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Advanced Material for Front Fan Blade Manufacturing

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in
Advanced Material for Front Fan Blade
Manufacturing
Srijith Bangaru Thirumalai Raj
M.Sc.in Mechanical Engineering
Abstract: This research paper is mainly focused on
the detailed study of the conventional materials that
are usually employed in the front fan blade of
turbofan engine. The operating conditions and the
major material indices which influences the
performance are considered and detailed study has
been made. In the later part CES, the material
selection software was introduced to suggest
alternative advanced materials in the form of
polymers for the considered component. Then the
machinability, crystalline structures and advanced
manufacturing techniques to be employed are also
discussed in detail.
1. Introduction
To make an aero plane fly it requires lot of thrust
to be generated with help of some propulsive system.
Most flight uses turbofan engine to generate thrust
which gives higher efficiency and also because of
fuel efficiency. Turbofan engine is the modern day
evolution of gas turbine. Turbofan engine comprises
of core compressor, core turbine and fan blades. The
energy stored in gas is converted in to kinetic energy
with the help of front fan blades. Like the
compressor, the turbine has a rotating disc along with
blades nozzle guide vanes. The pressure and
temperature of gas both fall as it passes through the
turbine. Front fan blade is the first and foremost
component of a turbo fan engine. Large quantity of
air is sucked into turbine with the help of large
spinning fan. Fan helps the air to gain speed and also
splits into two parts. First part flows into the turbine
central part which acts as core of the turbine. The
second part "bypasses" the core of the jet engine. It
goes through a duct that surrounds the core to the
back of the jet engine where it produces much of the
force that propels the airplane forward. This cooler
air helps to quiet the jet engine as well as adding
thrust to the jet engine. [1]
2. Loading Modes
The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the
engine core compared to the mass-flow of air passing
through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio.
Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
The engines which uses higher thrust when
compared to fan thrust is known as high bypass
turbofans and which has lower thrust when compared
with fan thrust is known as low bypass turbofans.
Front fan blade usually undergoes heavy cyclic
loads which leads to cyclic stresses on its surfaces.
Chances of corrosion is high because of the inlet air
temperature, pressure and its composition. The mean
mass temperature of gas at the entry ranges from
1300 to 1800 K. Due the increase in temperature of
gas, the pressure ratio of compressor grown
significantly. The combined increase in temperature
and pressure ratio results in significantly more
intensive heat flows in turbines.
One of the main properties of turbo fan engine is a
significant number of variable conditions when the
level of temperatures and stresses differ significantly
from those measured in stationary conditions.
Statistical analysis shows that for aircraft engines,
about 20% of the flaws developed at operation are
flaws resulting from the cyclic temperature
variations. [1] [2]
3. Operating Conditions
The parameters that determine operating
conditions of affront fan blade are as follows
 Gas temperature at the inlet
 Pressure, speed and composition of gas flow
 Stresses due to the effect of centrifugal and
gas dynamic forces
 Irregularity of temperature field
Based on the above parameters the element to be
selected for the front fan blade should be fatigue
resistant, resistant to cracking, stiff and light. So the
element has to satisfy the following mechanical
properties. [3]
 High endurance limit
 High fracture toughness, K1c
 High Young’s Modulus
 Low density
4. Performance Indices for Material
Selection
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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in


