REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

HISTORY:

The concept of air conditioning is known to have been applied in Ancient

Rome, where aqueduct water was circulated through the walls of certain houses
to cool them. Similar techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns
and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season

While moving heat via machinery to provide air conditioning is a relatively

modern invention, the cooling of buildings is not. Wealthy ancient Romans
circulated aqueduct water through walls to cool their luxurious houses.

The 2nd century Chinese Inventor Ding Huan (fl. 180) of the Han Dynasty
invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3m (10ft) in diameter
and manually powered. In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712-762) of the Tang
Dynasty (618-907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Tian) built in the imperial palace,
which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air
conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the
subsequent Song Dynasty (960-1279), written sources mentioned the air
conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.

Medieval Persia has buildings that used cisterns and wind towers to cool
buildings during the hot season: cisterns (large open pools in a central courtyards
and not underground tanks) collected rain water; wind towers had windows that
could catch wind and internal vanes to direct airflow down into the building,
usually over the cistern and out through a downwind cooling tower, Cistern water
evaporated, cooling the air in the building.

Ventilators were invented in medieval Egypt and were widely used in many
houses throughout Cairo during the Middle Ages. These Ventilators were later
described in detail by Abd al-Baghdadi in 1200, who reported that almost every
house in Cairo has a ventilator, and that they cost anywhere from 1 to 500 dinars
depending on their sizes and shapes. Most ventilators in the city were oriented
towards the Qibla, as was the city in general.

In the 1600s Cornelius Drebbel demonstrated “turning Summer into Winter”

for James I of England by adding salt to water.

In 1820 British scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that

compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia
was allowed to evaporate.

The idea of air conditioning started before a machine was created to

produce the cooling effect desired. The first attempt at building an air conditioner
was made by Dr. John Gorrie (1803-1855), an American physician, in Apalachicola,
Florida. During his practice there in the 1830s, Dr. Gorrie creating an ice-making
machine that essentially blew air over a bucket of ice for cooling hospital rooms
for patients suffering from malaria and yellow fever.

John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool
air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped eventually to
use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings. He even
envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities.
Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly, Gorrie was granted a
patent in 1851 for his ice-making machine. His hopes for its success vanished soon
afterwards when his chief backer died; Gorrie did not get the money he needed to
develop the machine. According to his biographer, Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed
the “Ice King”, Frederic Tudor, for his failure, suspecting that Tudor had launched a
smear campaign against his invention. Dr. Gorrie died impoverished in 1855 and
the idea of air conditioning faded away for 50 years.

In 1881, when President James Garfield was dying, naval engineers

constructed a box like structure containing cloths saturated with melted ice water,
where a fan blew hot air overhead. This contraption was able to lower a room by
20 degrees Fahrenheit but consumed half a million pounds of ice in two months
time.

A close ancestor to the modern air conditioner units was first made in 1902
by an American engineer by the name of Willis Carrier. The machine at that time
was called “Apparatus for treating Air” and was built for the Sackett-Wilhelms
Lithographing and Publishing Co. in Brooklyn, New York. Designed to improve
manufacturing process control in a printing plant, his invention controlled not only
temperature but also humidity. The low heat and humidity were to help maintain
consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Chilled coils were used in the
machine to cool air and lower humidity to 55%, although the apparatus was made
with enough precision that the humidity level desired was adjustable.

After the invention by Carrier, air conditioners began to bloom. They first hit
the industrial buildings such as printing plants, textile mills, pharmaceutical
manufacturers, and a few hospitals. The fist air conditioned home was that of
Charles Gates, son of gambler John “Bet a Million” Gates, in Minneapolis in 1914.
However, during the first wave of their installation, Carrier’s air conditioner units
were large, expensive, and dangerous due to toxic ammonia that was used as
coolant. In 1922 Carrier had two breakthroughs – He replaced the ammonia with
the benign coolant dielene and added a central compressor to reduce the size of
the unit. The next advance was when Carrier sold his invention to movie-theater
operators, with a notable debut in 1925 at the Rivoli on Broadway New York City.
In a short amount of time, Air conditioners were installed in office buildings,
department stores and railroad cars. The United States House of Representatives
had air conditioners installed in 1928, with Senate, White House and Supreme
Court following suit in years after.
After World War II, window units air conditioners appeared, with sales
escalating from 74,000 in 1948 to 1,045,000 in 1593.
 In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte, North Carolina USA, was exploring
ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term “air
conditioning”, using it in a patent claim he filed that year as an analogue to “water
conditioning”, then a well known process for making textiles easier to process. He
combined moisture with ventilation to “condition” and changes the air in the
factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier
adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company. This
evaporation of water in air, to provide a cooling effect, is now known as
evaporative cooling.

The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable

gases like ammonia, methyl chloride and propane which could result in fatal
accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgely Jr. created the first
chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The refrigerant was much safer for
humans but was later found to be harmful to the atmosphere by ozone depletion
in the stratosphere. The resulting biological consequences included an increase in
skin cancer, damage to plants, and the reduction of ocean plankton.

Freon is a trademark name of DuPont for any Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC),

Hydrogenated CFC (HCFC), or Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant, the name of
each including a number indicating molecular composition (R-11, R-12, R-22, R-
134A). The blend most used in direct-expansion home and building comfort
cooling is an HCFC known as R-22, It is to be phased out for use in new equipment
by 2010 and completely discontinued by 2020. R-12 was the most common blend
used in automobiles in the US until 1994 when most changed to R-134A. R-11 and
R-12 are no longer manufactured in the US, the only source for purchase being
the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems.
Several non-ozone depleting refrigerants have been developed as alternatives,
including R-410A, invented by Honeywell (formerly AlliedSignal) in Buffalo NY and
sold under the Genetron (R) AZ-20 name it was the first, commercially used by
Carrier under the brand name Puron.

Innovation in air conditioning technologies continue, with much recent

emphasis placed on energy efficiency and improving indoor air quality. As an
alternative to conventional refrigerants, natural alternatives like CO² (R-744) have
been proposed.

Today, air conditioners have been said to be a partial cause for the changes in
the South, and for the most of us who have experienced its cooling benefits in
times of searing heat waves, it is an invention that is hard to live without.

Air conditioning System:

According to the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) air conditioning is defined as “The process of
treating air so as to control simultaneously its temperature, humidity, cleanliness,
and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space”

It is a method of providing clean air to an area at the proper temperature and

humidity. The term usually describes a refrigeration system designed to cool the
air within a space. In the process of removing heat, the system also removes
moisture, further increasing comfort levels. Auxiliary filters may be used to
remove pollutants from the air. Air-conditioning for an entire building can be
provided by a single, central air conditioner. Another common type is the self-
contained room conditioner that fits into a window.

The key element of the air conditioner is a refrigerant, often a fluorocarbon

that flows through the system, becoming a liquid and giving off heat when
compressed, and becoming a gas (evaporating) and absorbing heat when the
pressure is reduced. The mechanisms that evaporate and compress the refrigerant
are divided into two areas; an air filter, fan and cooling coil on the room side and a
compressor, condenser coil, and fan on the outside of the window.

Warm room air is drawn through the filter, blown over the cooling coil and
containing the refrigerant fluid so that it is cooled, and then passed through a
grille back into the room. In the compressor, the refrigerant gas from the cooling
coil is further heated by compression. In the condenser coil it gives up heat and
becomes a liquid, which is circulated back to the cooling coils. A thermostat
controls the compressor motor to regulate the room temperature.

Large buildings may have cooling units in which a fresh air intake mixes fresh
outside air with inside air. This mixture is filtered and then cooled by passing it
over the coils of a large cooling unit. In regions where the air is dry, moisture is
added, Finally, the cooled air passes into the interior of the building.
Common Terminologies

-are terms used to describe the field of engineering concerned with the
determination of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures.

Psychrometric ratio

-Is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the product of mass transfer
coefficient and humid heat at a wetted surface. It may be evaluated with the
following equation.

hᶜ
r=
kʸ cˢ
Where:

r= psychrometric ratio, dimensionless

hᶜ= convective heat transfer coefficient, W m⁻² K ⁻¹
kʸ= convective mass transfer coefficient, kg m⁻² s ⁻¹
cˢ= humid heat J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹

A psychrometric chart

-is a graph of the physical properties of moist air at a constant pressure (often
equated to an elevation relative to sea level). The chart graphically expresses how
various properties relate to each other, and is thus a graphical equation of state.

