UNIT-1

CHARACTERISTICS OF SIGNALS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION

Measuring systems, performance characteristics, static characteristics, dynamic characteristics; errors in

measurement-gross errors, systematic errors, statistical analysis of random errors .signals and their
representation ; standard test, periodic, a periodic, modulated signal, sampled data, pulse modulation
and pulse demodulation.

Measuring Systems

Measurement is a process of gathering information from the physical world and comparing this
information with agreed standards. Measurement is carried out with instruments that are designed and
manufactured to fulfill given specifications.

Any instrument or a measuring system can be described in general with the help of a block diagram.

The block diagram indicates the necessary elements and their functions in a general measuring system.

Fig.Functional Elements of An Instrument

Each element is made up of number of distinct components which perform a particular function in the
measurement procedure.

Selecting the proper instrument for a particular type of measure and needs the knowledge of the
performance characteristics of an instrument.

Functional Elements of an Instrument

Primary Sensing Element: An element of an instrument which makes first, the contact with the quantity
to be measured is called primary sensing element. Thus first detection of the measurement is done by
the primary sensing element. In most of the cases, a transducer follows primary sensing element which
converts the measurement into a corresponding electrical signal.

Variable Conversion Element: The output of the primary sensing element is in electrical form such as
voltage, frequency or any other electrical parameter. Such an output may not be suitable for the actual
measurement system. For example if the measurement system is digital then the analog signal obtained
from the primary sensing element is not suitable for the digital system. Thus analog to digital convertor
is required which is nothing but variable conversion element.

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Variable Manipulation Element: - The level of the output from the previous stage may not be enough
to drive the next. Thus variable manipulation element manipulates the signals, preserving the original
nature of the signal.

For example an amplifier which just amplifies the magnitude of the input, at its output, retraining
original nature of the signal. It is not necessary that variable manipulation element must be always after
variable conversion element. It may be before variable conversion element. In some cases, the levels of
the output of the previous stage are high and required to be lowered. In such case alternators are used
on the variable manipulation elements.

Sometimes the output of the transducer may get affected due to unwanted signals like noise. Thus such
signals are required to be processed with some processes like modulation, clipping, clamping etc. To
obtain the signal in pure and acceptable form from highly distorted form. Such a process is called signal
conditioning. Thus in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation, the signal conditioning
is also done in the second stage. Hence second stage is called data conditioning or signal conditioning
system.

Data Transmission Element: When theelements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary
to transmit the data from one stage to other. This is achieved by the data transmission element. The
signal conditioning and data transmission together is called intermediate stage of an instrument.

Data Presentation Element: The transmitted data may be used by the system, finally for monitoring,
controlling or analyzing purpose. If the data is to be monitored then visual display devices are used as
data presentation element. If the signal is to be recorded for analysis purpose then magnetic tapes,
recorders, high speed cameras are used as data presentation elements. For control and analysis
purpose, the microprocessors, computers and microcontrollers may be used as data presentation
elements. The data presentation stage may be called terminating stage of an instrument.

Limiting Errors

The manufacturers specify the accuracy of the instruments within a certain % of full scale reading. The
components like the resistor, inductor, and capacitor are guaranteed to be within a certain % of the
rated value. This % indicates the deviations from the nominal or specified value of the particular
quantity.

Performance Characteristics
The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided in two categories:
i) Staticcharacteristics.
ii) Dynamic characteristics.
The set of criteria defined for the instrument which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly
varying with time or mostly constant I.e. do not vary with time is called static characteristics.
The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic differential equations is a called dynamic
characteristic. When the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, it is necessary to
study the dynamic relations existing between input and output. These relations are generally expressed
with the help of differential equations.
“The various performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process called
calibration. Calibration is the process of makingan adjustment or making a scale so that the readings of
an instrument agree with the accepted and the certified standard”.

