TotalFinaElf Deepwater Reference Book PDF

DEEP W ATER REFERE N CE BO O K
Installation
Vessels
Sealines
Subsea Control
Systems
ROVS and Tools
Risers
Umbilicals
Tie-in
Systems
Subsea Production
Systems
SEPTEMBER 2000
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
PREFACE
The Deepwater Reference Book has been prepared by the Advanced Technology
Department in order to assist engineers involved with development studies and
projects in deepwater.
The book is organised in three (3) volumes as follows :
¾Volume 1 : Subsea Production Systems, Sealines, Risers
¾Volume 2 : Umbilicals, Subsea Control Systems
¾Volume 3 : Deepwater Installation Vessels, Tie-in Systems, ROVs and Tooling
This book has been designed for use as a quick first point of reference for engineers
who are not necessarily specialists in the areas of technology discussed. It is not an
operations or design manual and therefore does not include Company Specifications
or (e.g.) recommended procedures for installing equipment subsea. However, it will
enable an engineer to grasp the key points and industry jargon associated with a
particular subject, in order to approach the relevant specialists and contractors
involved.
The Deepwater Reference Book presents the state of the art with respect to
technology associated with deepwater field development from seabed to surface.
The book does not cover technology associated with drilling operations (i.e.
subsurface) or floating production systems, which are not specific to deepwater.
This reference book is a living document that was up to date at the time of writing in
1999 – 2000. With the passage of time the information contained within this
document will be superseded as new technology is brought onto the market. For this
reason the book is designed to incorporate revisions within each chapter, which
should be performed at the appropriate time by the Advanced Technology
Department (or similar function) within the Development Studies Group. It is
envisaged that once every five (5) years may be a realistic timeframe to consider
such a revision.
Whilst much of the information contained within this document is available

within the public domain, the Deepwater Reference Book is proprietary to
TOTALFINAELF and should not be passed outside of the Group or its affiliates.
J G CUTLER
JC BERGER
Rev. 0 PREFACE Page 1

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DOCUMENT REVISIONS
VOLUME NUMBER DESCRIPTION OF REVISION DATE OF REVISION
VOLUME ONE Original Document 30/09/2000

Rev. 0
VOLUME TWO Original Document 30/09/2000

Rev. 0
VOLUME THREE Original Document 30/09/2000

Rev. 0
Acknowledgements
The following significant contributions are acknowledged in the preparation of this

document :
SEAL Engineering S.A. Nimes, FRANCE

Subsea Control Services Ltd London, UK
Mustang Engineering, Inc. Houston, USA
Rev. 0 PREFACE Page 2

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DEEPWATER FIELD DEVELOPMENT
REFERENCE BOOK
SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Rev. 0 Page 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 5
1.1 SCOPE.................................................................................................................................5
1.2 REGULATIONS, CODES AND STANDARDS ..............................................................................6
1.2.1 International Specifications...........................................................................................6
1.2.2 UK Statutory Instruments..............................................................................................7
1.2.3 NORSOK Standards .....................................................................................................7
1.3 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................8
2 SUBSEA PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT........................................................................ 12

2.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................12
2.2 SUBSEA W ELLHEADS .........................................................................................................13
2.2.1 Functions of Subsea Wellheads .................................................................................13
2.2.2 Types of Subsea Production Wellheads.....................................................................14
2.2.3 Wellhead Connector Profiles ......................................................................................15
2.2.4 Tubing Spool Adapters ...............................................................................................16
2.2.5 Casing and Tubing Hanger Interface..........................................................................16
2.2.6 Wellhead Guide Structures.........................................................................................18
2.2.7 Loads on Wellheads ...................................................................................................20
2.2.8 Subsea Wellhead Materials ........................................................................................20
2.2.9 Description of Typical Subsea Wellhead System.......................................................20
2.2.10 Wellhead Running Tools.............................................................................................26
2.2.11 Typical Subsea Wellhead Installation Procedures .....................................................31
2.3 SUBSEA CHRISTMAS TREES ...............................................................................................32
2.3.1 Functions of Subsea Trees.........................................................................................32
2.3.2 Types of Subsea Trees...............................................................................................33
2.3.3 Components of a Typical Subsea Tree ......................................................................42
2.3.4 Pressure and Structural Design Considerations of Subsea Trees.............................44
2.3.5 Subsea Tree Installation and Well Intervention Considerations ................................48
2.3.6 Subsea Tree Materials, Corrosion and Erosion Design .............................................51
2.3.7 Tree Mounted Controls and Instrumentation..............................................................54
2.3.8 Flow Assurance Considerations .................................................................................54
2.3.9 Deep Water Design Considerations ...........................................................................55
2.3.10 Factory Acceptance, Performance Verification, and System Integration Testing.....57
2.3.11 Manufacturers Capabilities .........................................................................................62
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3 SUBSEA PRODUCTION MANIFOLDS AND TEMPLATES......................................... 63

3.1 OVERVIEW OF FUNCTIONS OF SUBSEA PRODUCTION MANIFOLDS & TEMPLATES .................63
3.1.1 Subsea Production Manifolds.....................................................................................64
3.1.2 Subsea Templates ......................................................................................................65
3.2 FEATURES OF TYPICAL SUBSEA PRODUCTION MANIFOLD OR TEMPLATE .............................66
3.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................68
3.3.1 Number of Wells .........................................................................................................68
3.3.2 Production Piping........................................................................................................68
3.3.3 Bottom Conditions.......................................................................................................69
3.3.4 Installation Method......................................................................................................70
3.3.5 Tie-In Requirements ...................................................................................................71
3.3.6 Flow Assurance ..........................................................................................................72
3.3.7 Deep Water.................................................................................................................73
3.4 ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT ......................................................................................................73
3.4 ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT .....................................................................................................74
3.4.1 Valves .........................................................................................................................74
3.4.2 Chokes ........................................................................................................................75
3.4.3 Flowline Connectors ...................................................................................................77
3.4.4 Flow Meters ................................................................................................................78
3.4.5 Sand Monitoring..........................................................................................................78
4 SUBSEA SYSTEM INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS .................................................... 79

4.1 PRODUCTION CONTROL SYSTEM........................................................................................79
4.1.1 Types of Control Systems...........................................................................................80
4.1.2 Production Control System Components and Functions ...........................................82
4.1.3 INSTALLATION AND WORKOVER CONTROL SYSTEM (IWOCS) ........................88
4.1.4 Umbilicals And Flying Leads.......................................................................................93
4.1.5 ROV Interface ...........................................................................................................105
4.2 FLOWLINE TIE-INS ...........................................................................................................108
4.2.1 Flowline Tie-In Design Issues...................................................................................109
4.2.2 Flowline Tie-In Methods............................................................................................110
4.3 INSTALLATION AND W ORKOVER RISER SYSTEMS ..............................................................113
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................113
4.3.2 Riser System Design ................................................................................................113
4.3.3 Interface Considerations...........................................................................................117
4.3.4 Types of Installation and Workover Riser Systems..................................................117
4.3.5 Well Test and Clean-Up of Wells..............................................................................147
4.4 SYSTEM COMMISSIONING AND START-UP .........................................................................147

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5 FIELD ARCHITECTURE .............................................................................................148

5.1 FIELD ARCHITECTURE CONSIDERATIONS ..........................................................................148
5.2 WELL GROUPING .............................................................................................................150
5.2.1 Satellite Wells ...........................................................................................................151
5.2.2 Template and Clustered Well Developments ...........................................................151
5.3 DRILLING AND W ELL INTERVENTION CONSIDERATIONS .....................................................153
5.4 INTRAFIELD FLOWLINES ...................................................................................................153
5.4.1 Flowline Routing .......................................................................................................153
5.4.2 Tie-Back Distance.....................................................................................................154
5.4.3 Commingling of Production.......................................................................................154
5.4.4 Well Testing ..............................................................................................................155
5.4.5 Pigging ......................................................................................................................155
5.5 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT, EXPANSION ...............................................................................157
6 RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT ...............................................................158

6.1 POTENTIAL AREAS OF RISK ..............................................................................................158
6.1.1 Project Management.................................................................................................158
6.1.2 Engineering...............................................................................................................158
6.1.3 Manufacturing ...........................................................................................................158
6.1.4 Installation .................................................................................................................159
6.1.5 Operations.................................................................................................................159
6.2 RISK MANAGEMENT .........................................................................................................160
6.2.1 Risk Analysis In The Project Phases........................................................................160
6.3 LESSONS LEARNED..........................................................................................................162

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
In deepwater field developments the great challenges are providing a stable platform on
Figure 1.1 - Subsea Production Systems Offer a Cost Competitive Option for
Deepwater Field Developments
which to mount the production facilities and transporting the production fluids to and from
those facilities. Subsea production systems provide a cost competitive development option
that lessens, or in some cases completely eliminates, the need for surface mounted
production facilities.
The scope of this study is to provide an overview of subsea production systems technology.
Key topics to be covered include the following:
• A general description of the main components of subsea production systems and their
functions.
• Interface requirements for subsea production facilities.
• Overall field architecture considerations for subsea developments.
• Identification of areas of risk and risk management issues.

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1.2 Regulations, Codes and Standards
1.2.1 International Specifications
• ANSI B31.3, Chemical Plant Petroleum Refinery Piping.

• API RP 2R, Design, Rating and Testing of Marine Drilling Riser Couplings.
• API 5A, Specification for Casing, Tubing and Drill Pipe.
• API 5AC, Specification for Casing, Tubing and Drill Pipe.
• API 5D, Specification for Drill Pipe.
• API 5L, Specification for Line Pipe.
• API 6A, Specification for Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment.
• API 6D, Specification for Pipeline Valves.
• API 8A, Drilling and Production Hoisting Equipment.
• API 14A, Specification for Subsurface Safety Valves.
• API 14B, Recommended Practice for Design Installation & Operation of Subsurface
Valve Systems.
• API 14D, Specification for Wellhead Surface Safety Valves and Underwater Safety
Valves for Offshore Services.
• API 16A, Specification for Drill Through Equipment.
• API 17D, Specification for Subsea Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment.
• API 17G, Design and Operation of Completion / Workover Riser Systems
• ASME IX, Welding and Braising Qualifications, Article II Welding Procedure
Qualifications and III Welding Performance Qualifications.
• ASME V, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section V - Non Destructive Examination.
• ASME VIII, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII - Rules for Construction of
Pressure Vessels - Division 1 & 2.
• ASME/ANSI B16.34, Valves - Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End.
• DIN 50049-EN 10 204, Documents on material tests.
• DnV Electrical requirements for WOCS
• DnV Safety and Reliability of Subsea Production systems
• DnV Cert. note 2.7-1 Lifting certificate requirements. ( Offshore containers )
• DnV RPB401 Recommended Practice Cathodic Protection Design.
• EN 10204, Metallic Products - Types of Inspection Documents
• FEA-M 1990, Regulations for Electrical Installation on Maritime Platforms.
• IEC 92.101, Electrical Installations in Ships. Definitions and General Requirements
• ISO 10423, Specification for Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment (Replaces API
6A).
• ISO 10432 – 1, Standard for Subsurface Safety Valves.
• ISO 10433, Specification for Wellhead Surface Safety Valves and Underwater Safety
Valves for Offshore Service (Replaces API 14D).
• ISO 13628, Petroleum And Natural Gas Industries - Drilling And Production
Equipment.
• ISO 13628-1, General Requirements And Recommendations.
• ISO 13628-2, Flexible Pipe Systems For Subsea And Marine Applications.
• ISO 13628-3, TFL Pump Down Systems.
• ISO 13628-4, Subsea Wellhead And Tree Equipment.

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• ISO 13628-5, Design And Operation Of Subsea Control Systems.

• ISO 13628-6, Subsea Production Control Systems.
• ISO 13628-7, Workover / Completion Riser Systems.
• ISO 13628-9, Remotely Operated Tools (ROT) Intervention Systems.
• ISO 14313, Specification for Pipeline Valves. Gate, Plug, Ball, and Check Valves
(Replaces API 6D).
• ISO 3511, Process Measurement Control Functions And Instrumentation Symbolic
Representation.
• ISO 898, Part I Bolts, Screws And Nuts.
• ISO 9001, Quality Systems: Model For Quality Assurance In Design/Development,
Production, Installation And Servicing.
• NACE MR-01-75-94, Material Requirements, Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant
Metallic Materials for Oilfield Equipment.
• NACE RP0475, Materials For Water Injection.
• NAS 1638, National Aerospace Standard: Cleanliness Requirements Of Parts Used
In Hydraulic Systems.
• SAE J343, Tests And Procedures For SAE 100R Series Hydraulic Hoses And
Assemblies.
• SAE J517, Hydraulic Hoses.
1.2.2 UK Statutory Instruments
• SI. 913, Design and Construction Regulations.

• SI. 1019, UK. Statutory Instrument 1976 No.1019 for Offshore Installations stating
Operational Safety, Health and Welfare Regulations.
1.2.3 NORSOK Standards

Norwegian Subsea Equipment is designed in accordance with the Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate’s (NPD) regulations and the requirements in the following NORSOK
specifications.
The NORSOK standards have been developed by the Norwegian petroleum industry as a
part of the NORSOK initiative and are jointly issued by OLF (The Norwegian Oil Industry
Association) and TBL (Federation of Norwegian Engineering Industries). NORSOK standards
are administered by NTS (Norwegian Technology Standards Institution).
• 1 U-DP-001, Principles for Design and Operation of Subsea Production Systems
• 2 U-CR-003, Subsea Christmas Tree Systems
• 3 U-CR-008, Subsea Color and Marking
• 4 M-DP-001, Material Selection
• 5 M-CR-101, Structural steel fabrication, Rev. 2, Jan. 1996
• 6 M-CR-120, Material data sheets for structural steel, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994
• 7 M-CR-501, Surface preparation and protective coating, Rev. 2, Jan. 1996
• 8 M-CR-503, Cathodic protection, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994
• 9 M-CR-505, Corrosion monitoring design, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994
• 10 M-CR-601, Welding and inspection of piping, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994
• 11 M-CR-621, GRP piping materials, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994
• 12 M-CR-630, Material data sheets for piping, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994
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• 13 M-CR-650, Qualification of manufacturers of special materials, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994

• 14 M-CR-701, Materials for well completion equipment, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994
• 15 M-CR-702, Drill string components, Rev. 1, Jan. 1996
• 16 M-CR-703, Casing and tubing materials, Rev. 1, Jan. 1996
• M-CR-710, Qualification of non-metallic sealing materials and manufacturers, Rev. 1.
1.3 Definitions and Abbreviations

ADS: Atmospheric Diving Suit
Annulus: The annular space between the production casing and the
production tubing.
BOP: Blowout Preventer
Casing: Tubular steel conductors of progressively smaller sizes
through which a well is drilled.
Casing Program: The sequence of casing installed in a well. A common casing
program is 30” (surface conductor), 20” (surface casing), 13-
3/8” (intermediate casing) and 9-5/8” (production casing).
CDU: Chemical (or Central) Distribution Unit
Completion Guidebase: A permanent guidebase that incorporates production piping
and flowline connections.
Concentric Tubing Hanger: A tubing hanger with the production bore in the center and
the annulus porting exiting the side.
COPS: Communication On Power System
CRA: Corrosion Resistant Alloy
DCS: Distributed Control System
Drill Through Wellhead: A subsea wellhead adapted for a mudline suspension system
with a connection for a temporary tie-back casing to allow
drilling with a surface BOP and later completion with a
mudline tree.
DSV: Downhole Safety Valve (See SCSSV)
Dual Bore Tree: A subsea christmas tree with production and annulus bores
passing vertically through the tree body.
EDU: Electrical Distribution Unit
EFAT: Extended Factory Acceptance Test
EFL: Electrical Flying Lead
EPU: Electrical Power Unit
ESD: Emergency Shut Down
ESP: Electric Submersible Pump
FAT: Factory Acceptance Test
Flowbase: See Completion Guidebase.
HCR: High Collapse Resistance
HDM: Hydraulic Distribution Module
Horizontal Tree: A subsea christmas tree with production and annulus bores
branching out horizontally through the side of the tree and the
tubing hanger in the upper part of the tree.

