UNIT 2

DRILLING FLUIDS

In geotechnical engineering, drilling fluid is a fluid used to drill boreholes into the
earth. Often used while drilling oil and natural gas wells and on exploration drilling rigs,
drilling fluids are also used for much simpler boreholes, such as water wells. Liquid drilling
fluid is often called drilling mud. The three main categories of drilling fluids are water-based
muds (which can be dispersed and non-dispersed), non-aqueous muds, usually called oil-
based mud, and gaseous drilling fluid, in which a wide range of gases can be used.

The main functions of drilling fluids include providing hydrostatic pressure to prevent
formation fluids from entering into the well bore, keeping the drill bit cool and clean during
drilling, carrying out drill cuttings, and suspending the drill cuttings while drilling is paused
and when the drilling assembly is brought in and out of the hole. The drilling fluid used for a
particular job is selected to avoid formation damage and to limit corrosion.

TYPES OF DRILLING FLUIDS:

Many types of drilling fluids are used on a day-to-day basis. Some wells require that different
types be used at different parts in the hole, or that some types be used in combination with
others. The various types of fluid generally fall into a few broad categories:

• Air: Compressed air is pumped either down the bore hole's annular space or down the
drill string itself.

• Air/water: The same as above, with water added to increase viscosity, flush the hole,
provide more cooling, and/or to control dust.

• Air/polymer: A specially formulated chemical, most often referred to as a type of

polymer, is added to the water & air mixture to create specific conditions. A foaming
agent is a good example of a polymer.

• Water: Water by itself is sometimes used.

• Water-based mud (WBM): A most basic water-based mud system begins with water,
then clays and other chemicals are incorporated into the water to create a homogenous
blend resembling something between chocolate milk and a malt (depending on
viscosity). The clay (called "shale" in its rock form) is usually a combination of native
clays that are suspended in the fluid while drilling, or specific types of clay that are
processed and sold as additives for the WBM system. The most common of these is
bentonite, frequently referred to in the oilfield as "gel". Gel likely makes reference to
the fact that while the fluid is being pumped, it can be very thin and free-flowing (like
chocolate milk), though when pumping is stopped, the static fluid builds a "gel"
 structure that resists flow. When an adequate pumping force is applied to "break the
gel", flow resumes and the fluid returns to its previously free-flowing state. Many
other chemicals (e.g. potassium formate) are added to a WBM system to achieve
various effects, including: viscosity control, shale stability, enhance drilling rate of
penetration, cooling and lubricating of equipment.

• Oil-based mud (OBM): Oil-based mud can be a mud where the base fluid is a
petroleum product such as diesel fuel. Oil-based muds are used for many reasons,
some being increased lubricity, enhanced shale inhibition, and greater cleaning
abilities with less viscosity. Oil-based muds also withstand greater heat without
breaking down. The use of oil-based muds has special considerations. These include
cost and environmental considerations.

• Synthetic-based fluid (SBM): Synthetic-based fluid is a mud where the base fluid is a
synthetic oil. This is most often used on offshore rigs because it has the properties of
an oil-based mud, but the toxicity of the fluid fumes are much less than an oil-based
fluid. This is important when men work with the fluid in an enclosed space such as an
offshore drilling rig.

On a drilling rig, mud is pumped from the mud pits through the drill string where
it sprays out of nozzles on the drill bit, cleaning and cooling the drill bit in the process. The
mud then carries the crushed or cut rock ("cuttings") up the annular space ("annulus")
between the drill string and the sides of the hole being drilled, up through the surface casing,
where it emerges back at the surface. Cuttings are then filtered out with either a [shale
shaker], or the newer shale conveyor technology, and the mud returns to the mud pits. The
mud pits let the drilled "fines" settle; the pits are also where the fluid is treated by adding
chemicals and other substances.

The returning mud can contain natural gases or other flammable materials which
will collect in and around the shale shaker / conveyor area or in other work areas. Because of
the risk of a fire or an explosion if they ignite, special monitoring sensors and [Electrical
Equipment in Hazardous Areas|explosion-proof certified] equipment is commonly installed,
and workers are advised to take safety precautions. The mud is then pumped back down the
hole and further re-circulated. After testing, the mud is treated periodically in the mud pits to
ensure properties which optimize and improve drilling efficiency, borehole stability, and
other requirements listed below.

PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS,

The main functions of a drilling mud can be summarized as follows:

Remove cuttings from well

Drilling fluid carries the rock excavated by the drill bit up to the surface. Its ability to
do so depends on cutting size, shape, and density, and speed of fluid traveling up the well
(annular velocity). These considerations are analogous to the ability of a stream to carry
sediment; large sand grains in a slow-moving stream settle to the stream bed, while small
sand grains in a fast-moving stream are carried along with the water. The mud viscosity is
another important property, as cuttings will settle to the bottom of the well if the viscosity is
too low.

