no features that give high d. Higher values of HAZ hardness
stress concentration
d. All of the above 86. The first procedures that is prepared for a Weld
Procedure Qualification test weld is a ____
81. The use of low carbon austenitic stainless steels a. pWPS
and stabilised stainless steels will minimise the b. WPS
risk of ____ c. WPOR
a. HAZ cracking d. WPAR
b. Weld decay
c. Weld metal cracking 87. Transfer of material identification by hard
d. Distortion stamping is sometimes not allowed for high
integrity applications because ____
82. Which type of SAW flux is susceptible to a. It is too slow
breaking down into fine particles during b. It can be a safety hazard
circulation? c. It may be damaging to the material
a. Fused d. All of the above
b. Neutral
c. Alloyed 88. When welding thin plate, distortion can be
d. Agglomerated minimised by ____
a. Using back‐step welding
83. The maximum hardness in the HAZ of a steel will b. Minimising weld volume
increase if the ____ c. Using bridging tacks
a. Heat input is increased d. All of the above
b. CEV is increased
c. Joint thickness is decreased 89. Which of the following would be high Heat Input
d. All of the above welding?
a. 550 J/mm
84. BS EN ISO 5817 (Level B) specifies the limit for b. 55 J/mm
Excess Weld Metal (h) on a butt weld as: h≤ 1mm c. 5.5 J/mm
+ 0.1b, but max. 5mm, b= weld width. In which d. 5.0 kJ/mm
of the following situations is the measured
Excess Weld Metal acceptable. 90. Initiation of a TIG arc by using a High Frequency
a. b= 10 measured excess weld metal= 2.5mm spark may not be allowed because ____
b. b=20 measured excess weld metal= 3.5mm a. It often causes tungsten inclusions
c. b=35 measured excess weld metal= 4.5mm b. It can damage electronic equipment
d. b=45 measured excess weld metal= 5.5mm c. It is an electrical safety hazard
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d. It often causes stop/start porosity d. Improve the mechanical properties of the
weld metal
91. Which of these drawing symbols shows weld
penetration depth in accordance with BS EN 96. A welder approval certificate should be
22553? withdrawn if ____
a. He has not done any welding for a period of
4 months
b. He has been absent from work for a period
of 7 months
c. The repair rate for his welds exceeds 1%
d. All of the above

97. In friction welding, the metal at the interface
when the joining occurs is described as being in
the ____
a. Liquid state
b. Inter‐critical state
c. Plastic state
92. BS EN 288 is a specification for ____ d. Elastic state
a. Welder approval testing
b. Welding equipment calibration 98. A penetrameter is used to measure ____
c. Welding procedure approval a. The size of a discontinuity in a weld joint
d. Consumables for submerged arc welding b. The density of a radiographic film
c. The degree of film contrast
93. What determines the penetration power of d. The quality of the radiographic technique
Gamma rays?
a. Time 99. Which of the following cutting methods is
b. Type of isotope suitable for cutting stainless steel?
c. Source‐to‐film distance a. Plasma
d. Sources strength b. Oxy‐acetylene
c. Oxy‐propane
94. Which element has the greatest effect on the d. All of the above
HAZ hardness of carbon‐manganese steel?
a. Molybdenum 100. Which of the following would be classed as
b. Chromium the most serious type of defect?
c. Titanium a. A buried linear slag inclusion
d. Carbon b. Buried lack of inter‐run fusion
c. Surface breaking lack of sidewall fusion
95. Pre‐heating a steel plate with a carbon d. Surface porosity
equivalent value (CEV) of 0.48 may be required
in order to ____ 101. Ultrasonic testing has an advantage over
a. Drive out moisture from the plate other NDT methods for the detection of ___
b. Prevent excessive hardening in the HAZ a. Lack of sidewall fusion
c. Prevent the formation of carbides
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b. Root undercut d. All of the above
c. Incompletely filled groove
d. Root concavity 107. With reference to the various grades of
stainless steels, which of the following
102. Exceeding the maximum inter‐pass statements is true?
temperature specified for a C‐Mn steel weld a. They are all non‐magnetic
joint, may give ____ b. They all require 100% Ar for GMAW
a. Excessive porosity c. They all have very high thermal conductivity
b. Burn through d. Only certain grades can be used for service
c. Lower toughness at very low temperature
d. All of the above
108. Which of the following AWS A5.1 electrodes
103. MIG/MAG welding has a tendency to give has a rutile covering ____
lack of sidewall fusion when ____ a. E6010
a. Spray transfer conditions are used b. E7016
b. 100% CO2 shielding gas is used c. E7018
c. Pulsed current is used d. E6013
d. Dip transfer conditions are used
109. Welds made with very high heat input will
104. The temperature range over which a steel show a reduction in ____
goes from having high toughness to low a. Tensile ductility
toughness is called ____ b. Notch toughness
a. The critical transformation temperature c. Fatigue strength
b. The ductility dip temperature d. Creep resistance
c. The bi‐modal temperature
d. The transition temperature 110. During PWHT of a complex fabrication, it is
heated to the soak temperature at a much
105. For SAW, what is the effect of raising arc higher rate than specified by the procedure. This
voltage but keeping with all other parameter the may ____
same? a. Cause excessive oxidation
a. The weld bead width will increase b. Not allow sufficient time to relieve stresses
b. The depth of penetration will increase c. Introduce excessive compressive stresses
c. The weld bead width will decrease d. Cause distortion
d. The depth of penetration will decrease
111. When MAG welding in dip transfer mode
106. Changing an essential variable (beyond the (short‐circuiting mode) spatter can be reduced
allowed limits) for a qualified welding procedure by ____
____ a. Using inductance
a. May change the mechanical properties of b. Using 100% CO2
the joint c. Using Ar + 30% He
b. May adversely affect the quality of the weld d. Increasing the stick‐out length
c. Will require a new welding procedure to be
approved
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112. Repair welding of in‐service plant and d. Choice will depend on the welding position
equipment may be more difficult than making
repairs during initial fabrication because ____ 118. The dip transfer mode (or short‐circuiting
a. The material may be contaminated mode) of metal transfer used for MIG/MAG
b. Access to repair area may be difficult welding is characterised by ____
c. Positional welding may be needed a. Giving deep penetration
d. Of any of the above b. Being suitable for positional welding
c. Giving low spatter
113. For gamma radiography of a steel weld at d. All of the above
35mm thick, the recommended isotope is ____
a. Thulium 170 119. Carbon equivalent values (CEV) are used to
b. Ytterbium 169 determine the how to avoid the risk of ____
c. Iridium 192 a. Hydrogen cracking
d. Cobalt 60 b. Lamellar tearing
c. Solidification cracking
114. The sensitivity of a radiograph is assessed d. Weld decay
____
a. By using a densitometer 120. When 2 different material types are welded
b. By using an image quality indicator (IQI) together, the joint is referred to as ____
c. From the kVA used a. A composite joint
d. From stand‐off used b. A transition joint
c. An autogenous weld
115. A transverse tensile test, from a Weld d. All of the above
Procedure Approval Record (WPAR) test plate, is
used to measure ____
a. The tensile strength of the weld
b. The tensile strength of the joint
c. The stress/strain characteristics of the weld
d. The stress/strain characteristics of the joint

116. The highest and lowest heat input positions
are considered to be ____
a. PB highest; PA lowest
b. PE highest; PC lowest

c. PD highest; PB lowest
d. PF highest; PG lowest

117. What type of covering will an electrode have
that is suitable for welding 60mm C‐Mn steel and

can give good weld metal toughness at ‐50°C?
a. Rutile
b. Basic
c. Cellulosic
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1 D 31 C 61 B 91 B
2 B 32 A 62 B 92 C
3 A 33 B 63 D 93 B
4 B 34 A 64 C 94 D
5 C 35 B 65 B 95 B
6 D 36 C 66 D 96 B
7 A 37 B 67 A 97 C
8 D 38 C 68 B 98 D
9 D 39 D 69 C 99 A
10 A 40 C 70 B 100 C
11 D 41 B 71 B 101 A
12 A 42 A 72 C 102 C
13 D 43 B 73 A 103 D
14 C 44 C 74 D 104 D
15 B 45 D 75 C 105 A
16 A 46 A 76 D 106 D
17 A 47 C 77 B 107 D
18 B 48 D 78 D 108 D
19 C 49 C 79 D 109 B
20 C 50 A 80 C 110 D
21 D 51 A 81 B 111 A
22 A 52 A 82 D 112 D
23 B 53 D 83 B 113 C
24 A 54 D 84 C 114 B
25 B 55 B 85 C 115 B
26 C 56 C 86 A 116 D
27 A 57 B 87 C 117 B
28 B 58 A 88 D 118 B
29 B 59 C 89 D 119 A
30 D 60 A 90 B 120 A

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Multi‐Choice_Paper_CSWIP 3.1 _00
1. When ‘hydrogen control’ is specified for a a. Porosity
manual metal arc welding project the electrode b. Cracking in the weld area
would normally be: c. Undercut for fillet welds
a. Cellulose d. Lack of fusion defects
b. Iron oxide
c. Acid 7. One of the following alloys is non‐magnetic‐
d. Basic which?
a. 4.0% chromium molybdenum
2. You would certainly recognise a hydrogen b. 12.0% chromium
controlled flux covered electrode from its: c. Austenitic stainless steel
a. Colour d. 9.0% nickel steel
b. Length
c. Trade name 8. When TIG welding austenitic stainless steel pipe,
d. BS 639/AWS code letter argon gas backing is called for. This is to:
a. Prevent oxidation
3. When manual metal arc welding is being carried b. Prevent underbead cracking
out on an open construction site, which group of c. Prevent porosity
welders are most likely to require continuous d. Control the penetration bead shape
monitoring?
a. Concrete shuttering welding teams 9. Pre‐heating a carbon steel manual metal arc
b. Pipe welding teams welding is carried out to minimise the risk of:
c. Plate welders a. Scattered porosity
d. Plant maintenance welders b. Worm hole porosity
c. Parent metal cracking
4. You notice manual metal arc electrodes, stripped d. Lack of penetration
of flux, are being used as filler wire for TIG
welding. You would object because: 10. In UK practice, BS 499 specifies that the drawing
a. It is too expensive dimension quoted for a fillet weld is the:
b. The wire would be too thick a. Leg length
c. The metal composition may be wrong b. Throat thickness
d. The wire is too short c. Weld width
d. Actual throat thickness
5. When open site working, serious porosity in
metal arc welds is brought to your attention. 11. For open site manual metal welding the
What would you investigate? following equipment is available. Which would
a. Electrode type choose for safe site working?
b. Power plant type a. Single operator transformer
c. Electrode storage b. Multi operator transformers
d. Day temperature c. AC/DC composite power unit
d. Diesel engine driven motor generator
6. The steel composition in a structural contract is
changed from 0.15% carbon 0.6% manganese, to 12. If submerged arc welding is used to make butt
0.2% carbon 1.2% manganese. This might weld, which would you be most critical of?
influence the incidence of: a. The root gap tolerance
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b. The angle of preparation 19. Bend test specimens have been taken from a
c. The root face width 25mm thick carbon steel butt weld. Which would
d. The gas cut finish show lack of inter‐run fusion?
a. Side bend
13. During CO2 welding, the arc length is most likely b. Root bend
to be affected by: c. Face bend
a. The wire diameter d. Guided bend
b. The current return connections
c. The gas flow rate 20. Lamellar tearing has occurred in a steel
d. The torch to work angle fabrication. BEFORE welding could it have been
found by:
14. Preheating for arc welding applies to: a. X‐ray examination
a. Assembly welding only b. Dye penetrant
b. Assembly and tack welding c. Ultrasonic examination
c. Joints over 25mm thick only d. It would not have been found by any
d. Cruciform welds only inspection method

15. Which one of the following statements is correct? 21. You are to oversee the arc welding of some
a. Preheating increases hardness machine fittings and find that they are cadmium
b. Preheating increases cooling plated. Would you:
c. Preheating increases dilution a. Permit it to proceed
d. Preheating increases shrinkage stress b. Permit it to proceed with fume extraction
c. Stop the operation at once
16. You see a welder using an oxy‐acetylene flame d. Advise the welder to drink milk and proceed
with a long feathered inner cone. What would be
the effect of this on carbon steel? 22. One of the reasons for excluding hydrogen from
a. Entrapped slag the weld metal is to prevent the weld from:
b. Entrapped gas a. Cracking
c. Lack of inter‐run fusion b. Cooling slowly
d. All of the above c. Cooling quickly
d. Expanding
17. A welder qualification test is to verify:
a. The skill of the welder 23. When a metal regains its original shape when a
b. The quality of the materials stress acting upon it is removed, the metal is said
c. The non‐destructive test procedures to have:
d. The manufacturing methods a. Ductility
b. Plasticity
18. A fabricating procedure calls for fillet welds to be c. Malleability
‘blended in’ by grinding. This influences: d. Elasticity
a. HAZ cracking
b. Fatigue life 24. Proof stress is used when non‐ferrous metals are
c. Residual stress undergoing tensile tests to determine the
d. Yield strength equivalent:

2

a. Tenacity a. Can be used in draughty locations without
b. Elasticity protection
c. Yield strength b. Procedures a deposit low in hydrogen
d. Tensile strength content
c. Any welding position can be welded with
25. To test a component for vibrational loading, a spray transfer
suitable mechanical test would be: d. Fine spatter at nozzle restricting gas flow
a. Impact
b. Tensile 31. BS 499 communicates by the use of symbols the
c. Compressive type of joint preparation to be used. Which of
d. Fatigue the following symbols indicates the depth of
weld penetration required on the joint?
26. The main reason for pre‐heating medium and
high carbon steels before cutting by oxy‐fuel gas
technique is to:
a. Improve the quality of the cut
b. Increase the cutting speed
c. Refine the grain structure
d. Prevent hardening and cracking

27. One purpose of a microscopic examination of a
weld is to establish the:
a. Strength of the weld
b. Number of alloying elements 32. Which of the following symbols would indicate
c. Grain size that a weld has to be finished on the ‘other’ side
d. Number of runs used of the weld?

28. The predominant structure of an hyper‐
eutectoid steel that has been quenched at above
its upper critical point will be:
a. Austenite
b. Martensite
c. Troostite
d. Sorbite

29. When weld metal refinement takes place in a

multi‐run deposit, it is known by the term:
a. Weld annealing 33. The use of flux with gas shield metal arc welding
b. Weld refining allows:
c. Weld normalising a. Sheet metal to be welded
d. Weld re‐crystallisation b. A stable arc when using high current
densities
30. One advantage of metal gas arc shield welding is: c. Aluminium to be welded

3

d. Less dilution of the weld by the parent metal 40. In MAG/CO2 welding which parameter gives the
greatest control of weld appearance during dip
34. In MMA welding what parameter is used for transfer or short‐circuiting welding?
control of penetration into the base material? a. Wire stick‐out length
a. Voltage b. Amperage
b. Welding speed c. Wire feed speed
c. Iron powders in the coating d. Inductance
d. Current
41. In MMA welding, the slags produced can be
35. In the welding of a butt joint from one side, the varied to suit the welding position. Which type of
profile of the root bead is controlled by: slag would be required for welding in the HV
a. Root face position?
b. Bevel angle a. Fluid
c. Root gap b. Viscous
d. All of the above c. Semi fluid
d. None of the above
36. What type of power characteristic is required for
manual welding? 42. The weld metal deposit of MMA electrodes
a. Constant voltage achieves its mechanical strength through:
b. Flat characteristic a. The core wire
c. Drooping characteristic b. The flux coating
d. DC generator c. Iron powders with the flux coating
37. Which of the following tests would indicate the
toughness of weld metal/parent metal‐HAZ? 43. What constituent is needed in the coating of an
a. Macro electrode to prevent the formation of porosity in
b. Nick break the welding of a rimming steel?
c. Hardness a. Iron powders
d. Charpy vee notch b. Calcium fluoride
c. Silicon
38. Degreasing components is essential for quality d. Calcium carbonate
welding but some agent may:
a. Cause corrosion problems 44. Welds made with high heat inputs show a
b. Give off phosegene gas reduction in which of the following properties?
c. Leave residues a. Ductility
d. All of the above b. Toughness
c. Fatigue strength
39. Which of the following elements has the greater d. Mechanical strength
effect on the hardenability of a steel plate?
a. Molybdenum 45. In the welding of austenitic pipe work the bore
b. Chromium is usually purged with argon to:
c. Titanium a. Prevent formation of porosity in the weld
d. Carbon b. Prevent burn‐through in the root run
c. Prevent oxidation of the root bead
4

d. Eliminate the formation of hydrogen b. The formation of chromium carbides
c. Cracking in the weld metal
46. In X‐ray work the quality of the radiographic d. Distortion
image is assessed by the:
a. Density of the film 52. Submerged arc fluxes can be supplied in two
b. IQI indicator forms. There are:
c. KVA available a. Sintered and agitated
d. Stand‐off distance b. Agitated and fused
c. Sintered and agglomerated
47. A steel described as QT will have improved d. Fused and agglomerated
tensile properties because it has:
a. Had control of chemical composition 53. In a steel that has improved creep properties at
b. Been heat‐treated elevated temperatures, which one of the
c. Been quality tested following elements helps in this improvement?
d. Been vacuum melted a. Tungsten
b. Manganese
48. Which one of the following types of steel would c. Molybdenum
give rise to the formation of porosity when d. Carbon
autogenously welded with an arc process?
a. Fully killed steel 54. Welding a steel plate with a CE of 0.45 would
b. Semi killed steel require preheating to:
c. Rimming steel a. Prevent the formation of sulphides
d. Fine grained steel b. Prevent hardening in the HAZ
c. Prevent the formation of carbides
49. In submerged arc welding the use of excessively d. To improve mechanical properties in the
high voltage would result in: weld
a. Insufficient flux melting
b. Excessive flux melting 55. Which of the following processes uses the ‘key
c. Slag removal difficulties holing’ system of fusion?
d. Spatter a. Friction welding
b. Diffusion bonding
50. Cellulosic electrodes are often used when c. Electron beam welding
welding the root pass of pipes in the field d. Autogenous TIG welding
because:
a. Hydrogen control is needed 56. In friction welding the metal at the interface is in
b. There are iron powders in the electrode the:
c. Higher arc voltage can be obtained a. Liquid state
d. Shorter arc length can be obtained b. Solid state
c. Plastic state
51. In the welding of austenitic stainless steels, the d. Elastic state
electrode and plate material can be purchased
with low carbon contents. The reason for this is 57. Welding procedures may require welds to be
to prevent: deposited at a controlled rate of heat input. High
a. Cracking in the heat affected zone heat inputs would:
5