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HPU: Hydraulic Power Unit

Integral Valves: Valves machined from the single large “block” or forging that
forms part of the subsea tree body, as opposed to “bolt-on”
valves.
ISU: Integrated Service Umbilical
IWOC: Installation and Workover Controls.
JDT: Jumper Deployment Tool
LIM: Line Insulation Monitor
LMRP: Lower Marine Riser Package. A device similar to a small
BOP attached to the tree mandrel used for emergency well
control and riser disconnect when running, retrieving or
working over a dual bore tree.
Low Pressure Housing: The machined forged steel housing welded to the top of the
surface conductor (usually 30”) into which the wellhead is
fitted.
Marine Riser: A system used with floating offshore drilling rigs for guiding
the drill string and circulating drilling fluids between the
drilling rig and the subsea BOP.
MASCOT: Module and Surface Computer Operations Tester
MCS: Master Control Station
MMI: Man Machine Interface
Mono-Bore Tree: A subsea tree with the production bore passing vertically
through the tree body and the annulus bore exiting through
the side of the tree.
Mudline Conversion System: A system of equipment by which a mudline suspension
system may be converted to accept a mudline tree.
Mudline Suspension System: A system for hanging casing at or below the mudline in
offshore wells drilled using a surface BOP.
Mudline Tree: A subsea christmas tree designed for installation on a
mudline wellhead.
Mudline Wellhead: A subsea wellhead used with a mudline suspension system.
OS: Operator Station
Pack-Off: The system of seals installed in the casing hanger for sealing
the annular space between successive strings of casing.
Permanent Guidebase (PGB): A fabricated steel structure attached to the low pressure
housing for guiding equipment onto and into the wellhead by
means of guideposts and guidewires to the surface.
PLEM: Pipeline End Manifold.
Production Casing: The final casing into which the production tubing is installed.
Production Flowline: The piping through which the production fluids are delivered
from the production tree to the production processing
facilities.
Production Platform: For purposes of this Chapter, the term Production Platform
means the host surface production facility that receives and
processes the production fluids from the subsea wells. It
could be a fixed platform, a jackup production platform, or a
floating structure such as a spar, semi-submersible, TLP or
FPSO.
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Production Riser: The piping through which the production fluids are delivered
from the sea floor to the surface production processing
facilities.
Production String: See Production Tubing.
Production Tubing: The tubing through which the production fluids are delivered
from the reservoir to the production tree.
PVT: Pressure, Volume and Temperature
ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicle.
SCM : Subsea Control Module
SCMMB: SCM Mounting Base
SCMRT: Subsea Control Module Running Tool
SCSSV: Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve
Seal Assembly: The annulus seal assembly. See Packoff.
SEM: Subsea Electronics Module
SFL: Steel Flying Lead
Side Valve Tree: See Horizontal Tree.
Single Bore Tree: A subsea tree with the production bore passing vertically
through the tree body and the annulus bore exiting through
the side of the tree.
Single-Bore™ Tree: A Dril-Quip mono-bore tree.
SIT: System Integration Test
Subsea Production Manifold: A fabricated steel structure installed on the sea floor for
production gathering, distribution and control.
Subsea Production Template: A fabricated steel structure designed for supporting multiple
subsea wells and associated piping and controls on one
structure.
Subsea Tree: A christmas tree designed for installation on a subsea
wellhead.
Subsea Wellhead: A machined, forged steel housing welded to the surface
casing of a subsea well to which a BOP or a subsea tree may
be connected for controlling the well and containing well
pressures during drilling and production operations.
Surface Conductor: The first casing installed for guiding the drill bit when a well is
first started (usually 30”). It may be driven, jetted or drilled
into place.
Surface Tie-Back System: A system of special connectors and casing for extending the
well casing from a mudline suspension system to a surface
completion.
TCU: Topside Control Unit
Temporary Guidebase: A fabricated steel structure with an opening and guide funnel
at its center used for guiding the surface conductor into place
when first starting a well, or for guiding the bit if the surface
conductor is to be drilled into place.
TEPU: Test Electrical Power Unit
TFL (Through Flowline): A specialized well workover system using special tools
designed to be pumped through the production flowline and
down the production tubing.
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Through-Bore Tree: A subsea tree with the production bore passing vertically
through the tree body and the tubing hanger in the tree body.
Tree Connector: The mechanism at the base of the tree that connects the tree
to the wellhead by means of a hydraulic or mechanical
actuator. See Wellhead Connector.
Tree Mandrel: A machined hub at the top of a dual bore subsea tree for
connection of the tree running tool or the LMRP and gaining
access to the tree bore.
Tree Running Tool: A specially designed tool used for lowering the subsea tree
onto the wellhead and actuating the tree connector or,
inversely, for removing the tree from the wellhead. For dual
bore trees it is sometimes incorporated into the LMRP.
Tubing Hanger: A component of the wellhead system for supporting the
production tubing in the well and aligning the production and
annulus bores with the BOP or subsea tree.
Tubing Head: A term sometimes used for a wellhead with a tubing hanger
but no casing hangers. See Mudline Wellhead.
Tubing Spool Adapter: A wellhead adapter for 1) converting from a wellhead of one
profile type to another or 2) providing a new wellhead seal
surface if the original one is damaged.
TUTA: Topside Umbilical Termination Assembly
TUTB: Topside Umbilical Termination Box
UJB: Umbilical Junction Box
UPS: Uninterruptible Power Supply
USV: Upper Swab Valve
UTA: Umbilical Termination Assembly.
UTH: Umbilical Termination Head
VSE: Valve Signature Emulator
Wellhead Connector: A mechanism for connecting other equipment to a wellhead
by engaging and locking onto the wellhead profile. See Tree
Connector.
Wellhead Profile: The external machined profile at the top of the wellhead that
provides a load bearing shoulder and seal surface for the
BOP connector or the tree connector.

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2 SUBSEA PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
2.1 Introduction
As subsea production equipment has proven its reliability in service and as its cost, in relative
terms, has fallen, the oil industry has come to accept it as a technically viable and competitive
field development option. Subsea production equipment here is meant to include subsea
wellheads, subsea production trees, subsea manifolds, subsea well templates and the
ancillary equipment associated with these.
Figure 2.1 - A Variety Of Field Development Options Exist as Subsea Technology

Moves Into Deeper Waters.
The focus for this discussion is deepwater developments. The term “deepwater” is subject to
interpretation, but in general one can assume it to be beyond the reach of current saturation
diving technology. Subsea developments within diver accessible depth are so routine as not
to merit much comment these days. For this discussion we are assuming deepwater to begin
at water depths well beyond the practical range of saturation diving, within the reach of
current generation ADS equipment and extending to depths that require methods other than
human intervention, such as remote control or ROV intervention. This covers a range of
roughly 300 to 2500 meters. It should be noted that 2000 to 2500 meters represents the
approximate limit of current well completion experience, although exploration drilling activity
continues to push into deeper waters.

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2.2 Subsea Wellheads
2.2.1 Functions of Subsea Wellheads
Drilling a subsea well from a floating drilling rig or completing a well subsea requires a subsea
wellhead. Subsea wellheads serve several purposes:
• to support the subsea blowout preventer (BOP) and seal the well casing during drilling
• to support and seal the subsea production tree
• to support and seal the well casing.
• to support and seal the production tubing hanger.
Figure 2.2 - A Typical BOP Stack Being

Deployed

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The subsea wellhead together with the BOP or the production tree provides the means to
safely contain reservoir pressure during oil and gas drilling and production operations. It
rarely sees actual reservoir pressure but is rated to withstand this pressure in case of loss of
well control during drilling or a breach of a primary pressure barrier during production.
Standard API pressure ratings in use are 5,000 psi, 10,000 psi, 15,000 psi. and more recently
20,000 psi.
The subsea wellhead may also be designed to accommodate a surface tie back system to a
surface completion on a TLP, spar or, more rarely, a fixed platform.
2.2.2 Types of Subsea Production Wellheads

The term “subsea wellhead”, for the sake of this discussion, describes a specific class of
wellhead used in subsea drilling applications that require installing the BOP at the seabed. It
is sometimes also referred to as a marine wellhead. Subsea wellheads are typically used for
drilling wells from a floating drilling rig.
Another class of wellheads that is sometimes employed on subsea production systems is the
mudline suspension system. The mudline suspension system relies on the use of a surface
BOP during drilling, usually from a jackup type drilling rig.
Subsea wellhead designs have evolved along with advances in subsea drilling and well
completion technology. Subsea wellheads generally come in one of the following sizes:
• 13-5/8 inch
• 16-3/4 inch
• 18-3/4 inch
• 21-1/4 inch
The size designates the nominal bore (I.D.) of the wellhead, in inches. The 18-3/4 inch
subsea wellhead is currently the most common. Earlier subsea drilling systems used a “two
stack” approach and relied on a low-pressure 21-1/4 inch BOP to start the well and a high
pressure 13-5/8 inch BOP for finishing the well. With the development of the 18-3/4 inch x
10,000 psi (10M) BOP, the well could be drilled to final depth with one BOP and the 18-3/4
inch x 10M wellhead became the standard. Wellhead pressure ratings are trending higher,
with 18-3/4 inch x 15M wellheads becoming the new standard, though manufacturers still
offer 10M models. 18-3/4 inch x 15M BOPs are not as common, but the 15M wellheads are
compatible with the 10M BOP connectors.
Traditionally Drill Ships have used 16-¾ inch subsea wellhead systems. The advantage of
the 16-¾ inch wellhead is smaller riser and less mud volume. Riser storage requirements are
reduced, the suspended weight is reduced, current drag on the riser is reduced, and the mud
system can be smaller. The 16-¾ inch wellhead systems are relatively common in Brazil,
probably influenced by their significant deepwater experience and prevailing available
equipment at the time that trends were established.
An area for further development by wellhead manufacturers is in smaller bore versions of
current wellhead and tree technology. This would help mitigate the increased weight imposed
by deeper water operations. Manufacturers of Subsea Intervention Trees are being
pressured to provide higher pressure rated designs for use within smaller (16-¾ inch) bores.
Operators may adopt Slim Hole well technology that starts with 26-inch conductors.

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2.2.3 Wellhead Connector Profiles

All subsea wellheads have an external profile for mechanically connecting and sealing the
BOP or tree to the wellhead. There are numerous profiles available today, with most
manufacturers having their own proprietary designs. The Cameron ”hub” and Vetco H4
“mandrel” profiles are most common. Through cooperative licensing arrangements with their
competitors, wellhead manufacturers are able to provide wellheads with different profile
choices for their customers, within limits. Each wellhead profile utilizes a particular style of
metal gasket designated “AX”, “DX”, “VX”, or “NX” depending on the wellhead profile. The
gasket provides the seal between the wellhead and the BOP connector. It is the ultimate
barrier between the well and the environment.
Wellhead
Wellhead Datum
Profile
Wellhead
Datum
Internal
Profile
Datum
Figure 2.3 - Wellhead Profiles. The two most common external wellhead
profiles are show in this diagram – the upper figure shows a typical
Vetco H-4 (Mandrel) profile and the lower figure shows a typical
Cameron (Hub) profile.
Interface features are also identified –note especially the datum line– used for
all height measurements.
Deepwater profiles are now becoming more commonplace. These were developed for much
higher bending and tension loads that can be experienced in deeper water depths. Cameron
has developed the double hub style profile. This profile is unique in that either their new
deepwater connector or their standard connector can latch onto it. ABB Vetco Gray has also
developed a deepwater profile and wellhead. It is similar to their existing designs except that
the wellhead wall thickness is greater and the outer profile diameter is larger providing more
strength than their conventional wellheads.

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2.2.4 Tubing Spool Adapters

It is necessary that the wellhead connector on the BOP be compatible with the wellhead on
the planned development well. Fortunately BOP wellhead connectors can be changed out
relatively easily. Operators may therefore specify the wellhead type and profile of choice,
taking into account compatibility with other existing wells or their preference for the well
completion equipment. If an operator wishes to complete a well with a tree having a
connector that is not compatible with the wellhead, a wellhead conversion can be installed.
This wellhead conversion is called a tubing spool adapter, and consists of a forged spool
piece having a connector matching the existing wellhead on the bottom and a profile
matching that of the tree’s connector on top. These conversions are sometimes referred to
as tubing head adapters.
A tubing spool adapter can also used to provide a new wellhead seal surface if the existing
one is damaged. This is not an uncommon occurrence with exploration wells that are
ultimately completed and turned into production wells.
They can also be used to land the tubing hanger into, and this is often done for conventional
style trees.
2.2.5 Casing and Tubing Hanger Interface
2.2.5.1 Typical Well Casing Programs

Depending on the soil conditions the hole may be started with a large conductor such as 42
inch or 36 inch or, if a template is being used it may have a large sleeve pre-installed. Then a
conventional 30 inch conductor is usually installed. Again depending on the anticipated
loading this may have a 1 inch, 1-1/2 inch, 2 inch, or larger wall thickness.
Most subsea wells are started by driving, drilling or jetting-in the ‘surface’ conductor with the
low-pressure housing attached to the top. The well is then drilled ahead through this
conductor. The 18-¾ inch high-pressure wellhead (housing) with 20 inch/18-¾ inch or similar
sized casing attached is then run through it, into the pre-drilled hole, landed in the low
pressure housing and cemented in place. The subsea BOP stack is then run onto and tested
on the high-pressure wellhead housing.
Further holes are progressively drilled ahead and the appropriate sized casing is then
installed through the BOP and wellhead. These are selected from a variety of sizes. The
following sizes are the most common; 20 inch, 18-¾ inch, 16-¾ inch, 13-3/8 inch, 10-¾ inch,
9-5/8 inch and 7 inch. The progressively smaller selected casings are suspended in the
wellhead. Most wellheads can accommodate 3 or 4 hangers. If more casing is required, it can
be suspended farther down the well bore as a ‘Liner’.
Horizontal subsea Christmas trees, described elsewhere in this chapter, enable the wellhead
system to have one less hanger than conventional trees normally demand of wellhead
systems because the tubing hanger sits in the horizontal tree rather than the wellhead as in a
conventional tree. It is still routine practice to include an extra hanger slot available in the
wellhead ‘just in case’. Tubing hanger adapter spools can be added above the wellhead to
accommodate the tubing hanger and although rarely done, more casing hangers if required.
Figure 2-10 illustrates an 18-3/4 inch wellhead with two casing hangers installed. Most
wellheads are limited to 3 or 4 hangers. If more are required, secondary hangers can be
installed below the wellhead.
Packoffs or seal assemblies in the wellhead seal the annulus between casings. Older pack-
off designs used elastomer seals. Newer designs employ metal to metal seals. These are, in
some cases, actually composite metal and elastomeric seals designed so that the elastomer

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provides an initial seal that, with deformation, causes the metal seal to be forced into place or
‘energized’. The elastomer serves as a back-up seal.
Most of the casing weight is suspended at the mud line by the wellhead. Some casing strings
are anchored deeper in the well. Later when the production tubing is installed, it is suspended
either in the wellhead or tubing hanger adapter spool or in the tree above. Each method
transfer the loads back to the wellhead.
During well production thermal and pressure effects on the tubulars can reverse the hanger
loads and push up against the wellhead. Therefore lock down of the hangers is
recommended for production wells. Some ‘Exploration’ wellheads do not apply the lockdown
feature so as to facilitate dismantling and abandonment of the well and because this feature
can sometimes be troublesome to install.
Figure 2.4 - Typical 13-3/8” Casing Hanger
2.2.5.2 Casing Hanger

At the top of each casing (and the production tubing) is a forging with an external, tapered
shoulder that lands on a mating shoulder within the wellhead and transfers the weight of the
casing to the wellhead. These supporting shoulders are called Hangers. There are different
designs of hangers for suspending casing or production tubing. The casing hanger also
provides a machined surface to seal against. Once the casing is landed and locked in place,
the annular cavity is sealed by a Pack-Off or seal assembly mechanism.