Some Thermophysical properties found on most psychrometric charts are:

Dry bulb temperature (DBT)

-Is that of an air sample, as determined by an ordinary thermometer, the

thermometer’s bulb being dry. It typically the x- axis, the horizontal axis, of the
graph. The SI units for temperature are Celsius; other units are Fahrenheit.

Wet bulb temperature (WBT)

-Is that an air sample after it has passed through a constant pressure, ideal,
adiabatic saturation process, that is, after the air has passed over a large surface
of liquid water in an insulated channel.

Dew point temperature (DPT)

-Is the temperature at which a moist air sample at the same pressure would
reach water vapor saturation. At this saturation point, water vapor would begin to
condense into liquid water fog or (if below freezing) solid hoarfrost, as heat is
removed.

Relative Humidity (RH)

-Is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor to the mole fraction of
saturated moist air at the same temperature and pressure. RH is dimensionless,
and is usually expressed as percentage.
Humidity Ratio (also known as moisture content, mixing ratio, or specific
humidity)

-Is the proportion of mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air at the given
conditions (DBT,WBT,DPT,RH, etc.)

Specific enthalpy

-Symbolized by h, also called heat content per unit mass, is the sum of the internal
(heat) energy of the moist air in question, including the heat of the air and water
vapor within. In the approximation of ideal gases, lines of constant enthalpy are
parallel to lines of constant WBT.

Specific volume is also called inverse density , is the volume per unit mass of the
air sample. The SI units are cubic meters per kilogram of air; other units are cubic
feet per pound of dry air.

Relative Humidity

-An air-water mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor
in the mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a prescribed
temperature.

Partial Pressure
-An ideal gas in a mixture is equal to the pressure it would exert if it occupied the
same volume alone at the same temperature.

Humid Heat

-Is the constant-pressure specific heat of moist air, per unit mass of dry air.

Considerations in selecting a suitable air conditioning system for a particular

application:

A. System Constraints
a. Cooling Load
b. Zoning Requirements
c. Heating and Ventilation
B. Architectural Constraints
a. Size and appearance of terminal devices
b. Acceptable noise level
c. Space available to house equipment and its location relative to the
conditioned space
d. Acceptability of components obtruding into the conditioned space
C. Financial Constraints
a. Capital Cost
b. Operating Cost
 c. Maintenance Cost

Categories of air conditioning system may be according to the means by which the
controllable cooling is accomplished in the conditioned space. These categories
are segregated according to its specific purposes by special equipment
arrangement.

Four Basic System Categories:

1.Central chilled water air conditioning systems – All air systems

a. Single Zone
b. Reheat
c. Variable Air Volume
d. Dual Duct
e. Multi zone

2. Central chilled water air conditioning systems – air and water systems
a. Induction
b. Fan coil
c. Two-pipe
d. Three-pipe

3.Central chilled water air conditioning systems – all water systems (including
cooling towers which can also be applied to systems 1 and 2)
a. Fan coil units
b. Central Chilled water air conditioning system with fan coils and other devices
c. Water Cooling Tower

4.Direct expansion systems (without the chilled water cooling medium)

a. window air conditioners
b. unitary and rooftop air conditioners
c. split type and package air conditioning systems
d. Heat pumps

Central chilled water air conditioning systems – all air systems

- an all air system provides complete sensible and latent cooling capacity in the
cold air supplied by the system. Heating can be accomplished by the same air
stream, either in the central system or at a particular zone. All – air systems can be
classified into 2 categories:

a. Single duct systems

b. Dual duct systems

System advantages:

1. The central plant is located in unoccupied areas, hence facilitating operating

and maintenance, noise control and choice of suitable equipment.
2. No piping, electrical wiring and filters are located inside the conditioned space.
3. Allows the use of greatest numbers of potential cooling seasons house with
outside air in place of mechanical refrigeration
4. Seasonal changeover is simple and readily adaptable to climactic control.
5. Gives a wide choice of zonability, flexibility and humidity control under all
operating conditions.
6. Heat recovery system may readily be incorporated.
7. Allows good design flexibility for optimum air distribution, draft control and
local requirements.
8. Well suited to applications requiring unusual exhaust makeup.
9. Infringes least on perimeter floor space
10. Adapts to winter humidification

System Disadvantages:
1. Requires additional duct clearance which can reduce the useable floor space.
2. Air balancing is difficult and requires great care.
3. Accessibility to terminals demands close cooperation between architectural,
mechanical and structural engineers.

Distribution systems have a number of important components:

1. The Air Handling Unit is a cabinet that includes or houses the central furnace,
air conditioner, or heat.
2. The Supply Ductwork carries air from the air handler to the rooms in a house.
Typically each room has at least one supply duct and larger rooms may have
several.
3. The Return Ductwork carries air from the conditioned space back to the air
handler. Most houses have only one or two main return ducts located in a central
area.
4. Supply and Return Plenums are boxes made of duct board, metal, drywall or
wood that distribute air to individual ducts or registers.
5. The Ductwork is a branching network of round or rectangular tubes generally
constructed of sheet metal, fiberglass board, or a flexible plastic and wire
composite material used in home construction are metal, fiberglass duct board
and flex duct
6.Flex-Duct is installed between the register and plenum box or plenum box and
air handler, usually in a single, continuous piece. While flex duct has fewer seams,
the inner lining and outer insulated covering can tear or be pinched closed. Also
longer flex duct runs can restrict the flow of air; proper design and installation is
very important
7. Both Metal and fiberglass duct board are rigid and installed in pieces.
Fiberglass duct board, like flex duct, is made of an insulation material.
Ducts are built of sections of the duct board. The seams in the duct board should
be carefully sealed with mastic or high quality Duct Tape.
8.Rectangular metal duct, especially the kind used for plenums and larger trunk
runs, is often insulated on the inside with fiberglass duct liner. If it is not insulated
on the inside, metal ducts should be insulated on the outside using a fiberglass
batt with an attached metal foil vapor retarder.
The insulation should be atleast two inches thick, and the vapor barrier installed
on the outside of the insulation facing away from the duct.
The seams in the insulation are usually stapled together around the duct and then
taped. All of the seams should be sealed before insulation is installed. All return
and supply ducts located outside the conditioned space, the attics, crawlspaces, or
basements, for example, should be sealed and insulated.
9.Ductwork Joints join pieces of ductwork
10. Elbows are manufactured pieces of duct used for turns.
11. Boots connect ductwork to registers
12. Registers and Grilles are the coverings for duct openings into the conditioned
space.

Single Zone System:

- the all-air single-zone air conditioning system is the basic central system which
can supply a constant air volume or a variable air volume at low, medium or high
pressure. Normally, the equipment is located outside the conditioned space but
can also be installed within the conditioned are if conditions permit. Typical
applications include:
a. space with uniform loads
b. small spaces requiring precision and control
c. Multiple systems

Reheat System
- The reheat system is a modification of the single-zone system. It provides:
a. Zone or space control for areas of unequal loading.
b. Heating or cooling of perimeter areas with different exposures.
c. Close control for process or comfort applications
In the reheat system, heat is added as a secondary process to either
preconditioned primary air or recirculated room air. The heating medium can be
hot water, steam or electricity.

Advantages:
1.Closely controls space conditions
Disadvantages:
1.Expensive to operate

Variable Air Volume System

- The variable air volume system compensates for varying cooling loads by
regulating the volume of cooling air supplied through a single duct.
Simple Variable Air Volume (VAV)
- Simple VAV systems typically cool only and have no requirement for
simultaneous heating and cooling in various zones.

Variable Air Volume – Reheat

- It integrates heating at or near the terminal units. It is applied to systems
requiring full heating and cooling flexibility in interior and exterior zones. Heating
is turned on when the air flow reaches a predetermined minimum.

Advantages:
1. When combined with a perimeter heating system, it offers inexpensive
temperature control for multiple zoning and a high degree of simultaneous
heating-cooling flexibility
2. Capital cost is lower since diversities of loads from lights, occupancy, solar and
equipment of as much as 30% are permitted.
3. Virtually self balancing
4.It is easy and inexpensive to subdivide into new zones and to handle increased
loads with new tenancy or usage if load does not exceed the original design
simultaneous peak.
5. No zoning is required in central equipment
6. Lower operating cost because
a. Fans run long hours at reduced volume
b. Refrigeration, heating and pumping matches diversity of loads
c. Unoccupied areas may be fully cut-off
7. Reduced noise level when the system is running at off peak loads
8. Allows simultaneous heating and cooling without seasonal changeover.
Dual Duct System
- The Dual Duct System employs two air ducts to supply cold air and warm air to a
mixing terminal unit which proportions the cold and warm air to a thermostat
located in the conditioned space. The system is well suited to provide temperature
control for individual spaces or zones.