Other properties include:

• Most drilling muds are thixotropic (that is, they become a gel under static conditions).
This characteristic keeps the cuttings suspended when the mud is not moving during,
for example, maintenance.

• Fluids that have shear thinning and elevated viscosities are efficient for hole cleaning.

• Higher annular velocity improves cutting transport. Transport ratio (transport velocity
/ lowest annular velocity) should be at least 50%.

• High density fluids may clean hole adequately even with lower annular velocities (by
increasing the buoyancy force acting on cuttings). But may have a negative impact if
mud weight is in excess of that needed to balance the pressure of surrounding rock
(formation pressure), so mud weight is not usually increased for hole cleaning
purposes.

• Higher rotary drill-string speeds introduce a circular component to annular flow path.
This helical flow around the drill-string causes drill cuttings near the wall, where poor
hole cleaning conditions occur, to move into higher transport regions of the annulus.
Increased rotation are the best methods in high angle and horizontal beds.

Suspend and release cuttings:

 Must suspend drill cuttings, weight materials and additives under a wide range of
conditions.

 Drill cuttings that settle can causes bridges and fill, which can cause stuck-pipe
and lost circulation.

 Weight material that settles is referred to as sag, this causes a wide variation in the
density of well fluid, this more frequently occurs in high angle and hot wells

 High concentrations of drill solids are detrimental to:

1. Drilling efficiency (it causes increased mud weight and viscosity, which in
turn increases maintenance costs and increased dilution)

2. Rate of Penetration (ROP) (increases horsepower required to circulate)

3. Mud properties that suspended must balanced with properties in cutting

removal by solids control equipment.
  For effective solids controls, drill solids must be removed from mud on the 1st
circulation from the well. If re-circulated, cuttings break into smaller pieces and
are more difficult to remove.

 Conduct a test to compare the sand content of mud at flow line and suction pit (to
determine whether cuttings are being removed).

Control formation pressures

 If formation pressure increases, mud density should also be increased, often with
barite (or other weighting materials) to balance pressure and keep the wellbore stable.
Unbalanced formation pressures will cause an unexpected influx of pressure in the
wellbore possibly leading to a blowout from pressured formation fluids.

 Hydrostatic pressure = density of drilling fluid * true vertical depth * acceleration of

gravity. If hydrostatic pressure is greater than or equal to formation pressure,
formation fluid will not flow into the wellbore.

 Well control means no uncontrollable flow of formation fluids into the wellbore.

 Hydrostatic pressure also controls the stresses caused by tectonic forces, these may
make wellbores unstable even when formation fluid pressure is balanced.

 If formation pressure is subnormal, air, gas, mist, stiff foam, or low density mud (oil
base) can be used.

 In practice, mud density should be limited to the minimum necessary for well control
and wellbore stability. If too great it may fracture the formation.

Seal permeable formations:

 When mud column pressure exceeds formation pressure, mud filtrate invades the
formation, and a filter cake of mud is deposited on the wellbore wall.

 Mud is designed to deposit thin, low permeability filter cake to limit the invasion.

 Problems occur if a thick filter cake is formed; tight hole conditions, poor log quality,
stuck pipe, lost circulation and formation damage.

 In highly permeable formations with large pore throats, whole mud may invade the
formation, depending on mud solids size;

1. Use bridging agents to block large opening, then mud solids can form seal.

2. For effectiveness, bridging agents must be over the half size of pore spaces
/ fractures.

3. Bridging agents (e.g. calcium carbonate, ground cellulose).

  Depending on the mud system in use, a number of additives can improve the filter
cake (e.g. bentonite, natural & synthetic polymer, asphalt and gilsonite).

Maintain wellbore stability

 Chemical composition and mud properties must combine to provide a stable wellbore.
Weight of the mud must be within the necessary range to balance the mechanical
forces.

 Wellbore instability = sloughing formations, which can cause tight hole conditions,
bridges and fill on trips (same symptoms indicate hole cleaning problems).

 Wellbore stability = hole maintains size and cylindrical shape.

 If the hole is enlarged, it becomes weak and difficult to stabilize, resulting in

problems such as low annular velocities, poor hole cleaning, solids loading and poor
formation evaluation

 In sand and sandstones formations, hole enlargement can be accomplished by

mechanical actions (hydraulic forces & nozzles velocities). Formation damage is
reduced by conservative hydraulics system. A good quality filter cake containing
bentonite is known to limit bore hole enlargement.

 In shales, mud weight is usually sufficient to balance formation stress, as these wells
are usually stable. With water base mud, chemical differences can cause interactions
between mud & shale that lead to softening of the native rock. Highly fractured, dry,
brittle shales can be extremely unstable (leading to mechanical problems).