 when the said components are exposed to a flow of
Where, σe is the endurance limit in ksi
K1C is the fracture toughness in
ksi.in^0.5
ρ is the density in kg/m3
E is the young’s modulus in 10^6 psi
Based on the above conditions the following
graphs are plotted in order to find the suitable
material for the front fan blade of turbo fan engine.
[5]
Graph 1 σ_ (e)/ρ versus K_ (1c)/ρ
Graph 2 E/ρ versus price
From the graph, it is evident that the cast
magnesium alloys, carbon steel, nickel based super
alloys, titanium alloys are suitable materials for
manufacturing the front fan blade. Carbon steel,
nickel based super alloys can’t be considered
because of its low safety of margin. Titanium alloys
is the best suitable material for manufacturing the
front fan blade of turbo fan engine. [5]
Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
5. Surface Considerations (Ti -alloy)
Turbine blades must offer protection within a
specified period of service life against destructive
attacks of high temperature corrosion and erosion,
fuel combustion products containing aggressive
ingredients and solid particulate matter. [6]
With this in mind, the coating must meet the
following requirements:
 It must withstand hot corrosion, oxidation,
and erosion when placed into a flow of gas
whose parameters are similar to those of
turbine gases.
 It must safely withstand the static and
alternate stresses applied to the blade
surface: to this end the coating must have
the requisite combination of strength and
ductility.
 It must show good stability and not be
destroyed by interaction with the substrate.
 It must not degrade the blade material
mechanical properties.
Even after a long service life, coated blades and
vanes must have better mechanical properties than
their uncoated counterparts due to protecting the
blade surfaces damage and softening. In addition to
the metal coatings, the ceramic coatings must ensure
lower average wall temperatures in cooled blades
and protect super alloys against softening. Turbine
blade coatings must level off the temperature over
the blade surface and reduce thermal stresses during
engine transient running. [6]
The techniques involved in depositing protective
coatings must guarantee that the coatings have the
required composition, thickness, and structure, and
as such, the requisite set of physical-mechanical and
physical-chemical properties. Of utmost importance
is the need to maintain these characteristics
depositing protective coatings on blades under the
commercial conditions. [6]
Three technological principles are applied to form
coatings on the surfaces of aircraft engine turbine
blades:
 Chemical-thermal treatment (aluminizing)
of blade surfaces in the media, containing
aluminum or aluminum with additives of
other elements (such as chromium, silicon,
yttrium, etc.). A diffusion aluminide coating
is built up as aluminum or its compound
interacts with the super alloy surfaces. At
present, diffusion aluminide coatings are
used to protect 80 to 90% of all aircraft
turbine blades.
 Depositing the overlay coatings by
evaporating special alloys under vacuum
and condensing vapor or plasma with
coating components on blade surfaces.
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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

5.1. Principles of Choosing Coatings for
Engine Blades
The requirement to attain highly protective
coatings (i.e., adequate resistance to hot corrosion
and oxidation) conflicts with the demand to preserve
high mechanical properties in the “coating-super
alloy” system.
Until recently, engine test have remained the main
method of examining the properties of and choosing
optimized coatings for blades. However, the high
cost of systematic studies of coating protectiveness
using this approach has fueled the desire to seek
shorter equivalent trials. Under these conditions,
laboratory research into physical-chemical and
physical-mechanical coating properties and their
blade service facilitates significantly the selection of
optical chemical composition of coatings, reduces
the number of their field tests, and promises high
cost efficiency of the study. [4] [6]
The key parameters to be considered in the
selection of coatings for turbine blades. The starting
points to be taken in to account when choosing a
coating of optimum life expectancy include:
 Experience in applying protective coatings
on blades running under similar conditions
 Analysis of causes of coating damage on
blades after long-time tests or service
operation
 Presumable alterations in running
conditions of newly designed blades
(changed parameters of gas flow, values of
thermal stresses, running conditions, etc.)
 Results of research into physical-
mechanical properties of coatings and their
effects on the main properties of the super
alloy from which the blades are made
(resistance to thermal fatigue, endurance,
high temperature strength) [4] [6]
5.2. Hot Corrosion of Front Fan Blade
Since aviation fuels contain insignificant of
Sulphur and vanadium, they do not destroy coatings
through hot corrosion below service live of 5000 to
10000 h. The environment is the main source of
aggressive components entering the hot channel of
aircraft engines. This applies, first of all, to sea
regions, where a diverse variety of compounds
contained in the sea water get into the engine hot
channel. [6]
6. Justification for Selecting Titanium
Alloy
In immediate correlation to steels and aluminum
alloys, titanium and its composites may be
recognized as a much more youthful structural
material. The alloys of titanium are picked for
utilization in aviation related provisions where the
blending of weight, quality, consumption safety and
high quality steels and nickel based super alloys can
best case scenario be arranged as lacking and
deficient. The key factors for the selection of
titanium alloys for front fan blade are as follows:
 A reduction in weight (substitute for
steel and nickel-based super alloys)
 Application temperature
 Corrosion resistance
 Galvanic compatibility with polymer
matrix composites [6]
Figure 1 Mechanical Properties of Ti Alloys
The substantial front fan blade pieces of steels of
present day plane engines are produced from
titanium alloys. In light of the relentlessly expanding
engine by-pass ratio, the new steel fan blade plans
surpasses length of one meter. At these extents, fan
blade made of steel shudder can and does turn into a
genuine issues since the cutting edge tips may
achieve the speed of sound and reason blended
supersonic/subsonic stream fields and partnered stun
waves. To build their solidness, covers or snubbers,
were added to the center of the edges. The mid-span
covers can control vibration, however unfavorably
influence the air movement optimized effectiveness
of the fan and simultaneously bring down its fuel
proficiency. Propels in fan blade outline have helped
in wiping out covers by enhancing sharpened steel
solidness through an increment in harmony width
that has brought about a diminishment in the amount
of edges by something like one third. [6]
6.1. Influence of Material on the
Manufacturing Route
Front fan blade of turbo fan engines are usually
manufactured from titanium alloys. To be more
precise front fan blades are most commonly
manufactured from Ti-6Al-4V alloy which is also
known as grade 5 Titanium alloy. Ti-6Al-4V is