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Static Characteristics
The static characteristics are defined for the instruments which measure the quantities which do not
vary with time. The various static characteristics are accuracy, precision, resolution, error, sensitivity,
threshold, reproducibility, zero drift, stability and linearity
1. Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness which the instrument reading approaches the value of the
quantity to be measured. It indicates the ability of instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity.
Accuracy can be expressed in the following ways

 Accuracy as A Percentage of Full Scale Reading

 Accuracy as A Percentage of True Value
 Accuracy as A Percentage of Scale Span
 Point Accuracy

2. Precision: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, I.e. Successive reading

does not differ. It denotes the closeness with which individual measurements are departed or
distributed about the average of number of measured value.
3. Resolution: It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured which can be detected with
certainty by an instrument. Thus the resolution means the smallest measurable input change.
4. Error: The most important static characteristics of an instrument is its accuracy, which is generally
expressed in terms of the error called static error. The algebraic difference between the indicated
values of the true value of the quantity to be measured is called an error.
Mathematically ; e = 𝐴𝑡 -Am

Where e: error,

Am: measured value of the quantity

At: true value of the quantity

In this expression, the error denoted as ‘e’ is also called absolute error.

Instead of specifying absolute error, the relative or percentage error is specified.

𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
Relative error 𝑒𝑟 = 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆

𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆−𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

= 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

𝑨𝒕−𝑨𝒎
= 𝑨𝒕

𝑨𝒕−𝑨𝒎
% of𝑒𝑟 = *10
𝑨𝒕

From the relative percentage error, the accuracy can be mathematically expressed as
𝑨𝒕−𝑨𝒎
A = 1 – 𝑒𝑟 = 1 - 𝑨𝒕

% accuracy [% a ] = A × 100
𝑨𝒕−𝑨𝒎
Error as a % of full scale reading = ×100
𝒇.𝒔.𝒅

F.s.d = full scale reading

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5. Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to change
in the value of the quantity to be measured.

Sensitivity = infinitesimal change in output / infinitesimal change in input

∆𝒒
= ∆𝒒𝟎
𝒊

If the calibration curve is linear, as shown in above fig, the sensitivity of an instrument is the slope of the
calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not linear, then the sensitivity varies in the input.

Sensitivity can be defined in terms of deflect factor.

𝑞𝑖
Deflection factor = 1 / sensitivity = 𝛥/𝛥 × 𝑞𝑐

Units of sensitivity: millimeter / micro ampere

: Millimeter / ohm

6. Threshold: If the input quantity is slowly varied from zero onwards, the output does not change until
some minimum value of the input is exceeded. Thus minimum value of the input is called threshold.
Thus the resolution is the small measurable input change. Whilethethreshold is the smallest measurable
input.

7. Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured.
It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time.The perfect reproducibility indicates no
drift in the instrument.

8. Zero drift: The drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an extended period during
which the value of the input variable does not change.The zero drift is defined as the deviation in the
instrument output with time, from its zero value, when the variable to be measured is constant. The
whole instrument calibration may gradually shift by the same amount.

9. Stability: The ability of an instrument to retrain its performance throughout its specified operating
life and the storage life is defined as its stability.

10. Linearity: The Instrument requires the property of linearity that is the output varies linearly,
according to the input. The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics
symmetrically and linearly.

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The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation of the actual output from the idealized straight line,
expressed as a percentage of full scale reading or a % of the actual reading.

Fig : Linearity
𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
% linearity = ×100
𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

11. Range or Span: The minimum and maximum value of a quantity for which an instrument is designed
to measure is called its range or span. Sometimes the accuracy is specified in terms of range or span

12. Dead Space: In some instruments, it is possible that till input increases beyond certain value, the
output does not change. So for certain range of input values there is no change in output. Thus range of
output is called as dead space.

Dynamic Characteristics: As the input varies from instant to instant, output also varies from instant to
instant. The behavior of system under such condition is called dynamic response of the system.

The system dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary element to some
unknown and predetermined variations in the measured quantity. The three most common variations in
the measured quantity are as follows Step change, in which the primary element is subjected to an
instantaneous and finite change in measured variable.

Linear change: The primary element is following a measured variable, changing linearly with time.

Sinusoidal change: The primary element follows a measured variable, the magnitude of which changes
in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are speed of response, fidelity, lag of dynamic error.
Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the changes in the quantity to
be measured. It gives the information about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the input. It
indicates the activeness of the system. The system should respond very quickly to the changes in the
input.