 Various chemical inhibitors can control mud / shale interactions (calcium, potassium,
salt, polymers, asphalt, glycols and oil – best for water sensitive formations)

 Oil (and synthetic oil) based drilling fluids are used to drill most water sensitive
Shales in areas with difficult drilling conditions.

 To add inhibition, emulsified brine phase (calcium chloride) drilling fluids are used to
reduce water activity and creates osmotic forces to prevent adsorption of water by
Shales.

Minimizing formation damage

 Skin damage or any reduction in natural formation porosity and permeability

(washout) constitutes formation damage

 Most common damage;

1. Mud or drill solids invade the formation matrix, reducing porosity and
causing skin effect
 2. Swelling of formation clays within the reservoir, reduced permeability

3. Precipitation of solids due to mixing of mud filtrate and formations fluids

resulting in the precipitation of insoluble salts

4. Mud filtrate and formation fluids form an emulsion, reducing reservoir

porosity

 Specially designed drill-in fluids or workover and completion fluids, minimize

formation damage.

Cool, lubricate, and support the bit and drilling assembly:

 Heat is generated from mechanical and hydraulic forces at the bit and when the drill
string rotates and rubs against casing and wellbore.

 Cool and transfer heat away from source and lower to temperature than bottom hole.

 If not, the bit, drill string and mud motors would fail more rapidly.

 Lubrication based on the coefficient of friction. Oil- and synthetic-based mud

generally lubricate better than water-based mud (but the latter can be improved by the
addition of lubricants).

 Amount of lubrication provided by drilling fluid depends on type & quantity of drill
solids and weight materials + chemical composition of system.

 Poor lubrication causes high torque and drag, heat checking of the drill string, but
these problems are also caused by key seating, poor hole cleaning and incorrect
bottom hole assemblies design.

 Drilling fluids also support portion of drill-string or casing through buoyancy.

Suspend in drilling fluid, buoyed by force equal to weight (or density) of mud, so
reducing hook load at derrick.

 Weight that derrick can support limited by mechanical capacity, increase depth so
weight of drill-string and casing increase.

 When running long, heavy string or casing, buoyancy possible to run casing strings
whose weight exceed a rig's hook load capacity.

Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit:

 Hydraulic energy provides power to mud motor for bit rotation and for MWD
(measurement while drilling) and LWD (logging while drilling) tools. Hydraulic
programs base on bit nozzles sizing for available mud pump horsepower to optimize
jet impact at bottom well.

 Limited to:
 1. Pump horsepower

2. Pressure loss inside drillstring

3. Maximum allowable surface pressure

4. Optimum flow rate

5. Drill string pressure loses higher in fluids higher densities, plastic

viscosities and solids.

 Low solids, shear thinning drilling fluids such as polymer fluids, more efficient in
transmit hydraulic energy.

 Depth can be extended by controlling mud properties.

 Transfer information from MWD & LWD to surface by pressure pulse.

Ensure adequate formation evaluation:

 Chemical and physical mud properties and wellbore conditions after drilling affect
formation evaluation.

 Mud loggers examine cuttings for mineral composition, visual sign of hydrocarbons
and recorded mud logs of lithology, ROP, gas detection or geological parameters.

 Wireline logging measure – electrical, sonic, nuclear and magnetic resonance.

 Potential productive zone are isolated and performed formation testing and drill stem
testing.

 Mud helps not to disperse of cuttings and also improve cutting transport for mud
loggers determine the depth of the cuttings originated.

 Oil-based mud, lubricants, asphalts will mask hydrocarbon indications.

 So mud for drilling core selected base on type of evaluation to be performed (many
coring operations specify a blend mud with minimum of additives).

Control corrosion (in acceptable level):

 Drill-string and casing in continuous contact with drilling fluid may cause a form of
corrosion.

 Dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide) cause serious corrosion
problems;

1. Cause rapid, catastrophic failure

2. May be deadly to humans after a short period of time

  Low pH (acidic) aggravates corrosion, so use corrosion coupons to monitor corrosion
type, rates and to tell correct chemical inhibitor is used in correct amount.

 Mud aeration, foaming and other O2 trapped conditions cause corrosion damage in
short period time.

 When drilling in high H2S, elevated the pH fluids + sulfide scavenging chemical
(zinc).

Facilitate cementing and completion:

 Cementing is critical to effective zoneand well completion.

 During casing run, mud must remain fluid and minimize pressure surges so fracture
induced lost circulation does not occur.

 Mud should have thin, slick filter cake, wellbore with no cuttings, cavings or bridges.

 To cement and completion operation properly[clarification needed], mud displace by

flushes and cement.