Advantages ( in addition to those common to all air systems )

1. Systems with terminal volume regulation are self-balancing
2. Zoning of central equipment is not required.
3. Instant temperature response is achieved because of simultaneous availability
of cold and warm air at each terminal unit
4. No seasonal changeover is necessary
Disadvantages:
1. Initial cost is usually higher than other VAV systems.
2. Does not operate as economically as other VAV systems.

Multi-zone system
- The multi zone system applies to a relatively small number of zones served by a
single central air-handling unit. Different zone requirements are met by mixing
cold and warm air through zone dampers at the central air handler in response to
zone thermostats.
Advantages (In addition to those common to all-air systems)
1. Easy to balance
2. Air transmission and distribution is simplified

Central chilled water A/C systems – Air and water Systems

- An air and water systems is one in which both air and water (cooled or heated in
central plant room) are distributed to room terminals to perform cooling or
heating function. The air side is comprised of central air conditioning equipment,
a duct distribution system, and a room terminal. The supply air, called primary air,
usually has a constant volume which is determined by:
1.The Ventilation Requirement
2.The required sensible cooling capacity at maximum cooling load.
3. The maximum sensible cooling capacity following changeover to the winter
cycle when chilled water is no longer circulated to the room terminal.

The water side consists of a pump and piping to convey water to heat transfer
surfaces within each conditioned space. The water is commonly cooled by the
introduction of chilled water from the primary cooling system and is referred to as
the secondary water loop. Individual room temperature control is by regulation of
either the water flow through it or the air flow over it.

Induction System
- The inducting system is designed for use in perimeter rooms of multi storey,
multi room building that may have reversing sensible heat characteristics. It is
especially adapted to handle the loads of skyscrapers with minimum space
requirement for mechanical equipment.
In the induction system, ducted primary air is fed into a small plenum chamber
where its pressure is reduced by means of a suitable damper to the level required
at the nozzles. The plenum is acoustically treated to attenuate part of the noise
generated in the duct system and in the unit.
The primary air is then delivered through nozzles as high velocity jets which
induce secondary air from the room and over the secondary coil.
Induction units are usually installed at a perimeter wall under a window.
Some hotel rooms are providing with induction coils.
The induction system employs air ducts to convey treated air with higher pressure
levels and of the right adjustable quantities to various cooling/heating coil units.
These coil units are built in with induction nozzles such that when high pressure
air goes through them, air room the room is inducted across the fin surface of the
water-circulated coils. This inducted air stream is either cooled or heated after
passing through the coil, and then mixed with the air coming out of the nozzle.
The right quantity of high pressure air is adjusted automatically in response to a
thermostat located in the conditioned space. The system is well suited to provide
temperature control for individual spaces or zones.

Advantages:
1. Individual room temperature control.
2. Separate sources of heating and cooling for each space available as needed to
satisfy a wide range of load variations.
3. Low distribution system space required as a result of reducing the air supply by
use of secondary water for cooling and high velocity air design.
4. Reduced size of central air handling equipment
5. Dehumidification & Filtration performed in a central plant room remote from
conditioned space
6. Outdoor air supply is positive.
7. Minimal maintenance is required for individual induction units which have no
moving parts, i.e no fans
8. Air duct dimensions are smaller than VAV systems or CAV systems

9. Zoning of central equipment is not required

10. No fan comes together with the coil, making conditioned space quiet

Disadvantages:
1. Limited perimeter space
2.The primary air supply is usually constant with no provision for shutoff
3. Not applicable to spaces with high exhaust requirement.
4. Higher energy consumption due to increased power required by the primary
pressure drop in the terminal units
5. Controls tend to be more complex than for all-air systems
6. A low chilled water temperature is needed to control space humidity
adequately
7. Seasonal changeover is necessary
8. Initial cost is usually higher than fan coil systems.

Fan Coil System

- The Fan Coil System is similar to the inducting system, with the induction unit
replaced by the fan-coil unit. The basic elements of the fan-coil units are a finned-
tube coil and a fan section. The fan section recirculates air continuously from
within the perimeter space through the coil which is supplied with either hot or
chilled water. Auxiliary air may be delivered to the conditioned space for
dehumidification and ventilation purposes.

Advantages (in addition to those for induction units)

1. System can be operated with the primary air turned off
2. The air velocity is fairly constant regardless of the primary air quantity
3. Primary air can either connect directly to fan-coil unit or supply the room
separately
Two pipe systems
- In two pipe systems for induction coil, fan-coil or radiant panel systems, the
water distribution circuit consists of one supply and one return pipe.
The secondary water Is cold in summer and intermediate seasons and warm in
winter. The primary air quantity is fixed and the primary air temperature is varied
in reverse proportion to outside temperature to provide the necessary amount of
heating during summer and intermediate seasons. During winter cycle operation,
the primary air is preheated and supplied at about 10°C. to provide a source of
cooling.
Advantages:
1. Usually less expensive to install than four pipe systems
Disadvantages:
1. Less capable of handling widely varying loads or providing widely varying choice
of room temperature than four-pipe systems
2. Cumbersome to change over
3. More costly to operate than four-pipe systems.

Three pipe systems

- Three pipe systems for induction coil, fan coil and radiant panel systems have
three pipes to each terminal unit, a cold water pipe, a warm water pipe and a
common return. These systems are rarely used today because they consume
excess energy.

Four pipe systems

- Four-pipe systems have a cold water supply, cold water return, warm water
supply and warm water return. The terminal unit usually has two independent
secondary water coils, one served by hot water, the other by cold water. The
primary air is cold and remains at the same temperature year-round.
Advantages:
1. More flexible and adaptable to widely varying loads.
2. Simpler to operate (No summer-winter changeover and primary air reheat
schedule)
3. Higher efficiency due to lower operating costs.
Disadvantages
1. Higher initial cost

Central chilled water air conditioning systems – all-water Systems

- All water systems are those with fan-coil, unit ventilator or valance type room
terminals with unconditioned ventilation air supplied by an opening through the
wall or by infiltration. Cooling and dehumidification is provided by circulating
chilled water through a finned coil in the unit. Heating is provided by supplying
hot water through the same or separate coil.
System Advantages:
1. Flexible and readily adaptable to many building module requirements
2. Provides individual room control

System Disadvantages:
1. No positive ventilation is provided unless wall openings are used
2. No humidification is provided
3. Seasonal change over is required
4. Maintenance and service work has to be done in occupied areas

Fan coil units

- A fan coil unit basically consists of a finned tube coil, a filter and a fan section.
The fan recirculates air continuously from the space through the coil, which
contains either hot or chilled water.

Central chilled water air conditioning system with fan coils and other devices
- In this system, the following circuits do not mix with each other, and heat
exchange is performed via various metal surfaces:
- the chilled water circuit – nominally 12 deg .C entering water chiller, 7 deg. C
leaving chiller, i.e. nominally 7 deg .C entering fan coil units [FCU]/air handling unit
[AHU]/primary handling unit [PAU]- for treating fresh air, 12 deg .C leaving these
devices – chilled water pumps move water through this circuit – CH. W. F- chilled
water flow ; CH. W. R- chilled water flow return.
Refrigerant circuit – refrigerant compressors move the refrigerant through this
circuit.
Cooling water circuit – nominally 35 deg .C entering water cooling tower , 30
deg .C leaving cooling tower, i.e. nominally 30 deg .C entering condenser of chiller
assembly, 35 deg. C leaving condenser of chiller assembly – Condenser water
pumps move condenser water through this circuit
Water cooling tower
- a water cooling tower cools the water entering it from 35 deg . C to 30 deg. C
nominally. The warmer water is sprayed inside the cooling tower admidst the
stream of an upward air flow produced by the fan at the top of the tower. The air
stream going out carries water particles. These water particles should not be
taken into buildings, to avoid Legionnaire diseases to occur. Condenser water
pumps move condenser water through this circuit. Water in this circuit has to be
treated. There is water loss to atmosphere in using cooling towers.