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2.2.6 Wellhead Guide Structures
2.2.6.1 Guideline Drilling and Completions

Most subsea wells employ the use of a permanent guide base (PGB) mounted to the low
pressure conductor housing. The PGB is a fabricated structure with guideposts and wire
rope guidelines for guiding equipment onto or into the wellhead, or it may be a guidelineless
style, which employ large funnels for guidance.
Figure 2.5 - A Typical Temporary Guide Base
The nomenclature “permanent” is used to distinguish it from the “temporary” guide base
(TGB), at one time traditionally used for starting the well, although modern equipment has
made the TGB largely unnecessary. The TGB is typically a gravity-stabilized guide structure
normally with a 42 - 46 inch diameter central hole that is lowered to the seabed on four guide
wires. The TGB lies on bottom at the angle of the seabed and holds the guide wires in place
Figure 2.6 - A Temporary Guide Base Being Deployed by a

Running Tool on Drill Pipe
to enable the 30-inch conductor to be easily guided through the central hole. The housing at
the top of the 30 inch has the PGB attached to it, to take over the guidance function after the
30 inch conductor has been secured. The term “temporary” in the name is misleading in that
it is a permanent fixture to the well once deployed.
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PGBs normally incorporate level indicators that can be observed by camera when landing the
first conductor in a new well. If the conductor is off true vertical by more than about one
degree, the driller may decide to re-spud the well. It is recommended almost universally to do
this if the well is off vertical by more than one degree. If not, key seating (wearing on one
side) of the casing and or BOP stack can occur seriously degrading the pressure integrity of
the well and well control equipment.
The guideposts are normally designed to accommodate guide wires latched to the post tops.
The post tops are generally designed to enable easy latching or unlatching of the guide wires
and include a means of reestablishing new guide wires onto the post top. Virtually all PGBs
utilize the API standard post spacing, four guideposts at 90º spacing, on a six-foot radius
from the well center. This leads to the standard 101.82 inches between posts.
Figure 2.7 - Example of a Retrievable Permanent

Guide Base
PGBs can be designed to be retrievable while leaving the well intact for future use. This offers
the advantage of not having to purchase a new guide base for every well. This style of guide
base is more expensive than one that is not retrievable, but pays for itself after use on very
few wells. These types of PGBs are often referred to as RGBs – Retrievable Guide Bases.
If it is known beforehand that the well is to be a production well, the guide base may
incorporate piping, flowline connections, and tree piping interface hardware. This type of
guide base is generally referred to as a completion guide base (CGB), or a flowbase.
Virtually all CGBs are application specific designs. Sometimes a CGB is deployed on top of
an existing PGB if it cannot be easily removed.
2.2.6.2 Guidelineless Drilling and Completions

Guidelineless PGBs are used in deeper water where guidelines become cumbersome and
less effective. They are usually deployed from dynamically positioned drilling vessels. They
can be used at shallow depths but are not normally used in less than about 2,000 feet. They
typically have a funnel-up design for capturing the guidelineless BOP or subsea tree and
guiding it onto the wellhead. Guidelineless funnel-down trees are sometimes used to
complete wells in shallow water that have no installed guidebase.
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2.2.7 Loads on Wellheads

Wellheads must be designed for high structural loads imposed during drilling, workover, or
well completion operations. The wellhead must support the weight of the BOP, drilling riser
loads, casing weight and forces imposed by internal pressure. In general, wellheads are of
such robust construction that, as far as external loads are concerned, they are rarely the
weak point of the wellhead system. The 15M wellheads can generally sustain greater
external loads than the 10M wellheads. For deep water and other special applications,
manufacturers must engineer the wellhead equipment to meet the specified load
requirements. A heavy duty deepwater wellhead with a heavy duty connector engaging two
profiles instead of the one for more strength is shown in Figure 2-11.
To improve the transfer of loads from the wellhead to the low-pressure conductor housing
and reduce fatigue stresses and fretting at critical wellhead interfaces, a rigid lockdown
system may be employed. This mechanism locks the wellhead housing securely into the low-
pressure conductor housing. It may be engaged automatically with the installation of the
wellhead (passive), or it may require an externally applied preload (active).
2.2.8 Subsea Wellhead Materials
The following is a list of typical materials used for main components in a subsea wellhead
system.
COMPONENT MATERIAL
Low Pressure Conductor Housing AISI 8630 Modified.
Conductor Pipe API 5L X52
18 3/4 inch Wellhead Housing AISI 8630 Modified, 80 Ksi. Yield
Wellhead Seal Area Inconel 625 Overlay
20 inch Casing Extension, API 5L X52
Wellhead Lock Ring AISI 4140/4145, 105 Ksi. Yield
Casing Hangers AISI 8630 Modified, 80 Ksi. Yield
Pack-Off Seal Elements AISI 1010 or 1015
Pack-Off Bodies AISI 4140, 75 Ksi. Yield
Pack-Off Split Rings 17-4 PH, 100 Ksi. Yield
2.2.9 Description of Typical Subsea Wellhead System

For the purposes of this discussion, a wellhead system consisting of the following
components will be considered:
• 30 inch conductor housing joint,
• 18 ¾ inch wellhead housing joint,
• 20 inch casing
• 13 3/8 inch and 9-5/8 inch centralized casing hangers
• Associated packoffs.

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2.2.9.1 Subsea Wellhead Features:

The following are features that should generally be expected in wellhead equipment:
• The ability to test all the seals and locking arrangements.
• Protection for all permanent seals during running and the seals are remotely
energized after landing.
• The ability to clean component seal surfaces after cementing operations and prior to
setting the pack off seals.
• The casing hangers have ability to be locked in place.
• The flow path for cuttings and cement returns without excessive build up of pressure,
blockage or reduction in velocity through the flow-by holes and slots.
• The use of a minimum number of seals and components installed subsea.
• The primary metal-to-metal seals with elastomeric secondary system for all
permanently installed seals.
• Weld overlay surfaces with a nickel-based alloy (Inconel 625) at the wellhead's gasket
seal surface.
• Reliable and robust suite of versatile running tools.
2.2.9.2 30 inch Conductor Housing Joint.

The 30-inch conductor-housing joint provides the structural foundation for the wellhead
system. The outer diameter of the housing is fitted with a keyway and a shoulder to provide
orientation of the PGB which in turn orientates the BOP and the tubing hanger, and later the
Figure 2.8 - Typical 30” Wellhead Housing
tree. The joint generally consists of a 30 inch conductor housing welded onto a 30 inch
conductor pipe. A proprietary, mechanical, pin connector is fabricated onto the bottom end of
the 30-inch conductor. The overall length of the joint is approximately 45 feet. The 30-inch
conductor will normally have large landing pad eyes for handling and hang off purposes
welded to it near the housing. The string is suspended below the pad eyes through the rotary

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table while the running tool is made up to it. The padeyes are then cut or burnt off and the
casing run to the seabed.
A 30-inch conductor housing should normally provide the following features:
• An internal profile locking facility for the 30-inch conductor housing running tool.
• Side outlet holes with diameters for cement returns.
• Control of the elevation, concentricity, and vertical alignment of the 18-3/4-inch
wellhead housing by the load shoulder and locking mechanism incorporated with the
internal profile.
• Unrestricted passage of a 26-inch drill bit.
• Available working pressure of 2000 psi (135 bar).
2.2.9.3 18-3/4 inch Wellhead Housing Joint.

The 18-3/4 inch wellhead housing joint serves as the suspension head for the surface casing
string and provides a mechanical connection and sealing preparation for the BOP stack and
tree. It also provides landing, locking, and sealing preparations for the subsequently run
Figure 2.9 - Typical 18-3/4” Wellhead Housing
casing hangers. The 18-3/4 inch wellhead housing joint generally consists of an 18-3/4 inch
high pressure housing welded to a 20 OD pipe (typically 0.625 inches wall thickness). A 20
inch pin connector is welded to the lower end of the casing joint. The overall length of the 18-
3
/4 inch wellhead housing joint is approximately 40 feet.

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An 18-3/4 inch wellhead housing should generally provide the following features:
• Positive mechanical lockdown mechanism into the 30 inch conductor housing.
• Provision for the flow of drill cuttings and cement returns between the 18-3/4 inch
wellhead and the 30-inch conductor housing.
• Control of the elevation and concentricity of the casing hangers and the tubing
hanger.
• Seal surfaces appropriate for the sealing systems associated with the test and running
tools.
• Transfer loads from the hangers and bending loads from the BOP and riser into the 30
inch conductor housing. This can be achieved by a two point socketing arrangement
between the 30 inch housing and the 18-¾ inch wellhead housing.
Profile
Wellhead
Wear
Bushing
Pack Offs
Casing Hangers or Seal
Assemblies
Figure 2.10 - A Typical Modern Wellhead Stack-Up
• Allow passage of 17-1/2 inch drill bit.

• Incorporates an external wellhead connector profile to suit the tree connector and
BOP connector.
• A wellhead gasket seal preparation for metal-to-metal sealing between the wellhead
and the connector, inlaid with nickel based alloy Inconel 625.
• Suitable working pressure of 10,000 or 15,000 psi
• A variety of profiles exist in the market today. There are two primary profiles, licensed
by two different manufacturers. All manufacturers produce each other’s profiles
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through cooperative agreements and license arrangements. The two most common
profiles are currently being further developed for deep water requirements demanding
higher capacities.
HC CONNECTOR ON
DWHC HUB
DWHC Connector on
Standard Hub
DWHC Connector on
DWHC Hub
Figure 2.11 - One Manufacturer’s Standard (HC) and Deepwater (DWHC) Wellhead
Connectors on Standard and Deepwater Wellhead Hubs, Demonstrating Their
Interconnectability
2.2.9.4 The Casing Hangers

The casing hangers centralize and suspend the casing strings inside the 18 3/4 inch wellhead
housing. They also provide seal surfaces for the pack off assembly to isolate the casing
annuli. The casing hangers are normally supplied with a casing pup joint pre-installed. The
casing pup usually terminates with a pin connection.
• Casing hangers should generally provide the following additional features:
• Two-point centralization in the 18-3/4 inch wellhead housing.
• Sufficient flow-by area to permit flow of drilling mud, cuttings, and cement.
• Allows passage of drill bits for the next successive casing size.
• Interfaces with a variety of running tools – such as drill pipe tool, full bore tool, or
single trip tool.
• Suitable working pressure of 10,000 or 15,000 psi.
• Suspend a sufficient working load – usually at least 1,000,000 lbs capacity.
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2.2.9.5 Pack-Off (Seal) Assembly.

The pack off or seal assembly should generally provide the following features:
• The necessary seals and components to ensure that the seal is set, energized, tested
and if required, retrieved in a single down hole trip.
• Seals are protected during running phase.
• Single trip tool runs casing hanger and pack off assembly as a unit.
• Complete seal assembly can be retrieved using single trip tool or a pack off retrieval
tool.
• An effective seal for continuous or intermittent annulus pressure.
• Bi-directional metal-to-metal seal with elastomeric backup seals to pack off the casing
hanger to 18 3/4 inch wellhead housing annulus.
• Suitable working pressure of 10,000 or 15,000 psi.
Figure 2.12 - Typical Casing Hanger

for Subsea Wellhead

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2.2.10 Wellhead Running Tools

Running tools are required to install, test and retrieve the wellhead system components.
These tools are supplied by the wellhead manufacturer as part of the wellhead system, most
often on a rental basis. One aspect of wellhead system design is to design the running
sequence and tools so as to minimize the number of trips required. This becomes more
important in deep water where rig rates are high and trips take more time.
The tools should be of robust design, debris tolerant, and capable of giving strong easily
detected signals of correct function that can be observed at the drill floor.
Figure 2.13 - A Typical Suite of Subsea Wellhead Running Tools

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2.2.10.1 Bore Protector

The bore protector is used to protect the casing hanger sealing surfaces inside the 18 3/4
inch wellhead housing during drilling operations associated with the subsequent setting of the
surface casing string. The wellhead housing can usually be deployed with the bore protector
installed. Additionally, most systems have tools designed that do not transfer pressure end
load into the protector and therefore allow the BOP stack to be pressure tested without
retrieving the bore protector. The bore protector is normally mechanically held in place by
shear pins or o-ring friction.
2.2.10.2 Wear Bushing.

The wear bushing protects the bore of the packoffs and casing hangers from mechanical
wear associated with drilling activities subsequent to the setting of the intermediate casing
string. It is deployed and retrieved on drill pipe and set using a wear bushing running and
retrieval tool. These are often used for several functions and called multi-purpose or multi-
utility tools. The wear bushings are normally designed to allow BOP testing to be conducted
without retrieving the bushing.
Figure 2.14 - A Typical 30” Wellhead Running Tool

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2.2.10.3 30-Inch Conductor Housing Running Tool.