 For effectiveness;

1. Hole near gauges.

2. Mud low viscosity.

3. Mud non progressive gel strength.

Minimize impact on environment:

Mud is, in varying degrees, toxic. It is also difficult and expensive to dispose of it in
an environmentally friendly manner.a large oil field in Ecuador where drillers were
effectively unregulated. Texaco, the drilling company, left the used mud (and associated
cuttings and crude oil) in unlined open-air pits, allowing it to contaminate both surface and
underground waters. Storing mud properly is very expensive. After a decade of drilling,
Texaco considered transferring the mud waste at Lago Agrio to concrete-lined pits, but
estimated that it would cost over 4 billion dollars (US).

GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

Gas-liquid chromatography (often just called gas chromatography) is a powerful tool

in analysis. It has all sorts of variations in the way it is done - if you want full details, a
Google search on gas chromatography will give you scary amounts of information if you
need it! This page just looks in a simple introductory way at how it can be carried out.

Carrying out gas-liquid chromatography

Introduction:
 All forms of chromatography involve a stationary phase and a mobile phase. In all the
other forms of chromatography you will meet at this level, the mobile phase is a liquid. In
gas-liquid chromatography, the mobile phase is a gas such as helium and the stationary phase
is a high boiling point liquid absorbed onto a solid.

How fast a particular compound travels through the machine will depend on how
much of its time is spent moving with the gas as opposed to being attached to the liquid in
some way.

A flow scheme for gas-liquid chromatography

Note: You will have to imagine the coiled column in its oven. Drawing a convincing and
tidy coil defeated me completely!

Injection of the sample:

Very small quantities of the sample that you are trying to analyse are injected into the
machine using a small syringe. The syringe needle passes through a thick rubber disc (known
as a septum) which reseals itself again when the syringe is pulled out.

The injector is contained in an oven whose temperature can be controlled. It is hot

enough so that all the sample boils and is carried into the column as a gas by the helium (or
other carrier gas).

How the column works:

The packing material:

There are two main types of column in gas-liquid chromatography. One of these is a
long thin tube packed with the stationary phase; the other is even thinner and has the
stationary phase bonded to its inner surface.

To keep things simple, we are just going to look at the packed column.
 The column is typically made of stainless steel and is between 1 and 4 metres long
with an internal diameter of up to 4 mm. It is coiled up so that it will fit into a
thermostatically controlled oven.

The column is packed with finely ground diatomaceous earth, which is a very porous
rock. This is coated with a high boiling liquid - typically a waxy polymer.

The column temperature:

The temperature of the column can be varied from about 50°C to 250°C. It is cooler
than the injector oven, so that some components of the mixture may condense at the
beginning of the column.

In some cases, as you will see below, the column starts off at a low temperature and
then is made steadily hotter under computer control as the analysis proceeds.

How separation works on the column:

One of three things might happen to a particular molecule in the mixture injected into the
column:

• It may condense on the stationary phase.

• It may dissolve in the liquid on the surface of the stationary phase.

• It may remain in the gas phase.

None of these things is necessarily permanent.

A compound with a boiling point higher than the temperature of the column will
obviously tend to condense at the start of the column. However, some of it will evaporate
again in the same way that water evaporates on a warm day - even though the temperature is
well below 100°C. The chances are that it will then condense again a little further along the
column.

Similarly, some molecules may dissolve in the liquid stationary phase Some
compounds will be more soluble in the liquid than others. The more soluble ones will spend
more of their time absorbed into the stationary phase; the less soluble ones will spend more of
their time in the gas.

The process where a substance divides itself between two immiscible solvents
because it is more soluble in one than the other is known as partition. Now, you might
reasonably argue that a gas such as helium can't really be described as a "solvent". But the
term partition is still used in gas-liquid chromatography.
 You can say that a substance partitions itself between the liquid stationary phase and
the gas. Any molecule in the substance spends some of its time dissolved in the liquid and
some of its time carried along with the gas.

Retention time:

The time taken for a particular compound to travel through the column to the detector
is known as its retention time. This time is measured from the time at which the sample is
injected to the point at which the display shows a maximum peak height for that compound.

Different compounds have different retention times. For a particular compound, the
retention time will vary depending on:

• the boiling point of the compound. A compound which boils at a temperature higher
than the column temperature is going to spend nearly all of its time condensed as a
liquid at the beginning of the column. So high boiling point means a long retention
time.

• the solubility in the liquid phase. The more soluble a compound is in the liquid phase,
the less time it will spend being carried along by the gas. High solubility in the liquid
phase means a high retention time.

• the temperature of the column. A higher temperature will tend to excite molecules
into the gas phase - either because they evaporate more readily, or because they are so
energetic that the attractions of the liquid no longer hold them. A high column
temperature shortens retention times for everything in the column.

For a given sample and column, there isn't much you can do about the boiling points of
the compounds or their solubility in the liquid phase - but you do have control over the
temperature.