Fidelity: It indicates how faithfully the system reproduces the changes in the input. It is the ability of an
instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave shape of input with serpent to time. It is defined
as the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without dynamic
error.

Lag: Every system takes some time, whatever small it may be to respond to the changes in the
measured variable. This retardation or delay in the response of a system is called lag. This is also called
measuring lag. The lags are of two types :

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Retardation Lag: In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a change in the
variable has occurred.

Time Delay: - In this case, response begins after sometime called dead time, after the application of
input. Such a delay shifts the response along time axis and hence causes the dynamic error.

Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be measured, changing
with time and the value indicated by the measurement system, assuming zero static error. Fig shows
the dead time, I.e. time delay and the dynamic error.

Errors in Measurement: The error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the
true value of a quantity and its value obtained by measurement, i.e., repeated measurement of the
same quantity gives different indications.

Sources of Errors:-

 Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions.

 Poor design, poor maintenance
 Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets etc.
 Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment, certain design limitations.

The errors are classified as:

1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors
GROSS ERRORS: The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a human
being. These cover human mistakes in readings, recordings and calculating results. These errors also
occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments. These errors cannot be treated mathematically.
These errors are also called as personal errors.

The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible but one can minimize them by the following
ways

Takinggreat care while taking the readings, recording the readings and calculating the result.

Without depending on only one reading, at least three or even more readings must be taken of
preferably by different

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Systematic Errors:

The Systematic errors are mainly result due to the short comings of the instrument and the
characteristics of the material used in the instrument such as defective or worn parts, ageing effects,
environmental effects, etc.

At constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a Systematic error. There
are three types of Systematic errors as;

1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors
3. Observational Errors
Instrumental Errors: These errors can be mainly due to the following three reasons

Shortcoming of Instrument: These are because of the mechanical structure of the instruments for
example, friction in the bearings of various moving parts, irregular springs tensions, reduction in tension
during to improper handling, hysteresis gear back lash, stretching of spring, variation in air gap, etc.
These errors can be avoided by the following methods:

i) Selecting a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure for the measurement.
ii) Recognizing the effect of such errors and applying the proper correction factors.
iii) Calibrating the instrument carefully against a standard.

Misuse of Instruments: A good instrument, if used in abnormal way, gives misleading results. Poor
initial adjustments, improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance etc. are the examples of
misusing a good instrument. Such things do not cause permanent damage to the instrument but
definitely cause serious errors.

C) Loading Effects: Loading effect due to improper way of using the instrument cause the serious
errors. The best example of such loading effect error is connecting a well calibrated voltmeter across
the two points of high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter connected in a resistance circuit gives
accurate reading. Thus the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument
intelligently and correctly.

2. Environmental Errors:

These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument. The various factors
resulting in these environmental errors are temperature changes, pressure changes, thermal EMF, stray
capacitance, cross capacitance, effect of external field ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity of
an instrument.

The various methods which can be used to reduce these errors are:

 Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the manufacturer of
the instrument.
 Using the arrangements which will keep the surrounding conditions constant. This includes the
use of air conditioning, temperature control enclosures etc.
 Reducing the effects of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically sealing the
components in the instruments.

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Observational Errors: These are the errors introduced by the observer. There are many sources of
observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter, wrong scale selection etc.
To eliminate such observational errors one should use the instruments with Mirrors, knife edge
pointers, etc. Now-a-days, the instruments with digital display are available which can largely eliminate
such observational errors.
The systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic errors. The static errors caused by the
limitations of the measuring device while the dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not
responding fast enough to follow the changes in the variable to be measured.
Random Errors: Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or
at least accounted for the cause of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are called random
errors. These errors cannot be determined in the ordinary process of taking the measurements.
These errors are generally small. Hence, these errors are of real concern only when the high degree of
accuracy is required. The random errors follow the laws of probability and hence these errors can be
analyzed statistically and treated mathematically.
The only way to reduce these Errors is by increasing the number of observations and using the statistical
methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading.
Statistical Analysis of Random Errors:-
The mathematical analysis of the various measurements is called statistical analysis of data. This
analysis is important because it allows an analytical determination of the uncertainty of the final test
result. For such statistical analysis, the same reading is taken number of times, generally using different
observers, different instruments and by different ways of measurement.
Arithmetic Mean: When the number of readings of the same measurement had taken, the most likely
value from the set of measured variable values in Arithmetic mean of the number of reading taken.
Diabetic mean value can be mathematically obtained as,
𝑥 +𝑥 +𝑥 +...+𝑥𝑛 ∑𝑛 𝑥
𝑋̅ = 1 2 3 = 𝑛=1 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛

where ;𝑋̅ = Arithmetic mean

𝑋𝑛 = nth reading taken

n = total number of readings

When the numbers of readings are large, calculation of mean value is complicated. In such case a
median value is obtained which is a close approximation to the Arithmetic mean value

𝑋𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑋(𝑛+1) /2

Deviation from Mean:

The deviation tells us about the departure of a given reading from the Arithmetic mean of the data set.
This is denoted as‘d’ and calculated for each reading as

𝑑𝑖 = 𝑋𝑖 -𝑋̅

𝑑𝑖 = deviation of 𝑖𝑡ℎ reading

𝑋𝑖 = value of𝑖𝑡ℎ reading

𝑋̅ = Arithmetic mean

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Average Deviation:
The average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations divided by the number
of readings. This is also called as mean deviation
̅ ∑ 𝑑𝑖⁄ |𝑑1 |+|𝑑2 +|………..|𝑑𝑛 |
𝐷 = 𝑛 = 𝑛

Standard Deviation:

The standard deviation is defined as the square root of the sum of the individual deviations squared,
divided by the number of readings. It is denoted as. It is also called root mean square deviation.

𝒅𝟐
𝟏+𝒅𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 +𝒅𝟑+⋯……………….+𝒅𝟐
√ ⅀𝒅 𝟐
σ= 𝒏
=√ 𝒏
𝒏

For n <20,

𝑑2
1+𝑑2
σ=√
2+⋯……………………..+𝑑2
𝑛
, n<20
𝑛−1

Variance:
The variance means mean square deviation. So it is the square of the standard deviation. It is denoted
as ‘v’.
𝒅𝟐
𝟏+𝒅𝟐
𝟐 𝟐+⋯……..𝒅𝟐
𝒏
V=𝝈 = 𝒏

𝒅𝟐
𝟏+𝒅𝟐
𝟐+⋯……𝒅𝟐
V=𝝈𝟐 = 𝒏
,n<20
𝒏−𝟏

Limiting Error:

The manufactures specifies the accuracy of the instruments within a certain percentage of full scale
reading. This percentage indicates the deviation from the specified value of the particular quantity.
These deviations from specified value are called timing error or guarantee error.

The deviations from the specified value are called limiting errors. These are also called guarantee errors.

For example, the manufacturer of a certain instrument may specify that the instrument is accurate
within + 1 % of full scale Deflection. This means that a full scale reading is guaranteed to be within + 1 %
of a perfectly accurate reading. But for a reading less than full scale, the limiting error increases.

Thus, the actual value with the limiting error can be expressed mathematically as

𝑨𝒂 =𝑨𝒔 ±δA

𝐴𝑎 = actual value

𝐴𝑠 = specified or rated value

δA = limiting error or tolerance

Relative Limiting Error:-

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This is also called fractional error. It is the ratio of the error to the specified magnitude of a quantity.
𝛿𝐴
e= , e: relative limiting error
𝐴𝑠

δA=e. 𝐴𝑠

𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑠 ± 𝛿𝐴

=𝐴𝑠 ± e. 𝐴𝑠

= 𝐴𝑠 [1±e]

The %relative limiting error is expressed as

%e = e × 100

The relative limiting error can be also expressed as

𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆(𝑨𝒂 )−𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆(𝑨𝒔 )
e= 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆(𝑨𝒔 )

Signals and Their Representation:

A function of one or more independent variables which contain some information is called signal. In
general any signal can be defined as any physical quantity or parameter varying with time. Any quantity
providing excitation or stimulus to the physical system is treated as the input signal or input excitation.
The response of the physical system to the excitation provided at input is called output signal or
response of the system.