The 30 inch running tool is used to deploy the 30 inch conductor string and housing. Typical
features of this tool are:
• Locks into the profile of the 30 inch housing.
• Seals inside the 30 inch housing below the flow-by ports
• Visual position indicator provided.
• Anti-rotation feature.
• Right hand rotation of the running string releases the tool. This is often a hydraulic
function in deeper waters.
• 6 5/8 inch API Regular box up by 4 1/2 inch API Internally Flush (NC50) pin down.
• Valves to allow filling of the string with seawater and then closed.
2.2.10.4 18 3/4 inch Housing Running Tool.

The 18 3/4 inch housing running tool runs the high-pressure wellhead housing. It typically
includes the following features:
• Locks into the upper groove inside the wellhead bore.
• Has visual position indicator.
• Right hand rotation of the running string to release. This is often a hydraulic function in
deeper waters.
Figure 2.15 - A Typical 18-3/4” Wellhead

Running Tool
• 6 5/8 inch API regular box up by 4 1/2 inch API Internally Flush (NC50) box down.
• Anti-rotation pins to prevent free spinning of the tool inside the housing.
• Valves to allow filling of the string with seawater and then closed.
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2.2.10.5 Bore Protector Running and Retrieval Tool.

A Bore Protector Running and Retrieval Tool is typically used for running and retrieving all of
the 18-3/4 inch bore protectors and wear bushings. It can also be used as a test tool with
wear bushings in place or as a washout tool if need be. The tool typically has a 4-1/2 inch
API Internally Flush (NC50). box up by 4-1/2 inch API Internally Flush (NC50) pin down.
2.2.10.6 Single-Trip Tool

Most wellheads have a single trip tool available which is used to run, set, and test the casing
hangers with its pack off in a single trip. After the casing is cemented in place, the tool
hydraulically sets the pack off. Most tools are designed so that if the pack off should fail to
set properly, the tool will retrieve it. The tool generally has a 6-5/8 inch reg. box up by 4 1/2
inch API I.F. pin down.
Figure 2.16 - A Typical 18-3/4” BOP Test

Tool

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2.2.10.7 Pack-Off Assembly Running Tool

The Pack-Off Assembly Running Tool is primarily used to run, set, or retrieve the pack off
independently of the casing hanger. It will typically enable testing of the pack off in the same
running trip. The tool typically has a 4-1/2 inch API Internally Flush (NC50)inch box up by 4-
1/2 inch API IF (NC 50) box down.
2.2.10.8 Drill Pipe Casing Hanger Running Tool.

The casing hanger running tool runs the casing hanger without its packoff on drill pipe.
Running the casing hanger and pack off this way is a two-trip operation and in deeper waters
is generally avoided.
2.2.10.9 Full Bore Casing Hanger Running Tool.

The casing hanger running tool runs the casing hanger without its packoff on casing. Running
the casing hanger and pack off this way is a two-trip operation and in deeper waters is
generally avoided.
2.2.10.10 BOP Test Tool.

The BOP test tool is used to test the BOP stack without subjecting the wellhead components
below it to the BOP test pressure. The tool is deployed on drill pipe and seals inside the
housing bore.
2.2.10.11 Emergency Drill Pipe Hang-Off Tool.

The emergency drill pipe hang off tool is used to suspend drill pipe in the wellhead during
suspended drilling situations. Drill pipe weight is transferred into the wear bushing. The
configuration of the tool is unique to the particular BOP stack involved in the field
development.
2.2.10.12 Mill and Flush Tool.

The mill and flush tool is primarily used to clean out the annular area behind the casing
hanger neck before the installation of the pack off assembly. Lead impression blocks can be
provided to enable the elevation of the casing hanger to be verified prior to running the pack
off.
2.2.10.13 Emergency Seal Assembly.

The emergency seal assembly is used when the casing hanger is set high. Height
adjustment is built into the design of the emergency seal assembly enabling it to pack off on
the high set, casing hanger. It can then still provide a landing shoulder for the subsequent
run casing hanger or seal surface for the Horizontal Tree stinger at the correct elevation.

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2.2.11 Typical Subsea Wellhead Installation Procedures
• Run 30 inch conductor string into open hole with 30 inch suspension joint attached to
the guidance cone.
• Once landed and set to the correct vertical elevation, cement 30 inch conductor in
place according to operator procedures.
• Rotate the drill pipe and pull to release running tool. Pull back to surface.
• Drill the next hole to TD and run the 20-inch casing.
• Attach the 18 ¾ inch wellhead body to the 20-inch casing. Install the bore protector in
the wellhead (if not installed at the factory). Run cement stinger into wellhead housing
sitting on rotary table and make up the wellhead body to the running tool. Make up
running tool to wellhead.
• Run the wellhead body assembly into the suspension joint. Cement.
• Release the running string from the wellhead by rotation and pull back to surface.
• Place the drilling BOP across the spider beams over the moon pool. Make up the
hydraulic umbilicals and check all the functions.
• Run the BOP on marine riser. Lock BOP connector onto 18 ¾ inch wellhead. Rig up
diverter with choke and kill lines.
• Make up the isolation test tool onto drill pipe string. Run into the wellhead. Test the
BOP stack then retrieve the test tool.
• Drill the hole for the 13-3/8 inch casing. Pull back the string and make it up to the
bore protector retrieval tool. Run in and retrieve the bore protector.
• Run in the 13-3/8 inch casing string with attached cementing equipment.
• Make up the 13-3/8 inch casing hanger and the pack off to the single trip tool and
make this assembly up to the casing string, run in the hole with the drill string and
casing.
• Land the hanger into the 18 ¾ inch wellhead. Slack off the weight and cement the
string into place. Activate the pack off setting mode of the tool
• Slack off the string weight and close the BOP pipe rams.
• Build up pressure above the tool to set and test the pack off. Open the pipe rams,
release the tool from the pack off and then pull it back to the surface.
• Run in the 13-3/8 inch bore protector on the bore protector running tool. Land and
lock into the wellhead. Release the tool and pull back to the surface.
• Repeat the above steps to run the next casing strings.
• Start next functions for well – (e.g. Temporary abandonment, permanent
abandonment, completion, etc.).

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2.3 Subsea Christmas Trees
2.3.1 Functions of Subsea Trees
A subsea Christmas tree is basically a stack of valves installed on a subsea wellhead to

provide a controllable interface between the well and the production facilities. Some specific
functions of a subsea Christmas tree include the following:
• Sealing the wellhead from the environment by means of the tree connector.
• Sealing the production bore and annulus from the environment.
• Providing a controlled flow path from the production tubing, through the tree to the
production flow line. Well flow control can be provided by means of tree valves and/or
a tree-mounted choke.
• Providing access to the well bore via tree caps and/or swab valves.
• Providing access to the annulus for well control, pressure monitoring, gas lift, etc.
• Providing a hydraulic interface for the down hole safety valve.
• Providing an electrical interface for down hole instrumentation, electric submersible
pumps, etc.
• Providing structural support for flow line and control umbilical interface.
Figure 2.17 - Schematic Representations of Different Tree Types

Tree Tubing Head Spool Tubing Hanger Subsea Wellhead

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2.3.2 Types of Subsea Trees
2.3.2.1 Dual Bore Tree or Conventional Tree

Until recently, most subsea trees were so-called “dual bore” type trees. A typical dual bore
tree is illustrated in Figure 2-18. These trees have a production and annulus bore passing
vertically through the tree body with production and annulus master valves and swab valves
oriented vertically in the main block of the tree. They are designed to allow vertical access to
the main production bore and to the annulus bore during installation and workover operations.
When a dual bore subsea Christmas tree is connected to a subsea wellhead it must interface
with the tubing hanger previously installed in the wellhead. The tubing hanger and tree must
Figure 2.18 - Example of a Compact Dual Bore

Tree
be correctly orientated so they mate properly with one another and the production and
annulus bores are properly aligned and sealed. Alignment of the tubing hanger in the
wellhead is generally accomplished by interaction of a pin and helix between the tubing
hanger running tool and the BOP or a pre-machined vertical orientation slot in the BOP
connector upper body. The reaction between the pin and the helix causes the tubing hanger
assembly to rotate into the correct position. Alternatively, the tubing hanger is rotated until
the alignment slot lines up with a spring-loaded alignment key on the running tool. The tree is
subsequently aligned by the permanent guidebase.
2.3.2.2 Mono Bore Tree

A typical mono bore tree is similar to a conventional dual bore tree but differs in that it utilizes
a simpler riser system to install the tree and tubing hanger. Additionally simpler styles of
mono bore tree exist which are generally used on mud line completions in shallow water.
When producing a well, the annulus between the production tubing and the well casing must
be accessible to relieve thermally induced pressure build up. In order to accomplish this,
tubing hanger and tree systems must enable access to the annulus under the tubing hanger.
Both conventional and mono-bore trees (except the basic mudline style trees) utilize a port

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through the tubing hanger. This port, as well as the production bore, must be closed before
removing the BOP or the subsea tree.
On a conventional style tree, the annulus port is typically sealed with a wire line plug run and
retrieved through a multi-bore completion riser or a riser with a diverter mechanism. This
riser is generally expensive and dedicated to the tree system. Refer to descriptions of riser
systems elsewhere in this document for detailed descriptions.
In the mono bore tree system the tubing hanger is run on drill pipe or tubing and the annulus
is accessed through a hose bundle. Opening and closing of the annulus is accomplished by
means of a “shiftable” plug or valve in the annulus bore. The disadvantage to this, as
compared to the dual bore system, is the requirement for moving parts within the tubing
hanger that must be left subsea for the life of the completion.
Some designs incorporate a second plug or valve, ported in series with the primary plug,
which can be actuated as a backup to close the annulus if more redundancy is desired.
The mono bore tree obviates the need for a true vertical annulus bore through the tree.
Figure 2.19 - Deepwater Guidelineless Figure 2.20 - Monobore Tree

Horizontal Tree
2.3.2.3 Horizontal Tree

Another type of subsea Christmas tree that has gained popularity since its introduction in
1992 is the “horizontal” tree. A typical horizontal subsea trees are illustrated in Figures 2-19
and 2-21. Its most obvious distinction from the dual bore tree is that the production and
annulus bores branch horizontally out of the side of the tree body and the valves are oriented
on a horizontal axis. The horizontal tree has no production or annulus swab valves. Access
to the well bore is gained by removing the internal tree cap, or a wireline plug within the
internal tree cap, and a wireline plug in the tubing hanger. The horizontal subsea Christmas
tree is sometimes referred to as a “side valve tree” or SpoolTree™. Other distinguishing
features of the horizontal tree, in addition to the valve arrangement from which it gets its
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name, are: 1) the tubing hanger is installed in the tree itself, rather than in the wellhead and
2) the top of the tree is designed so the BOP may be landed onto the tree. This arrangement
allows the tubing string to be recovered without first retrieving the tree.
Horizontal Tree technology was conceived and developed to run and retrieve well bore tubing
through an installed tree providing a simple and efficient work-over capability. Originally, this
type of technology seemed ideally suited for Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) applications,
where frequent pump maintenance or replacement may be required. Well interventions were
most commonly caused by the need to repair downhole problems as opposed to subsea tree
equipment problems.
The concept was extended to include standard production and injection wells in the belief that
horizontal technology offered much greater benefit over conventional technology, at least in
some applications.
The benefits and drawbacks of both horizontal and conventional tree technologies have been
the subject of many debates for several years. The newer horizontal tree technology has
been shown to have significant merit in order to have acquired at least 50 % of the market in
less than six years. It is probable that both completion technologies will have a vital part to
play in future oil and gas developments and the possibility of a winner for all applications is
unlikely.
Figure 2.21 - Horizontal Trees

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2.3.2.4 ADVANTAGES of Horizontal Trees

• Tubing recovery is simplified. The ability to perform tubing work-over and some drill-
through operations without the need to recover the subsea tree and disturb the
associated production flowline/controls connection is beneficial. This is particularly
attractive for wells with planned or scheduled tubing work-over intervention or
complex down-hole completions with the higher probabilities for down-hole failures
requiring rig intervention.
• The spool tree is suitable for tubing up to 7” OD whereas the dual bore tree is limited
to 5-1/2” OD. The larger bore can also accommodate a larger number of down-hole
hydraulic control lines, chemical lines and electrical transducer penetrations with the
capability to provide full bore annulus circulation or injection.
• The large bores possible with this system are consistent with the usual objective to
reduce the number of wells. However, reliability may be compromised by a more
complex completion.
• The ability to use standard, drilling BOP stacks for installation and work-over. All the
completion operations except for running the subsea tree and debris cap are
performed through the drilling BOP stack. This eliminates the need for a dedicated
open water completion riser system.
• All completion work is carried out through or within the protection of a BOP stack.
• The ability to use single string tubing or casing as an installation and completion riser
allows a cheaper riser to be configured than a conventional dual bore riser. The BOP
stack’s choke and kill lines are used to circulate the annulus or riser fluids prior to
disconnection and recovery of the riser system. The production tubing annulus access
bypasses the tubing hanger and uses metal sealing valves for annulus isolation. This
provides maximum space through the tubing hanger body for big bore completions.
• Subsea tree installation or recovery is greatly simplified by using drill pipe instead of a
dedicated riser system.
• The Subsea Tree provides an integral and precise, passive tubing hanger orientation
system with no requirement for BOP modifications, interaction or datum’s.
• Subsea tree provides new, exact and retrievable tubing hanger landing, locking,
orientation and sealing profiles, not dependent on the condition of wellhead internal
profiles. A damaged hanger sealing profile in the wellhead, is not significant to a
Horizontal Tree. The same benefit with a conventional tree system requires
expensive additional tubing hanger adapter or tubing spool equipment.
• The tubing hanger-to-subsea tree interface is tested and verified at the time of landing
the tubing hanger in the tree while the BOP stack is still in place. Should problems
arise, this offers the possibility for recovering the tubing hanger and taking immediate
remedial action without tripping the stack. A conventional tree-to-wellhead/tubing
hanger interface cannot be verified until after the BOP stack has been recovered and
the tree installed. A failure to interface properly can have serious time/cost
implications, especially if the tubing hanger is damaged or not in the correct
orientation when the tree lands.
• Subsea tree single-piece spool body construction provides the maximum tree spool
strength characteristics and reliability with minimum failure modes. These are
considered to be stronger than conventional trees.
• Successful subsea tree installation is not dependent on the full integrity of the
wellhead internal sealing profiles. There are greater probabilities for successful
installation on existing and perhaps old exploratory wellheads of uncertain integrity.
The tree readily adapts to different wellheads from different vendors.
• Horizontal trees are compact, have a low profile and an excellent strength-to-weight
ratio.