The lower the temperature of the column, the better the separation you will get - but it
could take a very long time to get the compounds through which are condensing at the
beginning of the column!

On the other hand, using a high temperature, everything will pass through the column
much more quickly - but less well separated out. If everything passed through in a very short
time, there isn't going to be much space between their peaks on the chromatogram.

The answer is to start with the column relatively cool, and then gradually and very
regularly increase the temperature.

At the beginning, compounds which spend most of their time in the gas phase will pass
quickly through the column and be detected. Increasing the temperature a bit will encourage
the slightly "stickier" compounds through. Increasing the temperature still more will force the
very "sticky" molecules off the stationary phase and through the column.

The detector:
 There are several different types of detector in use. The flame ionisation detector
described below is commonly used and is easier to describe and explain than the alternatives.

A flame ionisation detector:

In terms of reaction mechanisms, the burning of an organic compound is very

complicated. During the process, small amounts of ions and electrons are produced in the
flame. The presence of these can be detected.

The whole detector is enclosed in its own oven which is hotter than the column
temperature. That stops anything condensing in the detector.

Note: This is simplified for clarity. There obviously has to be some way of lighting the
flame. This is done with an electrically heated coil, but including it clutters the diagram.

If there is nothing organic coming through from the column, you just have a flame of
hydrogen burning in air. Now suppose that one of the compounds in the mixture you are
analysing starts to come through.

As it burns, it will produce small amounts of ions and electrons in the flame. The
positive ions will be attracted to the cylindrical cathode. Negative ions and electrons will be
attracted towards the jet itself which is the anode.

This is much the same as what happens during normal electrolysis.

At the cathode, the positive ions will pick up electrons from the cathode and be
neutralised. At the anode, any electrons in the flame will transfer to the positive electrode;
and negative ions will give their electrons to the electrode and be neutralised.
 This loss of electrons from one electrode and gain at the other will result in a flow of
electrons in the external circuit from the anode to the cathode. In other words, you get an
electric current.

The current won't be very big, but it can be amplified. The more of the organic
compound there is in the flame, the more ions will be produced, and so the higher the current
will be. As a reasonable approximation, especially if you are talking about similar
compounds, the current you measure is proportional to the amount of compound in the flame.

Disadvantages of the flame ionisation detector:

The main disadvantage is that it destroys everything coming out of the column as it
detects it. If you wanted to send the product to a mass spectrometer, for example, for further
analysis, you couldn't use a flame ionisation detector.

Interpreting the output from the detector:

The output will be recorded as a series of peaks - each one representing a compound
in the mixture passing through the detector. As long as you were careful to control the
conditions on the column, you could use the retention times to help to identify the compounds
present - provided, of course, that you (or somebody else) had already measured them for
pure samples of the various compounds under those identical conditions.

But you can also use the peaks as a way of measuring the relative quantities of the
compounds present. This is only accurate if you are analysing mixtures of similar compounds
- for example, of similar hydrocarbons.

The areas under the peaks are proportional to the amount of each compound which
has passed the detector, and these areas can be calculated automatically by the computer
linked to the display. The areas it would measure are shown in green in the (very simplified)
diagram.
 Note that it isn't the peak height that matters, but the total area under the peak. In this
particular example, the left-hand peak is both tallest and has the greatest area. That isn't
necessarily always so.

There might be a lot of one compound present, but it might emerge from the column
in relatively small amounts over quite a long time. Measuring the area rather than the peak
height allows for this.

Coupling a gas chromatogram to a mass spectrometer:

This can't be done with a flame ionisation detector which destroys everything passing
through it. Assuming you are using a non-destructive detector . . .

When the detector is showing a peak, some of what is passing through the detector at
that time can be diverted to a mass spectrometer. There it will give a fragmentation pattern

which can be compared against a computer database of known patterns. That means
that the identity of a huge range of compounds can be found without having to know their
retention times.

Note: If you have forgotten about mass spectrometry, explore the mass spectrometry menu -
particularly how a mass spectrometer works, and the formation of fragmentation patterns.

Oil Well Cement:

Oil Well Cement as the name suggests, is used for the grouting of the oil wells, also
known as the cementing of the oil wells. This is done for both, the off-shore and on-shore oil
wells.

As the number of oil wells in India is increasing steadily, the sales of Oil Well
Cement have also increased. This has boosted the Indian cement industry to a large extent.

Oil Well Cement is manufactured from the clinker of Portland cement and also from
cements that have been hydraulically blended. Oil Well Cement can resist high pressure as
well as very high temperatures. Oil Well Cement sets very slowly because it has organic
'retarders' which prevent it from setting too fast. It is due to all these characteristics that it is
used in the building of the oil wells where the pressure is around 20,000 PSI and the
temperature is around 500 degrees Fahrenheit.