Direct expansion Systems

Direct expansion Systems – Window air Conditioners
- A window unit is an encased assembly design primarily for mounting in a
window, through a wall, or as a console. These units are designed for comfort
cooling and to provide delivery of conditioned air to a room either without ducts
or with very short ducts. They include a prime source of refrigeration,
dehumidification, means for circulating and cleaning air, and may also include
means for ventilating, and/or exhausting and heating.

In a window air conditioner, the indoor unit and outdoor unit of the split system is
put into the single unit. The refrigerant compressor now is part of the machine
locating at the window area. Since this compressor gives out most noise, among
other components, the window unit will make the room acoustically inferior to
other air conditioning systems.

Fresh air exchange for the room can be provided by:

(1) Setting the “ventilator” switch of the window air conditioner to “open”
position
(2) Installing a ventilating extract fan in the room to extract room air to outside –
caution not to oversize the fan
(3) Naturally leaking in and out of the room

Direct expansion Systems – Split type and package air conditioning Systems

Package air conditioning systems

- Factory assembled (floor mounting) package, placed indoor, containing direct
expansion coil, controls, fan and compressor, with the condenser remotely placed
outdoor ; commonly used in Hong Kong for restaurants café shops, factories, etc.

Split air conditioning systems

-Factory assembled (ceiling mounting) indoor unit of fan and direct expansion
coil, controls, with the condensing unit [i.e. compressor and condensing coil]
remotely placed outdoor ; commonly used in Hong Kong for café shops, small
offices, some domestic units etc.

The basic concepts of a split air conditioning system (Small System)

a. A split air conditioning system
- Consists of an indoor unit and an outdoor unit connected together by
refrigerant pipes. The refrigerant circulates between these 2 units [i.e. 2 parts of
the system] to take heat from indoor to outdoor, by firstly having heat of the room
air absorbed into the refrigerant via an air-refrigerant heat exchanger which is the
indoor unit, then conveying the heat into the outdoor unit for disposal.
b. The indoor unit
-- Comprises a finned coil and a fan which is driven by an electric motor.
Refrigerant is inside the finned coil to the outside unit and then back to the indoor
unit. The fan pulls or pushes air around the outer surfaces of the coil inside the
indoor unit, taking warm air from the room injecting cooled air into the room in
summer. The refrigerant has no direct contact with air. So the heat of the room air
is transferred into the refrigerant in the indoor unit. Inside the coil, refrigerant
evaporates, and the indoor unit is therefore commonly called an evaporator by
the engineers. The indoor unit is wall-mount or ceiling mount unit.

c. The outdoor unit

- The refrigerant then takes the heat from the indoor unit to the outdoor unit,
which is commonly called a condensing unit. [i.e. a unit for refrigerant to
condense] In an air-cooled outdoor unit, heat exchange occurs in the same way as
the outdoor unit. However, the outdoor unit contains a refrigerant compressor, in
addition to having a finned coil and a motor-driven fan. The refrigerant does not
have direct contact with air. Refrigerant going through this outdoor coil is losing its
energy across the metal surface of the coil to the atmosphere, as outside air is
drawn pass the surface of the finned coil, the outside air is heated up, by normally
5 deg. Rise in temperature. The outside air passing through the outdoor unit is an
open circuit. That is, air path is not recirculated.
The refrigerant compressor, which usually is installed inside the outdoor unit, is
pumping the refrigerant through the indoor unit and the outdoor unit [in the split
system therefore the compressor-generating noise when pumping refrigerant- is
located outdoor, inside the outdoor unit] The refrigerant takes up energy as it
goes through the indoor unit, and rejects energy to the outside atmosphere as it
goes through the outdoor unit. Energy rejected is the sum of the energy taken
indoor plus the energy consumed by the compressor in pumping the refrigerant
through the refrigerant circuit. This refrigerant circuit is a closed circuit, and if pipe
joints are well installed, no leakage of refrigerant should occur.

d. Air circuits for the indoor environment

- the air passing through the indoor unit is cooled, say to 15 deg .C, before
recirculated back to the room. A large part of air is heated up in the room, say 25
deg. [Note: Design room temperature is 23 deg. C, in general for human comfort]
then goes back to the indoor unit for cooling. A small part of the room air is
extracted to outside by an exhaust fan, with an amount of fresh air outside air
coming in to replenish this amount exhausted. Now this make up air can be
supplied by connecting a small air duct from an external opening to the indoor
unit.

e. Single splits and multiple splits

Single split – one indoor unit is connected to one outdoor unit by insulated copper
refrigerant pipes
Multiple splits – several indoor units are connected to one outdoor unit by
insulated copper refrigerant pipes.

f. Energy saving options

- If heat rejection in the outdoor unit is taken care by cooling water, there would
be a saving of 30% of energy. In urban areas, cooling water can be provided by
fresh water cooling towers. The water cooling tower can be placed at the top of a
building, with a pump drawing water from it to circulate the condensing water to
the outdoor units of the split system. After taking up heat from the outdoor unit,
with an increase of unusually 5 deg. C, condensing water is circulated back to the
cooling water for cooling again, Of course the finned coil of the outdoor unit has
to be replaced by a water – cooled condenser.
Another efficient option is to have a few additional valves and controls added to
the basic split system to make it to serve as a heat pump system in winter. That is,
the refrigerant will do a reverse job in taking heat from outside, and rejecting it to
the indoor environment. Thus the refrigerant goes through a reversed cycle by
taking heat from outside and rejecting heat to the room. One unit of energy for
pumping the refrigerant will cause 4 units of energy to be taken from the outside,
i.e. totally 5 units of energy, into the room.

g. A variant of split air conditioning system – A packaged system

- If the refrigerant compressor of the outdoor unit of the split air conditioning
system is installed together with the indoor unit, it is called a packaged system.
The compressor now is put indoor, making the machine less quite than the split
system. However this will allow a larger cooling capacity for the indoor unit, which
then will be floor-mount usually. A packaged system is needed if the outdoor unit,
now called a condenser, is put on the roof top, with the indoor unit few floors
from below.
h. Direct expansion air conditioning equipments
- Consist of factory-matched refrigeration cycle components for inclusion is air-
conditioning systems which are field designed to meet the needs of the user. The
following list of variations is indicative of the vast number of types of unitary air
conditioners presently available.
1. Arrangement – Single or split
2. Heat rejection – decorative for in-space applications, functional for equipment
room and ducts, weatherproofed for outdoors.
3. Unit exterior – decorative for in-space applications, functional for equipment
room and ducts, weatherproofed for outdoors.
4. Placement- floor standing, wall-mounted, ceiling suspended, roof mounted
5. Indoor air – vertical upflow, coutnerflow, horizontal 90 degree and 180 degree
turns, with fan or for use with forced air furnace.

6. Locations
- Indoor – exposed with plenums or furred In ductwork ; concealed in closets,
attic, crawl spaces , basements , garages or equipment room
- Wall – Built in window transom.
- Outdoor- rooftop, wall mounted or on ground

Heat pumps
- the term heat pump, as applied to a year round air conditioning system,
commonly denotes a system in which refrigeration equipment is used in such
manner that heat is taken from a heat source and given up to the conditioned
space when the heating service is wanted, and is removed from the space and
discharged to a heat sink when cooling and dehumidification are desired
Heat pumps for air conditioning service are
a) Type of heat source and sink
b) Heating and cooling distribution fluid
c) Type of thermodynamic cycle
d) Type of building structure
e) Size and configuration

Air-to-air heat pumps

- the air to air heat pumps is most common type of heat pumps. It is particularly
suitable for factory built unitary heat pumps and has been widely used for
residential and commercial application. Air is used as the heat source and heat
sink. Extended surface, forced convection heat transfer coils are normally
employed to transfer the heat between the air and the refrigerant. When
selecting or designing an air-source heat pump, two factors must be taken to
consideration
1. The variation in temperature is experienced in a given locality
2. The formation of frost

Water source heat pumps

- The water source heat pumps uses water and air as the heat source or heat sink
depending on the mode of operation. When cooling, water is used as the heat
sink, and the heat pump operates as water-cooled air conditioner. When heating,
water is used as the heat source and the equipment operates as a water chiller.
The water source heat pump is suitable for many types of multi room buildings
including office buildings, hotels , schools, apartment buildings, manufacturing
facilities and hospitals.
Advantages:
1. Affords opportunity for energy conservation by recovering heat from interior
zones and or waste heat and by storing excess heat from daytime cooling for night
time heating.
2. No wall openings required
3. Longer expected life than air-cooled heat pumps.
4. Lower noise level because condenser fans are eliminated
5. Energy for the heat pumps can be metered directly to each tenant
6. Total life cycle cost frequently compares favorably to central systems when
considering relative installed cost, operating costs and system life
Disadvantages
1. Space required for boiler, heat exchanger, pumps for heat rejector
2. Higher initial cost than for most other multiple packaged unit systems
3. Reduced air flow can cause the heat pump to cycle cutout. Good filter
maintenance is imperative.