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• Subsea component ‘building blocks’ can be arranged into many different tree layouts.
This has given considerable flexibility to horizontal tree configuration and improved
the opportunity of mass produced tree equipment by allowing the flexibility to
manufacturers. Tree internals can be standardized while external characteristics can
be varied or moved to suit the application.
• A Horizontal subsea tree design, using guidelines, can be readily converted to a
guideline-less and funnel-down, wellhead re-entry system. This is achieved by adding
a bolt-on funnel to the bottom of the tree. A funnel-down, BOP stack, wellhead re-
entry system can be used for guideline-less re-entry to a Horizontal Tree with little or
no change to the standard guideline subsea tree. This will provide the lightest possible
guideline-less subsea tree weight.
Figure 2.22 - Dual Bore Tree Stacked on

Top of Tubing Adapter on Shop Floor

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2.3.2.5 DISADVANTAGES of Horizontal Trees

• The tubing must be pulled first before retrieving the tree. Horizontal Tree recovery
requires that the down-hole completion is recovered first, with the associated well
killing operations through the BOP stack. Rationalization of this disadvantage is based
on intervention data, that suggests that subsea tree failures, requiring the tree to be
recovered, are a low percentage of all major failures requiring intervention. By far, the
Figure 2.23 - Dual Bore Split (Upper and

Lower) Body Tree
greatest percentage of failures, relate to the failure of down-hole equipment, such as

safety valves, gravel packs, etc. This suggests that intervention savings are actually
likely to be accrued due to the use of Horizontal Tree technology, as down-hole work-
over frequency is much greater than the probability of tree recovery.
• A drill-and-complete scenario for Horizontal Trees currently requires two BOP trips.
(Run the BOP stack; drill well; recover BOP stack; run tree; re-run BOP stack; finish
complete; recover BOP stack).
• A Horizontal Tree does not include master and/or swab valves in the vertical bore of
the tree to provide first-line barrier protection to the environment. It relies on a wireline
plug to provide the first line barrier protection. Care must be taken to ensure that the
critical wireline plug sealing surfaces in the tubing hanger and tree cap are not
damaged during wireline operations.
• The subsea tree must be designed to withstand the loadings associated with a
deepwater BOP stack and riser system.
• The bore of the subsea tree may be exposed to a very harsh drilling riser environment
requiring special provisions for bore protection and bore cleaning in order to ensure
successful tubing hanger installation and valve reliability.
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• Tubing hanger installation requires the use of a sophisticated BOP subsea

intervention tree and landing string system in order to provide for safe flow testing,
wireline and coil tubing intervention and emergency disconnect scenarios. This adds
complexity and time to the tubing hanger and down-hole completion, installation
process. The Tubing hanger installation requires simultaneous control of the tubing
hanger running tool, Subsea Intervention Tree and landing string system, BOP and
subsea tree’s work-over functions. This involves up to four umbilicals and their control
panels.
Figure 2.24 - Dual Bore Tree Being Deployed
• The tubing hanger hydraulic and electrical penetrations exit through the side of the
subsea tree’s spool body. Control of hydraulic functions and monitoring of electrical
functions is typically not provided although available, during installation of the tubing
hanger system.
• The side outlet penetrations for control and electrical functions are additional leak
paths in the primary tree bore during drilling and completion operations
• ROV’s must be used to connect/disconnect work-over controls between the BOP and
Subsea Tree.
• A landing string leak or failure during well test or well clean up can divert
hydrocarbons to the rig floor, burst the marine riser, or evacuate the marine riser
allowing it to collapse under hydrostatic pressure.

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2.3.2.6 ADVANTAGES of Conventional Dual And Mono Bore Trees

• Only one BOP trip is required in a drill-and-complete scenario. In addition, no
temporary well abandonment plug is required between the BOP stack recovery and
the tree installation as the tubing hanger serves that purpose.
• The subsea tree can be recovered without having to recover the tubing hanger and
down-hole completion because the tubing hanger lands in the wellhead and not in the
subsea tree.
Figure 2.25 - Dual Bore Guidelineless Tree

on Test Stand
• The subsea tree is not required to withstand high loads associated with a Drilling BOP
stack.
• Work-Over control connections are normally made between stab rings mounted on
the tree mandrel and the LRP connector. No ROV is required.
2.3.2.7 DISADVANTAGES of Conventional Dual And Mono Bore Trees

• The wellhead bore sets the tubing hanger outside diameter, leaving only a limited
area for downhole access. This restricts the largest possible production bore size
when including all the other down-hole penetrations required. Particularly the annulus
bore that provides a circulation path that can also be sealed with a wireline plug. The
2” annulus bore is selected for the minimum reliable wireline plug size and exceeds
the flow requirements. The available space is even more severely limited when
considering a concentric tubing hanger design or for the need for annulus injection or
gas lift capabilities.
• If deepwater wells tend toward intelligent completions and/or simultaneous production
from different reservoirs, conventional tree technology is inherently limited by the
restricted space inside a wellhead. An alternative would be to use the hybrid tree,
which lands a conventional tree on top of a horizontal tree, for these applications.

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• The subsea tree must be recovered in order to perform a tubing work-over. This
disturbs the production flowline and umbilical connections. This creates new
opportunities for damage to other hardware that is not easily recovered.
Figure 2.26 - Horizontal Tree With Trawl Protector

Frame
• A Monobore riser with a selector crossover mechanism at its base, in order to provide
wireline access to the annulus can be unreliable.
• The subsea tree is typically installed on the dedicated work-over riser and wireline
BOP intervention system in order to provide for flow testing, wireline and coil tubing
operations, and emergency disconnect. This adds complexity and time to the
installation process. This is the same as running the horizontal tree's tubing hanger
on the subsea intervention tree and associated landing string system.
• The integrity of the wellhead interface is an issue. Damaged seal surfaces in the
wellhead are not readily replaced and require an expensive tubing hanger adapter.
• No industry standard interface exists and the formalities of exchanging design
information with a competitor and taking responsibility for its performance can be
difficult.
• The tubing hanger’s orientation system is very complex with very significant
orientation tolerances in the system. It relies on accurate setup and active interaction
with the BOP stack. The interface between the tubing hanger and the subsea tree
cannot be tested until the BOP stack has been recovered and the tree installed.
• A leak or failure of the riser system during well test or clean up will produce
hydrocarbons to the environment. If the failure occurs near the surface safety issues
arise.

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2.3.2.8 Other Types of Trees

There are other specialized variations of subsea trees as well. These include TFL trees
designed for use with special “through flowline” (TFL) workover equipment; “Single-Bore™” or
“mono-bore” trees with a vertical production bore and a side valve for annulus access;
“through-bore” trees with the tubing hanger in the tree body and “concentric” trees, used with
a concentric tubing hanger and not requiring orientation between the tree and tubing hanger.
2.3.3 Components of a Typical Subsea Tree

The subsea Christmas tree is a complex engineered system of components. There are
several different types of trees as explained below, and the tree configurations available even
within a given type of tree (e.g. horizontal tree, or dual bore tree) vary widely from project to
project. A subsea Christmas tree will typically consist of the following components:
• A tree connector to attach the tree to the subsea wellhead.
• The tree body, a heavy forging with production flow paths, designed for pressure
containment. Annulus flow paths may also be included in the tree body.
• Tree valves for the production bore, the annulus, and ancillary functions. The tree
valves may be integral with the tree body or bolted on.
• Valve actuators for remotely opening and closing the valves. Some valves may be
manual and will include ROV interfaces for deep water.
• Control junction plates for umbilical control hook up.
• Control system. This includes the valve actuator command system and includes
pressure and temperature transducers. The valve actuator command system can be
simple tubing or a complex system including a computer and electrical solenoids
depending on the application
• Choke (optional) for regulating the production flow rate.
• Tree piping for conducting production fluids, crossover between the production bore
and the annulus, chemical injection, hydraulic controls, etc.
• Tree guide frame for supporting the tree piping and ancillary equipment and for
providing guidance for installation and intervention.
• External tree cap for protecting the upper tree connector and the tree itself. Tree cap
often incorporates dropped object protection or fishing trawl protection.

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Figure 2.27 - Typical Fail Closed

Subsea Actuator (Valve Not Shown)
Figure 2.28 - Typical Valve Actuator

With Rotary ROV Override

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Figure 2.29 - Horizontal Tree Tubing Hanger
2.3.4 Pressure and Structural Design Considerations of Subsea Trees
2.3.4.1 Pressure Design

Pressure containing components of subsea trees are to be designed and tested in
accordance with API 17D and API 6A for pressure ratings of 5000, 10000 and 15000 psi for
most applications. The tree piping is normally designed in accordance with ASME B31.3.
The guidelines in the API specifications are general and in many case open to interpretation.
It is up to the manufacturer to apply his engineering judgement.

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The sources of pressure in a subsea tree include the following:

• Production fluids.
• Hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic fluid pressure to the SCSSV may exceed the tree
pressure rating. Effects of primary seal failures should be considered.
• Chemical injection fluids. Seal failures can result in migration of fluids
• Thermal expansion of fluids in closed cavities.
• Annulus pressure. It should be assumed that pressure will accumulate in the well
annulus.
• External hydrostatic pressure.
• Test pressure. Seal verification pipeline
• Hydraulic lock. When mating parts are engaged, fluids may become trapped in the
enclosed cavity and impede the engagement of the parts or cause damage to some
component.
Seals
The rules of the ASME pressure vessel code apply for the design of pressure containing
shells. Seal design, however, is largely beyond the scope of the pressure vessel code, and a
great variety of proprietary manufacturer’s designs exist.
While the pressure design of the tree body, tree valves and piping is fairly straightforward, the
interfaces between the various tree components require careful consideration or unexpected
pressure effects may not be discovered until too late. It should be assumed that all seals are
subject to failure, and at least one redundant or secondary seal shall be provided for every
primary seal.
The following are some of the seal interfaces to consider:
• Sealing between the production bore and the annulus bore.
• Tubing hanger to tree interface.
• Tubing hanger to wellhead interface.
• Tree connector to tree body interface.
• Valve blocks to tree body interface.
• Valve seats, stems, gates, and bonnets.
• Flowline and valve flanges.
• Running tool interfaces.
• Riser interfaces

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Figure 2.30 - Examples of Tree Cap Running Tools

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Seal Materials:
• Metal to metal seals. These employ a soft metal seal ring such as a stainless steel.
The sealing seating surface is a harder material. Seal surfaces are usually overlaid
with a non-corrosive material such as a high nickel alloy (Inconel). Metal seals come
in a variety of forms including gaskets, rings, wedges and other geometric
configurations.
• Elastomer energized metal seals. These are composite metal and elastomer seals
designed such that, the elastomer allows applied pressure to energize the metal
seals, or confined elastomer compression squeeze energizes the metal seal during
the setting procedure. Even with degradation of the elastomer, the metal component
maintains the seal. Some designs include provision for potentially the opposite to
occur in which the elastomer provides a back up seal for metal seals that may be
damaged during setting or through use – for example fretting if movement occurs with
temperature or pressure cycling.
• Elastomer seals. The temperature rating and fluid compatibility of the elastomer is
very important.
2.3.4.2 Quality Control and Testing

Rigorous quality control and testing procedures are necessary to assure pressure integrity
and correct fit and function of the components. Quality control, non destructive examination
and testing requirements are laid out in detail in API specifications. There are four levels of
quality assurance defined in API 6A, called Product Specification Levels. Product
Specification Levels dictate the degree of inspection, testing and certification required for the
primary pressure containing components.
The following table summarizes PSL-2 to PSL-4. It should be kept in mind that API-6A was
developed for surface wellhead equipment. PSL-1 is not usually considered applicable to
subsea trees, and the applicability of the other Product Specification Levels is subject to
interpretation. Subsea equipment will generally fall into the PSL-3 category and
manufacturers often offer PSL-3 for only nominally higher cost than PSL-2 because they have
standardized on materials and procedures that comply with PSL-3.
API Product Specification Levels

PSL API Pressure Rating High Close
Level 5000 10,000 15,000 H2S Proximity
PSL-2 X X
PSL-2 X X
PSL-2 X
PSL-3 X X
PSL-3 X X X
PSL-3 X
PSL-4 X X X
PSL-4 X X
PSL-4 X X
Manufacturers of equipment almost always try to adhere to API specifications, but the
customer should specify requirements when purchasing. All factory acceptance testing
procedures will be generated by the manufacturer and should be reviewed by the customer to
ensure that specific field requirements will be met by the equipment. System integration
testing is another process that verifies that the equipment is suitable for use. These
procedures are normally very project specific and relate to various equipment interfaces
within the project. Refer to the section on testing.

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Most manufacturers maintain a quality assurance system within their manufacturing and
testing facilities to monitor and identify problems as early as possible in order that rectifying
actions can take place as early as possible to prevent schedule delay. The method that most
companies employ is for a report, often call a non-conformance report or NCR, to be
generated. This report is created so that experienced engineers and/or customer
representatives can review and decide on what course of action to take to assist the project
meet schedule and quality goals. These quality systems are normally in compliance with ISO
9000 series specifications or API Q1 specification.
Manufacturing records of the material certificates, pressure tests and charts, non-
conformance records, weld maps, nondestructive testing reports, x-rays, dimensional logs
and other critical information such as test reports are collected, maintained, and published by
the quality assurance group in the manufacturing companies. These records or parts of
these records are required by regulation in many parts of the world in order to be able to
deploy and use the subsea equipment.
2.3.4.3 Structural Design

The tree connector, tree body, tree guide frame and tree piping must be designed to
withstand internal and external structural loads imposed during installation and operation.
The following are some tree and tree component load considerations:
• Riser and BOP loads.
• Flowline connection loads.
• Snagged tree frame, umbilicals or flowlines.
• Thermal stresses – trapped fluids, component expansion, pipeline growth.
• Lifting loads.
• Dropped objects.
• Pressure induced loads – external and internal.
Non-pressure containing structural components should be designed in accordance with AWS

D1.1.
Tree framework is usually designed around standard API post centres. This is typically, but
not always true, even if the tree is designed to be guidelineless. API defines the position of
four guideposts evenly spaced around the well centerline at a six foot radius. This equates to
101.82 inches between the posts on any side of the square corners that they form.
2.3.5 Subsea Tree Installation and Well Intervention Considerations
2.3.5.1 Running Sequence

The following is a summary of the sequence of operations for installing a subsea tree onto a
predrilled well:
• Move the rig onto location.
• Launch ROV to locate the wellhead.
• Establish final position over wellhead with the aid of the ROV and drill string reference
positioning system.
• If a guideline system is being deployed, re-establish guidelines.
• Retrieve the corrosion cap from the wellhead. Check the condition of wellhead sealing
surface with the ROV and flush if necessary.
• Verify that a wellhead wear bushing is not in place. If it is, it will need to be retrieved.
This is normally done through the BOP stack after it is run. For a horizontal tree, it
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may be retrieved in open water to avoid having to trip the BOP stack for just the wear
bushing retrieval. This exposes the wellhead gasket sealing area to potential risk of
damage. Extra precautions may be taken to avoid this such as an extended rubber
tipped bull nose being run below the retrieval tool, or other means or guidance such
as a guide frame.
• Depending on the system design, a completion guide base or tubing hanger adapter
spool may be deployed next. If not, the tree in a horizontal tree system will be
deployed and then the BOP stack. Alternatively for a conventional system, the BOP
stack will be run before the tree.
• Horizontal Tree – An elevation check tool may be optionally run to confirm the height
of the last casing hanger in the wellhead with the same precautions mentioned above.
The Horizontal Subsea Tree is then run on drill pipe with the tree running tool and
land on the wellhead. The operation should be monitored by ROV. The umbilical
should be strapped to the drill pipe as the tree is being run. The tree is then locked
onto the wellhead and the gasket tested. The ROV then disconnects the work over
umbilical junction plate and parks it above the tree running tool. The tree running tool
and umbilical is then retrieved. The BOP and marine riser is then run and latched
onto Subsea tree. The BOP can then be tested by running the isolation test tool
which is then retrieved. Completion work is then carried out and the tubing hanger
run after the bore protector has been retrieved. The tubing hanger is run with the
landing string and usually subsea test tree – refer to the section on work over risers.
The well typically flows through the landing string for well clean up and well test
purposes. A crown plug is set in the tubing hanger after the well test or clean up is
finished. An internal tree cap is then set and the BOP stack retrieved. A debris cap is
then run onto the tree.
• Conventional Dual Bore Tree – The BOP stack is run onto the wellhead before any
completion work commences. An elevation check tool may be optionally run to
confirm the height of the last casing hanger in the wellhead through the BOP.
Completion work is then carried out and the tubing hanger run after the bore protector
has be retrieved. The tubing hanger is run and oriented with the installation and work
over riser configured for the tubing hanger running tool – refer to the section on work
over risers. Plugs are then set in the tubing hanger and the installation riser and BOP
stack are retrieved. The tree is then run on the installation and work over riser
configured for the tree running tool and lower marine riser package. The plugs in the
tubing hanger are then retrieved and the well tested or cleaned up through the
installation and work over riser. The riser is then retrieved and a debris cap run onto
the tree.
• The guidelines are then cut or released usually by ROV.
• The rig then pulls anchors and departs.
All of the above operations must be carefully planned before mobilizing offshore in order to
avoid costly errors. In addition to all the logistical issues to be addressed, a part of the pre-
planning should include consideration of weather limitations for the various operations and
contingency plans for abandoning or suspending operations in case of bad weather.