a. Have poor profile b. Excessive root gap size
b. Have larger grain size c. Low current setting
c. Have high hardness in the HAZ d. Both A and C
d. Have low elongation properties
64. Incomplete root fusion would certainly be
58. In a tensile test a brittle material would be caused by:
indicated if the fracture surface: a. Linear misalignment
a. Shows a reduction in size b. Incorrect tilt angle
b. Is flat and featureless c. Differing root face widths
c. Breaks in the parent material d. All of the above
d. Breaks at 45° to the load
65. When visually inspecting a completed single vee
59. What destructive test would be required to butt weld cap, you would certainly assess:
ascertain the likelihood of cracking in the heat a. Cap height
affected zone of a weld? b. Toe blend
a. Nick break c. Weld width
b. Side bend test d. All of the above
c. Charpy impact test
d. Macro test 66. You notice a very ‘veed’ ripple shape. This is
most likely caused by:
60. In submerged arc welding excessive arc voltage a. Poor consumable choice
may cause: b. Welding position
a. Excessive penetration c. Excessive travel speed
b. Change in weld metal composition d. All of the above
c. Narrow weld width
d. Excessive bead profile 67. Toe blending is important as it may affect:
a. Corrosion
61. The British code for visual inspection b. Fatigue life
requirements is: c. Overlap type defects
a. BS 4872 d. All of the above
b. BS 499
c. BS 4870 68. Slag inclusions would occur with:
d. None of the above a. Manual metal arc
b. Metal inert gas
62. A code of practice for visual inspection should c. Submerged arc welding
include the following: d. Both A and C
a. Before, during and after welding activities
b. Before welding activities only 69. Undercut is principally caused by:
c. After welding activities only a. Excessive amps
d. None of the above b. Excessive volts
c. Excessive travel speed
63. Incomplete root penetration in a butt joint could d. All of the above
be caused by:
a. Excessive root face width 70. Undercut is normally assessed by:
6

a. It s depth 77. Defects outside the limits specified in a standard
b. Its length should always be:
c. Its blending a. Repaired
d. All of the above b. Reported to ‘a senior person’
c. Assessed along with other defects
71. A welding procedure is useful to: d. All of the above
a. Give information to the welder
b. Give information to the inspector 78. MIG welding tends to be susceptible to lack of
c. Give confidence to a product fusion problems. This is because of:
d. All of the above a. Poor maintenance of equipment
b. Incorrect settings
72. An essential variable may: c. Poor inter‐run cleaning
a. Change the properties of a weld d. All of the above
b. Influence the visual acceptability
c. Require re‐approval of a weld procedure 79. MMA electrodes can be grouped into three main
d. All of the above types. These are:
a. Basic, cellulosic and rutile
73. A magnifying glass may be used during visual b. Neutral, cellulosic and rutile
inspection, but BS 5289 states that its c. Basic, cellulosic and neutral
magnification should be: d. None of the above
a. Up to 5 Φ
b. 2 to 2.5 Φ 80. The main cause of porosity in welded joints is:
c. 5 to 10 Φ a. Poor access
d. None of the above b. Loss of gas shield
c. ‘Dirty’ materials
74. When visually inspecting a fillet weld it would d. All of the above
normally be sized by:
a. The leg lengths 81. Cracks in welds may be due to:
b. The actual throat thickness a. Solidification problems
c. The design throat thickness b. Hydrogen problems
d. Both A and C c. Excessive stresses
d. All of the above
75. A planar defect is:
a. Incomplete fusion defects 82. A weave technique may give rise to:
b. Slag inclusion a. Better profiles
c. Incomplete penetration b. Improved toe blending
d. Both A and C c. Improved ripple shape
d. All of the above
76. Penetrant inspection and magnetic particle
inspection are mainly used: 83. With reference to a root penetration bead you
a. To aid visual inspection would certainly assess:
b. Because the application says so a. Root fusion and penetration
c. To confirm visual uncertainties b. Root concavity
d. All of the above c. Burn through
7

d. All of the above 90. A code of practice is:
a. A standard for workmanship only
84. In fatigue failure the appearance of the fracture b. A set of rules for manufacturing a specific
surface is characteristic. It would be: product
a. Rough and torn c. Levels of acceptability of a weldment
b. ‘Chevron’‐like d. None of the above
c. Smooth
d. None of the above 91. Movement of the arc in MMA welding by
magnetic forces is called:
85. Stray arcing may be regarded as a serious defect a. Arc deviation
because: b. Arc misalignment
a. It may reduce the thickness dimension of a c. Arc blow
component d. Arc eye
b. It may cause liquation cracks
c. It may cause hard zones 92. A metallurgical problem most associated with
d. All of the above submerged arc welding is:
a. Hydrogen cracking in the HAZ
86. Overlap in welds could be influenced by: b. Solidification cracking in the weld metal
a. Poor welding technique c. Hydrogen cracking in the weld metal
b. Welding process d. Lamellar tearing in the weld metal
c. Welding position
d. All of the above 93. Oxy pressure and nozzle size in flame cutting
would influence:
87. Flame cut preparations may, during welding, a. The temperature required for cut initiation
increase the likelihood of: b. The ability to cut stainless steels
a. Cracking c. The depth of the cut obtainable
b. Misalignment problems d. None of the above
c. Inclusions
d. All of the above 94. The main usage of arc cutting/gouging processes
is:
88. Macroscopic examination requires any specimen a. The cutting of single bevel preparations
to be inspected: b. The removal of deposited welds
a. Once, after etching c. The cutting of single U type preparations
b. Twice, before and after etching d. The cutting/gouging of non‐ferrous materials
c. Using a microscope only
95. Which of the following processes joins metals
89. Which of the following may be classed as a more plastically?
serious defect: a. Friction welding
a. Slag inclusions b. Resistance welding
b. Fusion defects (inter‐run) c. Plasma welding
c. Fusion defects (surface) d. All of the above
d. Porosity

8

96. Which electrode classification would be relevant 102. The likelihood of brittle fracture in steels will
to AWS A5.1‐81? increase with:
a. E 6013 a. A large grain formation
b. E 5133 b. A reduction of in‐service temperature to sub
c. E 7018‐G zero temperatures
d. Fleetweld 5 c. Ferritic rather than austenitic steels
d. All of the above
97. Which of the following coatings is associated
with stove welding? 103. Repair welding is often more difficult than
a. Rutile production welding due to:
b. Cellulosic a. The material being ingrained with in‐service
c. Basic contaminants
d. Oxidising b. Restricted access within the repair area
c. The possible position of the weld repair
98. A common gas mixture used in MIG welding d. All of the above
nickel alloys, to combine good levels of
penetration with good arc stability would be: 104. Hydrogen cracking in the weld metal is likely
a. 100% CO2 when welding:
b. 100% argon a. Carbon manganese steels
c. 80% argon and 20% CO2 b. Stainless steels
d. 98% argon and 2% oxygen c. Micro alloyed steels (HSLA)
d. Low carbon steels
99. Which type of SAW flux is more resistant to
moisture absorption? 105. EN 288 standard would refer to which of the
a. Fused following:
b. Agglomerated a. Welder approval testing
c. Basic b. Welding equipment
d. All the above have the same resistance c. Welding procedure approval
d. Consumables for welding
100. The flame temperature of oxy/acetylene
mixture gas is given as: 106. Porosity is caused by:
a. 3200°C a. Entrapped slag in the solidifying weld
b. 2300°C b. Entrapped gas in the solidifying weld
c. 5000°C c. Entrapped metallic inclusions in the
d. None of the above solidifying weld
101. A large grain structure in steels is said to
produce: 107. In a bend test the face of the specimen is in
a. Low ductility values tension and the root is in compression. What
b. Low fracture toughness values type of test is being carried out?
c. High fracture toughness values a. A root bend test
d. High tensile strength b. A side bend test
c. A face bend test
9

108. Ultrasonic testing is more advantageous in d. Iron powder
detecting which of the following weld
imperfections, over other NDT methods? 114. Inherent rectification of the electrical output
a. Lack of sidewall fusion is produced in the arc when TIG welding using:
b. Surface undercut a. AC with a suppressor
c. Incompletely filled groove b. AC without a suppressor
d. Overlap c. DC with reverse polarity
d. DC with straight polarity
109. Tempering is often carried out to regain
toughness after which of the following processes? 115. Gamma rays and X‐rays are part of a family
a. Annealing of waves called:
b. Normalising a. Acoustic waves
c. Hardening b. Light waves
d. Stress relieving c. Electromagnetic waves
d. Transverse waves
110. The presence of iron sulphide in the weld
metal is most likely to produce which of the 116. A measure of the accuracy of a radiograph as
following upon contraction of the weld? an NDT tool is given by its:
a. Solidification cracking a. Intensity
b. Hydrogen cracking b. Density
c. Intergranular corrosion c. Sensitivity
d. Stress corrosion cracking d. Exposure

111. Austenitic stainless steel electrodes are 117. A surface breaking crack will be detected
generally smaller in length than mild steel during a magnetic particle inspection if it is:
electrodes because: a. At right angles to the lines of flux
a. High amperage is used b. Parallel to the lines of flux
b. Shelf life will be decreased c. At 25° to the lines of flux
c. Their electrical conductivity is less than that d. All of the above
of steel
d. They are more expensive 118. The advantage of ultrasonic non‐destructive
testing for the examination of weldments is:
112. The voltage necessary to maintain an arc a. It can be used to located flaws
during metal arc welding is termed: b. It can be used to size flaws
a. Main supply voltage c. It has a high sensitivity to planar flaws
b. Arc current d. All of the above
c. Arc voltage
d. Open circuit voltage 119. Under normal contract conditions weld
procedure approval tests for pipework are:
113. When MMA welding low carbon steel which a. Mandatory
electrode will give the greatest deposition rate? b. Dependent on site and weather conditions
a. Hydrogen controlled c. Dependent upon the contractor’s confidence
b. Cellulosic in his procedures
c. Rutile d. Only required when MMA welding is used
10

120. Hydrogen controlled electrodes were a. Knowledge and experience
developed principally for: b. Literacy
a. The prevention of porosity c. Honesty and integrity
b. The prevention of cracking d. All of the above
c. The enhancement of arc voltage
d. Their ease of arc starting 127. Technically, a code of practice is:
a. A standard
121. Generally the most suitable method of b. A ‘set of rules’ for the manufacture of a
detecting lack of sidewall fusion would be: product
a. Ultrasonic c. Related to welder and weld procedure
b. MPI approval
c. Radiography d. All of the above
d. Penetrant inspection
128. The correct term for ‘cap height’ is:
122. Hot shortness is a term used to indicate: a. Reinforcement
a. Lamellar tearing b. Cap profile height
b. Solidification cracking c. Excess weld metal
c. Hydrogen cracking d. All of the above
129. A tensile test will assess:
123. Cobalt as an isotope would generally be used a. Impact values
on: b. Stress
a. Thin material c. Strain
b. Tee joints d. Both b and c
c. Plate thicknesses greater than 25mm
d. All of the above 130. The important point of high temperature
steels is that:
124. In welding procedure terms, a change in a. They can withstand creep failure
essential variable means: b. They may suffer re‐heat cracking problems
a. Re‐qualification of the weld procedure c. They may suffer loss of toughness
b. Possible changes in the weld’s d. All of the above
microstructure
c. Possible changes in the mechanical 131. An austenitic stainless steel may suffer:
properties a. Weld decay
d. All of the above b. Sensitisation
c. Solidification cracking
125. Weld symbols placed on a dotted line in d. All of the above
accordance with ISO requirements means:
a. Weld on ‘arrow’ side 132. Carbon equivalent values are useful to
b. Weld on ‘other’ side determine:
c. Weld on site a. Weldability aspects
d. Full penetration required b. Crack sensitivity aspects
c. Typical mechanical properties
126. A welding inspector’s main attributes include: d. All of the above
11

133. A basic electrode would normally: d. Basic hydrogen controlled electrodes
a. Have superior mechanical properties
b. Require baking before use 140. Which of the following defects is more
c. Not be used on low carbon steels common to welds deposited by CO2 welding
d. Both a and b than deposited by MMA?
a. Slag inclusions
134. When referring to TIG welding, the shielding b. Excess penetration
gas could be: c. Lack of sidewall fusion
a. Argon and hydrogen d. Tungsten inclusion
b. Argon and helium
c. Argon and nitrogen 141. Which defect would you expect to get in TIG
d. All of the above welds in non‐deoxidised steel?
a. Undercut
135. When referring to MIG welding, the shielding b. Porosity
gas would be: c. Tungsten inclusion
a. Argon d. Linear misalignment
b. Argon + 1% oxygen
c. Argon + 20% carbon dioxide 142. Which of the following can arise from copper
d. None of the above inclusions in a ferritic steel weld?
a. Weld metal cracks
136. Submerged arc utilises: b. HAZ cracks
a. Deep penetration characteristic c. Lamellar tearing
b. High deposition rates on DC+ d. Porosity
c. Flat (PA) welding only
d. None of the above 143. Which of the following is likely to give the
highest impact strength in ferritic weld metal?
137. Ultrasonic would be preferred over a. Cellulosic electrodes
radiography due to: b. Submerged arc with acid flux
a. Ability to find most defects c. Spray transfer CO2 welding
b. Lower skill requirement d. Basic coated MMA electrodes
c. Ability to detect laminations
d. Both a and c 144. You suspect that ferritic steel plates contain
cracks in the prepared edges. What NDT method
138. The most serious defect types are: would you use to check this?
a. Planar a. Radiography
b. Cracks b. Magnetic particle inspection
c. Lack of fusion c. Penetration inspection
d. All of the above d. Ultrasonic flaw detection

139. MMA welding of low alloy steels is more 145. Which of the following defects would you
likely to be performed with: not expect to find by visual inspection of welds?
a. Rutile electrodes a. Linear slag inclusions
b. Cellulosic electrodes b. Undercut
c. Iron power electrodes c. Overlap
12

d. Linear misalignment 152. An electroslag weld requires what heat
treatment to improve the grain structure?
146. Stress relieving is not helpful in which of the a. Annealing
following cases? b. Stress relieving
a. Improving resistance to stress corrosion c. Normalising
cracking d. Quench and tempering
b. Improving dimensional stability after
machining 153. The most common type of failure associated
147. Lowering In the with sharp fillets, notches and undercut is:
a. Root face a. Crystallisation
b. Fatigue
c. peak residual stress c. Corrosion
d. Softening the steel d. Brittle fracture

148. What is the maximum hardness usually 154. Weld decay in stainless steels can be avoided
recommended for the heat‐affected zone of a by:
medium strength ferritic steel weld? a. Stress relieving
b. 100 DP Hv b. Slow cooling after welding
c. 350 DP Hv c. Addition of more manganese to the steel
d. 500 DP Hv d. Addition of titanium to the steel
e. 750 DP Hv
155. An eutectoid mixture in steel is:
149. The permanent backing material for MMA a. A mixture of ferrite and austenite
welding of low carbon steel should be made b. A mixture comprising a substitutinal solid
from: solution
a. Copper c. Called pearlite
b. Low carbon steel d. Called ledeburite
c. QT steel
d. Cast iron 156. Low alloy steels having a high carbon
equivalent before welding will require:
150. The overall length of a pipeline can be a. A reduction in carbon content
affected by: b. High pre‐heat temperatures
a. Transverse shrinkage c. Low pre‐heat temperatures
b. Longitudinal shrinkage d. No pre‐heating
c. Angular shrinkage
d. Circumferential shrinkage 157. The electrodes for welding low alloy steels
should be:
151. The weld dimension used to indicate the a. Used with a low current value
minimum strength of a fillet weld is: b. One size larger than for general purpose
a. Leg length electrodes
b. Throat thickness c. Used for welding in the flat position only
c. Width of bead d. Heated in a drying oven before use
d. Length of weld element