All Signals are represented graphically as function of time, the amplitude of the signal varying with time
to have better knowledge of the signal, variation of the amplitude of a signal with time is represented
by means of mathematical function.

Signals obtained from physical systems or representing physical phenomena are classified as either
deterministic or nondeterministic. Deterministic signals are those that can be represented by an explicit
mathematical function of time so that the value of the function at any desired instant can be calculated.

Deterministic signals are

 Periodic
 Aperiodic

Aperiodic signal has a web form that repeats itself at regular intervals of time .Nondeterministic signals
cannot be described mathematically and treated as random signals whose amplitude at any instant
cannot be determined. Random signals are analyzed by application of probability theory and Statistical
Techniques. Signals may also be broadly classified as either analog or Digital.

Analog Signal: Analog Signals are continues with time and the signal is described by one single value
only at any particular instant as shown in figure a

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 Fig a: analog signal

Digital Signal:- If the values over a range at anyone instant, the signal is said to have an instantaneous
jump from one value to another. It may assume a new level and remained at that value for a certain
amount of time as shown in figure b. such a signal is known as digital signal.

Fig b: Digital signal

It may assume discrete levels, with jumps from one Level to another, at certain intervals of time.
Assume the analog signal to be composed of a series of steps as shown in figure c, with each step at a
discrete level is of which is determined for its amplitude in binary code and a digital signal consisting of
a series of pulses having only 2 levels (0 and 1) spaced at equal intervals of time is brought out to
represent its amplitude. Fig d shows a typical digital signal with pulses representing a binary number.

Standard Test Signals:

Physical systems are severely strained when subjected to sudden changes in the input conditions. Their
dynamic behavior may be studied by subjecting them to standard test signals commonly known as an
impulse, a step, a ramp and a parabolic – input function. Another common test signal of great relevance
is a sinusoidal signal.

If the system function is determined from the mathematical model of the system, the time response
can be estimated by making use of Laplace transform technique.

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Step function: This step input function is shown in figure a and is seen to be a signal that jumps from
one Level to another instantaneously.

And, it is represented as;

F (t) = Au (t)

Where ; u (t) = 1 for t > 0

= 0 for t < 0

A = change in level

The Laplace transform of the step input function is

F (S) = A /s

fig: unit function

Ramp function: The ramp input function is shown in figure b, is a signal that starts at value of zero and
increases linearly with the time, it is represented as

F (t) = At for t > 0

=0 for t < 0
𝐴
The Laplace transform of ramp input function is F(S) = 𝑆2

Fig: Ramp input function

Impulse Function:-

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The derivative of a step function has zero value at all times except at the instant at which the jump
occurs, I;e at t =0. At that instant the derivative assumes infinite value. Such a function is known as
impulse function.

A unit impulse function is defined as a signal which has zero value at all times except at t = 0, where its
magnitude is infinite. It is usually referred to as δ function and is expressed as
δ(t)=0 for t‡0
+⅀
∫−⅀ 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 1
The Laplace transform of a unit impulse function is δ(t) = 1

It is difficult to create an ideal Impulse of this expression; it is usually approximated by a pulse of small
width of 1/A and a height A, so that the area of the pulse is unity as shown in figure c. As the width
tends to zero, the height tends to infinite value while maintaining the area at unity.
Parabolic Function:
A parabolic input function shown in figure and is represented as

𝐴𝑡 2
F(t) = for t > 0
2

=0 for t < 0

The Laplace transform of a parabolic – input function is

𝐴
F (S) =𝑠3

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Periodic Signal:-

A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats at regular intervals. A periodic

function of time can be represented as a series given by

Fig: A periodic function of time

A function shown in above figure is periodic in the interval T as g (t) = g ( t +T), and hence T is known as
the period of 1 cycle in seconds. The frequency at which g(t) is periodic is indicated by is the angular
frequency, the co-efficient a0, an, bn are Fourier co-efficients determined from
1/𝑇
a0 = 1/T∫−1/𝑇 𝑔(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

𝑇/2
an = 2/T ∫−𝑇/2 𝑔(𝑡) cos 𝑛𝑤𝑡 dt

𝑇/2
bn = 2/T ∫−𝑇/2 𝑔(𝑡) sin 𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑t with n = 1, 2, 3...