Refrigerant
- a refrigerant is a compound used in a heat cycle that undergoes a phase change
from a gas to a liquid and back. The two main uses of refrigerants are
refrigerators/freezers and air conditioners (cf.coolant).
since it was discovered in the 1980s that the most widely used refrigerants were
major causes of ozone depletion, a worldwide phase-out of ozone depleting
refrigerants has been undertaken. These are being replaced with ozone friendly
refrigerants.
Refrigerants by class
Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of
absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:
Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change (typically
boiling) using the refrigerants latent heat.
Class 2: This refrigerators cool by temperature change or sensible heat, the
quantity of heat being the specific heat capacity x the temperature change. They
are air, calcium chloride brine, sodium chloride brine, alcohol, and similar
nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of class 2 refrigerants is to receive a reduction
of temperature from class 1 refrigerants and convey this lower temperature to the
area to be air conditioned.
Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of
liquefiable agents or refrigerating media. These solutions function by nature of
their ability to carry liquefiable vapors, which produce a cooling effect by the
absorption of their heat of solution they can also be classified into many
categories

Numbering
The R-# numbering system was developed by DuPont and systematically identifies
the molecular structure of refrigerants made with a single halogenated
hydrocarbon. The meaning of the codes is as follows:

• Remaining bonds not accounted for are occupied by chlorine atoms

• a suffix of a lower case letters a,b, or c indicates increasingly unbalanced
isomers
• As a special case, the R-400 series is made up of zeotropic blends (those where
the boiling point of constituent compounds differs enough to lead to changes in
relative concentration because of fractional distillation) and the R-500 series is
made up of so called azeotropic blends. The rightmost digit is assigned arbitrarily
by ASHRAE, an industry organization.

Common refrigerants
Today, there are three specific types of refrigerants used in refrigeration and air
conditioning systems:
1. Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, such as R-11, R-12 and R-114
2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons or HFCs such as R-22 or R-123
3. Hydrofluorocarbons or HFCs, such as R-134a. All these refrigerants are
“halogenated” which means they contain chlorine, fluorine, bromine, astatine or
iodine.

Refrigerants, such as Dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12),

Monochlorodifluoromethane (R-22) and Refrigerant 502 (R-502) are called
PRIMARY REFRIGERANTS because each one changes its state upon the
application or absorption of heat and in this act of change absorbs and extracts
heat from the area or substance.

The primary refrigerant is so termed because it acts directly upon the area or
substance, although it may be enclosed within a system. For a primary refrigerant
to cool, it must be placed in a closed system in which it can be controlled by the
pressure imposed upon it. The refrigerant can then absorb at the temperature
ranges desired. If a primary refrigerant were used without being controlled, it
would absorb heat from the most perishables and freeze them solid.

SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS are substances, such as air, water or brine. Through

hot refrigerants in themselves, they have been cooled by the primary refrigeration
system; they pass over around the areas and substances to be cooled; and they
are returned with their heat load to the primary refrigeration system. Secondary
refrigerants pay off where the cooling effect must be moved over a long distance
and gaslight lines cost too much.

Refrigerants are classified into groups. The National Refrigeration Safety Code
catalogs all refrigerants into three groups:
• Group 1 – safest of the refrigerants, such as R-12, R-22 and R-502
• Group 2 – toxic and somewhat flammable, such as R-40 (Methyl Chloride) and
R-764 (sulfur dioxide)
• Group 3 – Flammable refrigerants such as, R-170 (Ethane) and R-290 (Propane)
Heat transfer
-heat transfer is that science that seeks to predict the energy transfer which may
take place between material bodies such as a result of a temperature difference.
Thermodynamics teaches that this energy transfer is defined as heat. The science
of heat transfer seeks not merely to explain how heat energy may be transferred,
but to also predict the rate at which exchange will take place under certain
specified condition.

Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into 3 broad categories:

1. Conduction or heat conduction or conduction heat transfer is heat transfer by
means of molecular agitation within a material without any motion of the
material as a whole. If one end of a metal rod is at higher temperature, then
energy will be transferred down the rod toward the colder end because the
higher speed particles will collide with the slower ones with a net transfer of
energy to the slower ones, For heat transfer between two plane surfaces, such as
heat loss through the wall of a house, the rate of conduction heat transfer is:

kA (Tʰ −Tᶜ )
Q= Where:
△x

Q = Conduction heat transfer rate, Watts

w
k = Thermal Conductivity of the material m−° C

A = Surface area of the heat being transferred, m²

Tʰ = Hotter Temperature °C
Tᶜ = Colder Temperature °C
△x = Thickness of material, m
The thermal conductivity of a substance k is an intensive property that indicates
its ability to conduct heat.

2. Convection or Heat convection or convection heat transfer is transfer of heat by

movement of heated fluid. Unlike the case of pure conduction, now currents in
fluids are additionally involved in convection. This movement occurs into a fluid or
within a fluid, and cannot happen in solids. In solids, molecules keep their relative
position to such an extent that bulk movement or flow is prohibited, and
therefore convection does not occur. The rate Convection of heat transfer is:

Q=hA ( TʷT ∞ ) Where:

Q = Convective Heat Transfer Rate, Watts

w
h = heat transfer coefficient 2
m −° C

A = Surface area of the heat being transferred m²

Tʷ = Wall surface temperature °C
T∞ = Fluid Temperature °C

The heat transfer coefficient , h , sometimes called film conductance because of

its relation to conduction process in the thin stationary layer of the fluid at the
wall surface.
A. Natural Convection or natural convective heat transfer (sometimes known as
free convection) a fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less
dense and rises. The surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it. This
cooler fluid is then heated and the process continues, forming convection current.
The driving force for natural convection is buoyancy, a result of differences in fluid
density when gravity or any type of acceleration is present in the system.
By definition, the natural convection does not occur in systems in “zero-g” or in
free fall, or generally following inertial paths (such as a spacecraft in orbit)

B. Forced convection by contrast, occurs when pumps, fans or other means are
used to propel the fluid and create an artificially induced convection current.
Forced heat convection is sometimes referred to as heat advection, or sometimes
simply advection for short. But advection is a more general process, and in heat
advection, the substance being “advected” in the fluid field is simply heat (rather
than mass, which is the other natural component in such situations in such
situations, as mass transfer and heat transfer share generally the same equations)

3. Radiation Heat Transfer is the transfer of heat energy through empty space. All
objects with a temperature above absolute zero radiate energy at a rate equal to
their emissivity multiplied by the rate at which energy would radiate from them if
they were a black body. No medium is necessary for radiation to occur; radiation
works even in and through a perfect vacuum.

4 4
T −T
Q=∈σ 1 2 )
¿
Where:
Q = Radiated Heat Transfer Rate, Watts
∈ = Emissivity

σ = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, 5.6704 x 10 ⁻⁸ W m ⁻² K ⁻⁴

T ¹ = Temperature of Radiator, K
T ² = Temperature of surrounding, K

The emissivity of a material (usually written ε or e) is the ratio of energy radiated

by a particular material to energy radiated by a black body at the same
temperature. It is a measure of a material’s ability to radiate absorbed energy. A
true black body would have an ε = 1while any real object would have ε <1.
Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity (does not have units).
The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant (also Stefan’s constant), a physical constant
denoted by the Greek letter σ, is the constant of proportionality in the Stefan-
Boltzmann law: the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body in
unit time is proportional to the fourth power of the thermodynamic temperature.

Gas compressors
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both
can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor
also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the
main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

Types of compressors:
The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below:
Centrifugal compressors
- use a muskan rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to
rim the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct)
section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used
for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and
petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be
from 100hp (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can
achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).

Many large snow-making operations (like ski resorts) use this type of compressor.
They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and
turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or
as the final compression stage of medium sized gas turbines.

Diagonal or mixed flow compressors

- Are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity
component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal
flow to the axial direction. The diagonal compressor has a lower diameter diffuser
than the equivalent centrifugal compressor.