13

158. The purpose of pre‐heating low alloy steel b. Pre‐setting of work piece
pipes before electric arc welding is to: c. Applying post weld heat soak
a. Refine grain structure d. Changing from a single ‘V’ prep for thick
b. Relieve internal stress material
c. Retard rapid cooling
d. Regulate excessive expansion 164. Argon purging on the root side is necessary
in the TIG welding of stainless steel to:
159. Welder qualification tests are designed to: a. Obtain full penetration
a. Test the correctness of the welding b. Obtain full fusion
procedure c. Avoid porosity in the root
b. Test the welder’s skill d. Obtain a satisfactory weld surface finish
c. Prove the weldability of the parent material
d. All of the above 165. Which of the following can arise from copper
inclusions in a mild steel weld?
160. In positional MMA welding on pipework, a. Weld metal cracks
welders are having difficulty in obtaining good b. HAZ cracks
capping profiles when welding in the overhead c. Lack of fusion
position. Would you: d. Porosity
a. Advise them to increase the current
b. Advise them to increase the voltage 166. Stress relief is not helpful in which of the
c. Ask for a new welding team following cases?
d. Suggest the use of a smaller diameter a. In improving resistance to stress corrosion
electrode b. In improving dimensional stability after
machining
161. You have a macro section of a ‘T’ butt joint c. In lowing the peak residual stresses
that shows a step‐like defect lying outside the d. In softening the metal
visible HAZ. What would this defect possibly
signify? 167. Stray arc strikes are undesirable since they:
a. HAZ cracking a. Leave a poor surface finish
b. Toe cracking b. Cause weld metal cracking
c. Lamination c. Reduce corrosion resistance
d. Lamellar tearing d. Cause local hardening and cracking in the
parent material
162. Which electrode deposits weld metal with
the greatest ductility and resistance to cracking? 168. Cold cracking is most likely to occur in a
a. Rutile weldment if:
b. Cellulosic a. The rate of cooling is too fast
c. Basic b. The rate of cooling is too slow
d. Oxidising c. It lacks ductility at high temperatures
d. Impurities are present at its grain boundaries
163. Which one of the following is not helpful in
minimising angular distortion during welding? 169. Chromium, when added to steel as an
a. Use of double ‘V’ weld prep using balanced alloying element, has the effect of making the
welding technique alloy more:
14

a.Ductile 175. Columnar growth takes place when a metal
b.Plastic is:
c.Hardenable a. Cold
d.Malleable b. Losing heat
c. Being heated
170. When depositing weld metal, fusion will take d. Being rolled
place at the sides of the joint resulting in an
admixture between weld metal and parent metal. 176. If a low carbon steel pipe has to carry a liquid,
This alloying effect is known as: care must be taken when making the butt welds
a. Diffusion to ensure penetration is not excessive because it:
b. Absorption a. Reduces the flow rate of the liquid
c. Dilution b. May increase the rate of corrosion
d. Migration c. Can contaminate the liquid
d. May cause excessive pipe wear
171. Percentage elongation of a metal undergoing
a tensile test is a measure of: 177. When a steel suffers hot shortness, it is
a. Elasticity mostly due to the presence of:
b. Plasticity a. Sulphur
c. Ductility b. Phosphorous
d. Malleability c. Silicon
d. Manganese
172. When a longitudinal load is put on a lap joint,
the stress set up is normally: 178. When a steel is heated to above its upper
a. Shear stress critical temperature, the structure produced is:
b. Tensile stress a. Martensite
c. Compressive stress b. Austenite
d. Residual stress c. Pearlite
d. Sorbite
173. When a metal is subjected to a fluctuating
load, a condition of cyclic stressing can be set up, 179. The type of crystal normally found in a single
which eventually can result in structural run arc weld in the as welded condition is:
breakdown known as: a. Equi‐axed
a. Tensile failure b. Polycrystalline
b. Fatigue failure c. Dendritic
c. Yield failure d. Columnar
d. Shear failure
180. The first sub‐zone in the heat affected zone
174. What happens to the mechanical properties of the parent metal nearest the weld deposit will
of steel if the carbon content is increased to consist of:
0.5%? a. Large crystal grains
a. The material becomes softer b. Small crystal grains
b. Malleability is increased c. Elongated crystal grains
c. The tensile strength is increased d. Distorted crystal grains
d. Ductility is increased
15

181. Pipe welding codes are set up by: b. Ductility and fracture appearance
a. Welding operators c. Elongation and fracture appearance
b. State governments d. Soundness and fracture appearance
c. Associations, societies, insurance companies,
manufacturers and the military 187. Which organisation publishes the most
d. Construction unions commonly used code for boiler and pressure
vessel welding?
182. The different grain structure between the a. American welding society
weld deposit and the base metal can be b. American society of mechanical engineers
determined by: c. American petroleum institute
a. A face bend test d. American national standards institute
b. A root bend test
c. A hardness test 188. A low hydrogen electrode, according to BS
d. An etching test 639, would contain:
a. No hydrogen
183. A root bend test is used to test the amount b. Less than 15 ml of hydrogen per 100 grams
of weld: of deposited weld metal
a. Ductility c. Between 15 ml and 25 ml of hydrogen per
b. Elongation 100 grams of deposited weld metal
c. Hardness d. Less than 25 ml of hydrogen per 100 grams
d. Penetration of deposited weld metal

184. What would be observed if a fillet weld were 189. The second run in a three run butt weld
sectioned and macro‐etched? using the stovepipe technique is known as the:
a. The grain of the other beads is coarser than a. Filling run
the final bead b. Hot pass
b. The penetration and fusion into the root is c. Intermediate run
very deep d. Sealing run
c. Each bead appears to be distinctly separated
from the adjoining beads 190. You could determine that an electrode is
d. The grain structure remains the same in all cellulosic by its:
passes a. BS 639 coding
b. Colour
185. What is the most common cause of failure in c. Trade name
root bend tests? d. BS 499 coding
a. Too high a current setting
b. Too long a pause in the down cycle of the 191. Which type of electrode coating gives the
weave most voluminous gas shield?
c. Lack of fusion and penetration a. Rutile
d. Too high a travel speed b. Basic
c. Oxidising
186. The purpose of a nick break specimen is to d. Cellulosic
provide a test for:
a. Tensile strength and fracture appearance
16

192. Which of the following steels is likely to be d. Day temperature
more susceptible to hydrogen cracking?
a. Carbon equivalent of less than 0.25% 198. The main reason why all adhering scale
b. Carbon equivalent of 0.35% should be removed when the pipe end
c. Carbon equivalent of 0.38% preparation is made by oxy‐gas cutting is?
d. Carbon equivalent 0f 0.43% a. Oxidisation of the weld metal is minimised
b. The speed of welding is increased
193. Preheating and interpass heating are used c. Pipe bore alignment is made easier
primarily for: d. Reduction of the weld deposit is prevented
a. Aiding fusion
b. Reducing hydrogen content of weld 199. When manual metal arc welding low carbon
preparation prior to welding steel, which electrode covering will give the
c. Ensure a fine grain size greatest degree of penetration?
d. Slow down the cooling rate after welding a. Iron powder
b. Rutile
194. Submerged arc welds made with re‐cycled c. Cellulosic
flux are liable to: d. Low hydrogen
a. Porosity
b. Course grain size 200. When tungsten arc gas shield welding
c. Undercut stainless steel, which one of the following should
d. Incomplete penetration be used?
a. Alternator
195. Incomplete penetration in a single ‘V’ butt b. A.C. transformer
joint could be caused by: c. D.C. generator
a. Too large a root gap d. Constant potential rectifier
b. Too small a root gap
c. Too high a heat input 201. Which gas shroud should be used when
d. Too small a root face tungsten arc gas shielded welding aluminium
alloys?
196. In submerged arc welding, which of the a. Nitrogen
following width to depth ratios would be likely to b. Carbon dioxide
result in solidification cracking? c. Argon/carbon dioxide mixture
a. 1:3 d. Argon
b. 3:1
c. 2:1 202. The most common type of defect found in a
d. 1:1 structure when it is undergoing service is:
a. Fatigue cracking
197. You are responsible for controlling welding b. Crystallisation
on site. A large incidence of porosity has been c. Weld decay
reported in recent welding. Would you d. Stress fracture
investigate?
a. The electrode type 203. In the examination of a welded aluminium
b. Power source joint, macro etching may reveal:
c. Electrode storage a. Lack of inter‐run penetration
17

b. Carbon pick‐up c. Root fusion may be difficult to obtain
c. Weld decay d. The gap setting will have to be changed
d. Micro cracks
208. The pipe bores are not matched correctly it
204. MMA welds made with damaged electrode can result in:
coatings are subject to: a. Lack of root penetration
a. Porosity b. Incorrect gap setting
b. Undercut c. Excessive root faces
c. Excessive penetration d. Overheating during welding
d. Excessive bead height
209. A correctly made tack weld should slope
205. Which physical test is more likely to reveal from the middle to the ends in order to:
HAZ embrittlement? a. Aid better penetration at the joint‐up
a. Transverse tensile b. Prevent porosity at the join‐up
b. All weld tensile c. Reduce the electrode size required
c. Root bend d. Reduce the overall consumable consumption
d. Charpy impact
210. Two low carbon steel pipes, 150mm
206. Which of the following destructive tests is diameter and 6mm wall thickness are to be butt
not normally required for welder approval? welded using the TIG process. To ensure a full
a. Bend tests strength joint, which of the following preps is
b. Macro examination most suitable?
c. Impact tests a. Open single bevel
d. Fracture tests b. Open single vee
c. Open square preparation
207. Too large a diameter of filler rod should not d. Closed square preparation
be used to make a welded joint because:
a. Excess reinforcement profile will be difficult
to obtain
b. The included bevel angle will have to be
reduced
18

Answer Multi-Choice_Paper
1 d 31 b 61 d 91 c 121 a 151 b 181 c

2 d 32 a 62 a 92 b 122 b 152 c 182 d
3 b 33 b 63 d 93 c 123 c 153 b 183 a
4 c 34 d 64 d 94 b 124 d 154 d 184 c
5 c 35 c 65 d 95 a 125 b 155 c 185 c
6 b 36 c 66 c 96 a 126 d 156 b 186 d

7 c 37 d 67 b 97 b 127 b 157 d 187 b
8 a 38 d 68 d 98 b 128 c 158 c 188 b
9 c 39 d 69 d 99 a 129 d 159 b 189 b
10 a 40 d 70 d 100 a 130 d 160 d 190 a
11 d 41 b 71 d 101 b 131 d 161 d 191 d

12 a 42 b 72 d 102 d 132 d 162 c 192 d
13 b 43 c 73 b 103 d 133 d 163 c 193 b
14 b 44 b 74 d 104 c 134 d 164 c 194 a
15 c 45 c 75 d 105 c 135 a 165 a 195 b
16 a 46 b 76 d 106 b 136 a 166 b 196 a

17 a 47 b 77 b 107 c 137 d 167 d 197 c
18 b 48 c 78 d 108 a 138 d 168 a 198 a
19 a 49 b 79 a 109 c 139 d 169 c 199 c
20 d 50 c 80 d 110 a 140 c 170 c 200 c
21 c 51 b 81 d 111 c 141 b 171 c 201 d

22 a 52 d 82 d 112 c 142 a 172 a 202 a
23 d 53 c 83 d 113 d 143 b 173 b 203 a
24 c 54 b 84 c 114 b 144 b 174 c 204 a
25 d 55 c 85 d 115 c 145 a 175 b 205 d
26 d 56 c 86 d 116 c 146 b 176 a 206 c

27 c 57 b 87 d 117 a 147 b 177 a 207 c
28 b 58 b 88 b 118 d 148 a 178 b 208 a
29 b 59 d 89 c 119 a 149 b 179 d 209 a
30 b 60 b 90 b 120 b 150 b 180 a 210 b

19

Section 2 - Welding Inspector Terms & Definitions mh-Ju
Welding Terminology & Definitions
What is a Weld? • A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either
by heating the materials to the welding temperature, with or without the application
of pressure, or by the application of pressure alone (AWS)
• A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and or pressure (BS499)
• An Autogenous weld: A weld made with out the use of a filler material and can only
be made by TIG or Oxy-Gas Welding
What is a Joint? • The junction of members or the edges of members that are to be
joined or have been joined (AWS) • A configuration of members (BS499)
Joint types
Joint type Butt fillet Plug Spot Edge
Butt X X
Tee X X
Corner X X
Lap X X X
Edge X
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com

Butt Preparations
Weld Zone Terminology

Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
Joint Preparation Terminology

Weld Preparation Terminology & Typical Dimensions
Butt Weld
•Most codes quote the weld toes shall blend smoothly
•This statement is not quantitative and therefore open to individual
•The higher the toe blend angle the greater the amount of stress concentration
•The toe blend angle ideally should be between 20’-30’

Fillet Weld Sizes
Calculating Throat Thickness from a known Leg Length:
Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7
Question: The Leg length is 14mm. What is the Design Throat?
Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm Throat Thickness
Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4
Question: The Design Throat is 10mm. What is the Leg length?
Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm Leg Length
Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size

Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet Welds, but the effective throat
thickness has been altered, reducing considerably the strength of weld B
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra excess weld metal
being added

Fillet Weld Profiles
EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS
Features to consider
Fillet welds connecting part with fusion faces with an angle more than 120’ or less
than 60’ should not use the previous calculations
Angle between fusion faces in degrees Factor
60~90’ 0.7
91~100’ 0.65
101~106’ 0.6
107~113’ 0.55
114~120’ 0.5

Section 01- Welding Inspector mh-Ju
Main Responsibilities
• Code compliance • Workmanship control • Documentation control
Personal Attributes
Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected to have are:
• Honesty •Integrity •Knowledge •Good communicator •Physical fitness
• Good eyesight
Standard for Visual Inspection
1 Basic Requirements BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion welds –
Visual examination Welding Inspection Personnel should:
• be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications applicable to the
fabrication work to be undertaken
• be informed about the welding procedures to be used
• have good vision (which should be checked every 12 months)
Welding Inspection
Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970) Illumination:
• 350 lux minimum required (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting)
Vision Access:
• eye should be within 600mm of the surface
• viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than 30°
Welding Inspection
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
When access is restricted may use:
• a mirrored Microscope
• a fiber optic viewing system à usually by agreement
Other aids:
• welding gauges
• dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment (high-low) gauges
• straight edges and measuring tapes
• magnifying lens
(if magnification lens used it should have magnification between X2 to X5)
Welding Inspectors Equipment

Measuring devices: • flexible tape, steel rule • Temperature indicating crayons •
Welding gauges • Voltmeter • Ammeter • Magnifying glass • Torch / flash light • Gas
flow-meter
Welding Inspection
Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
Extent of examination and when required should be defined in the application
standard or by agreement between the contracting parties
For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout the fabrication process:
Before welding (Before assemble & After assembly)
During welding
After welding
Before Welding Preparation:

Familiarization with relevant „documents‟…
• Application Standard/Code - for visual acceptance requirements
• Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc
• Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as material handling, documentation
control, storage & issue of welding consumables
• Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist - details of inspection
requirements, inspection procedures & records required
Welding Procedures:
• are applicable to joints to be welded & approved
• are available to welders & inspectors
Welder Qualifications:
• List of available qualified welders related to WPS‟s
• Certificates are valid and ‘in-date’
Equipment:
• all inspection equipment is in good condition & calibrated as necessary
• all safety requirements are understood & necessary equipment available
Materials:
• can be identified & related to test certificates, traceability !
• are of correct dimensions
• are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)
Consumables:
• in accordance with WPS’s
• are being controlled in accordance with Procedure
Weld Preparations:
• comply with WPS/drawing • free from defects & contamination Welding

Equipment: • in good order & calibrated as required by Procedure
Fit-up
• complies with WPS • Number / size of tack welds to Code / good workmanship
Pre-heat • If specified • minimum temperature complies with WPS
During Welding
Weather conditions • suitable if site / field welding
Welding Process • in accordance with
WPS Welder • is approved to weld the joint
Pre-heat (if required)
• Minimum temperature as specified by WPS
• Maximum interpass temperature as WPS
Welding consumables
• in accordance with WPS • in suitable condition • controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters • current, voltage & travel speed – as WPS
Root runs • if possible, visually inspect root before single-sided welds are filled up
Welding Inter-run cleaning in accordance with an approved method (& back
gouging) to good workmanship standard
Distortion control • welding is balanced & over-welding is avoided
After Welding
Weld Identification
• identified/numbered as required
• is marked with welders identity
Visual Inspection
• ensure weld is suitable for all NDT • visually inspect & „sentence‟ to Code
requirements
Dimensional Survey • ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT • ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
Welding Repairs
• monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure, ensure NDT after repairs is
completed • PWHT • monitor for compliance with Procedure • check chart records
confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test • ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated • monitor to
ensure compliance with Procedure • ensure all records are available
Documentation • ensure any modifications are on ‘as-built’ drawings • ensure all
required documents are available • Collate / file documents for manufacturing
records • Sign all documentation and forward it to QC department

73. A magnifying glass may be used during visual inspection, but BS 5289 states that its
magnification should be:
a. Up to 5 Φ / b. 2 to 2.5 Φ / c. 5 to 10 Φ / d. None of the above
90. A code of practice is:
a. A standard for workmanship only / b. A set of rules for manufacturing a specific product
c. Levels of acceptability of a weldment / d. None of the above
9. The European Standard for NDE of Fusion Welds by Visual Examination is ____
a. EN 288 / b. EN 499 / c. EN 287 / d. EN 970
10. Visual Inspection of a fabricated item, for a high integrity application, should cover
inspection activities ____
a. Before, during and after welding / b. Before welding only
c. After welding only / d. During welding and after welding only
13. When visually inspecting the face of a finished weld it should be assessed for ____
a. Maximum excess weld metal height b. Toe blend / c. Inter‐run blend
d. All of the above
15. A code of Practice is ____
a. A standard for workmanship quality only / b. A set of rules for manufacturing a specific
product / c. A specification for the finished product / d. All of the above
28. If a Welding Inspector detects a type of imperfection not allowed by the Application
Standard he must always ____
a. Request further NDE / b. Reject the weld / c. Prepare a concession request
d. Only reject the weld if the considers it to be harmful
29. BS EN 970 allows the use of a magnifying glass for visual inspection but recommends that
the magnification is ____
a. X2 / b. X2 to X5 / c. X5 to X10 / d. Not greater than X20

Joint types
Butt X X
Tee X X
Corner X X
Lap X X X
Edge X

Butt Preparations


Butt Weld

Fillet Weld Sizes

being added

60~90’ 0.7
91~100’ 0.65
101~106’ 0.6
107~113’ 0.55
114~120’ 0.5

Joint types
Butt X X
Tee X X
Corner X X
Lap X X X
Edge X

Butt Preparations


Butt Weld

Fillet Weld Sizes

being added

60~90’ 0.7
91~100’ 0.65
101~106’ 0.6
107~113’ 0.55
114~120’ 0.5

Section 01- Welding Inspector mh-Ju
Main Responsibilities
• Code compliance • Workmanship control • Documentation control
Personal Attributes
Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected to have are:
• Honesty •Integrity •Knowledge •Good communicator •Physical fitness
• Good eyesight
Standard for Visual Inspection
1 Basic Requirements BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion welds –
Visual examination Welding Inspection Personnel should:
• be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications applicable to the
fabrication work to be undertaken
• be informed about the welding procedures to be used
• have good vision (which should be checked every 12 months)
Welding Inspection
Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970) Illumination:
• 350 lux minimum required (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting)
Vision Access:
• eye should be within 600mm of the surface
• viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than 30°
Welding Inspection
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
When access is restricted may use:
• a mirrored Microscope
• a fiber optic viewing system à usually by agreement
Other aids:
• welding gauges
• dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment (high-low) gauges
• straight edges and measuring tapes
• magnifying lens
(if magnification lens used it should have magnification between X2 to X5)
Welding Inspectors Equipment