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2.3.5.2 Tree Running Tools

Subsea tree and other equipment deployment requires a suite of dedicated purpose designed
running tools for the tree and tubing hanger. These are typically hydraulically actuated if they
can not be weight or tension activated. In deeper water, torque gets difficult to transmit and
control to the subsea equipment because of the flexibility in the pipe being used to transmit it.
In addition the pipe can have a tendency to curl if torque resistance is offered by the subsea
tool. It is difficult to count the number of turns that the subsea tool receives because the
observed number of turns at the surface may be different to the number of turns at the
seabed. Visual indication of the function of the tool can thereby be confusing or lost leading
to problems and often damage if test pressures or over pulls are applied with a tool
incorrectly functioned.
Hydraulic tools can have hydraulic signals built into their design to confirm the correct
function of the tool. Hydraulic signals can generally be assumed to reach the tool function if
no pressure loss occurs which would otherwise indicate a leak. Hydraulic tools must be
designed with a means of secondary override or fail safe to prevent problems in the event
that the hydraulic system or umbilical fails while the tool is subsea. It would be undesirable to
have a tool latched into a wellhead or tree with failed hydraulics so that it is stuck in place.
Figure 2.31 - Typical Tree Running Tool for Mechanical Connector

(Hydraulics Are In the Tool)
2.3.5.3 Reentry
Installation and workover systems are discussed in a separate section. It also describes
various options for umbilical connection
In either design the tubing may be reentered with the tree in place. The reentry mandrel
profile is a profile that is provided on the top of the tree. It is designed to provide a
mechanical connection and pressure containment for the mating connector on the
“Installation and Workover” riser system, or the subsea BOP in the case of a horizontal tree.
Recovery of the downhole tubing is another issue. With all conventional dual bore tree
designs, the tree must be retrieved before pulling tubing. With horizontal trees, the tubing
may be retrieved without pulling the tree.

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2.3.6 Subsea Tree Materials, Corrosion and Erosion Design

Considering the high cost for intervention, material selection becomes more critical for deep-
water applications. Investment in the right materials will prevent or mitigate the likelihood of
equipment failure due to the effects of corrosion.
2.3.6.1 Corrosive Agents

Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide in even low concentrations can induce cracking in wrought materials,
wherein nascent hydrogen ions produced by other corrosion activity at the metal surface do
not recombine to gaseous hydrogen due to the action of sulfide ions. The H+ ions migrate
through the metal recombining to H2 at discontinuities, creating very high pressures and
causing the metal to crack.
Another failure mechanism induced by hydrogen sulfide at higher levels is sulfide stress
corrosion cracking. Sulfide stress corrosion failures tend to be catastrophic in nature
because the effects are more pronounced on more highly stressed areas. The failures
commonly occur in the heat-affected zone adjacent to welds.
The measure of H2S concentration level is partial pressure. Low concentrations at high
pressure are equivalent to higher concentrations at lower pressure. The effects are further
influenced by temperature, but generalities do not apply well. For some materials the
susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking decreases with increasing temperature. For others
it may increase to a point and then decline. The presence of other corrosive agents such as
chlorides may also have an effect on this behavior.
Extensive testing of metal alloys by the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)
has demonstrated that by controlling material hardness and microstructure the effects of
stress corrosion can be mitigated. Guidelines are published in NACE MR - 01- 75. The
European Federation of Corrosion, Oil and Gas Working Parties have also issued guidelines
for H2S service for both plain steels and corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs). These present
more detailed guidelines than the NACE document and are complementary to it.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide in the presence of water forms carbonic acid which corrodes low alloy steels.
The principle indicators to watch for are partial pressure and temperature, with corrosion
rates increasing with the increase of either the temperature or the partial pressure. Above
60°C a protective deposit of iron carbonate is formed on the surface of low alloy steels that
inhibits the corrosive effects of CO2. Any areas not so protected, due to a feature of
operation that prevents the formation of this carbonate product or disrupts it, will continue to
experience high corrosion rates.
Much work in the field of CO2 corrosion has been conducted by DeWaard and Milliams
[Simom-Thomas MJJ, DeWaard C, SmithLA: “Controlling Factors in the Rate of CO2
Corrosion.” UK Corrosion 1987].
Chloride Ions
Chloride ions, present in the formation water of the reservoir, can cause cracking and pitting
in certain materials. The cracking mechanism is chloride stress corrosion cracking, in
stressed areas above 50°C. This corrosion mechanism is largely independent of pressure.
Austenitic stainless steels, such as type 316, are susceptible. Low alloy steels and
martensitic stainless steels (F6NM) are less susceptible to chloride induced stress corrosion
cracking, but suffer from pitting corrosion.

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2.3.6.2 Erosion
Erosion is a physical process, whereas corrosion is usually a chemical process. Apart from
the direct loss of material from erosion effects, erosion often accelerates the rate of corrosion
by preventing the formation of protective films or scale and exposing new metal to the
corrosive environment.
The worst erosion agent is sand in the produced fluids. It is impractical to design against high
levels of sand production so sand control and monitoring is critical.
There are several design features that can mitigate erosion effects.
• Large flow passages to reduce velocity.
• Long radius piping bends.
• “Cushion” tees.
• Overlay with harder and/or more corrosion resistant materials in susceptible areas.
• Extra material thickness in susceptible areas.
There is instrumentation available to monitor sand production and material loss. New
technology is constantly under development. The first defense is prevention of sand
production through careful design and deployment of well completions. If that fails the
monitors may detect the problem before it becomes catastrophic.
2.3.6.3 Crevice Attack and Pitting

Crevice attack and pitting are very common forms of corrosion in seawater.
Pitting is caused by local concentration cells set up by differences in oxygen concentration,
temperature, or fluid velocity. It is more prevalent under relatively stagnant conditions.
Surface features or metallurgical factors, such as inclusions, breaks in the protective film,
surface defects, etc. may help initiate pitting.
Crevice corrosion occurs around gaskets, washers, fasteners, foreign matter, etc. that
provide crevices that can become oxygen deprived. Crevice effects may be enhanced by
simultaneous galvanic action. Elastomers containing sulfur or graphite are especially
damaging to stainless steels.
2.3.6.4 Low Alloy Steels

Where suitable, low alloy steels are desireable because they are inexpensive, easy to weld
and readily available. The low alloy steels are carbon-manganese grades, in accordance with
API or ASTM standards (e.g. AISI 4130 & 8630). Low alloy steels, however, are limited in
their usefulness in corrosive service.
For CO2 corrosion it is generally accepted that when the CO2 partial pressure is above 0.5
bar significant corrosion may occur in low alloy steels and their use is not recommended. Low
alloy steels may be used in CO2 service if the wetted areas are clad with a protective overlay
of corrosion resistant material such as Inconel or stainless steel.
H2S induced stress corrosion cracking is a concern with low alloy steels where H2S partial
pressure is above the allowable level. It can be mitigated, however, by controlling the material
grain structure and hardness.
2.3.6.5 Martensitic Stainless Steels

Martensitic grades of stainless steel (ASTM A182: F6NM, AISI 410) offer good resistance to
both carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. They have low resistance, however, to pitting
corrosion due to chlorides, especially at higher temperatures. Extended exposure to high chloride
environments may result in severe localized pitting, particularly where natural crevices exist.
These steels are available in high strengths and are widely used in down hole and wellhead
applications.
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2.3.6.6 Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels (e.g. AISI 316 L) have excellent corrosion resistance up to 50 bar
partial pressure of CO2. However, chloride stress corrosion resistance is limited to operating
temperatures up to 50°C. They can be susceptible to crevice corrosion. Austenitic stainless
steel is immune to sulfide stress corrosion cracking up to 0.5 bar partial pressure of H2S at
temperatures up to 60°C.
The low yield strength of austenitic stainless steels renders them unsuitable for structural
components but they are extensively used for fittings and connectors. They are particularly
suited for gasket materials where their low yield ensures that they deform preferentially to the
ring groove and deform readily into any surface irregularities.
2.3.6.7 Duplex Stainless Steels

Duplex stainless steels are high alloy steels comprised of both austenitic and ferritic phases.
The two most commonly specified grades of duplex stainless steels are UNS 31803 (with
22% Cr and 5% Ni), and UNS 32750 (25% Cr, 7% Ni). The 25%CR material is sometimes
referred to as “super duplex” or high performance duplex.
Duplex stainless steels offer better resistance to CO2 and chlorides than the austenitic (316L)
stainless steels and have higher mechanical strength.
Duplex stainless steels are frequently used for piping and downhole tubing. It is not used for
large forgings because of the expense and because of reduced mechanical strength near the
center of thick forged sections.
2.3.6.8 High Nickel Alloys

The high nickel alloys containing 25% to 65% Ni are the most resistant to both CO2 and H2S
corrosion. No limits are given for CO2 corrosion, whereas H2S corrosion is a function of the
nickel content. Inconel alloys UNS N08825 and UNS N06625 are the most widely used high
nickel alloys in the oil industry. They are usually more expensive than the duplex stainless
steel alloys.
High nickel alloys are used in both solid forgings and as weld cladding on less expensive low
alloy steel substrate. Overlaying the exposed surface with a high nickel alloy can mitigate
crevice corrosion effects. This is the case with ring gasket seal areas. It is important that the
alloys used for the overlay have hardness greater than the gasket seal material to minimize
the risk of locally yielding the ring groove.
2.3.6.9 Coatings and Cathodic Protection

It is normal to use sacrificial aluminum anodes to protect the steel components of subsea
trees, templates, manifolds and pipelines from seawater corrosion. The anodes are usually
used in conjunction with a high quality epoxy coating system applied to the low alloy steel
components. Stainless steel components are typically left bare. The anodes afford the
Austenitic stainless steels some protection against pitting and crevice corrosion as well.
The coating helps to minimize the rate of consumption of the anodes, allowing for fewer
anodes and extending their life. The anodes must be designed for the life of the equipment
and must allow for degradation of the coating. Replacement of anodes is not an option, or a
very expensive one.
The coating system commonly consists of an epoxy primer applied over a surface that has
been prepared by cleaning and grit blasting to “white metal”, followed by the application of
two coats of high build polyamide epoxy.

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2.3.7 Tree Mounted Controls and Instrumentation

Tree mounted controls are dependent on operational, functional, and interface to the subsea
system requirements. Typical tree mounted equipment includes the Subsea Control Module
(SCM or pod) with mounting base and funnel, pressure and temperature sensors, choke
position indicator, sand detectors, erosion detectors, downhole gauge interface, junction
plates, and parking positions for both hydraulic and electrical jumpers.
The SCM is responsible for gathering all instrumentation data on the tree, including sensor
readings from all tree mounted gauges as well as downhole gauge readings and sending that
information to the topside control system for action and interpretation. The SCM also filters
the hydraulic fluid supply and then, when directed, to actuate an appropriate solenoid valve to
actuate a valve on the tree. The SCM can also record the “signature” of the valve by
monitoring the outlet pressure on that line. The signature is compared automatically on the
surface to the normal signature of the actuator to verify its function and proper position.
Junction plates are mounted on the tree to provide an interface point for the hydraulic,
chemical and/or electrical jumpers or umbilical to mate to the tree to supply hydraulic signals,
hydraulic power, chemicals for injection, electric power, or electronic control signals the tree.
The jumper plates are also connected during installation and workover functions to allow the
rig local control of the tree during these operations.
There are a variety of gauges that can be placed on the tree, separate pressure and
temperature sensors (or combined) can be placed in the annulus and the production bore and
upstream and downstream of the choke. The sand detector can be either intrusive or
acoustic and be set to warn the operator incase of sudden or progressively increasing sand
production.
Parking positions are included on the tree to allow parking of chemical/hydraulic jumpers, and
electrical jumpers during workover, pulling of the tree or retrieval of the SCM.
The control system is described in detail in Section 4.1.
2.3.8 Flow Assurance Considerations

Flow assurance has become something of a catch phrase in the subsea industry, but for
good reason. As developments move into deeper water lower seabed temperatures are
encountered, increasing the likelihood of flow problems, the means of intervention are fewer,
and the costs are higher. While most flow assurance issues are with the flowlines, the
mitigation of flow assurance problems may begin at the subsea tree, or even downhole. The
following are some possible sources of, or contributors to flow assurance problems.
• Hydrate formation. Joule-Thompson effect, low ambient seabed temperatures and
longer exposed risers contribute to the likelihood of hydrate formation in deepwater
developments. Wet gas at high pressures can form hydrates at temperatures well
above those encountered on the seabed.
• Wax deposition. If the seabed temperature is below the wax crystallization temperature
(cloud point) deposition of wax on the walls of the flowlines may take place.
• High viscosity, high pour point. Low temperature result in higher viscosity and
diminished flow rates.
• Asphaltenes. These can precipitate similarly to wax crystals and restrict the flow.
• Sand production. Sand can accumulate in flowlines and restrict flow. If any of the
other contributors to flow assurance problems are present the problems can be
greatly compounded with the additional presence of sand. Sand production can very
seriously and very rapidly degrade the pressure integrity of subsea systems.
• Scale formation. Scale deposits can restrict flow passages.