a0, represents the average value of the function over the period of the T & is known as the dc
component of the signal . an& bn define the amplitude of the ac components. The waveform of the
periodic function can be analyzed for determining the Fourier coefficients

Fig a: rectangular wave

Fig (b): rectangular pulse train

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 Fib (c): saw tooth wave

Fig (d): triangular wave

Fig : common forms of periodic signals a: Rectangular wave b: Rectangular pulse train c: saw tooth
wave d:triangular wave

A triangular wave of period T is shown in the fig a. Possessing cosine symmetry. It can be seen that
a0 = 0, b1 & the a coefficients are given by
4𝐴
An = (-1)(n-1)/2 , n = 1, 3, 5.....
𝜋

& the function g(t) is

4𝐴 2𝜋 1 6𝜋𝑡 1 10𝜋
g (t) = [ cos - 3 cos + 5 cos +..........]
𝜋 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

A rectangular pulse train of period T possessing cosine symmetry is shown in fig b. The value of the
component a0= At0/T , where t0 is the duration of the existence of the pulse in the period T. The
function is given by
𝐴𝑡0 2𝐴𝑡0 sin(𝑛𝜋𝑡0/𝑇) 2𝜋𝑡
g (t) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1 [cos n ]
𝑇 𝑇 𝑛𝜋𝑡0/𝑇 𝑇

A saw tooth wave is shown in the fig c & can represented by

1 1 2𝜋𝑡 1 4𝜋𝑡
g (t) = A[2 − 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]
𝑇 𝑇

A triangular wave is shown in the fig d & is given by

1 2𝜋𝑡
g(t) = A[2 + 4⁄𝜋2 ∑∞
𝑛=1,3,5 cos 𝑛 𝑇

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Aperiodic Signals:

An aperiodic signals that occurs once in some finite time & is never repeated, maybe considered as
one with finite period. Application of this condition to a periodic function results in narrowing the
frequency spacing b/w the spectral components as T becomes larger. At the limiting value of T,the
discrete line spectrum becomes a continuous spectrum.
The Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse of amplitude A& duration to, is shown in fig a is given by
𝑤𝑡0
( )
2
F (jω) = At0 sin 𝑤𝑡0/2 v-s

Fig a: Rectangular Pulse b: Its Frequency Spectrum.

The unit impulse function δ(t) is defined as δ(t)=𝑡0 →0 ,A→∞

∞
and δ (t) = 0 for all values of t except t=0 &∫−∞ 𝛿(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 1

The Fourier transform of the unit impulse function is given by

Fδ(jw) = lim 𝐴𝑡0 = 1

𝐴𝑡0→1

∴ The impulse function has a uniform spectral density & the frequency spectrum is that at unity for

At0 = 1, as shown in the fig below

Fig(a) fig(b)

Fig: a. A unit impulse function Fig: b. Its frequency spectrum

Similarly, it is possible to develop the Fourier spectrum for other forms of a aperiodic Signals such as
Triangular & trapezoidal pulses.
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Modulation Signal: periodic signals are characterized by their amplitude, frequency and phase with
respect to a reference point of time. Aperiodic signals such as rectangular pulses are characterized by
their amplitude, width and position w.r.t the instant of reference.

In the field of instrumentation and communication it becomes necessary to modify one of this
characteristic by utilizing another signal such a process known as modulation the signal which is
modified are modulated is known as carrier signal, & the signal used for modifying the characteristics of
the carrier signal is known as modulating signal.

The process modulation is known as amplitude (A), phase (P), or frequency (F),Modulation,
depending on which of them is subjected to variation by the modulating signal. If the carrier signal is a
pulse, it is referred to as a pulse modulation.

It is essential that the amplitude variations of the modulating signal with time are properly
reproduced; such a process of reconstruction is known as demodulation. The entire process of
modulation and demodulation is carried out in the analog domain.

In contrast with analog modulation, digital modulation refers to the process of utilizing a series of
short duration pulses of constant amplitude to represent the amplitudeof modulating wave.