Axial flow compressors

- are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like aerofoils to
progressively compress the working fluid. They are used where there is a
requirement for a high flow rate a compact design.
The arrays of aerofoils are set in rows, usually as pairs; one rotating and one
stationary. The rotating aerofoils, also known as strators or vanes, turn and
decelerate the fluid; preparing and redirecting the flow for the rotor blades of the
next stage. Axial compressors are almost always multi staged, with the cross
sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain
an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure
ratio, variable geometry is normally used to improve operation.
Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their
design conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large
number of components, tight tolerances and high quality materials. Axial-flow
compressors can be found in medium to large gas turbine engines, in natural gas
pumping stations, and within certain chemical plants.

Reciprocating compressors
- use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can either be stationary or portable, can
be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal
combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower
(hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for
intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors are well over 1,000 hp
(750kW) are still commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications.
Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>6000psi
or 41.4 MPa). I certain applications, such as air compression, multi stage double
acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and
are typically larger, noisier and more costly than comparable rotary units.

Rotary screw compressors

- use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas
into the a smaller space. These are usually used for continuous operation in
commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable.
Their application can be from 3hp (2.24 kW) to over 500 hp ( 375 kw) and from
low pressure to very high pressure (>1200 psi or 8.3 MPa).

Rotary vane compressors

- consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in radial slots in the rotor.
The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing which can be circular or a more
complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades slide in and out of the slots keeping
contact with the outer wall of the housing. Thus, a series of decreasing volumes is
created by the rotating blades. Rotary Vane compressors are, with piston
compressors one of the oldest of compressor technologies.
With suitable port connections, the devices may be either a compressor or a
vacuum pump. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi
staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Dry
vane machines are used at relatively low pressures (e.g. 2 bar) for bulk material
movement whilst oil-injected machines have the necessary volumetric efficiency
to achieve pressures up to about 13 bar in a single stage. A rotary vane
compressor is well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in
operation than the equivalent piston compressor.
A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two
interleaved spiral like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases.
The vane geometry may be involute, archimedean spiral or hybrid curves. They
operate more smoothly, quietly and reliably than other types of compressors in
the lower volume range
Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without
rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid or gas
between the scrolls.

A diaphragm compressor (also known as membrane compressor)

- is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of
gas occurs by the movement of the flexible membrane, instead of an intake
element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a
crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box come in
touch with the gas being compressed.
Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG)
as well as in number of other applications.

Expansion Valve
- A thermostatic expansion valve (often abbreviated as TXV or TX valve) is a
component in refrigeration and air conditioning system that controls the amount
of superheat at the outlet of the evaporator. This is accomplished by the use of a
temperature sensing bulb filled with a similar gas as in the system that causes the
valve to open against the spring pressure in the valve body as the temperature on
the bulb increases. As temperatures in the evaporator decrease, so does the
pressure in the bulb and therefore on the spring causing the valve to close. An air
conditioning system with a TX valve is often more efficient than other designs that
do not use one.
A thermostatic expansion valve is a key element to a refrigeration cycle; the cycle
that makes air conditioning, or air cooling, possible. A basic refrigeration cycle
consists of four major elements, as air conditioning occurs.
The cycle starts when refrigerant enters the compressor in gaseous form.
The refrigerant is compressed by the compressor to a high pressure and
temperature state. The high pressure and temperature gas then enters the
condenser. The condenser changes the high pressure and temperature gas to a
high temperature liquid by expelling heat either to the ambient air or a fluid
similar to the action of an automotive radiator. The high temperature liquid then
enters the expansion valve where the valve acts on the refrigerant and changes it
to a low pressure and temperature liquid. The low pressure and temperature
liquid is now suitable for cooling. The low temperature and pressure liquid enters
an evaporator in which heat is absorbed from the air or another fluid and the
cooling action takes place. After exiting the evaporator, the refrigerant is now a
low pressure gas. The low pressure gas enters the compressor and the cycle
repeats.

Thermostatic expansion valve

- The TEV valve maintains the pressure difference (high and low) at the entry point
to the cooling coil, thus assuring that as the high-pressure refrigerant enters the
low pressure space of the cooling coil it can “evaporate” from a refrigerant liquid
to a gaseous form, thus producing the temperature drop that cools the cooling
coil itself.

The air conditioning system thermal expansion valve, or more properly called a
thermostatic expansion valve “TEV” is a metering device which regulates the flow
of refrigerant from the incoming high pressure side (from the
compressor/condenser) into the low pressure side (in the cooling coil).

Condenser
- in systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to
condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. In
so doing, the latent heat is given up by the substance and will transfer to the
condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have various
designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather small (hand held) to very
large industrial scale units used in plant processes. For example, a refrigerator
uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the
outside air. Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes
such as distillation, steam power plants and other-heat exchange systems. Use of
cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers .

Example types of condensers:

• A surface condenser is an example of such heat exchange system. It is a shell
and tube heat exchanger installed at the very outlet of every steam turbine in
thermal power stations. Commonly, the cooling tower flows through the tube side
and the steam enters the shell side when the condensate occurs on the outside of
the heat transfer tubes. The condensate collects at the bottom, often in a built in
pan called hotwell. The shell side often operates at a vacuum or partial vacuum,
often produced by attached air ejectors.
In laboratory distillation reflux and rotary evaporators, several types of
condensers are commonly used. The Liebig condenser is simply a straight tube
within a cooling water jacket, and is the simplest (and relatively least expensive)
form of condenser. The Graham condenser is a spiral tube within a water jacket,
and the Allihn condenser has a series of large and small constrictions on the
inside tube, each increasing the surface area upon which the vapor constituents
may condense. Being more complex shapes to manufacture, these latter types are
also more expensive to purchase. These are three types of condensers are
laboratory glassware items since they are typically made of glass. Commercially
available condensers usually are fitted with ground glass joints and come in
standard lengths of 100,200 and 400 mm. Air cooled condensers are unjacketed,
while water cooler condensers contain a jacket for the water.
• Larger condensers are also used in industrial –scale distillation process to cooled
distilled vapor into liquid distillate. Commonly, the coolant flows through the tube
side and distilled vapor through the shell side with distillate collecting at or
flowing out of the bottom.
• A condenser unit used in central air conditioning systems typically has a heat
exchanger section to cool down and condense incoming refrigerant vapor into
liquid, a compressor to raise the pressure of the refrigerant and move it along,
and a fan for blowing outside air through the heat exchanger section to cool the
refrigerant inside. A typical configuration of such a condenser unit is as follows:
The heat exchanger section wraps around the sides of the unit with the
compressor inside. In this heat exchanger section, the refrigerant goes through
multiple tube passes, which are surrounded by heat transfer fins through which
cooling air can circulate from outside to inside the unit. There is a
motorized fan inside the condenser unit near the top, which is covered by some
grating to keep any objects from accidentally falling inside on the fan. The fan is
used to pull outside cooling air in through the heat exchanger section at the sides
and blow it out the top through the grating. These condenser units are located on
the outside of the building they are trying to cool, with tubing between the unit
and building, one for vapor refrigerant entering and another for liquid refrigerant
leaving the unit. Of course, an electric power supply is needed for the compressor
and fan inside the unit.

• Direct contact condenser in this type of condenser, vapors are poured into the
liquid directly. The vapors lose their latent heat of vaporization; hence, vapors
transfer their heat into liquid and the liquid becomes hot. In this type of
condensation, the vapor and liquid are of same type of substance.
There are three basic type of condensers – air cooled, water cooled and
evaporative The first two are the most common, but the evaporative types are
used where low-quality water and its disposal make the use of circulating water-
cooled types impractical.

Air cooled condensers

- The construction of air cooled condensers makes use of several layers of small
tubing formed into flat cells. The external surface of this tubing is provided with
fins to ease the transfer of heat from the condensing refrigerant inside the tubes
to the air circulated through the condenser core around the external surface of
the tubes (fig. 6-20). Condensation takes place as the refrigerant flows through
the tubing, and the liquid refrigerant is discharged from the lower ends of the
tubing coils to a liquid receiver on the condensing unit assembly.