There are 3 grades of Oil Well Cements. Grades O is ordinary and is used commonly;
HSR is high sulphate resistant; and MSR is moderate sulphate resistant. Each grade is used
where it is applicable at a particular range of oil well sulphate environments, temperatures,
pressures, and depths. Oil Well Cement has proved to be very beneficial for the petroleum
industry due to its characteristics. For it is due to the Oil Well Cement that the oil wells
function properly.

The various raw materials required for the production of Oil Well Cement are:
 1. Limestone

2. Iron Ore

3. Coke

4. Iron Scrap

The major companies manufacturing Oil Well Cement in India are:

1. ACC

2. Gujarat Ambuja

3. India Cement Ltd.

4. Grasim Industries and Ultra Tech

5. J K Cement

6. JK Cements

Sodium Silicates for Oilwell Cement:

The design and placement of an effective cementing system is critical to the
commercial success of every oil and gas well. A quality cementing job not only provides a
strong bond between casing and formation but also seals off the formation and protects the
pipe. PQ soluble silicates are key components of the oilwell cements that can meet these
challenges.

PQ produces a wide range of liquid and powder sodium silicates. PQ’s proprietary
process for manufacturing sodium metasilicate produces a dustless, uniformly sized powder
for better dry-blending into the bulk cement. For offshore drilling or where bulk blending is
not an option, liquid sodium silicate can be used on-site to formulate the desired slurry
properties. Sodium silicate and sodium metasilicate are multifunctional and are used to:
• reduce slurry density
• reduce cement costs
• prevent segregation of solids
• accelerate set-times
• reduce free water in normal & heavy weight cements
• promote early strength
 Aside from being used as an admixture for cement, sodium silicate can be used pre and
post cementing to improve the cement bond at the cement-formation and cement-casing
interface. Sodium silicates are used to:
• flush the wellbore prior to cementing
• remediate poor cementing

Sodium Silicate Selection:

PQ manufactures a wide range of sodium silicate based products. For oilwell cements
the two main categories are sodium metasilicate and sodium silicate (liquid and hydrous
powder). Sodium metasilicate differs from sodium silicate in that it has a definite crystalline
form. The SiO2 to Na2O mole ratio is 1:1 and has the chemical designation of Na2SiO3. The
sodium silicate liquids and hydrous powders are described by their SiO2/Na2O weight ratio
that ranges from 1.60-3.22.

Sodium Metasilicates
Sodium metasilicates are used as extenders and set accelerators. PQ produces two
types of sodium metasilicates: METSO BEADS® 2048 (anhydrous) and METSO
PENTABEAD®20 (pentahydrate). Both products are concentrated sources of rapidly
dissolving alkali and silica. PQ’s proprietary process for manufacturing sodium metasilicate
results in METSO products unique to the industry, having evenly sized particles that are
dustless, resistant to attrition and dissolve at a uniform rate. The physical properties of PQ
metasilicates allow for more accurate and precise dry-blending.

Sodium Silicate
Sodium silicates have SiO2/Na2O weight ratios from 1.60 to 3.22 and are less
alkaline than metasilicates. PQ offers liquid sodium silicates in the full range from 1.60-3.22
ratios as well as spray-dried hydrous powders having ratios from 2.00 to 3.22. Sodium
silicate solutions are typically used in offshore operations where liquid cement additives are
the preferred products. Liquid additives such as sodium silicate allow custom preparation of
the cement slurry at the drill site.
Liquid Sodium Silicate

Sodium Silicate Hydrous Powders

Applications:
Extender:
Sodium metasilicate is widely used as a cost effective extender, allowing a higher
ratio of water to cement. With additional water, the cement density decreases, which reduces
the hydrostatic pressure, minimizes lost circulation and fracturing of the formation. From a
cost perspective, water is more economical than neat cement.

Sodium silicate and sodium metasilicate reduce the mobility of water in cement.
When they dissolve, the ions react with calcium ions from the cement to form a calcium
silicate hydrate gel. It is the calcium silicate hydrate gel that effectively ties up large
quantities of the slurry mix water without the occurrence of significant free water1. The
cement remains homogeneous with no segregation or settling of solids.
Properties:
• sodium metasilicate is used at a loading of 1-4%
• 2-3% sodium silicate has a similar yield as 10% bentonite
• cement slurries can be produced to a density of 1.32
• provides higher strength in comparison to other extended cements2

Reduction of Free Water in Normal & Heavyweight slurries:

 Similar to the chemistry involved with extended cements, sodium metasilicate is
effective in normal and heavyweight slurries for reducing the mobility of water. Given that
these slurries contain less water, the typical concentration is 0.2-0.3% by weight.2
Accelerators:
Sodium metasilicate can function as a cement accelerator. For reliable acceleration, it
is essential that the metasilicate ion remain in solution before reacting with Ca+2 ions,
otherwise premature gelling is likely to arise.
Properties:
• typical dosage is ~2-4% wt/wt cement
• easily dry blended
• slower to thicken than other accelerator (CaCl2) allowing extra time
• for slurry placement
• n provides faster compressive strength development
Washing/Preflushing Casing & Formation
Poor cementing can lead to gas migration, gas entrapment and excessive water
production. In severe cases, remedial cement work will be needed. Failure to achieve good
zonal isolation can occur due to poor cement bonding at the cement-formation and cement-
casing interface. The cement bond is improved if the casing and formation wall are clean
prior to cementing. Sodium silicate spacers and chemical flushes are used to remove
excessive filtercake and prevent cement contamination.
Properties:
• improves bonding at the interfaces
• prevents slurry fallback in primary cementing
• prevents water loss and leaking by acting as an accelerator at the
• formation/cement interface

Flushing the hole with an aqueous solution of a multivalent cation salt followed by a
concentrated solution of sodium silicate can strengthen both the borehole surface and the
cement/formation bond4. Figures 2a & 2b show the effect of a shale surface exposed to a
solution of sodium silicate.
Cement Remediation/Sealing Channels:
As indicated above, a poor cement bond can lead to the flow of water/gas/oil channeling
between the different zones. The result is loss of production and increase in undesirable
water. Field results indicate that silicate gelation can be used to plug flow channels between
the cement-formation and cement-casing interface. Typically, the troublesome zone is
isolated after which a metal salt solution is injected followed by a water spacer and then the
sodium silicate5. Upon mixing, the sodium silicate reacts with the metal salt to form a metal
silicate gel.

Properties
• reliable, proven performance
• adaptable over a wide range of conditions
• controlled set times
• environmentally acceptable

Better Cement with Silicate based Drilling Fluids

One of the best ways to ensure good cementing is to carefully consider drilling fluid
choice. While there are numerous reasons to select a silicate based drilling fluid, improved
ementing is an often-overlooked feature Silicate drilling fluids are considered to be among
the most — if not the most — inhibitive, water-based drilling fluids.
Properties:
 • silicate-based drilling fluids can dewater shale, resulting in a less porous and
permeable wellbore
• high level of shale inhibition can allow for intermediate casing to be skipped
• wellbore is in-gauge with little washout and therefore requires less cement in the
annular space
• improved bonding at the wellbore interface compared to oil-based drilling fluids or
other water-based drilling fluids.
Storage and Handling of PQ Sodium Silicates
Sodium silicates and sodium metasilicates constitute a family of moderately to
strongly alkaline products. As such, they warrant careful handling to prevent injury or
discomfort. Liquid sodium silicates should be prevented from freezing.

Soluble silicates are completely inorganic and do not present hazards such as low
flash point or flammability. Refer to Bulletin 17-70.