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in
considered as a workhorse among all other grades of
titanium alloy because of its following properties:
 Fully heat treatable for sections up to 15
mm for about temperature 400oC.
 Corrosion resistance
 Weldability
 Fabric ability[4]
Figure 2 Increase in application of Ti alloys in
Boeing aircraft
6.2. Properties of Ti-6Al-4V
 Young’s modulus of 110 GPa
 Density of 4420 kg/m3
 Tensile strength of 1000 MPa
 Poisson’s ratio 0.35-0.37 [6]
The most common methods of producing titanium
front fan blades are super plastic forming and
diffusion bonding. These process have ability to
manufacture large, light and complex structures.
These process has tendency to produce larger
components which helps to eliminate assemblies,
which is critical in aerospace applications.
7. Manufacturing Route
Extensive variety of manufacturing route might be
utilized to process variety of parts, size and shapes.
The parts could be produced with same material by
more than one route. Each assembling technique has
its own particular constraints, favorable
circumstances, expense and handling. [6] [7]
The manufacturing process usually have an effect
on the properties of materials. Manufacturing process
requires a detailed study of properties such as
formability, castability, weldability, machinability.
Thus selecting the right manufacturing route involves
careful study of material property, process, quality
and cost. Front fan blade is usually produced from
Ti-6Al-4V with a hollow internal “Warren–Girder”
structure through superplastic forming and diffusion
bonding process.
The production procedure begins with 3 sheets of
titanium alloy. A material called stop-off is printed
onto 2 of the sheets which will prevent them from
joining together in the diffusion bonding
Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
methodology. The 3 sheets are then sandwiched
together, and set in a furnace where the dispersion
holding happens. A flat sheet is generated and all
layers are joined except in zones where stop-off has
been connected.
From that point, the flat sheet is formed at high
temperatures, in a super plastic forming process.
High pressure gas is blown between the sheets, truly
like expanding the balloon forming the fan blade
aerofoil shape.
The Central sheet is extended and structures the
girder structure. After which the aerodynamic shape
of the fan blade is removed of the plate, the root
fixings are machined and the blades surface is
cleaned to make the surface smooth to guarantee the
engine is as effective as possible by diminishing the
surface drag. [6] [7]
7.1. Application of STOP-OFF
Stop-off material is a synthetic used to avoid
dissemination holding on regions where it is applied.
It may be made of the accompanying materials, for
example, yttrium boron nitride, graphite or alumina.
In the provision of stop-off for assembling, the
chemical is printed onto the metal to structure a
predetermined example such that, throughout super
plastic forming, when the inert gas is blown through
the crevices of the material where the metal is not
gone along with, it will cause the girder structure to
be framed inside. [7]
7.2. Diffusion Bonding
 Diffusion bonding is a system for joining
metallic materials, taking into account the
standards of the atomic dissemination of
components at the surfaces where they are
joined.
 The procedure of diffusion transports
molecules through the cross section
structure of a crystalline solid. This is
carried out utilizing a few instruments, for
example, trading of spots between adjacent
atoms, movement of interstitial atoms or
movement of vacancies in the crystalline
grid structure.
 The favoured mechanism of diffusion is that
of the motion of vacancies as a lower
actuation energy is needed for the
development of atoms.
 The measure of contact between the
surfaces of the metals is an extremely
paramount component in diffusion bonding.
This might be upgraded, through
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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