Measuring devices: • flexible tape, steel rule • Temperature indicating crayons •
Welding gauges • Voltmeter • Ammeter • Magnifying glass • Torch / flash light • Gas
flow-meter
Welding Inspection
Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
Extent of examination and when required should be defined in the application
standard or by agreement between the contracting parties
For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout the fabrication process:
Before welding (Before assemble & After assembly)
During welding
After welding
Before Welding Preparation:

Familiarization with relevant „documents‟…
• Application Standard/Code - for visual acceptance requirements
• Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc
• Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as material handling, documentation
control, storage & issue of welding consumables
• Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist - details of inspection
requirements, inspection procedures & records required
Welding Procedures:
• are applicable to joints to be welded & approved
• are available to welders & inspectors
Welder Qualifications:
• List of available qualified welders related to WPS‟s
• Certificates are valid and ‘in-date’
Equipment:
• all inspection equipment is in good condition & calibrated as necessary
• all safety requirements are understood & necessary equipment available
Materials:
• can be identified & related to test certificates, traceability !
• are of correct dimensions
• are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)
Consumables:
• in accordance with WPS’s
• are being controlled in accordance with Procedure
Weld Preparations:
• comply with WPS/drawing • free from defects & contamination Welding

Equipment: • in good order & calibrated as required by Procedure
Fit-up
• complies with WPS • Number / size of tack welds to Code / good workmanship
Pre-heat • If specified • minimum temperature complies with WPS
During Welding
Weather conditions • suitable if site / field welding
Welding Process • in accordance with
WPS Welder • is approved to weld the joint
Pre-heat (if required)
• Minimum temperature as specified by WPS
• Maximum interpass temperature as WPS
Welding consumables
• in accordance with WPS • in suitable condition • controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters • current, voltage & travel speed – as WPS
Root runs • if possible, visually inspect root before single-sided welds are filled up
Welding Inter-run cleaning in accordance with an approved method (& back
gouging) to good workmanship standard
Distortion control • welding is balanced & over-welding is avoided
After Welding
Weld Identification
• identified/numbered as required
• is marked with welders identity
Visual Inspection
• ensure weld is suitable for all NDT • visually inspect & „sentence‟ to Code
requirements
Dimensional Survey • ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT • ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
Welding Repairs
• monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure, ensure NDT after repairs is
completed • PWHT • monitor for compliance with Procedure • check chart records
confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test • ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated • monitor to
ensure compliance with Procedure • ensure all records are available
Documentation • ensure any modifications are on ‘as-built’ drawings • ensure all
required documents are available • Collate / file documents for manufacturing
records • Sign all documentation and forward it to QC department

73. A magnifying glass may be used during visual inspection, but BS 5289 states that its
magnification should be:
a. Up to 5 Φ / b. 2 to 2.5 Φ / c. 5 to 10 Φ / d. None of the above
90. A code of practice is:
a. A standard for workmanship only / b. A set of rules for manufacturing a specific product
c. Levels of acceptability of a weldment / d. None of the above
9. The European Standard for NDE of Fusion Welds by Visual Examination is ____
a. EN 288 / b. EN 499 / c. EN 287 / d. EN 970
10. Visual Inspection of a fabricated item, for a high integrity application, should cover
inspection activities ____
a. Before, during and after welding / b. Before welding only
c. After welding only / d. During welding and after welding only
13. When visually inspecting the face of a finished weld it should be assessed for ____
a. Maximum excess weld metal height b. Toe blend / c. Inter‐run blend
d. All of the above
15. A code of Practice is ____
a. A standard for workmanship quality only / b. A set of rules for manufacturing a specific
product / c. A specification for the finished product / d. All of the above
28. If a Welding Inspector detects a type of imperfection not allowed by the Application
Standard he must always ____
a. Request further NDE / b. Reject the weld / c. Prepare a concession request
d. Only reject the weld if the considers it to be harmful
29. BS EN 970 allows the use of a magnifying glass for visual inspection but recommends that
the magnification is ____
a. X2 / b. X2 to X5 / c. X5 to X10 / d. Not greater than X20

Section 3 - Welding Inspector Welding Imperfections mh-Ju
All welds have imperfections • Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of
a type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard
A defect is an unacceptable imperfection • A weld imperfection may be allowed by
one Acceptance Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard and require
removal/rectification
Standards for Welding Imperfections
BS EN ISO 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes – Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials - Part 1: Fusion welding
Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely:
1. Cracks 2. Cavities 3. Solid inclusions 4. Lack of fusion and penetration 5. Imperfect
shape and dimensions 6. Miscellaneous imperfections
Standards for Welding Imperfections

EN ISO 5817 (2003)
Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welding excluded) - Quality levels for imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520-1 are listed in EN ISO 5817 with
acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest) Level C (intermediate) Level D (general)
This Standard is „directly applicable to visual testing of welds‟ ...(weld surfaces &
macro examination)
Cracks
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are caused generally by many factors and
may be classified by shape and position.
Classified by Shape
•Longitudinal •Transverse •Chevron •Lamellar Tear
Classified by Position
•HAZ •Centerline •Crater •Fusion zone •Parent metal
Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.

Main Crack Types
• Solidification Cracks
• Occurs during weld solidification process
• Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low ductility at elevated temperature)
• Requires high tensile stress
• Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
• Hydrogen Induced Cracks
• Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low temperature and hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as result of contaminated electrode or
preparation
• Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
• Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
• A combination of three factors is necessary to cause HAZ Hydrogen cracking :
Tensile stress , Susceptible microstructure , High hydrogen concentration
• Apply pre-heat, Maintain a specific interpass temperature, Use Temper bead or hot
pass technique, Use austenitic or nickel filler, Use dry shielding gases, Clean joint
from rust, Blend the weld profile
• Lamellar Tearing
• Location: Parent metal / • Steel Type: Any steel type possible
• Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness ductility
• Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the solid inclusions in the parent
material (e.g. sulphides and silicates) linking up under the influence of welding
stresses
• Low ductile materials in the short transverse direction containing high levels of
impurities are very susceptible to lamellar tearing

• It forms when the welding stresses act in the short transverse direction of the
material (through thickness direction)
• Two main options are available to control the problem
• Use a clean steel with guaranteed through-thickness properties(Z grade)
• A Combination of joint design, restraint control and welding sequence to minimize
the risk of cracking
• Reheat cracks
Gas Cavities
Gas pore Cluster porosity Causes:
•Loss of gas shield •Damp electrodes •Contamination •Arc length too large
•Damaged electrode flux •Moisture on parent material •Welding current too low
Gas pore <1.5mm / Blow hole.>1.6mm

Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:
• welding current too low
• bevel angle too steep • root face too large (single-sided weld)
• root gap too small (single-sided weld)
• incorrect electrode angle • linear misalignment
• welding speed too high
• welding process related – particularly dip-transfer GMAW
• flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)

Mechanical Damage
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface material damage cause during the
manufacturing process. • Grinding • Hammering • Chiseling • Chipping
• Breaking off welded attachments (torn surfaces)
• Using needle guns to compress weld capping runs

Section 4-Destructive testing mh-Ju
* Destructive tests can be divided into 2 groups
à Those used to measure a mechanical property : Quantitative tests
à Those used to assess the joint quality : Qualitative tests
Mechanical tests : Tensile strength, Hardness, Impact test
Qualitative tests : Bend test, macroscopic, examination & Fracture test
(Fillet fracture & nick-break test)
Qualitative and Quantitative Tests
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed quantitative tests to
measure Mechanical Properties
• Tensile tests (Transverse Welded Joint, All Weld Metal)
• Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD)
• Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers)
The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed qualitative tests for
assessing joint quality
• Macro testing
• Bend testing
• Fillet weld fracture testing
• Butt weld nick-break testing
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of deformation which
metals can withstand under different circumstances of force application.
• Malleability : Ability of a material to withstand deformation under static
Compressive loading without rupture
• Ductility : Ability of a material undergo plastic deformation under static tensile l
Loading without rupture. Measurable elongation and reduction in cross
section area
• Toughness : Ability of a material to withstand bending or application of shear
stresses by impact loading without fracture.
• Hardness : Measurement of a material surface resistance to indentation from
another material by static load
• Tensile Strength : Measurement of the maximum force required to fracture a
material bar of unit cross-sectional area in tension
Mechanical tests
1) Tensile tests : Strength test
Transverse tensile tests : Strength of joint satisfies the design criterion
All-Weld tensile tests : Weld metal strength as part of welding procedure
qualification – Particularly for elevated temperature designs

2) Impact tests : Toughness test
Charpy V-Notch test pieces have become the internationally accepted method for
assessing resistance to brittle fracture by measuring the energy to initiate.
** C-Mn and low alloy steels undergo a sharp change in their resistance to brittle
fracture as their temperature is lowered so that a steel that may have very good
toughness at ambient temperature may show extreme brittleness at sub-zero
temperature –as illustrated in following test temperature à schematic the transition
temperature is -20’
** Must be Sketch brittle & Ductile fracture face

3) Hardness test : Vickers test, Rockwell test, Brinell test
The hardness of a metal is resistance the plastic deformation and this is determined
by measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular type of indenter.
Tests method : Vickers hardness test : Uses a square- base diamond pyramid
Rockwell : Uses a diamond cone or steel ball
Brinell : Uses a ball indenter

4) Other test : CTOD test (crack tip opening displacement) –fracture
toughness
Charpy V-Notch testing enables engineers to make judgment about risks of brittle
fracture occurring in steel but a CTOD test measures a material property- Fracture
toughness.
CTOD values are expressed in millimeters- typical values might be < 0.1mm = brittle
behavior > ~1mm = very toughness behaviors.
Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing
• Test is for fracture toughness
• Square bar machined with a notch placed in the centre.
• Tested below ambient temperature at a specified temperature.
• Load is applied at either end of the test specimen in an attempt to open a crack at

the bottom of the notch
• Normally 3 samples
Test for Fracture Toughness is CTOD (Crack Tip Opening Displacement)
Fatigue Fracture Fatigue
fracture distinguish features:
• Crack growth is slow
• It initiate from stress concentration points
• load is considerably below the design or yield stress level
• The surface is smooth
• The surface is bounded by a curve
• Bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface –”beachmarks”. They show
the progress of the crack front from the point of origin
• The surface is 90° to the load
• Final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the maximum stress in
the remaining ligament increase!)
• Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
Qualitative tests
1) Bend tests : Welding qualification test pieces and sometime welder
qualification tests pieces.
Bend test 4type
(1) Face bend : Transverse to butt weld up to ~12mm thickness – bend so that
the face of weld in on outside bend (face in tension)
(2) Root bend : Transverse to butt weld up to ~12mm thickness – Bend so that
the root of the weld is on outside of bend (root in tension)
(3) Side bend : Transverse slice (~10mm) from the full thickness of butt weld >
~12mm
(4) Longitudinal bend : Parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld(~12mm)
face or root of weld may be tested in tension.
* The radius of the former is usually expressed as multiple of the specimen
Thickness and C-Ma steel it is typically 4t (t is the specimen thickness) but
for material that have lower tensile ductility the radius of the former may be
grater than 10t.
* The standard that specifies the test method will specify the minimum bend angle
that the specimen must experience and this typically 120’
* Acceptance criteria : Bend test pieces should exhibit satisfactory ductility by
not showing cracks or any signs of significant fissures of cavities on the
outside of the bend.

* Small indications less than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some standard
2) Fracture test
(1) Fillet weld fractures test
* The Quality / soundness of fillet weld can be assessed by fractured test
pieces and examining the fracture surfaces. Can be used for welder
qualification test according to European standard but is not used for welding
procedure qualification to European standard
* The method for assessing the quality of fillet welds may be specified by application
standard as an alternative to macroscopic examination.
* Acceptance criteria : Lack of penetration into root face and solid inclusions
and porosity that are visible on the fracture surface.
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Object of test: • To break open the joint through the weld to permit examination of
the fracture surfaces • Specimens are cut to the required length • A saw cut
approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the fillet welds length • Fracture is
usually made by striking the specimen with a single hammer blow • Visual inspection
for defects
(2) Butt weld fractures test(Nick-break tests)

* Same as fillet fracture test and welder qualification test to European standard as
an alternative to radiography or are additional to radiography for certain welding
processes, but not used for welding procedure qualification to European standard
* Acceptance criteria : Lack of fusion , solid inclusions and porosity that are
visible on the fracture surface.
Nick-Break Test
Object of test: • To permit evaluation of any weld defects across the
fracture surface of a butt weld.
• Specimens are cut transverse to the weld
• A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the welds root and cap
• Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a single hammer blow
• Visual inspection for defects
(3) Macroscopic examination
Transverse sections from butt and fillet welds are required by the European
standard for welding procedure qualification testing and may be required for
some welder qualification testing for assessing the quality of the weld.
European standard : EN 875 – impact test / EN 895 – Transverse tensile test /
EN 910 – Bend test / EN 1321 – part1 Tensile test of ambient temperature ,
Part2 Elevated Temperature
Summary of Mechanical Testing
Hydrostatic test
Under pressure leakage proof test
Vessel configuration :
• The test should be done after any stress relief
• Components that will not stand the pressure test must be removed
• The ambient temperature MUST be above 0’C (preferably 15~20’C)
68. A macro section is particularly good for showing ____

a. The HAZ microstructure / b. Overlap / c. The weld metal microstructure
d. All of the above
2. Which is the best destructive test for showing lack of side wall fusion in a 25mm thick butt

weld? a. Nick break / b. Side bend / c. Charpy impact / d. A face bend test
88. Macroscopic examination requires any specimen to be inspected:
a. Once, after etching / b. Twice, before and after etching /c. Using a microscope
182. The different grain structure between the weld deposit and the base metal can be
determined by:
a. A face bend test / b. A root bend test / c. A hardness test/ d. An etching test
19. In a bend test, when the face of the specimen is in tension and root is in compression,
the test is called ____
a. A root bend / b. A side bend / c. A face bend / d. A longitudinal bend
107. In a bend test the face of the specimen is in tension and the root is in compression.
What type of test is being carried out?
a. A root bend test / b. A side bend test / c. A face bend test / d. None of the above
19. Bend test specimens have been taken from a 25mm thick carbon steel butt weld. Which
would show lack of inter run fusion?
a. Side bend / b. Root bend / c. Face bend / d. Guided bend
183. A root bend test is used to test the amount of weld:
a. Ductility / b. Elongation / c. Hardness / d. Penetration
185. What is the most common cause of failure in root bend tests?
a. Too high a current setting / b. Too long a pause in the down cycle of the weave
c. Lack of fusion and penetration / d. Too high a travel speed
115. A transverse tensile test, from a Weld Procedure Approval Record (WPAR) test plate, is
used to measure ____
a. The tensile strength of the weld / b. The tensile strength of the joint
c. The stress/strain characteristics of the weld
d. The stress/strain characteristics of the joint
129. A tensile test will assess:
a. Impact values / b. Stress / c. Strain / d. Both b and c
37. Which of the following tests would indicate the toughness of weld metal/parent
metal HAZ? a. Macro / b. Nick break / c. Hardness / d. Charpy vee notch
1. Which mechanical test can be used to measure the toughness of weld metal, HAZ and
parent material? a. Macro / b. Nick break / c. Hardness / d. Charpy impact
50. Nick break and fillet fracture tests are used for ____
a. Assessing weld quality / b. Assessing weld metal ductility
c. Assessing weld metal toughness / d. All of the above
186. The purpose of a nick break specimen is to provide a test for:
a. Tensile strength and fracture appearance/ b. Ductility and fracture appearance/
c. Elongation and fracture appearance/d. Soundness and fracture appearance

117. A surface breaking crack will be detected during a magnetic particle inspection if it is: a.
At right angles to the lines of flux / b. Parallel to the lines of flux
c. At 25° to the lines of flux / d. All of the above
172. When a longitudinal load is put on a lap joint, the stress set up is normally:
a. Shear stress / b. Tensile stress / c. Compressive stress / d. Residual stress

Section 05-WPS & Welder Qualification mh-Ju
WPS : Although WPS’s are “shop floor” Documents to instruct welders. They are
documents that welding inspector also need to be familiar with. This is because they
will need to refer to WPS’s when they are checking that welders are working in
accordance with the specified requirements.
Welding Procedure Qualification(EN ISO 15614)
1) pWPS – Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
Welding Engineer writes a preliminary welding procedure specification for
each test weld to be made
2) WPQR – Welding Procedure Qualification Record
- A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the pWPS
- A welding inspector records all the welding condition used for the test weld
(referred to as the “as-run” condition)
- An independent examiner / examining body / third party inspector may be
requested to monitor the qualification process
- The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods
specified the EN ISO standard – Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
- Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (Tensile, bend, Macro)
- The Application standard or Client, may require additional tests such as
impact test, hardness tests (and for some material –corrosion tests)
- Records detail : welding condition used for the test weld, NDT, Destructive
test, Weld condition that the test weld allows for production weld, ** The
third party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true record
3) WPQT – Welding Procedure Qualification Testing
4) WPS – Welding Procedure Specification
- The welding engineer writes qualified welding procedure
specification for production welding
- Production welding conditions must remain within the range of
qualification allowed by the WPQR
86. The first procedures that is prepared for a Weld Procedure Qualification test weld is a
____ a. pWPS / b. WPS / c. WPOR / d. WPAR
3. The principle purpose of a welder qualification test is____
a. To test the skill of the welder / b. To assess the weldability of the materials
c. To decide which NDT methods to use
d. To give the welder practice before doing production welding
Welding Variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as :

1) Essential variables : May have a significant effect on the properties of the joint