Water Cooled Condensers

- Water-cooled condensers are of the multipass shell and tube type, with
circulating water flowing through the tubes. The refrigerant vapor is admitted to
the shell and condensed on the outer surfaces of the tubes.
The condenser is constructed with a tube sheet brazed to each end of a shell.
Copper-nickel tubes are inserted through drilled openings in the tube sheet and
are expanded or rolled into the tube sheet to make a gastight seal. Headers, or
water boxes, are bolted to the tube sheet to complete the waterside of the
condenser. Zinc-wasting bars are installed in the water boxes to minimize
electrolytic corrosion of the condenser parts.
A purge connection with a valve is at the topside of the condenser shell to allow
manual release of any accumulated air in the refrigerant circuit.
The capacity of the water cooled condenser is affected by the temperature of the
water, quantity of the water circulated, and the temperature of the refrigerant
gas. The capacity of the condenser varies whenever the temperature difference
between the refrigerant gas and the water is changed. An increased temperature
difference or greater flow of water increases the capacity of the condenser. The
use of colder water can cause the temperature difference to increase.
Evaporative Condensers
- An evaporative condenser operates on the principle that heat can be removed
from condensing coils by spraying them with water or letting water drip onto
them and then forcing air through coils by a fan. This evaporation of the water
cools the coils condenses the refrigerant within.

Evaporator
- within a downstream processing system, several stages are used to further
isolate and purify the desired product. The overall structure of the process
includes pre treatment, solid liquid separation, concentration and purification and
formulation. Evaporation falls into the concentration stage of downstream
processing and is widely used to concentrate foods, chemicals, salvage solvents.
The goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution
containing a desired product. After initial pre-treatment and separation, a solution
often contains over 85% water. This is not suitable of industry usage because of
the cost associated with processing such a large quantity of solution, such as need
of larger equipment.

Types of evaporators:

Natural/Forced circulation evaporator

- Natural circulation evaporators are based on the natural circulation of the
product caused by the density differences that arise from heating. In an
evaporator using tubing, after the water begins to boil, bubbles will rise and cause
circulation, facilitating the separation of the liquid and the vapor at the top of the
heating tubes. The amount of evaporation that takes place depends on the
temperature difference between the steam and the solution. Problems can arise if
the tubes are not well-immersed in the solution. If this occurs, the system will be
dried out and circulation compromised. In order to avoid this, forced circulation
can be used by inserting a pump to increase pressure and circulation. Forced
circulation occurs when hydrostatic head prevents boiling at the heating surface.
A pump can also be used to avoid fouling that is caused by the boiling liquid on
the tubes; the pump suppresses bubble formation. Other problems are that
residing time is undefined and the consumption of steam is very high, but at high
temperatures, good circulation is easily achieved.

Falling film evaporator

- This type of evaporator is generally made of long tubes (4-8 meters in length)
which are surrounded by steam jackets. The uniform distribution of the solution is
important when using this type of evaporator. The solution enters and gains
velocity as it flows downward. This gain in velocity is attributed to the vapor being
evolved against the heating medium, which flows downward as well. This
evaporator is applicable to highly viscous solutions so it is frequently used in the
chemical, food and fermentation industry.

Rising film (Long Tube Vertical) evaporator

- In this type of evaporator, boiling takes place inside the tubes, due to heating
made (usually by steam) outside the same. Submergence is therefore not desired;
the creation of water vapour bubbles inside the tube creates an ascencional flow
enhancing the heat transfer coefficient. This type of evaporator is therefore quite
efficient, the disadvantage being to be prone to quick scaling of the internal
surface of the tubes. This design is then usually applied to clear, non salting
solutions. Tubes are usually quite long (4+ metre); sometimes a small recycle is
provided. Sizing this type of evaporator is usually a delicate task, since it requires
a precise evaluation of the actual level of the process liquor inside the tubes.
Recent applications tend to favor the falling film pattern rather than this one.
Plate evaporator
- Plate evaporators have a relatively large surface area. The plates are usually
corrugated and are supported by frame. During evaporation, steam flows through
the channels formed by the free spaces between the plates. The steam
alternatively climbs and and falls parallel to the concentrated liquid. The
concentrate and the vapor is sent to the condenser. Plate evaporators are
frequently applied in the dairy and fermentation industries since they have special
flexibility. A negative point of this type of evaporator is that it is limited in its
ability to treat viscous or solid-containing products.

Multiple-effect evaporators
- Unlike single stage evaporators, these evaporators can be made up of to seven
evaporator stages or effects. The energy consumption for single-effect
evaporators is very high and makes up most of the cost for an evaporation system.
Putting together evaporators saves heat and thus requires less energy. Adding one
evaporator to the original decreases the energy consumption to 50% of the
original amount. Adding another effect reduces it to 33% and so on. A heat saving
% equation can be used to estimate how much one will save by adding a certain
amount of effects.
The number of effects in a multiple effect evaporator is usually restricted to seven
because after that, the equipment cost starts catching up to the money saved
from the energy requirement drop.
There are two types of feeding that can be used when dealing with multiple effect
evaporators. Forward feeding takes place when the product enters the system
through the first effect, which is at the highest temperature. The product is then
partially concentrated as some of the water is transformed into vapor and carried
away. It is then fed into the second effect which is a little lower in temperature.
The second effect uses the heated vapor created in the first stage as its heating
source (hence the saving in energy expenditure). The combination of lower
temperatures and higher viscosities in subsequent effects provides good
conditions for treating heat sensitive products like enzymes and proteins. In using
this system an increase in the heating surface area of subsequent effects is
required. Another way to proceed is by using backward feeding. In this process,
the dilute products is fed into the last effect with has the lowest temperature and
is transferred from effect to effect with the temperature increasing. The final
concentrate is collected in the hottest effect which provides an advantage in that
the product is highly viscous in the last stages so the heat transfer is considerably
better.

Cooling towers
A tower offers an economical approach to cool large amounts of water with
minimum energy requirements. A tower system is usually used to cool heat loads
with 85 deg. F water. This is the optimum operating temperature for hydraulic oil,
chiller condensers (to cool refrigerants), and auxiliaries such as mold temperature
controllers air compressors. However, the advantages and limitations of cooling
towers must be understood before the equipment is selected for or applied to
process cooling.

Cooling tower theory

The controlling principle of a tower system is water’s inherent nature to lower its
own temperature as it evaporates. By evaporating a small part of the process
water, the temperature of all process water is lowered.
Tower cells accomplish this by spraying fine water droplets in a contained
environment, This droplets fall through a steam upwardly moving air. The more
contact time of the air and water, the greater the amount of evaporative and heat
transfer. To significantly increase the amount of contact time, cells include “fill”
material to reduce the free falling of water and enlarge the surface area of water
to air. The result is greater exposure of water to air. With an increase in exposure,
there is a corresponding increase in cooling capacity.

Air must absorb water for evaporation to occur. The higher the level of humidity,
the less air is able to absorb water and, as a result the less efficient the tower
system in cooling. Typically, cooling tower systems capacity are rated to lower 95
deg. F water to 85 deg. F at 78 deg. F wet bulb. Wet bulb temperature of the air is
the lowest temperature possible for evaporation due to ambient or surrounding
environment so the temperature of the water cannot drop below the prevailing
wet bulb temperature of the air.
Each tower system must be specifically sized for each geographic area’s prevailing
summer wet bulb temperature. While some geographic areas may experience
cold climates, a tower’s cooling capability is usually set at no colder than 70 deg. F
during winter months. High efficiency mechanical draft towers cool the water to
within 5 or 6 deg. F of the wet bulb temperature, while natural draft towers cool
within 10 to 12 deg. F
Types of cooling towers
There are three types of towers the first, a forced draft tower, has a sensor to
thermostatically control the cooling tower fan. The sensor monitors the process
water temperature after it exits from the tower. The fan engages or disengages
when the process water temperature rises either above or below the desired set
point.
A second type of tower, induced draft has a fan in the wet air stream to draw air
through the fill. Cooling Technology generally recommends this type of tower cell
industrial processes.
A third type, ejector natural draft tower, has no mechanical means to create
airflow. In this case, water pumps to the tower, enters a manifold with nozzles,
and ejects under high pressure that induces a draft of air. The finely sprayed water
contacts the free flowing air to perform the evaporation process.
In all types, towers use the force of gravity to drain water into an indoor pump
and tank station. The pump delivers the water to process through piping where it
picks up heat. The now warmed water continues to flow back to the outdoor
tower through the return lines. The cycle continuously repeats.
Factory assembles cooling towers are available in numerous sizes starting at less
than 5 tons and reaching several hundred tons capacities are designed by banking
several units together and piping them to operate in tandem.
Cooling tower systems
There are two basic types of evaporative cooling tower systems designed by CTI:
• Conventional open cooling tower system
• Closed loop cooling tower system
A conventional open cooling tower system has an outdoor tower cell. As water
cascades through the cell, it cools itself through evaporation and the cool water
flows into the tank. The tank is typically indoors to avoid danger of freezing. To
improve temperature stability, the installation of a dedicated pump for tower
water recirculation and a baffle in the tower system becomes a two pump system.