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There are a number of measures that can be taken to mitigate flow assurance problems.
Among them are the following:
• Insulation: The subsea tree and flowline may be insulated against the cold seawater.
There are many types of insulation. Syntactic foam is often used for deep water
applications because of its high compression strength.
• Chemical injection: Wax inhibitor, pour point suppressant, methanol, and scale
inhibitors may be injected at the subsea tree, or even downhole. The chemicals are
often delivered through tubes in the production control umbilical reserved for that
purpose, or through a dedicated umbilical or tube bundle. Actuated injection valves
and check valves are typically provided at the injection point on the subsea tree.
Downhole injection requires that the tree and tubing hanger be ported, and a
downhole injection line installed with the completion tubing string.
• Heating: While not commonly implemented due to cost and technical obstacles, heat
tracing of the subsea tree and flowline, accompanied by insulation, could be a solution
to an extreme flow assurance problem. An alternative may be to circulate hot water
within a production bundle, or stabilised crude oil where two flowlines are connected
to the production manifold.
• Pigging: Regular pigging can control the accumulation of wax, sand and asphaltenes.
Pigging issues are discussed in more detail elsewhere.
2.3.9 Deep Water Design Considerations
Deep is a subjective term, but as developments move into ever deeper water those issues
that have always posed challenges to subsea engineers become even greater, and the
solutions that worked successfully before no longer suffice. It is the designer’s challenge to
identify where to apply new solutions while building on what has worked in the past. The
following are some deep water design challenges:
2.3.9.1 High Hydrostatic Pressures

High hydrostatic pressures can sometimes have unexpected effects on equipment. The
following are some things to consider.
• If pressures are not balanced, the hydrostatic pressure can force parts together or
apart with unexpectedly high force, causing seizure or failure.
• Hydrostatic pressures can collapse elastomeric seals, hoses and other soft
components.
• Spring return actuators may be affected, causing valves to open or close
unexpectedly.
• Umbilical coupler seals may allow seawater intrusion, or junction plates may become
impossible to disengage.
• High pressure could be trapped inside equipment that has been exposed to great
depth and could present a hazard to personnel on the surface when the equipment is
retrieved.
• Hydrostatic differentials due to differing specific gravities of different fluids can cause
inadvertent reactions. These can include “U-tubing” of fluids into umbilical hoses or
hydraulic function of a running tool or device where the control fluid or chemical in the
umbilical hose is a lighter fluid than the ambient sea pressure or completion brine in
the marine drilling riser and well.

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2.3.9.2 Equipment Guidance

The long vertical offset complicates the station keeping for the drilling rig and makes the use
of guidelines impractical. The following are some considerations.
• Guide funnels to capture devices and guide them into position.
• Fenders and guard rails to protect other equipment from damage.
• Soft landing connectors. These allow rough engagement and capture of a component
(e.g. a flowline connector) without risk of damaging seals, and then a hydraulic
mechanism controls the movement from there to the final position. Rough
engagement can be difficult to avoid if the deployment vessel is subject to wave
motion.
2.3.9.3 Low Temperatures.

Extreme low temperatures can result from gas expansion (e.g. across a choke) combined
with the low ambient seabed temperatures. Besides the flow assurance issues addressed
above, low temperatures may have other effects.
• Increased stiffness of elastomers. Elastomer material selections may have to be
reviewed, or metal seals employed.
• Thermal stresses due to high temperature differential or temperature changes.
Clearances may be affected. Flexibility of piping loops may have to be addressed.
• Material embrittlement. Low temperature material may have to be specified and
Charpy notch toughness testing conducted.
2.3.9.4 Diverless Installation

All completion operations must be conducted without the benefit of diver intervention.
Diverless tree technology is well developed and ROV intervention tooling is pretty well
adapted to supporting subsea completions. The area that is most challenging in this regard is
subsea flowline tie-ins.
2.3.9.5 Long Trip Times

Tree installation requires numerous round trips to run and retrieve the various tree
components and running tools, as detailed in Section 2.3.5. The time required for each
operation increases with the water depth. In addition, the day rate cost is usually higher for
deep water drilling rigs. Finally, the risk of a mishap with each trip increases with increased
water depth, due to longer exposure times and less precise positioning control. The designer
may address this by finding ways to minimize the number of trips required. The operator may
address it by carefully planning all completion procedures.

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2.3.9.6 Riser Considerations

Drilling risers and installation and completion risers are both affected by deep water
considerations.
Riser loads can increase with depth due to current loading and increased weight of the riser
due to increased length. This requires increased connector capacities
There is increased risk of riser leakage because of the longer lengths of riser in deep water.
This can be hazardous during well flowing operations to a rig above the well. High pressure
gas or hydrocarbons released at depth expand tremendously in volume as they rise to the
surface. Thus a small volume of high pressure gas at depth can be a large gas bubble or
cloud at the surface. This of course represents tremendous safety risk.
Riser disconnect becomes more difficult at depth because of hydraulic response time and
because it can take much longer to bleed down contained riser pressure. Installation and
work over riser systems for deep water will typically include a number of valves that will
enable the riser to be closed and then disconnected while under pressure.
Deepwater riser systems are now being deployed with quick response electro-hydraulic
muliti-plexed control systems to enable rapid emergency disconnects if required.
Rig BOP and riser deck storage areas must be larger on deeper water rigs, or the riser must
be offloaded to support vessels.
2.3.10 Factory Acceptance, Performance Verification, and System Integration Testing
2.3.10.1 Factory Acceptance Testing

Factory Acceptance Testing, commonly referred to as FAT, is always performed on newly
manufactured subsea equipment to ensure that the individual components and items of
equipment meet the specified requirements and function correctly. After successful final
assembly and FAT, equipment is then almost always further verified by Systems Integration
Testing (SIT). SIT is described further in this document.
In addition to FAT and SIT, subsea equipment is subjected to qualification testing, frequently
referred to as Performance Verification Testing (PVT), if the equipment is new design or
significantly changed from proven equipment. Various procedures for this type of testing are
laid out in, or adapted from, PR1 or PR2 testing standards defined in API specifications for
equipment. PVT is described further in this document.
All testing is normally heavily based on relevant ISO and API Standards.
In order to try to ensure successful FAT and thereby assist with maintaining project
schedules, subsea equipment is manufactured and tested in accordance with predefined
quality procedures and quality plans. These procedures and plans are prepared before
manufacture commences and define the levels and methods of inspection and testing that will
be followed during the manufacturing process. A proficient quality system and well defined
quality plan will identify defects and problems early in all stages of manufacture so that
corrective actions can be invoked to ensure timely delivery of good equipment. This normally
involves a substantial amount of planning, experience and skilled manpower to enhance the
project execution. If not done properly, a cumbersome and burdensome quality system can
hinder rather than enhance it.
Body pressure tests must be performed before other pressure tests. The remaining tests can
be sequenced and combined to suit manufacturing consideration, provided that all tests are
performed.
Body tests are intended to reveal any structural flaws in components as early as it is safe to
do so. Having passed this overload test, a level of confidence is established for the safe
conduct of future tests carried out at the lower maximum working pressure.

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During manufacture, components should be dimensionally controlled to verify conformance

with design drawings. Acceptable deviations will occur and should be recorded. An experienced
engineer typically approves these after the quality assurance process identifies them.
All components, including spares, should be tested. Jigs and dummies may be used where
testing of actual interface components is not practical. It is, however, recommended that the
actual equipment be used where feasible. For large orders with identical equipment items,
testing should as a minimum be carried out on the initially produced equipment.
Fit tests should be performed in such a way as to prove the guidance and orientation features
of the components.
Misalignment checks should consider stack-up tolerance, stack-up elevation, horizontal
plane, orientation, and angular alignment. Equipment with self-alignment features should
intentionally be misaligned to verify its alignment capability.
Functional checks should include make-up, normal emergency release, reversibility,
repeatability, and pressure integrity. The sequence and items to be tested would normally be
individual components, running tools, subsystems, and the total system assembly.
After successful FAT and SIT, the equipment should be suitably preserved and packed as
required prior to delivery.
2.3.10.2 Performance Verification Testing

Performance verification testing or qualification testing is done to defined procedures to
qualify new or significantly modified product designs. Key parameters requiring consideration
are the simulation of all loads, pressures, and operating conditions that the system will be
subjected to during all phases of installation and operation.
Equipment or fixtures used to qualify designs using performance verification procedures
should be representative of production models in terms of design, dimensions, and materials.
If a product design undergoes any changes in fit, form, function or material, the manufacturer
should document the impact of such changes on the performance of the product.
A design that undergoes a substantive change becomes a new design requiring re-testing. A
substantive change is a change identified by the manufacturer, which affects the performance
of the product in the intended service condition. This may include changes in fit, form,
function or material. Typical examples of this are size or pressure rating changes.
A change in material may not require re-testing if the suitability of the new material can be
substantiated by other means.
Hydrostatic pressure tests are acceptable for all equipment performance verification pressure
tests to API 17D. End users often require and manufacturers may at their option substitute or
add gas test for some or all of the required performance verification pressure tests.
Hydrostatic and gas performance verification test procedures and acceptance criteria should
meet the requirements set by the API specifications or better.
Gas testing is generally specified for equipment that will be used for gas service.
API Specification 17D and 6A lists the equipment that must be subjected to repetitive
hydrostatic pressure cycling tests to simulate startup and shut down pressure cycling which
will occur in long-term field service. For these hydrostatic cycling tests, the equipment will be
alternately pressurized to the full rated working pressure and then depressurized until the
specified number of pressure cycles have been completed. No pressure holding period is
required for each presssure cycle during the cycling phase of testing. A standard hydrostatic
(or gas if applicable) test will be performed before and after the hydrostatic pressure cycling test.
The cycling tests are additionally subjected to controlled alternating heating and cooling.
Repetitive temperature cycling tests simulate startup and shutdown temperature cycling
which will occur in long-term field service. For temperature cycling tests, the equipment will
be alternately heated and cooled to the upper and lower temperature extremes of its rated

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operating temperature. During temperature cycling, rated working pressure will be applied to
the equipment at the temperature extremes with no leaks. Temperature cycling from room
temperature to the lower temperature extreme plus cycling from room temperature to the
upper temperature extreme may be substituted for temperature cycling directly between the
two temperature extremes.
Performance verification tests at rated working pressure or greater are performed at test
temperature equal to or less than the minimum rated operating temperature classification,
and at a test temperature equal to or greater than the maximum rated operating temperature
classification to confirm the performance of the equipment. As an alternative to testing, the
manufacturer can provide other objective evidence, consistent with documented industry practice,
that the equipment will meet performance requirements at both temperature extremes.
Not all types of components are identified in the mentioned API specifications and therefore
interpretation of type of function is often used to define testing requirements for components.
Typical examples of these components include many horizontal tree components such as
internal tree caps and crown plugs.
Performance verification testing, Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or classical engineering
analysis can be used to verify the manufacturers rated load capacities for API Specification 17D
equipment. If testing is used to verify the design, the equipment should be loaded to the rated
capacity at least three times during the test without deformation to the extent that any other
performance requirement is not met. If FEA or engineering analysis is used, the analysis will be
conducted using techniques and programs that comply with documented industry practice.
Life cycle/endurance testing, such as make-break tests on connectors and operational testing
of valves, chokes, and actuators, is intended to evaluate long-term wear characteristics of the
equipment tested. Such tests may be conducted at any temperature. API Specifications 6A
and 17D list equipment that should be subjected to extended life cycle/endurance testing to
simulate long-term field service. For these life cycle/endurance tests, the equipment will be
subjected to operational cycles per manufacturer’s performance specifications (i.e., make up
to full torque, break out, open/close under full rated working pressure).
Scaling may be used to verify the members of a product family. A product family is a group of
products for which the design principles, physical configuration, and functional operation are
the same, but which may be of differing size. The design stress levels in relation to material
mechanical properties must be based on the same criteria for all members of the product
family in order to verify designs via scaling. Testing of one size of a product family will verify
products one nominal size larger and one nominal size smaller than the tested size. Testing
of multiple product sizes also verifies two nominal sizes larger than the smallest item tested
and two nominal sizes smaller than the largest item tested. The test product(s) may be used
to qualify products of the same family having equal or lower pressure ratings.
The procedures used and the results of all performance verification tests used to qualify
equipment to API Specifications must be documented. The documentation requirements for
performance verification testing are laid out in the API specifications.
When the design is proven and the prototype has passed PVT testing then manufacture of
the components to be delivered can begin.
2.3.10.3 System Integration Testing

System Integration Testing (SIT) is performed to verify that equipment from various suppliers,
which must interface with each other, fits and works together acceptably.
Additionally, it can be an excellent opportunity for training of personnel including
familiarization with equipment and procedures. This is an important factor during all
integration test activities. This aspect is particularly influential in promoting competence,
safety and efficiency during installation and operation activities.