(Properties : particularly joint strength and ductility)
2) Additional variables : May have a significant effect on the toughness and/or
hardness of the joint (** ASME calls variables that affect toughness as
supplementary essential variables <but does not refer to hardness>)
3) Some typical essential variables : Welding process, Post welding heat
treatment(PWHT), Material type, Electrode type & Filler wire type, Thickness,
Polarity(AC,DC+ve/ DC-ve), Pre-heat, HI(heat input), Position
72. An essential variable may:
a. Change the properties of a weld / b. Influence the visual acceptability
c. Require re approval of a weld procedure / d. All of the above
124. In welding procedure terms, a change in essential variable means:
a. Re‐qualification of the weld procedure / b. Possible changes in the weld’s microstructure
c. Possible changes in the mechanical properties / d. All of the above
Welder (EN 287) : Welder need to be able to understand WPS’s and have the skill
to make welds that are not defective and have to demonstrate these abilities before
being allowed to make production welds.
- EN welding standard states that an independent examiner / examining body
/ third party inspector may be requested to monitor the qualification process
- A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that the welder used
the conditions specification by the WPS
- The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the method specification by the
EN standard – Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
- A welder’s Qualification certificate automatically expires if the welder has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer
- A certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is reason to doubt
the ability of the welder, for example * a high repair rate or not working in
accordance with qualified WPS
- Welder qualification essential variable is may require more skill than has
been demonstrated by the test weld
- Typical welder essential variables is welding process and Material type,
Electrode type, thickness and diameter, position, weld backing
- Numerous code and standards deal with welder qualification
l Once the content of the procedure is approved the next stage is to
approve the welds to the approved procedure.
l A welders test know as a welders qualification test(WQT)
l To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the quality
requirements of the approved procedure

l The test weld should be carried out on the same material and same
conditions as for the production welds.
- It’s not normal to carry out tests that test for the mechanical properties of
welds ..Tensile and charpy, hardness tests
30. The majority of welder qualification tests are carried out using an unbacked joint. This is
because ____
a. It is quicker, and cheaper, if back gouging is not required
b. If the welding process is not TIG, back purging is not required
c. All welder qualification tests are done on small diameter pipe
d. It requires more skill and increases the welder’s qualification range
53. A qualified Welding Procedure Specification is used to ____
a. Give instruction to the welder / b. Give information to the welding inspector
c. Give confidence that welds will have the specified properties
d. All of the above
92. BS EN 288 is a specification for ____
a. Welder approval testing / b. Welding equipment calibration
c. Welding procedure approval / d. Consumables for submerged arc welding
105. EN 288 standard would refer to which of the following:
a. Welder approval testing / b. Welding equipment
c. Welding procedure approval / d. Consumables for welding
96. A welder approval certificate should be withdrawn if ____
a. He has not done any welding for a period of 4 months
b. He has been absent from work for a period of 7 months
c. The repair rate for his welds exceeds 1% / d. All of the above
17. A welder qualification test is to verify:
a. The skill of the welder / b. The quality of the materials
c. The non destructive test procedures / d. The manufacturing methods
71. A welding procedure is useful to:
a. Give information to the welder / b. Give information to the inspector
c. Give confidence to a product / d. All of the above
159. Welder qualification tests are designed to:
a. Test the correctness of the welding procedure / b. Test the welder’s skill
c. Prove the weldability of the parent material / d. All of the above
23. Which group of welders is most likely to require continuous monitoring by a welding
inspector?
a. Concrete shuttering welders / b. Overland pipeline welders / c. Tack welders
d. Maintenance welders

206. Which of the following destructive tests is not normally required for welder
approval? a. Bend tests / b. Macro examination / c. Impact tests/ d. Fracture tests
Welding procedures
Components of welding procedure
Parent material : Type(Grouping), thickness ,Diameter(pipe), Surface
Welding process : type of process(MMA,MAG,MIG..)Equipment parameters
Welding consumable
Joint design : Edge preparation, Root gap & face, Jigging and tacking
Welding position :Location, shop or site, position, weather precaution
Thermal heat treatments : Pre-heat, ..stress relieving
Welding position
Monitoring heat input

When impact requirements apply, the upper limit of heat input qualified 25% greater
than that used in welding the test piece
When hardness requirements apply, the lower limit of heat input qualified 25% lower
than that used in welding the test piece
Thick’ of Single run Multi run Thick’ of Material Single run Multi run
test piece test piece thickness
T<3 0.7t to 1.3t 0.7t to 2t T<3 0.7 to 2t 0.75a to No
1.5a restriction
3<t<12 0.5t(3min) 3 to 2t 3<t<30 0.5t(3min) 0.75a to No
to 1.3t to 1.2t 1.5a restriction
12<t<100 0.5t to 1.1t 0.5t to 2t T>30 >5 a No
restriction
t>100 Not 50 to 2t
applicable
Diameter of the test piece Da mm Range of Quailfication

D<25 0.5D to 2D
D>25 >0.5D(25mm min)
Note for structure hollow section D is the dimension of the smaller side

aD is the outside diameter of the pipe or outside diameter of the branch pipe
111-MMA 114-FCAW(no gas 12-SAW-1.0 131-MIG-0.8

0.8 shield)-0.8
135-MAG-0.8 136-FCAW(active 137-FCAW(Inert 141-TIG-0.6
gas)-0.8 gas)-0.8
15-Plasma arc-0.6 311-Oxy acetylene
** 0.6 and 0.8 & 1.0 is thermal efficiency factor(k)
Arc energy(kJ/mm) = Volts X Amps / Welding speed(mm/S) X 1000
Heat input = AE X Factor(k)
116. The highest and lowest heat input positions are considered to be ____
a. PB highest; PA lowest/ b. PE highest; PC lowest/ c. PD highest; PB lowest
d. PF highest; PG lowest
109. Welds made with very high heat input will show a reduction in ____
a. Tensile ductility / b. Notch toughness / c. Fatigue strength / d. Creep resistance
89. Which of the following would be high Heat Input welding?
a. 550 J/mm / b. 55 J/mm / c. 5.5 J/mm / d. 5.0 kJ/mm
48. Which of the following units is used to express heat input?
a. Joules / b. N/mm2 / c. J/mm2 / d. kJ/mm
124. In welding procedure terms, a change in essential variable means:
a. Requalification of the weld procedure
b. Possible changes in the weld’s microstructure
c. Possible changes in the mechanical properties / d. All of the above
Section 06- Materials Inspection

Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability.
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an effective QA system trace
them from specification and purchase order to final documentation package handed
over to the Client.
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
• Size / dimensions
• Condition
• Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered depending on the materials
form or shape

Parent Material Imperfections
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making process, originating
from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low melting point
impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not fuse to the base
material.
Section 07-Code & Standard

The 3 agencies generally identified in a code or standard: The customer, or client
The manufacturer, or contractor The 3rd party inspection, or clients representative
Codes often do not contain all relevant data, but may refer to other standards

Section 08-Welding symbole mh-Ju
Elementary Welding symbols (BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
The symbolic representation includes:
• an arrow line
• a reference line
• an elementary symbol
The elementary symbol may be completed by:
• a supplementary symbol
• a means of showing dimensions
• some complementary indications
Dimensions
Convention of dimensions
In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to the left side of the
symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on the right side
BS EN ISO 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)
AWS A2.4
• In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length
• In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of the joint preparation

BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4
Convention of the elementary symbols:
Various categories of joints are characterized by an elementary symbol.
The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld, single/double bevel butts and a J-butt
welds must always be on the left side.
Supplementary symbols (BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)

Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile, NDT and any
special instructions
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile, NDT and any
special instructions

ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553 : welding symbols
31. BS 499 communicates by the use of symbols the type of joint preparation to be used.
Which of the following symbols indicates the depth of weld penetration required on the joint?
b
32. Which of the following symbols would indicate that a weld has to be finished on the
‘other’ side of the weld? a

31-b 32-a
47. According to BS EN 22553 which of the following symbols requires weld toes to be
smoothly blended on the ‘other side’? C
57. What does the number 141 refer to on this drawing symbol?
a. The WPS number / b. The welding process / c. A filler material

d. The acceptance standard
72. EN ISO 5817 (Level C) specifies that the limit for the diameter (D) of a single pore in a
weld is: D ≤ 0.3s, but max. 4mm where s=material thickness.
For which of the following situations is the pore acceptable?
a. s= 30mm, measured pore diameter= 5.0mm
b. s= 15mm, measured pore diameter= 4.5mm
c. s=10mm, measured pore diameter= 3.0mm
d. s= 10mm, measured pore diameter= 3.5mm
84. BS EN ISO 5817 (Level B) specifies the limit for Excess Weld Metal (h) on a butt weld as:
h≤ 1mm + 0.1b, but max. 5mm, b= weld width. In which of the following situations is the
measured Excess Weld Metal acceptable.
a. b= 10 measured excess weld metal= 2.5mm
b. b=20 measured excess weld metal= 3.5mm

c. b=35 measured excess weld metal= 4.5mm
d. b=45 measured excess weld metal= 5.5mm
91. Which of these drawing symbols shows weld penetration depth in accordance with BS EN
22553? B
74. When visually inspecting a fillet weld it would normally be sized by:
a. The leg lengths / b. The actual throat thickness
c. The design throat thickness / d. Both A and C
125. Weld symbols placed on a dotted line in accordance with ISO requirements means:
a. Weld on ‘arrow’ side / b. Weld on ‘other’ side /c. Weld on site
d. Full penetration required
151. The weld dimension used to indicate the minimum strength of a fillet weld is:
a. Leg length / b. Throat thickness /c. Width of bead /d. Length of weld element
8. The strength of a fillet weld is determined by ___
a. Leg length / b. Weld profile / c. Weld width / d. Throat thickness
44. According to AWS 2.4 a weld symbol for the ‘other’ side is placed ____
a. Above the dashed line / b. Below the dashed line / c. Above the solid line
d. Below the solid line

Section 09 - Introduction to Welding Processes
Welding Processes
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work pieces are in atomic
contact
Pressure welding Fusion welding
• Forge welding • Oxy-acetylene
• Friction welding • MMA (SMAW)
• Resistance Welding • MIG/MAG (GMAW)
• TIG (GTAW)
• Sub-arc (SAW)
• Electro-slag (ESW)
• Laser Beam (LBW)
• Electron-Beam (EBW)
Choice of welding process

Material type:
Steels All process
Reactive metals TIG & MIG(Aluminum & Titanium)
Nickel-based Alloys All processes for most alloy
Copper-based alloy mainly TIG & MIG
Material Thickness :
MMA All above ~ 3mm
TIG(Low productivity) Generally thin section(<~10mm)
MIG/ MAG/ FCAW Typically ~3 to 30mm
SAW Typically ~15 to 150mm or above
Joint properties :
Very high quality TIG & SAW
Very demanding properties TIG usually best for toughness &
corrosion resistance
Welding position :
MMA, TIG, MIG & MAG All position
SAW Mainly flat but is used for girth seams on
large diameter storage tanks
Other fusion welding processes :
Electron beam welding • One-pass welding of thick joint (~400mm) in vacuum
chamber
• Precision fit-up required
• No filler wires

• Very low distortion –Can weld near- finished machined
item
Laser beam welding • One pass welding very thin section to ~20mm
• Precision fit-up required
• Can use robotics(YAG laser)
• Low distortion
• Hybrid system being developed with filler wire additions
Electrical :
MMA Drooping / Constant current DCEN, DCEP, AC
TIG Drooping / Constant current DCEP, AC
MIG & MAG Flat / Constant voltage DCEN
FCAW Flat / Constant voltage DCEN, DCEP
SAW Drooping / Constant current >1000AMP DCEN, DCEP, AC
Flat / Constant voltage <1000AMP
Electro-slag Flat / Constant voltage DCEN
Monitoring Heat Input

• Heat Input: The amount of heat generated in the welding arc per unit length of
weld.
Expressed in kilo Joules per millimeter length of weld (kJ/mm).
Heat Input (kJ/mm)= Volts x Amps Travel speed(mm/s) x 1000

Monitoring Heat Input
• Monitoring Heat Input As Required by
• BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004 / • In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
When impact requirements and/or hardness requirements are specified, impact test
shall be taken from the weld in the highest heat input position and hardness tests
shall be taken from the weld in the lowest heat input position in order to qualify for
all positions
Thermal efficiency factor k of welding processes
Process No Process Factor k
121 SAW 1.0
111 MMA(SMAW) 0.8
131 MIG 0.8
135 MAG 0.8
114 FCAW(Without gas) 0.8
136 FCAW(Active gas) 0.8
137 FCAW(Inert gas) 0.8
141 TIG 0.6
15 Plasma arc welding 0.6
Example : Welding method = MAG / Arc volts = 24 , Welding amperage = 240,
Travel speed = 300mm/ Minute
AE(Arc energy) = 24 X 240 / (300 / 60) X 1000 = 1.152 kJ/mm
HI(Heat input) = 1.152 X 0.8 = 0.96 kJ/mm

Section 10 – Manual Metal Arc Welding(MMA) or
Shielded Metal Arc Welding(SMAW) mh-ju
1. Introduction
• SMAW is simple process in terms of equipment
• The process can be used in DCEN, DCEP, AC
• The process is a manual process and demands a high skill from the welder
• The process is widely used throughout the welding industry both for shop and site
working conditions
Main features:
• Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering
• Electrode consumable / • Manual process
Welder controls:
• Arc length / • Angle of electrode / • Speed of travel / • Amperage settings
2. MMA Welding Plant
Transformer: • Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for welding. Has
no moving parts and is often termed static plant.
Rectifier: • Changes a.c. to d.c., can be mechanically or statically achieved.
Generator: • Produces welding current. The generator consists of an armature
rotating in a magnetic field, the armature must be rotated at a constant speed
either by a motor unit or, in the absence of electrical power, by an internal
combustion engine.
Inverter: • An inverter changes d.c. to a.c. at a higher frequency
3. MMA Welding Variables
Voltage • The arc voltage in the MMA process is measured as close to the arc as
possible. It is variable with a change in arc length
O.C.V. • The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or re-ignite the
electrical arc and will change with the type of electrode being used e.g 70-90 volts
Current • The current used will be determined by the choice of electrode, electrode
diameter and material type and thickness. Current has the most effect on

penetration.
Polarity • Polarity is generally determined by operation and electrode type e.g DC
+ve, DC –ve or AC

4. MMA welding parameters
Type of current:
• voltage drop in welding cables is lower with AC
• inductive looses can appear with AC if cables are coiled
• cheaper power source for AC
• no problems with arc blow with AC
• DC provides a more stable and easy to strike arc, especially with low current,
better positional weld, thin sheet applications
• welding with a short arc length (low arc voltage) is easier with DC, better
mechanical properties
• DC provides a smoother metal transfer, less spatter
5. SMAW welding checks
The welding equipment
•A visual check should be made on the equipment to ensure it is in good working
order
The electrodes
•Checks should be made to ensure that the correct
Specification of electrode is being used, the electrode is the correct diameter,
treatment if any and in good condition.
•Basic fluxed electrodes ensure that correct heat treatment is being carried out
before use
•Retile electrodes do not require pre-baking but should be stored in a dry condition,
Drying only if damped, therefore treat it as damp unless evidence dictates otherwise.
Cellulosic electrodes should not be dried
6. MMA welding typical defects
Most welding defects in MMA are caused by a lack of welder skill (not an easily
controlled process), the incorrect settings of the equipment, or the incorrect use, and
treatment of electrodes
Typical Welding Defects: •Slag inclusions •Arc strikes •Porosity •Undercut •Shape

defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc.)
7. Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
Advantages:
• Field or shop use • Range of consumables • All positions • Portable • Simple
equipment
Disadvantages:
• High welder skill required • High levels of fume • Hydrogen control (flux) •
Stop/start problems • Comparatively uneconomic when compared with some other
processes i.e MAG, SAW and FCAW
8. MMA Covered Electrodes
The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding
• Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion
• Rutile - general purpose
• Basic - low hydrogen

Section 11- TIG Welding mh-ju
1. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding

The TIG welding process was first developed in the USA during the 2nd world war
for the welding of aluminum alloys
• The process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode
• The process requires a high level of welder skill
• The process produces very high quality welds.
• The TIG process is considered as a slow process compared to other arc welding
processes
• The arc may be initiated by a high frequency to avoid scratch starting, which could
cause contamination of the tungsten and weld
2. Tungsten electrodes
The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical factors considered as
essential. The vertex angle is as show
DC-ve is electrodes end point made shaft (vertex angle) : Too fine an angle will
promote melting of the electrodes tip
AC is electrode end point made round : When welding aluminum with AC current, the
tungsten end is chamfered and forms a ball end when welding.
3. Tungsten Electrodes
Old type- Slightly Radioactive
•Thoriated : DC electrode –ve- steels and most metals
• 1% Thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
• 2% Thoriated for lower current values
• Zirconiated : AC – Aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types - Not Radioactive
• Cerium : DC electrode –ve- steel and most metals
• Lanthanum : AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium

4. Arc initiation method
Lift arc • Simple method
• Tungsten electrode is in contact with work-piece
• High initiation arc current due to the short circuit
• Impractical to set arc length in advance
• Electrode should tap the work-piece- no scratch
• Ineffective in case of AC
• Used when a high quality is not essential
HF start •Need a HF generator (Spark-gap oscillator) that generates a high
voltage AC output ( Radio frequency) Up costly
• Reliable method up required on both DC(for start) and AC(to re-ignite
the arc)
• Can be used remotely
• HF produce interference
• Requires superior insulation
5. Types of current
6. Choosing the proper electrode

Current type influence

7. TIG Welding Variables
Voltage
The voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by the type of gas being used,
and changes in the arc length
Current
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten electrodes diameter being
used. The higher the current the deeper the penetration and fusion
Polarity
The polarity used for steels is always DC –ve as most of the heat is concentrated at
the +ve pole, this is required to keep the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the
arc. When welding aluminum and its alloys AC current is used
8. Pulsed current

Polarity Influence – cathode cleaning effect
10. TIG torch set-up

• Electrode extension
11. Pure tungsten electrodes

• color code - green
• no alloy additions
• low current carrying capacity
• maintains a clean balled end
• can be used for AC welding of Al and Mg alloys
• poor arc initiation and arc stability with AC compared with other electrode types
• used on less critical applications
• low cost