With a two pump system, warm process return water is isolated to one side of the
baffled tank. The circulation pump circulates this warm water through the tower
where it cools. The tower cascades water to a second, coldwater sump. It is from
the cold sump that the process pump circulates water back into the process.
The conventional system is the simplest and least expensive, however, a major
drawback of a tower system comes from the water’s inherit affinity to capture
dust and air borne contaminants at the open water. If left unchecked, the
contaminants foul down stream equipment causing poor heat transfer at the
process and process equipment breakdown.
While filtering tower system water can remove dust and dirt particles, minerals
remain. With the addition of water treatment chemicals, many (not all) minerals
precipitate out of the solution. Thereafter, removal can occur through mechanical
filtration such as sand and gravel filter system.
Closed-Loop cooling Tower Systems
This system combines the economies of an open cooling tower with the heat
transfer efficiency of a refrigeration system. Water-related problems common
with open cooling towers are eliminated with the closed circuit system because
once the water is filtered and chemically treated, it remains pure as long as there
is no leakage to replace
A close circuit system is similar to a conventional cooling tower except that a heat
exchanger is used to isolate the process water from tower water and enables the
transfer of heat from one to other without process water contamination. Another
design feature difference involves in the reservoir. In a closed loop system, the
tower reservoir is built either with two completely separate compartments or two
separate tanks. One compartment or tank holds process water that is piped to the
process and back to its separate compartment or tank without coming in contact
with the tower water. The second tower water compartment or tank holds the
tower water. In a completely separate loop, the tower water circulates to the
tower cell and back to the reservoir compartment or tank.

Tower placement
Tower efficiency is also dependent upon the physical orientation of cooling tower
cells at the facility. If the equipment is next to a wall, precipitation from the tower
can cause building wall paint to peel, gutters to rust or icicles to form.
Recirculation of the wet air discharge, from the tower along a wall and back to the
equipment, will result in raising the entering wet bulb temperature and
dramatically reducing system performance. In a similar situation, if the tower
discharge enters a second tower cell that also has its intake facing the wall, airflow
experiences and restriction and poor performance follows

Pipe sizing
The pipeline transporting tower or chilled water to a process should be sized so it
does not compromise the available pump pressure. This line should also be sized
to overcome pressure drops resulting from friction losses in the pipes and fittings.
Pipe pressure drop is a function of fluid viscosity and water flow velocity. When a
line is undersized, the fluid moves through the pipes at a high velocity, which
creates noise and hastens the corrosive process. A bigger pump, which requires
more energy, is needed to overcome the flow resistance of an undersized pipe.
Oversized pipes, which add an unnecessary expense, also reduce the flow velocity
to the point at which the transport line does not deliver the proper amount of
water at the correct speed, Oversizing also allows sediment or suspended
materials to settle in the pipe and eventually clog them.

Tower Capacity Control

Three methods are available for controlling the capacity of cooling tower:
• Fan Cycling- A thermostat senses the temperature of water unloaded by the
tower; multispeed fan motors reduce the amount of air delivered as the load
decreases.
• Water volume sprayed- capacity of a tower is related to the flow rate of water
passing through the equipment. A modulating valve regulates the amount of
water sprayed in relation to load fluctuations. Another method involves a spray
pump thermostatically stopping spraying water as the load decreases and
restarting the pump when greater cooling capacity is needed.
Water loss
For any tower system, tower water losses occur from three main areas:
• Evaporation – major cause of water loss
• Drift – water loss from the tower cell due to escaping droplets of water in the air
stream
• Bleed off – water intentionally removed from the system to allow entry of fresh,
mineral free water into the system to reduce mineral content. Total loses are
approximately 0.0152 times the gallon per minute (gpm) flow rate. Example: A
100 gpm flow has 1.52 gallon per minute water consumption rate.

Some commonly used terms in cooling tower industry

• Drift – water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust
air. Drift droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering
the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices,
called drift eliminators, through which the air must travel after leaving the fill and
spray zones of the tower.
• Blow out – Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at
the air inlet openings. Water may also be lost, in the abstinence of wind, through
splashing or misting. Devices such wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and
water diverters are used to limit these losses.
• Plume – The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The
plume is visible when water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler
ambient air, like the saturated air in one’s breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain
conditions, a cooling tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to its
surroundings. Note that the water evaporated in the cooling process is “pure”
water, in contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown
out of the air inlets.

• Blow down- The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed in order to
maintain the amount of dissolved solids and other impurities at an acceptable
level. It may be noted that higher TDS (total dissolved solids) concentration in
solution results in greater potential cooling tower efficiency. However the higher
the TDS concentration, the greater the risk of scale, biological growth and
corrosion
•Leaching – the loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the
water flowing through a wood structure cooling tower.
• Noise – sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a
given distance and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling
water, by the movement of air by fans, the fan blades moving in the structure and
the motors gearboxes or drive belts.
•Approach – the approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-
water temperature and the entering- air wet bulb temperature (twb). Since the
cooling tower efficiency depends on the wet bulb temperature of air. The wet-
bulb temperature is a type of temperature measurement that reflects the physical
properties of a system with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air and water
vapor
• Range – The range is the temperature difference between the water inlet and
water exit.
• Fill – inside the tower, fills are added to increase contact surface as well as
contact time between air and water. Thus they provide better heat transfer. The
efficiency of the tower also depends on them. There are two types of fills that
may be used:
• Film type fill (causes water to spread into a thin film)
• Splash type fill (breaks up water and interrupts its vertical progress)

Pump
- a pump is a device used to move fluids, such as gases, liquids or slurries. A pump
displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. One common misconception
about pumps is the thoughts that they create pressure. Pumps alone do not
create pressure; they only displace fluid, causing a flow. Adding resistance to flow
causes pressure.

Types of Pumps
- Pumps fall into two major groups: positive displacement pumps and
rotodynamic pumps. Their names describe the method for moving a fluid.
A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed amount
of it then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. A
positive displacement pump can be further classified either
• a rotary type for example, the lobe, external gear, internal gear, screw, shuttle
block, flexible vane or sliding vane pumps
• the Wendelkolben pump or the helical twisted Roots pump
• the liquid ring vacuum pump

Gear pump
- This uses two meshed gears rotating in a closely fitted casing. Fluid is pumped
around the outer periphery by being trapped in the tooth spaces. It does not
travel back on the meshed part, since the teach mesh closely in the centre.
Widely used on car engine oil pumps.

Roots type pumps

- The low pulsation rate and gentle performance of this Roots-type positive
displacement pump is achieved due to a combination of tis two 90 degrees
Celsius helical twisted rotors, and a triangular shaped sealing line configuration,
both at the point of suction and at the point of discharge. This design produces a
continuous and non-vorticuless flow with equal volume. High capacity industrial
air compressors have been designed to employ this principle as well as most
“superchargers” used on internal combustion engines.

Reciprocating-type pumps
- Reciprocating-type pumps use a piston and cylinder arrangement with suction
and discharge valves integrated into the pump. Pumps in this category range from
having “simplex” on cylinder, to in some cases “quad” for cylinders or more. Most
reciprocating type pumps are “duplex” or “triplex” (three) cylinder. Furthermore,
they are either “single acting” independent suction and discharge strokes or
“double acting” suction and discharge in both directions. The pumps can be
powered by air, steam or through a belt drive from an engine or motor.
This type of pump was used extensively in the early days of steam propulsion (19 th
century) as boiler feed water pumps. Though still used today, reciprocating pumps
are typically used for pumping highly viscous fluids including concrete and heavy
oils.

Compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm pumps

- Another modern application of positive displacement pumps are compressed-
air-powered double-diaphragm pumps. Run on compressed air these pumps are
intrinsically safe by design, although all manufacturers offer ATEX certified models
to comply with industry regulation. Commonly seen in all areas of industry from
shipping to process, Sand Piper, Wilden Pumps or ARO are generally the larger of
the brands. They are relatively inexpensive and can be used for almost any duty
from pumping water out of bunds, to pumping hydrochloric acid from secure
storage (dependent on how the pumps is manufactured-elastomers/body
construction). Suction is normally limited to roughly 6m although heads can be
almost unlimited.