PQ – National Silicates Technical Service

Contact your local sales representative or PQ/National Silicates technical group for
further assistance
DRILLING FLUID CIRCULATION LOOP
A drilling fluid circulation system for containing drilling cuttings, gas and drilling
fluid in a closed loop. The system includes a separator having two sealed compartments, one
for settling out drilling cuttings and one for holding clean drilling fluid. A fine solids
separator is provided between the two compartments, and a gas exhaust line for conducting
gas released from the returning drilling fluid is provided to conduct the produced gas to a safe
location away from the working area. A solids discharge device is provided for removing
settled drilling cuttings.
When it comes to drilling fluids for horizontal directional drilling (HDD) and vertical
drilling, such as geothermal loop installation or water well drilling, there are a lot of
similarities. Bentonite is used as a base or starting point for drilling fluids in each drilling
application, and polymers and additives are used, along with varying the amount of bentonite,
to help adjust drilling fluids to various soil conditions. In each drilling application, drilling
fluid characteristics, such as pH, viscosity, velocity, density, solids content, fluid-loss and gel
strength, are important, and should be closely monitored and properly maintained. A lot of
the same types of polymers and additives are used in vertical and horizontal directional
drilling to control down-hole conditions such as reactive clays and/or fluid-loss in coarse
soils. Yet, with all of the similarities between HDD and vertical drilling fluids, there are some
important differences between the two that drilling contractors must understand in order to
maximize their success rate.
Significant Physical Differences Downhole
Flow characteristics between vertical and horizontal directional drilling differ
dramatically, and play a key role in the design of drilling fluids for each application. In a
vertical drilling application, such as water well drilling, the annular ascending velocity of
drilling fluid is somewhere between 85 feet to 125 feet per minute, in comparison to
horizontal directional drilling where fluid moves at a snail’s pace, due to larger-diameter
boreholes and the direction of flow.
In vertical drilling applications, the direction of return flow (carrying drill cuttings) is
the 180 degrees, or opposite the direction from which gravity is pulling the solids down,
making it much easier to suspend drill cuttings. One must simply move the drilling fluid with
cuttings up out of the hole faster than the settling rate of the drill cuttings. For horizontal
directional drilling, the direction of flow is in a 90-degree angle from the direction in which
gravity is trying to pull the cuttings, making it much more difficult to transport cuttings. In
vertical drilling applications, cuttings may have hundreds of feet to drop before settling on
bottom, as opposed to inches or less for horizontal directional drilling applications.
Hydrostatic head also has a big impact on how horizontal directional drilling fluids
interact with downhole conditions vs. vertical drilling applications. A horizontal directional
drilling fluid that weighs 8.5 pounds per gallon will exert around 13.26 pounds per square
inch of hydrostatic head pressure on a formation at a depth of 30 feet, while a vertical drilling
fluid of the same density will exert 110 pounds per square inch of hydrostatic head on a
formation at a depth of 250 feet.
Gel Strength and Fluid Loss
A simple demonstration that illustrates the difference in gel strength requirements for
HDD and vertical drilling fluids is to use a clear plastic tube containing water and glitter. If
one shakes up the glitter and holds the tube in a vertical position, the glitter seems to stay in
suspension forever, due to the distance the glitter must travel through the fluid to get to the
bottom, whereas when the tube is shaken and held in a horizontal position, the glitter settles
to the bottom almost instantly. Bentonite drilling fluids are non-Newtonian, which means
viscosity changes with shear, whereas with a Newtonian drilling fluid such as oil, viscosity
changes with temperature.
The faster you move a bentonite drilling fluid, the thinner it gets, and when a
bentonite drilling fluid is at rest, such as making a connection, bentonite drilling fluid gels up
and suspends drill cuttings. Because of the slower annular ascending velocity flow rates and
the high amount of drill cuttings generated by horizontal directional drilling fluids, especially
when reaming large-diameter holes, it is imperative to have a drilling fluid that has high gel
strength at the lowest possible viscosity.
Specialty HDD fluids can have as much as three times the amount of gel strength or
solids-carrying capability than high-yield bentonite, which is most commonly used in water
well drilling. One simple way for a horizontal directional drilling contractor to determine if
the gel strength in a drilling fluid is adequate to suspend the drill cuttings encountered is to
take some of the drilling fluid in a clear container and stir in soil from the entry or exit pit. If
solids settle in a container, they will definitely settle downhole; therefore, gel strength must
be increased to prevent stuck or stretched product line from occurring.
Many HDD contractors attempt to save money by using high-yield bentonite
products, but end up paying more by having to add gel-strength-enhancing additives, which
are among the most expensive drilling fluid additives, or pay a penalty in the way of higher
viscosities and problems associated with high-viscosity drilling fluids, such as increased frac-
out, reduced pump efficiency and slower pull-back speeds. HDD reamer pull-back speed is
determined primarily by the amount of drilling fluid that can be delivered to the reamer, and
an 80-second funnel viscosity drilling fluid, for example, can cut a reciprocating pump’s
performance in half.
Along with much higher gel-strength, a good HDD specialty drilling fluid will have
soda ash mixed in to help the product perform better in hard water or low pH conditions, as
well as containing additives to enhance fluid-loss for increasing borehole stability in coarse
soil conditions. In order for a drilling fluid to create borehole stability in coarse soils such as
sand, the drilling fluid must be capable of building a low-permeable filter cake (low fluid-
loss) on the walls of the formation, and hydrostatic head pressure is applied against the filter
cake to keep the formation from collapsing. The hydrostatic pressure need not be high; it just
needs to be a positive pressure, especially in zones where ground water is encountered.
Field Applications
Specialty HDD drilling fluid products can work great in vertical drilling applications
as long as one has a mechanical means of removing the drill cuttings, such as hydrocyclones
(desilting or desanding cones) and/or drilling fluid recycling systems. The additional gel
strength provided by specialty HDD bentonite drilling fluid products will not allow drill
cuttings to settle out in a tub, resulting in a high-solids drilling fluid that will create a
multitude of problems, including excessive wear on drilling fluid circulation equipment,
formation damage, loss circulation and slower penetration rates.
High-yield bentonite normally used in water well drilling can work in horizontal
directional drilling applications if the correct additives are used. Soda ash must be used to
pre-treat the mix water in order to maximize yield, gel strength and fluid-loss any time high-
yield bentonite is used. Fluid-loss polymers are required when using high-yield bentonite in
coarse soils for horizontal directional applications, in order to keep the hole open. Gel-
strength-enhancing polymers are necessary when using high-yield bentonite for horizontal
directional drilling fluids in order to build sufficient gel strength to carry drill cuttings out of
the hole at a lower viscosity.