12. Tungsten electrode types
Throated tungsten electrodes:
• color code - yellow/red/violet
• 20% higher current carrying capacity compared to pure tungsten electrodes
• longer life - greater resistance to contamination
• thermion - easy arc initiation, more stable arc
• maintain a sharpened tip
• recommended for DCEN, seldom used on AC (difficult to maintain a balled tip)
• This slightly radioactive
Seriated tungsten electrodes
• color code - grey (orange acc. AWS A-5.12)
• operate successfully with AC or DC
• Ce not radioactive - replacement for thoriated types
Lanthaniated tungsten electrodes
• color code - black/gold/blue
• operating characteristics similar with seriated electrode
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes
• color code - brown/white
• operating characteristics fall between those of pure and thoriated electrodes
• retains a balled end during welding - good for AC welding
• high resistance to contamination
• preferred for radiographic quality welds
13. Electrode tip for DCEN

14. Electrode tip for AC

Factors to be considered
Shielding gas requirements - • Pre-flow and post-flow

16. TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG:
• Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non- consumable).
• Filler wires of different materials composition and variable diameters available in
standard lengths, with applicable code stamped for identification
• Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper coating to resist corrosion.
• shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of highest purity (99.9%).
17. Tungsten Inclusion
May be caused by Thermal Shock of heating to fast and small fragments break off
and enter the weld pool, so a “slope up” device is normally fitted to prevent this
could be caused by touch down also.
Most TIG sets these days have slope- up devices that brings the current to the set
level over a short period of time so the tungsten is heated more slowly and gently
A Tungsten Inclusion always shows up as bright white on a radiograph
18. TIG typical defects
Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack of welder skill, or incorrect
setting of the equipment. i.e. current, torch manipulation, welding speed, gas flow
rate, etc.
• Tungsten inclusions (low skill or wrong vertex angle)
• Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site)
• Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out)
• Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover
• Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe)
• Lack of penetration/fusion (widely on root runs)
19. Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
• High quality • Good control • All positions • Lowest H2 process • Minimal cleaning
• Autogenously welding • Can be automated
Disadvantages
• High skill factor required • Low deposition rate • Small consumable range
• High protection required • Complex equipment • Low productivity
• High ozone levels +HF

Section 12 - Welding Inspector MIG/MAG Welding mh-ju
1. Gas Metal Arc Welding
The MIG/MAG welding process was initially developed in the USA in the late 1940s
for the welding of aluminum alloys.
The latest EN Welding Standards now refer the process by the American term GMAW
(Gas Metal Arc Welding)
• The process uses a continuously fed wire electrode
• The weld pool is protected by a separately supplied shielding gas
• The process is classified as a semi-automatic welding process but may be fully
automated
• The wire electrode can be either bare/solid wire or flux cored hollow wire
2. MIG/MAG process variables

Welding current

Polarity
Arc voltage
travel speed
3. Types of Shielding Gas

MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
• Inert Gas is required for all non-ferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Ni)
• Most common inert gas is Argon
• Argon + Helium used to give a „hotter‟ arc - better for thicker joints and alloys
with higher thermal conductivity
Type of material Shielding gas
Carbon steel CO2 , Ar+(5-20)%CO2
Stainless steel Ar+2%O2
Aluminum Ar

Argon (Ar): higher density than air; low thermal conductivity the arc has a high
energy inner cone; good wetting at the toes; low ionization potential
Helium (He): lower density than air; high thermal conductivity uniformly distributed
arc energy; parabolic profile; high ionization potential
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter
MAG (Metal Active Gas)

• Active gases used are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
• Argon with a small % of active gas is required for all steels (including stainless
steels) to ensure a stable arc & good droplet wetting into the weld pool
• Typical active gases are
Ar + 20% CO2 for C-Mn & low alloy steels
Ar + 2% O2 for stainless steels
100% CO2 can be used for C - steels
4. Gases for dip(Drop) transfer
• CO2: carbon steels only: deep penetration; fast welding speed; high spatter levels
• Ar + up to 25% CO2: carbon and low alloy steels: minimum spatter; good wetting
and bead contour
• 90% He + 7.5% Ar + 2.5% CO2: stainless steels: minimizes undercut; small HAZ
• Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin sections
• Ar + He mixtures: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thicker sections (over 3 mm)
MIG/MAG-methods of metal transfer
Dip transfer
• Transfer occur due to short circuits between wire and weld pool, high level of
spatter, need inductance control to limit current raise
• Can use pure CO2 or Ar- CO2 mixtures as shielding gas
• Metal transfer occur when arc is extinguished
• Requires low welding current/arc voltage, a low heat input process. Resulting in
low residual stress and distortion
• Used for thin materials and all position welds
5. Gases for spray transfer
• Ar + (5-18)% CO2: carbon steels: minimum spatter; good wetting and bead
contour

• Ar + 2% O2: low alloy steels: minimize undercut; provides good toughness
• Ar + 2% O2 or CO2: stainless steels: improved arc stability; provides good fusion
• Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys
• Ar + He mixtures: Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys: hotter arc than pure Ar to offset heat
dissipation
• Ar + (25-30)% N2: Cu alloys: greater heat input
Spray transfer
• Transfer occur due to pinch effect NO contact between wire and weld pool!
• Requires argon-rich shielding gas
• Metal transfer occur in small droplets, a large volume weld pool
• Requires high welding current/arc voltage, a high heat input process. Resulting in
high residual stress and distortion
• Used for thick materials and flat/horizontal position welds
Pulsed transfer
• Controlled metal transfer, one droplet per pulse,
• No transfer between droplet and weld pool!
• Requires special power sources
• Metal transfer occur in small droplets (diameter equal to that of electrode)
• Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, a reduced heat input . Resulting in
smaller residual stress and distortion compared to spray transfer
• Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool, used for root runs and out of
position welds
Metal transfer modes Pulsed transfer
• Controlled metal transfer. one droplet per pulse. NO transfer during background
current!
• Requires special power sources
• Metal transfer occur in small droplets (diameter equal to that of electrode)
• Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, reduced heat input‟ smaller
residual stress and distortions compared to spray transfer
• Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool, used for root runs and out of
position welds
Globular transfer
Transfer occur due to gravity or short circuits between drops and weld pool
Requires CO2 shielding gas
Metal transfer occur in large drops (diameter larger than that of electrode) hence
severe spatter
Requires high welding current/arc voltage, a high heat input process. Resulting in
high residual stress and distortion

Non desired mode of transfer!
6. MIG/MAG Gas Metal Arc Welding

Electrode orientation
Electrode extension
7. MIG / MAG - self-regulating arc

8. Terminating the arc
Crater fill
• Burn back time
– delayed current cut-off to prevent wire freeze in the weld end crater
- Depends on WFS (set as short as possible!)
9. MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes

Current/voltage conditions
10. Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic
11. PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS

• Requires a constant voltage power source, gas supply, wire feeder, welding
torch/gun and „hose package‟
• Wire is fed continuously through the conduit and is burnt-off at a rate that
maintains a constant arc length/arc voltage
• Wire feed speed is directly related to burn-off rate
• Wire burn-off rate is directly related to current

• When the welder holds the welding gun the process is said to be a semi-automatic
process
• The process can be mechanized and also automated
• In Europe the process is usually called MIG or MAG
12. MIG/MAG typical defects

Most welding imperfections in MIG/MAG are caused by lack of welder skill, or
incorrect settings of the equipment
•Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up, or transfer
•Bad power connections will cause a loss of voltage in the arc
•Silica inclusions (in Fe steels) due to poor inter-run cleaning
•Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer)
•Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc)
•Solidification problems (cracking, centerline pipes, crater pipes) especially on deep
narrow welds

Section 13 - Flux Core Arc Welding & mh-ju
Submerged Arc Welding
Flux Core Arc Welding
2. ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic

3. FCAW - differences from MIG/MAG
• usually operates in DCEP but some “Innershield” wires operates in DCEN
• power sources need to be more powerful due to the higher currents
• doesn't work in deep transfer mode
• require knurled feed rolls
• “Innershield” wires use a different type of welding gun
4. Backhand (“drag”) technique

Advantages
• preferred method for flat or horizontal position
• slower progression of the weld
• deeper penetration
•weld stays hot longer, ^ easy to remove dissolved gasses
Disadvantages
• produce a higher weld profile
• difficult to follow the weld joint
• can lead to burn-through on thin sheet plates
5. Forehand (“push”) technique
Advantages
• preferred method for vertical up or overhead position
• arc is directed towards the unwelded joint , preheat effect
• easy to follow the weld joint and control the penetration
Disadvantages
• produce a low weld profile, with coarser ripples
• fast weld progression, ^shallower depth of penetration
• the amount of spatter can increase

6. FCAW advantages
• less sensitive to lack of fusion
• requires smaller included angle compared to MMA
• high productivity
• all positional
• smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut
• basic types produce excellent toughness properties
• good control of the weld pool in positional welding especially with rutile wires
• seamless wires have no torsional strain, twist free
• ease of varying the alloying constituents
• no need for shielding gas
FCAW disadvantages
• limited to steels and Ni-base alloys
• slag covering must be removed
• FCAW wire is more expensive on a weight basis than solid wires (exception: some
high alloy steels)
• for gas shielded process, the gaseous shield may be affected by winds and drafts
• more smoke and fumes are generated compared with MIG/MAG
• in case of Innershield wires, it might be necessary to break the wire for restart
(due to the high amount of insulating slag formed at the tip of the wire)
Submerged Arc Welding

1. Introduction
• Submerged arc welding was developed in the Soviet Union during the 2nd world
war for the welding of thick section steel.
• The process is normally mechanized.
• The process uses amps in the range of 100 to over 2000, which gives a very high
current density in the wire producing deep penetration and high dilution welds.

• A flux is supplied separately via a flux hopper in the form of either fused or
agglomerated.
• The arc is not visible as it is submerged beneath the flux layer and no eye
protection is required.
2. Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW chemical composition and mechanical
properties required for the weld deposit
• thickness of base metal to be welded
• joint accessibility
• position in which the weld is to be made
• frequency or volume of welding to be performed SAW methods Semiautomatic
Mechanized Automatic
3. SAW process variables

• welding current
• current type and polarity
• welding voltage
• travel speed
• electrode size
• electrode extension
• width and depth of the layer of flux

Welding current •controls depth of penetration and the amount of base metal melted
& dilution
4. SAW operating variables

•Usually DCEP, deep penetration, better resistance to porosity
•DCEN increase deposition rate but reduce penetration (surfacing)
•AC used to avoid arc blow; can give unstable arc
Current type and polarity
5. SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages:
•good chemical homogeneity
•easy removal of fines without affecting flux composition
•normally not hygroscopic & easy storage and handling
•readily recycled without significant change in particle size or composition Fused

fluxes disadvantages:
•difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to segregation or extremely high
loss)
•high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the range of flux compositions
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
• easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
• usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
• colour identification
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:
• tendency to absorb moisture
• possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to porosity
• possible change in flux composition due to segregation or removal of fine mesh
particles
6. SAW equipment
Power sources can be:
• transformers for AC
• transformer-rectifiers for DC
Static characteristic can be:
• Constant Voltage (flat) - most of the power sources
• Constant Current (drooping)
Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources:
• most commonly used supplies for SAW
• can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
• self-regulating arc
• simple wire feed speed control
• wire feed speed controls the current and power supply controls the voltage
• applications for DC are limited to 1000A due to severe arc blow (also thin wires!)
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic

Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) power sources:
• Over 1000A - very fast speed required - control of burn off rate and stick out
length
• can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
• not self-regulating arc
• must be used with a voltage-sensing variable wire feed speed control
• more expensive due to more complex wire feed speed control
• arc voltage depends upon wire feed speed whilst the power source controls the
current
• cannot be used for high-speed welding of thin steel
Welding heads can be mounted on a:
Tractor type carriage
• provides travel along straight or gently curved joints
• can ride on tracks set up along the joint (with grooved wheels) or on the workpiece
itself Courtesy of ESAB AB
• can use guide wheels as tracking device
• due to their portability, are used in field welding or where the piece cannot be
moved
7. SAW operating variables
Welding current
•too high current: excessive excess weld metal (waste of electrode), increase weld
shrinkage and causes greater distortions
•excessively high current: digging arc, undercut, burn through; also a high and
narrow bead & solidification cracking
•too low current: incomplete fusion or inadequate penetration
•excessively low current: unstable arc
8. Welding voltage
•welding voltage controls arc length
•increase in voltage produce a flatter and wider bead
•increase in voltage increase flux consumption
•increase in voltage tend to reduce porosity

•an increased voltage may help bridging an excessive root gap
•an increased voltage can increase pick-up of alloying elements from an alloy flux
•low voltage produce a “stiffer” arc & improves penetration in a deep weld groove
and resists arc blow
•excessive low voltage produce a high narrow bead & difficult slag removal
Welding voltage
•excessively high voltage produce a “hat-shaped” bead & tendency to crack
•excessively high voltage increase undercut & make slag removal difficult in groove
welds
•excessively high voltage produce a concave fillet weld that is subject to cracking

9. Travel speed
•increase in travel speed: decrease heat input & less filler metal applied per unit of
length, less excess weld metal & weld bead becomes smaller
•excessively high speed lead to undercut, arc blow and porosity
•excessively low speed produce “hat-shaped” beads danger of cracking
•excessively low speed produce rough beads and lead to slag inclusions
10. Electrode size
•at the same current, small electrodes have higher current density & higher
deposition rates
11. Electrode extension

•increased electrode extension adds resistance in the welding circuit I increase in
deposition rate, decrease in penetration and bead width
•to keep a proper weld shape, when electrode extension is increased, voltage must

also be increased
•when burn-through is a problem (e.g. thin gauge), increase electrode extension
•excessive electrode extension: it is more difficult to maintain the electrode tip in the
correct position
12. Depth of flux

•depth of flux layer influence the appearance of weld
•usually, depth of flux is 25-30 mm
•if flux layer is to deep the arc is too confined, result is a rough ropelike appearing
weld
•if flux layer is to deep the gases cannot escape & the surface of molten weld metal
becomes irregularly distorted
•if flux layer is too shallow, flashing and spattering will occur, give a poor
appearance and porous weld
13. SAW technological variables
Travel angle effect - Butt weld on plates
14. Earth position

• welding towards earth produces backward arc blow
• deep penetration
• convex weld profile
• little resistance to porosity

• welding away earth produces forward arc blow
• normal penetration depth
• smooth, even weld profile
• High resistance to porosity
15. Weld backing
• Backing strip
• Backing weld
• Copper backing
16. Starting/finishing the weld

17. SAW variants
Twin wire SAW welding
•two electrodes are feed into the same weld pool
•wire diameter usually 1,6 to 3,2 mm •normally operate with DCEP & Arc blow
•electrodes are connected to a single power source & a single arc is established
•offers increased deposition rate by up to 80% compared to single wire SAW
Wires can be oriented for maximum or minimum penetration
Tandem arc SAW process

•usually DCEP on lead and AC on trail to reduce arc blow
•requires two separate power sources
•the electrodes are active in the same puddle BUT there are 2 separate arcs
•increased deposition rate by up to 100% compared with single wire SAW

Single pool - highest deposition rate
Twin pool - travel speed limited by undercut; very resistant to porosity and cracks
Tandem arc SAW process - multiple wires

•only for welding thick sections (>30 mm)
•not suitable for use in narrow weld preparations (root passes)
•one 4 mm wire at 600 A, 6.8 kg/hr
•tandem two 4 mm wires at 600 A, 13.6 kg/hr
Narrow gap welding
•for welding thick materials
•less filler metal required
•requires special groove preparation and special welding head
•requires special fluxes, otherwise problems with slag removal
•defect removal is very difficult
Hot wire welding
•the hot wire is connected to power source & much more efficient than cold wire
(current is used entirely to heat the wire!)
•increase deposition rates up to 100%
•requires additional welding equipment, additional control of variables, considerable
set-up time and closer operator attention
SAW with metal powder addition
•increased deposition rates up to 70%; increased welding speed
•gives smooth fusion, improved bead appearance, reduced penetration and dilution
from parent metal & higher impact strength
•metal powders can modify chemical composition of final weld deposit
•does not increase risk of cracking
•do not require additional arc energy

•metal powder can be added ahead or directly into the weld pool
18. Advantages of SAW
• high current density, high deposition rates (up to 10 times those for MMA), high
productivity
• deep penetration allowing the use of small welding grooves
• fast travel speed, less distortion
• deslagging is easier
• uniform bead appearance with good surface finish and good fatigue properties
• can be easily performed mechanized, giving a higher duty cycle and low skill level
required
• provide consistent quality when performed automatic or mechanized
• Virtually assured radiographically sound welds
• arc is not visible
• little smoke/fumes are developed

Section 14 - Welding Consumables mh-ju
1. Welding consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are used up in the production of a weld
Welding consumables may be:
• Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode wires.
• Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
• Separately supplied fluxes.
• Fusible inserts
2. Welding Consumable Standards
MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG (GTAW) • BS 2901: Filler wires • BS EN 440: Wire
• BS EN 439: Shielding gases • AWS A5.9: Filler wires
MMA (SMAW) • BS EN 499: Steel electrodes • AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed steel
• AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel • AWS A5.4 Chromium
SAW • BS 4165: Wire and fluxes • BS EN 756: Wire electrodes • BS EN 760: Fluxes
• AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
3. Gases welding gases
• GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- Fuel
• Supplied in cylinders or storage tanks for large quantities
• Color coded cylinders to minimize wrong use
• Subject to regulations concerned handling, quantities and positioning of storage
areas
• Moisture content is limited to avoid cold cracking
• Dew point (the temperature at which the vapor begins to condense) must be
checked
4. Each consumable is critical in respect to:
• Size, (diameter and length) • Classification / Supplier • Condition • Treatments e.g.
baking / drying • Handling and storage is critical for consumable control • Handling
and storage of gases is critical for safety
MMA Welding Consumables

The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding
• Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion
• Rutile - general purpose
• Basic - low hydrogen
2. Welding consumables for MMA:
• Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm in length and from 2.5mm -
6mm in diameter