mechanical machining and polishing, controlled under suitable stress and

etching, cleaning, covering and inching the distortion rate, so as not to damage the
material under high temperature or loading. metal.
(Joshi, 2009)
 In the modern requisition of diffusion
bonding, the metal pieces are clipped
together and subjected to mellow
temperature and high pressure. The metals
are generally warmed to a temperature
beneath their melting point, and set
underweight by pressing them together for a
long time in a furnace. About whether,
particles diffuse into the joint and fill in the
crevices between the pieces hence holding Figure 4 Super plastic forming process
them together. [7]
 This technique is predominantly utilized in
view of trouble in fabricating titanium alloy
because of its high ductile and yield quality,
and moderate modulus of elasticity. In
addition, titanium alloy has an exorbitant
spring-back recurrence which requires the
utilization of extreme temperatures (1200-
1400 degree Fahrenheit) to succeed.
Nonetheless, there are limitations to the
devices that might be utilized at these
Figure 3 Diffusion bonding process reasonably high temperatures, which builds
the cost of handling further. In this way
 This is a picked system for welding metal superplastic forming is utilized, as it is more
titanium alloys on the grounds that the attainable to form the metal utilizing a most
metal becomes extremely sensitive when cost effective means. [7]
presented to high temperatures.
 The alloy also oxidizes at low fractional
pressures of oxygen. Moreover, Titanium 7.4. Advantages of Superplastic Forming and
composites can combine with nitrogen and Diffusion Bonding
oxygen, if normal welding process is carried
out. Hence, diffusion process is considered
 Tendency to manufacture complicated
over other welding process. [7] [11]
monolithic components.
 Reducing the number of fasteners
 Reduced weight
7.3. Superplastic Forming  Geometry elimination has been eliminated
 More precise with very good mechanical
properties.
 Superplastic shaping is a procedure where a
sheet of metal is heated up to a temperature  Process repeatability [7]
whereby it starts to show plastic properties,
and gets to be not extremely solid. The
metals are able to extend and stretch a few 7.5. Limitations of Superplastic Forming and
times additional without burst, permitting Diffusion Bonding
the metals to form into diverse shapes all
the more precisely.
 In the superplastic shaping process, the  High energy consumption
metal sheet is clamped and put between die  Tool can attain thermal damage.
cavities. A pressurized inert gas is later  Expensive equipment and dies
connected to the metal to misshape the sheet
against the walls of the depression in a
controlled environment with vacuum. The
methodology is always maintained and