The modulating signal is sampled for its amplitude at regular intervals of time, and during each
interval a numbers of pulses are released in a coded format so to signify the amplitude of modulating
signal. Such a process constitutes digital modulation and theprocess of recovering the modulating signal
at the output is digital demodulation process of modulation with several advantages in signal processing
& transmission to a far of location.Transmission of measured data over a distance by digital modulation
and demodulation results in several advantages as compared to analog process.

TYPES OF MODULATION:

Continuous Wave Modulation Pulse Modulation

Amplitude Modulation Angle Modulation Digital Modulation Analog Modulation

Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) PAM PDM
PPM

PAM: Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PDM: Pulse Duration Modulation

PPM: Pulse Position Modulation

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Sampled Data:

In several situations, it may be necessary to obtain the amplitude of a signal at a certain desired instant.
For signals that persist for a long time and for some repetitive signals, it may be enough if a set of
instantaneous values of the signal or procured at regularly spaced intervals of time. It is necessarily
presumed that the signal does not abruptly jump in its amplitude during the intervals b/w the sampling
instants. Under this condition it is possible to convey all the information’s contained in the signal by re
constructing it from the set of instantaneous values of the amplitude. Such a process is known as
sampling process and the values of amplitudes are known as samples.

In a sampling process a continuous time signal is converted to an equivalent discrete time signal. As
shown in figure, switch position is controlled by the sampling signal. The sampling signal is a periodic
train of pulses of unit amplitude and of period. The T is known as sampling time and during this time
switch is closed so that sampled signal is equal to I/p signal. During remaining time switch is opened and
no input signal appear at the o/p. The sampling process and the sampled signal can be seen in fig b. The
sampled signal Z (t) present itself as sampled data and it is seen that Z (t) is zero if X (t) is zero.

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Pulse Modulation:

The sampling process described so for may be treated as multiplication type modulation, where in the
input signal X(t) is the modulating signal M(t) and the carrier signal is the sampling signal S(t).

The amplitude of each pulse after modulation defines the amplitude of the modulating signal & hence
the sampled data becomes the modulated carrier signal. The sampled data does not contain the carrier
signal when M (t) = 0 and hence it is equivalent to DSBSC signal. But in pulse amplitude modulation
(PAM) system it is so arranged that when M (t) = 0, the unmodulated carrier appears in the o/p and
hence it is equivalent to full AM.

The PAM pulse train becomes the basis for other pulse modulation systems such as pulse duration (or
width) modulation (PDM or PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM), or pulse frequency modulation
(PFM), figure shows the representation of this signals. The combination of the train of PAM pulses with
a coding technique leads to pulse code modulation PCM.

In pulse width modulation , the width of the pulse of tp is made proportional to the amplitude of the
signal sample, were as in PPM, the time at which each narrow pulse occur relative to a mean or
reference position, defines the amplitude of the signal sample .

Pulse Code Modulation: The sampled data or the PAM signal is suitable for analog transmission but
due to the many advantages of digital transmission techniques, the analog pulses are converted into
digital signals prior to transmission.

At the receiving end the digital signals are used direct for display and recording or connected into an
analog signal, were ever needed. Hence the combination of PAM pulses with a coding technique and
conversion of the log signals into digital signals, leads to PCM.

In PCM , the amplitude range of the sampled analog signal is divided into a finite no of discrete levels
known as quanta if 32 levels uniquely specified the amplitude range, then it becomes a five digit code in
the binary system at 25 = 32 . in such a case, the samples are said to be simply binary coded.

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A larger number of discrete levels may be chosen when higher accuracy is desired. The sample
amplitude is represented in digital code by a set of five rectangular pulses of same height and duration.
Recognition of the levels of these pulses as neither near to zero or near to one is all that is needed to
reconstruct the amplitude of analog signal at the receiving end. The conversion of analog electrical
signals into digital signals is accomplished by analog to digital convertors (ADC).

The process of obtaining the PCM signal in a four digit code is shown in fig a. The PCM pulses
representing each of the sampled amplitudes are indicated in fig b. & the duration of each PCM pulse is
decided by the sampling interval and the number of binary digits (bits) is used to represent the
amplitude. Hence, for higher accuracy, if a larger number of quanta are used, the band width of the
changed.

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