• The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating
• The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel
• The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying and refining agents in the
flux coating
• The flux coating contains many elements and compounds that all have a variety of
functions during welding
3. Function of the Electrode Covering:
• To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability
• To generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air contamination
• To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag
• To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and cooling weld metal
• To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal properties
• To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable freezing temperature to
support the molten weld metal)
• To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)
4. Cellulosic electrodes:
• covering contains cellulose (organic material).
• produce a gas shield high in hydrogen raising the arc voltage.
• Deep penetration / fusion characteristics enables welding at high speed without
risk of lack of fusion.
• generates high level of fumes and H2 cold cracking.
• Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.
• not require baking or drying (excessive heat will damage electrode covering!).
• Mainly used for stove pipe welding
• hydrogen content is 80-90 ml/100 g of weld metal.
5. Cellulosic Electrodes Disadvantages:
• weld beads have high hydrogen
• risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during welding to allow H to escape)
• not suitable for higher strength steels - cracking risk too high (may not be allowed
for Grades stronger than X70)
• not suitable for very thick sections (may not be used on thicknesses > ~ 35mm)
• not suitable when low temperature toughness is required (impact toughness
satisfactory down to ~ -20°C)

6. Rutile electrodes:
• covering contains TiO2 slag former and arc stabilizer.
• easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional welding.
• stable, easy-to-use arc can operate in both DC and AC.
• slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
• Reasonably good strength weld metal.
• Used mainly on general purpose work.
• Low pressure pipe work, support brackets.
• electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot be baked as it will destroy
the coating.
• hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100 g of weld metal.
7. Rutile electrodes Disadvantages:
• they cannot be made with a low hydrogen content
• cannot be used on high strength steels or thick joints - cracking risk too high
• they do not give good toughness at low temperatures
• these limitations mean that they are only suitable for general engineering - low
strength, thin steel

8. High Recovery Rutile Electrodes Characteristics:
• coating is „bulked out‟ with iron powder
• iron powder gives the electrode „high recovery‟
• extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean that weld deposit from a single
electrode can be as high as 180% of the core wire weight
• give good productivity
• large weld beads with smooth profile can look very similar to SAW welds
9. High Recovery Rutile Electrodes Disadvantages:
• Same as standard rutile electrodes with respect to hydrogen control
• large weld beads produced cannot be used for all-positional welding
• the very high recovery types usually limited to PA & PB positions
• more moderate recovery may allow PC use
10. Basic covering:
• Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag.
• Very suitable for for high pressure work, thick section steel and for high strength
steels.
• Prior to use electrodes should be baked, typically 350°C for 2 hour plus to reduce
moisture to very low levels and achieve low hydrogen potential status.
• Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate compounds.
• cannot be re-baked indefinitely!
• low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good toughness and YS.
• have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5 ml/100 g of weld metal).
11. Basic Electrodes Disadvantages:
• Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is essential to maintain low
hydrogen status and avoid risk of cracking
• Typical baking temperature 350°C for 1 to 2hours.
• Holding temperature 120 to 150°C.
• Issue in heated quivers typically 70°C.
• Welders need to take more care / require greater skill.
• Weld profile usually more convex.
• Deslagging requires more effort than for other types.


13. Electrode efficiency

14. Covered electrode treatment
TIG Welding Consumables

1. Welding consumables for TIG:
•Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non- consumable).
•Filler wires of different materials composition and variable diameters available in
standard lengths, with applicable code stamped for identification
•Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper coating to resist corrosion.
•shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of highest purity (99.9%).
2. Fusible Inserts
Pre-placed filler material

3. Consumable inserts:
• used for root runs on pipes
• used in conjunction with TIG welding
• available for carbon steel, Cr-Mo steel, austenitic stainless steel, nickel and copper-
nickel alloys
• different shapes to suit application Radius
4. Shielding gases for TIG welding
Argon
• low cost and greater availability
• heavier than air - lower flow rates than Helium
• low thermal conductivity - wide top bead profile
• low ionisation potential - easier arc starting, better arc stability with AC, cleaning
effect
• for the same arc current produce less heat than helium - reduced penetration,
wider HAZ
• to obtain the same arc arc power, argon requires a higher current - increased
undercut
Helium
• costly and lower availability than Argon
• lighter than air - requires a higher flow rate compared with argon (2-3 times)
• higher ionization potential - poor arc stability with AC, less forgiving for manual
welding
• for the same arc current produce more heat than argon - increased penetration,
welding of metals with high melting point or thermal conductivity
• to obtain the same arc arc power, helium requires a lower current - no undercut
Hydrogen
• not an inert gas - not used as a primary shielding gas
• increase the heat input - faster travel speed and increased penetration
• better wetting action - improved bead profile

• produce a cleaner weld bead surface
• added to argon (up to 5%) - only for austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys
• flammable and explosive
Nitrogen
• not an inert gas
• high availability - cheap
• added to argon (up to 5%) - only for back purge for duplex stainless, austenitic
stainless steels and copper alloys
• not used for mild steels (age embitterment)
• strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys (porosity)
MIG/MAG Welding Consumables

1. Welding consumables for MIG/MAG
• Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding gases
• variable spool size (1-15Kg) and Wire diameter (0.6- 1.6mm) supplied in random or
orderly layers
• Basic Selection of different materials and their alloys as electrode wires.
• Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating purpose is corrosion resistance and
electrical pick-up
• Gases can be pure CO2, CO2+Argon mixes and Argon+2%O2 mixes (stainless
steels).
2. Welding wires:
•carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated
• stainless steel wires are not coated
•wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
•flux cored wires does not require baking or drying
Flux Core Wire Consumables

1. Flux Core Wire Consumables

2. Types of cored wire
3. Core elements and their function

Aluminium - deoxidize & denitrify
Calcium - provide shielding & form slag
Carbon - increase hardness & strength
Manganese - deoxidize & increase strength and toughness
Molybdenum - increase hardness & strength
Nickel - improve hardness, strength, toughness & corrosion resistance
Potassium - stabilize the arc & form slag
Silicon - deoxidize & form slag
Sodium - stabilize arc & form slag
Titanium - deoxidize, denitrify & form slag
SAW Consumables
1. Welding fluxes:
• are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various formulations
• shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere
• clean the molten weld pool
• can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal
• prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone
• influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action)
• can be fused, agglomerated or mixed
• must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity
2. Welding flux:

• might be fused or agglomerated
• supplied in bags
• must be kept warm and dry
• handling and stacking requires care Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
• Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can hold surface moisture
so only drying
• Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. Similar treatment as basic
electrodes
• If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It cannot be recycled
indefinitely
3. Fused Flux
• Flaky appearance
• Lower weld quality
• Low moisture intake
• Low dust tendency
• Good re-cycling
• Very smooth weld profile Fused Flux: Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and
black in colour, cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and tends to
be of the acidic type
4. TYPES OF FLUX
FUSED (ACID TYPE)
• name indicates method of manufacture
• minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by allowing to cool to a solid
mass and then crushing or by spraying the molten flux into water
• flux tends to be „glass-like‟ (high in Silica)
• granules are hard and may appear shiny
• granules do not absorb moisture
• granules do not tend break down into powder when being re-circulated
• are effectively a low hydrogen flux
• welds do not tend to give good toughness at low temperatures

FUSED(ACID TYPE) Agglomerated Flux
5. Agglomerated Flux
• Granulated appearance
• High weld quality
• Addition of alloys
• Lower consumption
• Easy slag removal
• Smooth weld profile Agglomerated Flux: Baked at a lower temperature, dull,
irregularly shaped, friable, (easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements,
moisture absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
6. Fused fluxes advantages & disadvantages:

advantages
•good chemical homogeneity
•easy removal of fines without affecting flux composition
•normally not hygroscopic easy storage and handling
•readily recycled without significant change in particle size or composition Fused
disadvantages:
•difficult to add deoxidizers and Ferro-alloys (due to segregation or extremely high
loss)
•high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the range of flux compositions
7. Agglomerated fluxes advantages & disadvantages
advantages
• easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
• usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
• color identification

disadvantages:
• tendency to absorb moisture
• possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to porosity
• possible change in flux composition due to segregation or removal of fine mesh
particles
8. TYPES OF FLUX - AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE)
• name indicates method of manufacture
• basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a binder to form
individual granules
• granules are soft and easily crushed to powder
• granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect the flux from moisture
pick-up - usually by holding in a heated silo
• granules tend to break down into powder when being re- circulated
• are a low hydrogen flux - if correctly controlled
• welds give good toughness at low temperatures
9. SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes - two or more fused or bonded fluxes are mixed in any ratio necessary
to yield the desired results
Mixed fluxes advantages:
•several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly critical or proprietary welding
operations
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
•segregation of the combined fluxes during shipment, storage and handling
•segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery systems during welding
•inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix
10. Filler material
Welding wires can be used to weld:
•carbon steels •low alloy steels •creep resisting steels •stainless steels •nickel-base
alloys •special alloys for surfacing applications
Welding wires can be:
•solid wires •metal-cored wires
11. Filler material Copper coating functions:
• to assure a good electric contact between wire and contact tip
• to assure a smooth feed of the wire through the guide tube, feed rolls and contact
tip (decrease contact tube wear)
• to provide protection against corrosion
12. Ceramic Backing
Ceramic backing :

• Used to support the weld pool on root runs
• Usually fitted on an aluminum self adhesive tape
• Allow increased welding current without danger of burn-through increased
productivity, consistent applications
• No backing/ drying required

Section 15 - Welding Inspector Non Destructive Testing
1. Non-Destructive Testing introduce mh-jo
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of NDT methods and their
applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Four basic NDT methods
• Radiographic inspection (RT)
• Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
• Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
• Dye penetrate inspection (PT)
2. Other NDT
Surface Crack Detection
• Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye-Penetrant)
• Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)
Volumetric & Planar Inspection
• Ultrasonics (UT)
• Radiography (RT)
Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect to:
• Technical Capability and Cost
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration of these advantages
and disadvantages
Radiographic Testing (RT)
1. Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography
• X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependant upon the density of the
material through which it is travelling
• Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as darker areas on the
radiograph
• Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show as lighter areas on a
radiograph
• Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
2. Kind of Radiographic Testing
X – Rays - Electrically generated
Gamma Rays - Generated by the decay of unstable atoms

• Density - relates to the degree of darkness Densitometer
• Contrast - relates to the degree of difference
• Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
• Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph
3. Radiographic Sensitivity

4. Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) - • film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic -• film outside, source inside (internal
exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) -• film outside, source outside (external exposure)

Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)-• film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
5. Radiography PENETRATING POWER

Question: What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
• the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)
Question: What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
• the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
6. GAMMA SOURCES

7. Radiographic Testing Disadvantages Advantages
8. Testing Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination

ADVANTAGES
• good for non-planar defects
• good for thin sections
• gives permanent record
• easier for 2nd party interpretation
• can use on all material types
• high productivity
• direct image of imperfections
DISADVANTAGES
• health & safety hazard
• not good for thick sections
• high capital and relatively high running costs
• not good for planar defects
• X-ray sets not very portable
• requires access to both sides of weld
• frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life)

Ultrasonic Testing
1. Main Features:
• Surface and sub-surface detection
• This detection method uses high frequency sound waves, typically above 2MHz to
pass through a material
• A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to transmit and receive
ultrasonic pulses and display the signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
• The actual display relates to the time taken for the ultrasonic pulses to travel the
distance to the interface and back
• An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
• For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be introduced between the
probe and specimen

2. Ultrasonic Testing Disadvantages
3. Ultrasonic Testing Comparison with Radiography

ADVANTAGES
• good for planar defects
• good for thick sections
• instant results
• can use on complex joints
• can automate
• very portable
• no safety problems (‘parallel’ working is possible)
• low capital & running costs
DISADVANTAGES
• no permanent record (with standard equipment)
• not suitable for very thin joints <8mm

• reliant on operator interpretation
• not good for sizing Porosity
• good/smooth surface profile needed
• not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)
• Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment)
Magnetic Particle testing (MT)

1. Main features:
• Surface and slight sub-surface detection
• Relies on magnetization of component being tested
• Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested
• A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being tested
• Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent magnet, prods and flexible
cables.
• Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
• Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create a leakage field, which
attracts the particles
• Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in the case of fluorescent
particles under UV-A light a green/yellow indication
Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used for greater sensitivity.
These inks require a UV-A light source and a darkened viewing area to inspect the
component

2. Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
• Clean area to be tested
• Apply contrast paint
• Apply magnetisism to the component
• Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during magnatising
• Iterpret the test area
• Post clean and de-magnatise if required
3. Advantages Disadvantages
4. Comparison with Penetrate Testing

ADVANTAGES
• much quicker than PT
• instant results
• can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow technique)
• less surface preparation needed
DISADVANTAGES
• only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
• electrical power for most techniques
• may need to de-magnetise (machine components)
Penetrate Testing (PT)

1. Main features:
• Detection of surface breaking defects only.
• This test method uses the forces of capillary action
• Applicable on any material type, as long they are non porous.
• Penetrates are available in many different types:
• Water washable contrast
• Solvent removable contrast
• Water washable fluorescent

• Solvent removable fluorescent
• Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
2. Sequence
Step 1. Pre-Cleaning Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
Step 2. Apply penetrant After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell time). The penetrant
enters any defects that may be present by capillary action
Step 3. Clean off penetrant the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration
time (dwell time). Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any defects
present
Step 4. Apply developer After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer
of developer is applied. The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place
Step 5. Inspection / development time Inspection should take place immediately
after the developer has been applied. any defects present will show as a bleed out
during development time. After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required

3. Advantages & Disadvantages
4. Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection

ADVANTAGES
•easy to interpret results
•no power requirements
•relatively little training required
•can use on all materials
DISADVANTAGES
•good surface finish needed
•relatively slow
•chemicals - health & safety issue

Section 16 - Welding Inspector Weld Repairs mh-ju
Weld Repairs Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific areas:
• Production repairs • In service repairs
Production repairs
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward activity, but in many
instances it is quite complex, and various engineering disciplines may need
to be involved to ensure a successful outcome.
• Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by the Q/C department to discover
the likely reason for their occurrence, (Material/Process or Skill related).
In general terms, a welding repair involves What!
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or extensive metal
removal:
•Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier than repairs to service failures
because the repair procedure may be followed
•The main problem with repairing a weld is the maintenance of mechanical
properties
•During the inspection of the removed area prior to welding the inspector must
ensure that the defects have been totally removed and the original joint profile has
been maintained as close as possible
In the event of repair, it is required:
• Authorization and procedure for repair
• Removal of material and preparation for repair
• Monitoring of repair Weld
• Testing of repair - visual and NDT
There are a number of key factors that need to be considered before
undertaking any repair:
• The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
• Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?
• Are there any alternatives to welding?
• What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
• How is the defect to be removed and what welding process is to be used?
• What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the defect?
• Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval?
• Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc)

• A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect. This may involve the
use of a surface or sub surface NDE method.

• Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified and marked out.
• An excavation procedure may be required (method used i.e. grinding, arc-air
gouging, preheat requirements etc).
• NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its removal.
• A welding repair procedure/method statement with the appropriate welding
process, consumable, technique, controlled heat input and interpass temperatures
etc will need to be approved.
• Use of approved welders.

• Dressing the weld and final visual.
• A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to ensure that the defect has
been successfully removed and repaired.
• Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
• Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out after heat treatment
requirements.
• Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required).
(*Appropriate’ means suitable for the alloys being repaired and may not apply in
specific situations)
• What will be the effect of welding distortion and residual stress?
• Will heat treatment be required?
• What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the repair be demonstrated?
• Will approval of the repair be required – if yes, how and by whom?
Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need to be

fulfilled:
If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion face the problem
could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion.
If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may be associated with the material
or the welding procedure
If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned to the lack of skill of
the welder.
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, MPI or DYE-PEN may be
used to gauge the length of the defect and U/T inspection used to gauge the depth
The specification or procedure will govern how the defective areas are to
be removed.
The method of removal may be: • Grinding • Chipping • Machining • Filing • Oxy-Gas
gouging • Arc air gouging
Arc-air gouging

• Operate ONLY on DCEP • Special gouging copper coated carbon electrode
• Can be used on carbon and low alloy steels, austenitic stainless steels and non-
ferrous materials • Requires CLEAN/DRY compressed air supply
• Provides fast rate of metal removal • Can remove complex shape defects
• After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
• Gouging doesn‟t require a qualified welder!
Production Weld Repairs Production Repairs

• are usually identified during production inspection
• evaluation of the reports is usually carried out by the Welding Inspector, or NDT
operator
In service repairs
• Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is very likely to be in a
different welding position and condition than it was during production
• It may also have been in contact with toxic, or combustible fluids hence a permit to
work will need to be sought prior to any work being carried out
• The repair welding procedure may look very different to the original production
procedure due to changes in these elements
Other factors to be taken into consideration:

• Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the component i.e. electrical
components, or materials that may become damaged by the repair procedure.
• This may also include difficulty in carrying out any required pre or post welding
heat treatments and a possible restriction of access to the area to be repaired.
• For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must also take place on site and
without a shut down of operations, which may bring other elements that need to be
considered.

• Is welding the best method of repair?
• Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
• What is the composition and weldability of the base metal?
• What strength is required from the repair?
• Can preheat be tolerated?
• Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated?
• Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
• Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate?
• Will the repair resist its environment?
• Can the repair be inspected and tested?
Weld repair related problems

• heat from welding may affect dimensional stability and/or mechanical properties of
repaired assembly
• due to heat from welding, YS goes down, danger of collapse
• filler materials used on dissimilar welds may lead to galvanic corrosion
• local preheat may induce residual stresses
• cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint repair can reach up to 10 times
the original weld metal cost!