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in
8. Micro-Structural Changes
8.1. Effect of Superplastic Forming on
Microstructure
For superplastic deformity, an alloy regularly
obliges a fine grain microstructure in generally of
two stages, a metallurgically steady microstructure at
the superplastic temperature with next to zero grain
development, deformations at 0.5 to 0.8 T m (William
D. Callister, 2007) (the absolute melting point
temperature), and a controlled strain rate, generally
in the 0.01 to 0.0001(mm/mm/s) range for greatest
super plasticity. [9]
Figure 5 Microstructure Comparison
Superplastic properties of titanium alloy is mainly
determined through its micro-structure property. As
in all superplastic materials grain size is the single
more imperative parameter, but since of the intricacy
of microstructures which could be acquired in
practically all titanium alloys, grain size without
anything else's input is a lacking portrayal of
microstructure. Since most superplastic titanium
alloys are two-phase-a-9 alloys (at any rate at the
structuring temperature), some measure of relative
volume part of the stages present is obviously
important. (Heiser, 2004)
A few extra microstructural variables which can
likewise be imperative in certain circumstances are:
grain size, grain growth kinetics, grain aspect ratio,
grain size distribution, volume part of stages and
surface of the alpha stage. Titanium alloys, which
have valuable degrees of super plasticity, are by and
large two stage combinations at the superplastic
temperature. Grain size is known to emphatically
impact the super plasticity of the Ti-6Al4v alloy
where the flow stress and strain rate sensitivity: m,
are charted as capacities of strain rate for an extent of
grain sizes. As it stands commonly found for most
superplastic materials, expanding grain size builds
the flow stress and has a tendency to lessen the
greatest m value and in addition lessening the strain
rate at which the most extreme m is noted. [9]
8.2. Grain Size Distribution
Extra complexities emerge when grains are not
uni-axed, then again change generally in size. The
vitality of this issue on super plasticity of Titanium
Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
alloys was examined by Paton & Hamilton" by
analysing an arrangement of heats of Ti-6ai-4v
combination of comparative piece yet broadly
varying microstructures. It was demonstrated that in
spite of the fact that a fine grain size was essential in
attaining great superplastic properties, grain
perspective ratio, and grain size appropriation could
likewise have huge impact on superplastic
parameters, especially add up to elongation. [9]
Figure 6 Stress vs strain plot of various grain
sizes
In their study, the high temperature of material
with the most minimal elongation likewise had a
little normal grain size. This clear oddity was
attributed to the vicinity of a couple of very large α-
grains in that material. The impact of a non-uniform
grain measure on superplasticity has been inspected
systematically by Ghosh & Rajl by displaying stream
in a material with a duplex grain size.
This work proposes that the move from separation
controlled flow to dispersion controlled flow was
much more extensive and happens over a few
chances of magnitude if a circulation in grain size
exists. A trimodal grain size has the impact of
lessening top "m" at halfway strain rates. The
inception of this impact is accepted to be the uniform
strain rate demand connected to all locales of the
material paying little heed to grain size, accordingly
setting up an inward stress distribution with the huge
grains supporting bigger burdens than the little
grains. A consistently fine grain size might, in this
manner, seem, by all accounts, to be helpful. [9]
9. Advanced Material Selection



Where, σe is the endurance limit in ksi
K1C is the fracture toughness in ksi.in^0.5
ρ is the density in kg/m3
E is the young’s modulus in N/m2
Page 85
Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Based on the above conditions the following
graphs are plotted in order to find the suitable
advanced material for the front fan blade of turbo fan
engine.[9]
From the above table, it is clearly inferred that
material properties of CFRP has been very much
enhanced when compared with the conventional
material (Ti-6Al-4V). Thus, the CFRP has been
selected as the suitable advanced material for front
fan blade. [9]

10. Advantages and Limitations of CFRP

10.1. Advantages
 Extremely strong and light
 Low density
Graph 3 σ_ (e)/ρ versus K_ (1c)/ρ  High strength and high rigidity.
 Resistance to impact and corrosion
 Low thermal expansion
 Very high durability
 Radiolucency
 Extreme limit of weatherproof
 Low maintenance
 Fire resistance [9]

Graph 4 E/ρ versus price

10.2. Limitations
From the above CES graphs, it can be noted that
CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer) is the
most ideal advanced material for front fan blade.  CFRP can break or shatter:
The following table gives a clear comparison
between the conventional and advanced material for Shatter may happen when it is packed,
front fan blade: pushed past its quality competencies or laid open
Table 1 Comparison between conventional and to high impact. It will break if hit by a sledge.
advanced material [9] Machining and pores can additionally make
weak territories that may improve its probability
Material Ti-6Al-4V CFRP of breaking. [9] [10]
Properties  Relative cost:
Yield strength 1.09e8 5.5e8 CFRP is an excellent material with a cost to
(Pa) match. While costs have dropped fundamentally
in the previous five years, request has not
Tensile 1.16e8 15.2e8 expanded enough to expand the supply
strength (Pa) considerably. Accordingly, costs will probably
continue as before for the not so distant future.
Compressive 1.74e8 6.3e8
strength (Pa)
11. Manufacturing Route for Advanced
Fatigue 8.54e8 21.4e8 Materials
strength at 10^7
cycles (Pa) The sharpened pieces of steels are woven as a
solitary bit of fabric, thicker at the base, scalloped on
Melting point 1.25e3 3.82e3
the sides and slim at the top. It takes 200 mi of fiber
(ºC) to make 18 Leap fan blades. At the point when
finished, the woven examples of the sharpened steel
Density 1.476e3 9.36e3 are a weapon metal-ash cross-brought forth with
(Kg/m3) white strands that permit laser arrangement or exact
edge-trimming by a Stream International water-jet
cutting machine. [10]