Section 17 - Residual Stress & Distortion mh-ju
1. Residual stress
Residual stresses are undesirable because:
• they lead to distortion
• they affect dimensional stability of the welded assembly
• they enhance the risk of brittle fracture
• they can facilitate certain types of corrosion
• The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces expansion and
contractions which affect the weld metal and adjacent material.
• If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress will develop.
• The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the heating and cooling
is localised.
• Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real accuracy.
• Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not stresses induced whilst
applying external load
• Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the component.
• The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving.
2. Normal Stress
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to the cross sectional area
3. Shear Stress
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and lie in the plane of the cross
sectional area.
4. Hoop Stress
Internal stress acting on the wall a pipe or cylinder due to internal pressure

5. Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions
♣ Along the weld – longitudinal residual stresses
♣ Across the weld – transverse residual stresses
♣ Through the weld – short transverse
♣the weld – transverse residual stresses residual stresses
6. Heating and cooling causes expansion and contraction
7. In case of a heated bar, the resistance of the surrounding material to

the expansion and contraction leads to formation of residual stress

8. Summary
1. Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is caused by local expansion
and contraction in the weld area.
2. Residual stresses should be removed from structures after welding.
3. The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of weld metal in the joint,
the thickness, heat input, joint design and the materials properties
4. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint.
5. If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking, clamping or jigging etc
(restraint), then the amount of residual stresses that remain will be higher.
6. The movement caused by welding related stresses is called distortion.
7. The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is very complex, as is the
amount and type of final distortion, however we can say that there are three
directions: a. Longitudinal b. Transverse c. Short transverse
8. A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by heat treatments.
9. The peening of weld faces will only redistribute the residual stress, and place the
weld face in compression
9. Types of distortion Angular distortion

10. Distortion
Distortion Factors which affect distortion

• Material properties and condition
• Heat input • The amount of restrain
• The amount of weld metal deposited
Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way:
•The used of a different joint design
•Presetting the joints to be welded – so that the metal distorts into the required
position.
•The use of a balanced welding technique
•The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures

• Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material are free to move i.e. not
restrained
• Restrained materials result in low distortion but high residual stress
• More than one type of distortion may occur at one time
• Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack tendency than joints of a low
restraint
• The action of residual stress in welded joints is to cause distortion
11. Factors affecting distortion:
• parent material properties
• amount of restrain
• joint design
• fit-up
• welding sequence
12. Factors affecting distortion
Parent material properties:
• thermal expansion coefficient - the greater the value, the greater the residual
stress yield strength - the greater the value, the greater the residual stress
• Young‟s modulus - the greater the value (increase in stiffness), the greater the
residual stress
• thermal conductivity - the higher the value, the lower the residual stress •
transformation temperature - during phase transformation, expansion/contraction
takes place. The lower the transformation temperature, the lower the residual stress
Joint design:
• weld metal volume
• type of joint - butt vs. fillet, single vs. double side
Amount of restrain:
• thickness - as thickness increase, so do the stresses
• high level of restrain lead to high stresses
• preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe welding!)
Fit-up:
• misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases
• root gap - increase in root gap increases shrinkage
Welding sequence:
• number of passes - every pass adds to the total contraction heat input - the higher
the heat input, the greater the shrinkage
• travel speed - the faster the welding speed, the less the stress
• build-up sequence

13. Distortion prevention by pre-setting
a) pre-setting of fillet joint to prevent angular distortion
b) pre-setting of butt joint to prevent angular distortion
c) tapered gap to prevent closure
Distortion prevention by pre-bending using strongbacks and wedges
Clamping and jigging:

The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the clamp or jig the main
advantage of using a jig is that the elements in a fabrication can be precisely located
in the position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high restraint and high
levels of residual stresses.

a) use of welding jigs
b) use of flexible clamps
c) use of strong backs with wedges
d) use of fully welded strong backs
The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of local expansion and
contraction, hence the more weld deposited the higher amount of distortion

use of balanced welding
14. Distortions prevention by design Allowances to cover shrinkage

Transverse Shrinkage
• Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length does not exceed 3/4 plate
thickness
• Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60° V joint, depending on number of runs
Longitudinal Shrinkage
• Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld
• Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld
15. Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
tack welding
a) tack weld straight through to end of joint
b) tack weld one end, then use back-step technique for tacking the rest of the joint
c) tack weld the centre, then complete the tack welding by the back-step technique
back to back assembly

a) assemblies tacked together before welding
b) use of wedges for components that distort on separation after welding

use of stiffeners
control welding process by:
- deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible
- use the least number of runs to fill the joint
- reduce the number of runs required to make a weld (e.g. angular distortion as a
function of number of runs for a 10 mm leg length weld)
control welding techniques by a) Back-step welding b) Skip welding

16. Distortion - Best practice for fabrication corrective techniques
• using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap
• identical components welded back to back so welding can be balanced about the
neutral axis
• attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt welds of
thin plate structures
• where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should aim to
deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas
welding and mechanised rather than manual welding
• in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction; back-step
or skip welding techniques should be used
Distortion - mechanical corrective techniques

Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint
17. Distortion - Best practice for mechanical corrective techniques

• Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so that spring-back will
return the component to the correct shape
• Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to prevent
buckling
• Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or produce a curvature
• As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following safe practice
must be adopted:
- bolt the packing pieces to the platen
- place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the 'missile'
- clear personnel from the hazard area
Distortion - thermal corrective techniques

Localised heating to correct distortion

Spot heating for correcting buckling
Line heating to correct angular distortion in a fillet weld
Use of wedge shaped heating to straighten plate
Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
a) standard rolled steel section b) buckled edge of plate c) box fabrication
General guidelines:

•Length of wedge = two-thirds of the plate width
•Width of wedge (base) = one sixth of its length (base to apex)
18. thermal corrective techniques

•use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures
•other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped heating technique
•use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
•restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
•limit the temperature to 60° to 650°C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent
metallurgical damage
•in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge, penetrate evenly
through the plate thickness and maintain an even temperature

Section 18 - Heat Treatment m.h ju
1. Heat Treatment
• Why?
Improve mechanical properties
Change microstructure
Reduce residual stress level
Change chemical composition
• How?
Flame oven
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
induction/HF heating elements
2. Many metals must be given heat treatment before and after welding.
• The inspector’s function is to ensure that the treatment is given correctly in
accordance with the specification or as per the details supplied.
Types of heat treatment available:
•Preheat •Annealing •Normalising •Quench Hardening •Temper •Stress Relief
3. Pre-heat treatments
• are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden reduction of temperature, and
control expansion and contraction forces during welding
Requirements
• The welding heat input increased – Reduced
• Carbon Equivalent increased – increased
• Hydrogen content increased – increased
• Combined material thickness increased – increased
• Temperature – 50 – 250’ C
• Cooling : Hold during welding
4. Post weld heat treatments
• are used to change the properties of the weld metal, controlling the formation of
crystalline structures
Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)
Temperature: Approximately 250 C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass temperature after completion of welding
for 2 to 3 hours.

(A) Normalised (B) Fully Annealed (C) Water-quenched (D) Water-quenched &
tempered
5. The inspector, in general, should ensure that:
• Equipment is as specified • Temperature control equipment is in good condition
• Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
o Method of application
o Rate of heating and cooling
o Maximum temperature
o Soak time
o Temperature measurement (and calibration)
• DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS
6. Post Weld Heat Treatment Cycle
Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled
7. Removal of Residual Stress

8. Recommendations
• Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
• Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
• Control soak time to equalise temperatures
• Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame impingement!
• Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
• Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation
9. Methods
1) Gas furnace heat treatment
Advantages: Easy to set up Good portability repeatability and temperature uniformity
Disadvantages: Limited to size of parts
2) HF (Induction) local heat treatment
Advantages: High heating rates Ability to heat a narrow band
Disadvantages: High equipment cost Large equipment, less portable
3) Local heat treatment using electric heating blankets
Advantages: Ability to vary heat Ability to continuously maintain heat
Disadvantages: Elements may burn out or arcing during heating
Question)
What is main reason for carry out PWHT (to steel joints) ?
à To reduce residual stresses
Supplementary Question)
What is the benefit for reduce residual stressed ?
à To improve resistance to brittle fracture

Section 19 - Welding Inspector Weldability Of Steels
1. Weldability of Steels Definition mh-ju
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded with mechanical
soundness by most of the common welding processes, and the resulting welded joint
retain the properties for which it has been designed.
is a function of many inter-related factors but these may be summarised as:

•Composition of parent material
•Joint design and size
•Process and technique
•Access
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying elements
content.
If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures to ensure the
maintenance of the properties required
Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking
A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:
• an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range of welding
conditions
• great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high pre-heat etc)
2. The Effect of Alloying on Steels
Elements may be added to steels to produce the properties required to make it
useful for an application.
Most elements can have many effects on the properties of steels.
Other factors which affect material properties are:
•The temperature reached before and during welding
•Heat input
•The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
3. Steel Alloying Elements
Iron (Fe): Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low
strength.
Carbon (C): Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with major
influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldability.
•typically < ~ 0.25%
Manganese (Mn): Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and ductility,
secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with sulphur to form manganese sulphide.
< ~0.8% is residual from steel de-oxidation

•up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn steels) improves strength & toughness
Silicon (Si): Residual element from steel de-oxidation.
•typically to ~0.35%
Phosphorus (P): Residual element from steel-making minerals. difficult to reduce
below < ~ 0.015% brittleness
Sulphur (S): Residual element from steel-making minerals
< ~ 0.015% in modern steels < ~ 0.003% in very clean steels
Aluminium (Al): De-oxidant and grain size control
•typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%
Chromium (Cr): For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for elevated
temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels for corrosion resistance,
increases hardness and strength but reduces ductility.
•typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
Nickel (Ni): Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from acids,
increases strength and toughness
Molybdenum (Mo): Affects hardenability. Steels containing molybdenum are less
susceptible to temper brittleness than other alloy steels. Increases the high
temperature tensile and creep strengths of steel. typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0%
Niobium (Nb): a grain refiner, typically~ 0.05%
Vanadium (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Titanium (Ti): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Copper (Cu): present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%)
added to ‘weathering steels’ (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance to atmospheric
corrosion
4. Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
• Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen processes or
electrodes are used
• Preheat may be required when welding thick section material, high restraint and
with higher levels of hydrogen being generated
C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)
• Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections will require low
preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or electrodes should be used
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)
• Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld heating and slow cooling
may be required
5. Process Cracks
• Hydrogen Induced HAZ Cracking (C/Mn steels)

• Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking (HSLA steels).
• Solidification or Hot Cracking (All steels)
• Lamellar Tearing (All steels)
• Re-heat Cracking (All steels, very susceptible Cr/Mo/V steels)
• Inter-Crystalline Corrosion or Weld Decay (stainless steels)
6. Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three elements must always be
present:
• Stress : Residual stress is always present in a weldment, through unbalanced
local expansion and contraction
• Restraint : Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates being welded
to each other
• Susceptible microstructure : The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
1. Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4 factors occur together:
•Hydrogen - More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
•Stress - More than ½ the yield stress
•Temperature - Below 300oC
•Hardness - Greater than 400HV Vickers
•Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)

Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
• Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations, and slows down the
cooling rate
• Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from contamination
• The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct arc length
• Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under controlled environmental
conditions
• Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
• The use of a PWHT
• Avoid poor weld profiles
• Hydrogen is the smallest atom known
• Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc

• Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on the electrodes coating,
welding fluxes or from the consumable gas

Susceptible Microstructure

2. HICC in HSLA steels
•HSLA or Micro-Alloyed Steels are high strength steels (800MPa/N/mm2) that
derive their high strength from small percentage alloying (over-alloyed Weld metal to
match the strength of parent metal)
•Typically the level of alloying is in the elements such as vanadium molybdenum
and titanium, nickel and chromium Strength. are used. It would be impossible to
match this micro alloying in the electrode due to the effect of losses across an
electric arc (Ti burn in the arc)
•It is however important to match the strength of the weld to the strength of the
plate, Mn 1.6 Cr Ni Mo
3. Hydrogen Scales
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.
Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld metal deposited.
• Scale A = High: >15 ml
• Scale B = Medium: 10 ml - 15 ml
• Scale C = Low: 5 ml - 10 ml
• Scale D = Very low: 3 ml - 5 ml
• Scale E = Ultra-low: < 3 ml
4. Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest hydrogen content with regards
to 100g of deposited weld metal.
•TIG : < 3 ml
•MIG : < 5 ml
•ESW : < 5 ml
•MMA (Basic Electrodes) : < 5 ml
•SAW : < 10ml
•FCAW : < 15 ml
Solidification Cracking

1. Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
Crack type: Solidification cracking
Location: Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction of solidification
2. Factors for solidification cracking
• Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur, phosphor and
carbon)
• The amount of stress/restraint
• Joint design high depth to width ratios
- Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
- High contractional strains are present
- High dilution processes are being used.
- There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
• Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints
• Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld metal to form iron
sulphides (low strength, low melting point compounds)
• During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals push still liquid iron sulphides
in front to the last place of solidification, weld centerline.
• The bonding between the grains which are themselves under great stress and
may now be very poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result, weld centerline.
3. Precautions for controlling solidification cracking

•The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low dilution process,

and change the joint design
4. Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form between the
grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases exponentially and is a major
factor. Carbon content % should be a minimised by careful control in electrode and
dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint
5. Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
• The use of high manganese and low carbon content fillers
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint during welding
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of impurities (Phosphor &
sulphur)
• Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints and any other sulphur
containing product)
• Joint design selection depth to width ratios
6. Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
• particularly prone to solidification cracking
• large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area with high
concentration of impurities
• Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur, phosphorous and
other impurities).
• High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal conductivity, with
high resultant residual stress
• same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels with extra emphasis
on thorough cleaning and high dilution controls.
Lamellar Tearing
1. Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion boundary of the weld and has
a stepped aspect.
• Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
• Joint design, direction of stress
• The amount of stress acting across the joint during welding
• Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing under very low levels of
stress

- Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate used to make a joint.
- High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate (know as the short
transverse direction).
- T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress component in the
through thickness direction.
2. Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
3. Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing

• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of impurities
• The use of buttering runs

• A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical members enabling the
contraction movement to take place
• Joint design selection
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint during welding
• Hydrogen precautions
4. Reference
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation
Occurs when:
- High contractional strains are through the short transverse direction. There is
a high sulfur content in the base metal.
- There is low through thickness ductility in the base metal.
- There is high restraint on the work
5. Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a test to determine a materials
susceptibility to lamellar tearing
The results are given as a STRA value Short Transverse Reduction in Area

Section 20 - Control of Pre heat & Calibration
1. Welding Temperatures Definitions mh-ju
Preheat temperature
• is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately before any
welding operation (including tack welding!)
• normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature
– is the temperature in a multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run
– normally expressed as a maximum
2. Pre-heat Application
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
Electrical elements -Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean; Component cannot be
moved.
Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local overheating; Less
controllable; Portable; Manual operation possible; Component can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame impingement; No
contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours); Large power
supply; Expensive equipment
3. Measuring pre heat in Welding

4. Application
Application Of Preheat
• Heat either side of joint
• Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
• Always best to heat complete component rather than local if possible to avoid
distortion
• Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to different combined
thicknesses and chill effect factors.
5. Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
- BS EN ISO 13916
- t < 50 mm
- A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
- the temperature shall be measured on the surface of the workpiece facing the
welder

Point of Measurement
- BS EN ISO 13916
- t > 50mm
- A = 75mm minimum
- the temperature shall be measured on the face opposite to that being heated
- allow 2 min per every 25 mm of parent metal thickness for temperature
equalization
6. The Chilling Effect of the Joint
Combined Thickness Combined chilling effect of joint type and thickness

The Chill Effect of the Material
Heating Temperature Control

• TEMPILSTICKS - crayons, melt at set temps. Will not measure max temp.
• Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual temp.
• Thermocouples - contact or attached, very accurate, measure actual temp
Calibration
1. Calibration, validation and monitoring Definitions:
Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a quantity
Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring results of the same
instrument carried out under the same conditions
Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are intended to keep the errors
within specified limits
Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring device
Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide the same level of
accuracy when returned to a pre-determined point
Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other items) are in accordance
with the procedure or specification
2. Welding parameter calibration/validation
Which parameters need calibration /validation?
How accurate?
- depends on the application
- welding current - ±2,5%
- arc voltage - ±5%
- wire feed speed - ±2,5%
- gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas flow rate)
- temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%
- depends on the welding process

- see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details
3. Summary
• a welding power source can only be calibrated if it has meters fitted
• the inspector should check for calibration stickers, dates etc.
• a welding power source without meters can only be validated that the control
knobs provide repeatability
• the main role is to carryout “in process monitoring” to ensure that the welding
requirements are met during production

Section 21 - Macro/Micro Examination
1. Macro Preparation mh-ju
Purpose
To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance that: -
• The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS
• The weld is free from defects
Specimen Preparation
• Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm thick)
• Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both sides plus some
unaffected base material
• One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to ~ 400)
• Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ
• Prepared face examined at up to x10 (& usually photographed for records)
• Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey
2. Micro Preparation
Purpose
To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to:-
• To examine the microstructure
• Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection
Specimen Preparation
• A small piece is cut from the region of interest (typically up to ~ 20mm x 20mm)
• The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of interest prepared by
progressive grinding (to grit size 600 or 800)
• Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a mirror finish
• Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition & then lightly etched
• Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~ x 600
3. Macro / Micro Examination
Object:
• Macro / microscopic examinations are used to give a visual evaluation of a cross-
section of a welded joint
• Carried out on full thickness specimens
• The width of the specimen should include HAZ, weld and parent plate
• They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders approval test
4. Will Reveal:
• Weld soundness
• Distribution of inclusions
• Number of weld passes
• Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ

• Location and depth of penetration of weld
• Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions

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Multi‐Choice‐Quiz for CSWIP 3.

1 d 31 b 61 d 91 c 121 a 151 b 181 c

6 b 36 c 66 c 96 a 126 d 156 b 186 d

11 d 41 b 71 d 101 b 131 d 161 d 191 d

16 a 46 b 76 d 106 b 136 a 166 b 196 a

21 c 51 b 81 d 111 c 141 b 171 c 201 d

26 d 56 c 86 d 116 c 146 b 176 a 206 c

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Weld Zone Terminology

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Joint Preparation Terminology

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Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size

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EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

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Before Welding Preparation:

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Weld Zone Terminology

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Joint Preparation Terminology

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Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size

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EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

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Weld Zone Terminology

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Joint Preparation Terminology

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Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size

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EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

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Before Welding Preparation:

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Standards for Welding Imperfections

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68. A macro section is particularly good for showing ____

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