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in
The woven carbon-fiber fabric is dry instead of
sticky-wet, as it might be were AEC utilizing a pre-
pregged tape-laying methodology. When the bended
mold is shut, resin is infused into it at 125 psi,
finishing the resin exchange process. The fan blade is
prepared in a furnace at a direct 350F for 5 hr.
Quality control is attained with X-ray examination
and acoustic checks to identify voids. The fan blade
surfaces are roughed by impacts of an oxide of
aluminum before being painted as a FOD
disintegration safeguard measure. As an alternate
FOD setting check, AEC bonds a titanium heading
edge to its network cutting edges. [10]
11.1. Resin Infusion Process
Resin Infusion is a procedure by which vacuum
draws resin into a dry fiber cover in an uneven mold.
An inflexible or adaptable film layer is set over the
top and fixed around the mold fringe. Resin Infusion
is viewed as a "Closed Mold Process". [11]
Figure 7 Resin infusion process [11]
11.2. Advantages
 Void content is low
 Pre-compacted fabric reduces the resin usage
 Harmful emissions for operator has been
eliminated
 Faster Ply lay-up
 Lamination is strong [10] [11]
12. Conclusion
There are different kind of materials can be found
suitable for the manufacturing process of the chosen
components but factors like cost, micro structural
problems etc limits the material selection. This report
gives a summary of characteristic properties, micro
structural changes and manufacturing technique of
conventional and advanced materials using CES
software. The advanced material suggested may not
be wholly employed in the industries since a lot
research works are carried out.
Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
13. Acknowledgements
This effort will not get complete without
bestowing my thankfulness for each and every one
who has supported and encouraged me to complete
this project, First I have to thank my parents who
showed extensive support towards my development
and for showing their unconditional blessing on me. I
should also thank all my classmates and friends who
gave constructive ideas and motivation for me to
complete this project in time. I should also thank
COVENTRY UNIVERSITY for their academic
support for this all important project in my Master’s
Degree. Special and sincere thanks to Professor
Jafar Jamshidi for his guidance to complete my
project and without him it will be of not possible.
14. References
[1] Daley, "Titanium properties," 2000.
[Online]. Available:
http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMate
rial.asp?bassnum=MTP641.
[2] N. Bhatnagar, Processing and fabrication of
Advanced materials, New Delhi: IK
International ltd, 2009.
[3] A. Joshi, "Introduction to superplastic
forming," 21 11 2009. [Online]. Available:
http://www.metalwebnews.com/howto/supe
rplastic-forming/superplastic-forming.html.
[4] F. Campbell, Manufacturing Technology for
Aerospace Structural Materials,
Amsterdam: Elsevier Ltd, 2006.
[5] W. Heiser, "Titanium and Titanium Alloys -
Superplastic Forming of Titanium Alloys,"
26 11 2004. [Online]. Available:
http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleI
D=2693.
[6] M. Whittaker, "Titanium in turbofan
engine," pp. 316-320, 2008.
[7] J. [1] William D. Callister, Marerial science
and Enginnering, York: John Wiley & sons,
2007.
[8] B. Gunston, Development of Jet and turbine
aero engines, Somerset: Haynes Publishing,
2006.
[9] T. Yokozeki, "CFRP an introduction,"
Composites Part A: Applied Science and
Manufacturing, pp. 99-117, 2010.
[10] M. Mecham, "Patterned breakthrough,"
Farnborough 2012, pp. 74-79, 2012.
[11] Daniel, "Resin infusion," 2011. [Online].
Available:
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 Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
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ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

http://www.tygavac.co.uk/process/resin-
infusion.html.
[12] J. D.Mattingly, Aircraft Engine Design,
NewYork: AIAA Education series, 1986.
[13] F. Whittle, Gas Turbine Aero-
Thermodynamics, Pergamon press, 2000.
[14] Noob, "Fan Blades," 29 07 2011. [Online].
Available:
https://www.academia.edu/3779848/Fan_Bl
ades.
[15] Julian, "Jet engine," 2005. [Online].
Available:
http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Jet-
Engine.html.

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 88

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