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Reliable rig handling systems and trained personnel are of vital importance to the overall success
of a subsea project during the subsea installation, well completion and production testing phases.
SIT is an opportunity for the tests to contribute to the success by optimizing installation
procedures and familiarizing offshore personnel with equipment and equipment handling to
promote efficiency and safety in installation and operation of subsea production wells.
The SIT can be used to expose relevant equipment to abnormal situations which can occur
during operation such as low hydraulic supply pressure, low voltage supply etc. The purpose
is to reveal “system margins”.
Depending on the production system, there are many types of checks that should be
performed. If possible, it is best to perform the test utilizing the actual subsea equipment and
tools. If the possibility to perform full-scale testing does not exist, system performance should
be demonstrated by verification analysis.
Tests should include simulations of field conditions for all phases or operations from
installation through maintenance. Special tests may be needed for handling and transport,
dynamic loading, and backup systems. The SIT may be appropriate to verify data on
response time measurements, operating pressures, fluid volumes, fault finding, and operation
of shutdown systems.
The different tests performed during integration testing should be used to check reliability,
and should be used to demonstrate tolerance requirements and the correct functioning of the
complete system. Detailed procedures for the integration tests should be prepared prior to
starting the tests.
Figure 2.32 - A Typical Workover

System SIT With The Subsea Tree

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The subsea system should be subjected to the following activities during system integration
testing:
• Check the cleanliness of the hydraulic control fluid and circuits.
• Test of all mechanical and hydraulic functions.
• Test of tree system using temporary IWOC system.
• Documented integrated function test of components and sub-systems.
• Final documented function test of all electrical and hydraulic control interfaces.
• Documented orientation and guidance fit tests of all interfacing components and
modules.
• Simulation of installation, intervention and production mode operations as practical in
order to verify and optimize relevant procedures and specifications.
• Simulation of ROV intervention operations using a mock-up. Include ROV pilot
training during SIT.
• Operation under specified conditions including extreme tolerance conditions as
practical in order to reveal any deficiencies in system, tools and procedures.
• Operation under relevant conditions as practical to obtain system data such as
response times for shut-down actions etc. This could include shallow water tests and
rehearsals.
• Subject to testing to demonstrate that equipment can be assembled as planned and
satisfactorily perform its functions as an integrated system.
• Fill with correct fluids, lubricate, clean, preserve and pack as specified.
• Subject to a final inspection in order to verify correctness of the as-built
documentation.
It is important to functionally test all manual override functions in connection with the above
tests. The purpose of the intervention test is to verify the interfaces and the functions of the
ROV systems and tooling. In addition, hatch operation, guidepost/mini-post replacement and
mechanical override of connectors (if not performed at FAT), as well as tests using any
Company provided items should be performed to verify interfaces and functions.
All additional tooling interfaces such as choke insert and POD running and retrieval tools
should be integrated with the final subsea equipment assemblies.
If dummy structures are to be utilized during testing, a verification of the possible dummy
structures should be performed to verify that the dummy structures are in compliance with the
real structures.
The facilities on the integration test site should include test facilities with crane capacity for
handling and stack-up of x-mas trees and associated equipment. The test facility should be
clean and not disturbed by other activities. The test facility should be suitable for performing
flushing operations. Any activity generating particles including grinding etc. must not take
place in this facility. The test facility should be suitable for performing system tests of the
production control system involving sensitive computer equipment and include adequate
indoor facilities for storing of equipment and site office facilities for the client.
A typical format for a subsea equipment integration testing procedure could include the
following: Purpose/Objective, scope, requirements for fixtures/set-ups, facilities, equipment,
personnel responsibilities, performance data, changes, acceptance criteria, and certification
and reference information.
Outline commissioning procedures should be developed prior to establishment of the test
procedures. Hence the end user requirements should be defined prior to developing the
actual test procedures. The idea behind this requirement is to maximize applicable
experience from one phase to the next. Hence experience gained during FAT is applicable for
test activities during SIT and commissioning.
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A schedule for the activities should be developed prior to the start of the integration test.
Equipment logistics should be part of the schedule. The Operation and Maintenance Manuals
(O&M’s) should be used as guidelines for establishing the test procedures. Test procedures
should be signed off step by step during each test operation.
A daily log should be written for each test activity. Test findings should be briefly described in
the log. A query system that should handle all test findings should be developed including
procedures to rectify the findings. The manufacturer should arrange frequent status meetings
with operator during the integration test phase.
The operator’s personnel should have access to all test facilities during testing. They may
monitor or witness all tests and should have free access to the test results. Emphasis should
be put on the requirement that the operator’s offshore-nominated personnel have access for
complete insight into system functions, system operation and debugging methodology.
Photographic records can be of considerable value in future diagnostic work when the
equipment is subsea. Comprehensive still photography and video records are recommended.
The test program should include an index of the test procedures, equipment-handling
procedures and further identify facilities, equipment, materials and other items required for
the program.
The manufacturer should develop and establish procedures and check lists necessary in
order to verify that the requirements of the contract are met. The integration test procedures
should be developed in such a manner that operational conditions can be simulated. All
procedures for system integration tests should be reviewed and approved by the operator
prior to start of the test. The test procedures should include defined acceptance criteria.
2.3.11 Manufacturers Capabilities

There are five main subsea tree equipment manufacturers in the world. These are
• ABB Vetco Gray
• Cameron
• Dril-Quip
• FMC
• Kvaerner
Although the amount of equipment each have delivered over the years differs, they have
similar capabilities with varying levels of manufacturing, sale,s and service support around
the world.
Other companies who offer larger subsea packages such as manifolds and fabricated
equipment primarily use equipment supplied by the companies mentioned above.
Several other companies exist that manufacture subsea valves, subsea connection systems,
subsea BOP stacks, etc. exist but are not considered to be subsea production equipment
supply specialists because their range of products are limited.

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3 SUBSEA PRODUCTION MANIFOLDS AND TEMPLATES
3.1 Overview of Functions of Subsea Production Manifolds & Templates

While subsea production manifolds and subsea templates have distinctly different functions,
very often the functions of the two are combined into one unit (a subsea template), leading to
confusion in the terminology. While a subsea production manifold is never a subsea
template, a subsea template can be, and often is, also a subsea production manifold.
Subsea Tree
ROV Panel
Umbilicals
Control Pod
Choke Module Module
Flow Line (2 off)
Well Mud Mat Spool Jumper

Flow Line Connector
Jumper Connector
Manifold Connection
Hub
Flying
Pigging Valve
Leads
Figure 3.1 - Diagram Showing a Typical Subsea Manifold and Subsea Field Equipment
Arrangement

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3.1.1 Subsea Production Manifolds

The general function of a subsea manifold is to gather and distribute production through an
arrangement of piping and valves. Some specific functions are:
• To collect the flow from individual satellite wells into a production header and control
the delivery of the commingled flow to a field production gathering flowline.
Typical Connection Hubs Retrievable Pig Loop
Conductor
Support
Figure 3.2 - Example of a 4- Well Subsea Manifold With Flowline Connections
• To collect the flow from several field production gathering flowlines and deliver that
flow to a larger production export pipeline.
• To isolate the production from individual wells and deliver it to a well test header or a
well test flowline.
Figure 3.3 - Deepwater Subsea Manifold With Multiple Flowline Connections
• To segregate high pressure and low pressure production into separate high pressure
and low pressure headers and flowlines.
• To control the flow from individual wells by means of subsea chokes. Wells may be
choked at the trees or at the manifold.

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• To distribute injection water or gas from a common supply header to individual

injection wells (water injection or gas injection manifolds).
• To distribute lift gas from a common lift gas header to individual wells (lift gas
manifold).
• To facilitate pigging of subsea pipelines by provision of pig isolation valves, tees and
pig detector instrumentation mounted on the manifold structure.
• To provide structural support of the piping and flowline connector at the flowline
connection interface.
• To provide ROV or installation tool interfaces for installation of flowlines, chokes, pig
launchers, pig receivers and other components.
3.1.2 Subsea Templates

The primary function of a subsea template is to provide guidance for positioning wells and
controlling their positions relative to one another. In addition, a subsea template may
Figure 3.4 - Nine Slot Template Being Lifted from a Work Boat (Left) and
being Deployed from a Jack-Up Drilling Rig (Right)
incorporate many of the functions of a subsea manifold described above, all in one integral
assembly. Some specific functions of a subsea template are:
• To provide a guide for positioning the well conductor and guiding the conductor during
installation.
• To control spacing between adjacent well conductors.
• To provide guidance and support for the BOP in some cases.
• To provide guidance and support for well completion equipment (e.g. trees) in some
cases.
• To accommodate pre-installation of well flowline piping and facilitate interface of the
production trees with their flowlines.
• To accommodate pre-installation of tree control hardware and facilitate interface of the
production trees with their controls.

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3.2 Features of Typical Subsea Production Manifold or Template

The following is a summary of the main features of subsea production manifolds and
templates. Since the functions of subsea production manifolds and templates overlap, some
components may be applicable to either or both, depending on the configuration.
• A structural weldment or frame for supporting the conductor guides and/or manifold
equipment and sustaining structural loads of transportation, installation, workover
and/or operations. Construction may be I-sections or tubular members. In general I-
sections are more efficient structurally. Tubular construction can provide some
buoyancy, which can be an advantage for installation, but must be designed for
hydrostatic pressure and is typically more expensive.
Figure 3.5 - An Example of a Twelve Slot Well Supported Drilling Template.

Note Removable Pile Guide Sleeve Attachments in Foreground.
• A mud skirt is often provided. It is designed to penetrate into the soft bottom and
provides lateral shear resistance. If the soil shear strength is high enough this may be
adequate for supporting the structure. If the soil is very soft, piles may be required.
Suction piles may be used in soft clay bottoms. Soft soils with sand and aggregate
may require driven piles. Harder bottoms may require drilled and cemented piles.
• Templates will have guide sleeves for positioning well conductors. They should be
long enough to keep the conductor in a nearly vertical position during installation.
Spacing varies depending upon the requirements.
• A cover may be provided for dropped object protection. In shallower waters
sometimes the structure is designed for over-trawling by fishing trawls without
snagging. Templates may have hinged or removable roof hatches over each well to
provide access to a well or subsea tree. These may be designed for opening or
removing with a line or tool from the rig above, using ROV assistance if necessary.
• Production flowline connections can be installed on the template, positioned so as to
mate up with a receptacle on the tree when it is landed. These may be hydraulically
actuated by means of the IWOC system.
• Flowline branch valves and flowline chokes. These provide control of individual wells.
• Header piping and header valves.
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• It may be desirable to mark manifold piping for identification, for example with flowline
numbers or flow direction arrows.
Flowline Jumper Tie In Hubs
Typical Fold Down Well

Slot Porches
Figure 3.6 - Five Slot Template and Manifold With Hinged

Well Slots

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3.3 Design Considerations
3.3.1 Number of Wells
The number of wells served by a template will determine its size. Templates may be designed
for two wells to two dozen or more. Template size is often limited so as to fit through the
moonpool of a drilling rig.
Larger templates (accommodating more wells) are sometimes hinged so they can be folded
up for passage through the moonpool and then unfolded for deployment on the seafloor.
Another method of accommodating more wells and installation through the moonpool is with
a modular template. These designs consist of individual interlocking sections or modules,
each serving one to several wells, that are deployed individually and connected to one
another on the seabed, usually by some sort of guide pin and sleeve arrangement. They are
often used when the ultimate number of wells is unknown, as a way of keeping the initial
capital cost of the development as low as possible.
Very large integrated templates may be too large for installation through the moonpool. In
such cases a heavy lift vessel may be used to deploy the template.
As a rule, the more equipment that can be pre-installed on the template the better. This
minimizes the time required for the rig or installation vessel to deploy the template.
Figure 3.7 - Large Multi-Well Template and Manifold

Being Transported by Barge for Installation by Lift
3.3.2 Production Piping
Production manifolds are usually pre-assembled complete with most of the piping, valves and
controls installed prior to deployment. For large template structures that include a production
manifold, the production manifold may be installed as a module or several modules
subsequent to the template deployment. This is necessary in the case of modularized
templates run through the moonpool of a drilling rig.
The piping itself is designed to the same standards as the piping on subsea trees, typically
the ASME B31.3 piping code or some equivalent. Flowline branch and header sizing is
normally done in accordance with API 14E.

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Piping materials are typically carbon steel, low alloy steel or high alloy steel depending on the
service.
The design pressure of the manifold must be carefully considered. The simplest approach is
to match the shut-in pressure of the wells. If this is impractical due to cost, then there needs
to be careful consideration to overpressure protection, by assuring proper valve shut-in
sequences, valve failure positions and pressure relief at the host production facility (topsides).
3.3.3 Bottom Conditions

Bottom conditions will affect the design of the subsea production manifold or subsea
template. The following are some issues relating to bottom conditions that must be considered:
• Soil shear strength. This is a measure of the softness or firmness of the bottom. It will
indicate the ability of the seabed to support the load of the template or manifold. The
size of the supporting mat or the depth of the mud skirts will be dictated by the load
bearing capacity of the soil.
• Sometimes the soil may be too soft to adequately support the weight of the template
or manifold by means of a mat. In such cases pin piles or suction piles may be used to
support the structure. In the case of templates, the well conductors may provide the
support.
Connector Profile
Template Landing
and Lockdown
Profile
Conductor
Figure 3.8 - Typical Mudline Support Equipment

on First Well Casing for Well Supported Drilling
Template
• Soil borings must be done to assess the geotechnical characteristics of the soil for the
piles, mud mat or skirt design.
• Bottom slope. The sea floor should preferably be near level. Leveling devices may be
required for leveling the template or manifold structure after it is landed on the seabed.
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• Bottom stability. Areas prone to mudslides or erosion should be avoided.

• Outcroppings or debris. These will interfere with the leveling of the structure and
should be avoided or removed. A sea bottom hazard survey is recommended prior to
deployment of the template or manifold.
• Poor visibility. Debris stirred up by currents or the propeller wash of the ROV may
interfere with visibility if the bottom is very silty. Avoid ROV interfaces too close to the
seabed.
3.3.4 Installation Method
Templates are commonly installed by a drilling rig as the first step prior to drilling. The
template is often installed from a floating rig through the moon pool or from jack-up in shallower
water. They are run on retrievable equipment usually using drill pipe or collar from a rig.
Figure 3.9 - Four Well Manifold Being Deployed From a Barge
Standard guideline or guidelineless techniques can be deployed on the individual well slots.
If the template is too large to be handled through the moonpool, it may be keelhauled, that is
passed from another vessel alongside and swung under the keel of the drilling rig, where the
load can be transferred to the rig and lowered on drill pipe by the rig to the seabed. This
transfer operation is potentially risky and very weather sensitive.
Very large templates are sometimes installed using a lift barge. This poses problems in
deeper water, for mooring the barge, providing enough wire rope capacity to reach the
seabed and maneuvering the template or manifold into place. For very deep water a
dynamically positioned heavy lift vessel would be required. This option of course causes the
project to incur lift barge mobilization and demobilization and lift costs.

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3.3.5 Tie-In Requirements

Subsea trees and manifolds require tie-in of flowlines and control umbilicals once they are
deployed. In deep water these must be done diverless, except for the use of atmospheric
diving suits (ADS) up to depths of about 750 meters. ROVs are very effective for managing
control umbilical stab connections, for manipulating valves and operating hydraulic tools.
Flowline tie-ins are one of the more technically challenging operations in a deepwater
development because the loads typically exceed the capabilities of most ROVs.
Design considerations for tie-ins to subsea production manifolds and templates include the
following:
• The size of the pipeline tie-in. The larger the line the more difficult it is to handle.
• The number of tie-ins required. Adequate spacing must be provided for ROV and tool
access during installation. Provisions for future tie-ins may be considered.
• The type of connector to be used. Different types of connectors require different
intervention tooling for installation, and the space requirements may be different.
Well Connection Hub

Flowline Connection Hub
Deployment Yoke Mudmat
Figure 3.10 - A Typical Deepwater Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM)
• The installation method. Installation methods include ADS diver assisted, ROV pull-in
or “stab and hinge-over”. The installation method determines the connector
orientation for example, or the type of connector to be used, or the loads likely to be
imposed during installation.
• Guidance methods. Guideline or guidelineless techniques may be used. For
guideline methods, ROV retrievable guideposts may be employed. Funnels and guide
structures may be provided for guidelineless interfaces. Typically guidelineless
techniques are employed in depths of approximately 500 meters and greater.
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3.3.6 Flow Assurance

The following flow assurance features can be applied to subsea production manifolds:
• Insulation. This can include insulation of the trees, valves, flowlines and headers.
• Pigging. The piping can be designed with pigging tees, long radius bends (3D to 5D
radius depending on pig type) and pigging valves so the pipelines and headers can be
pigged.
• Chemical injection can be provided. A chemical injection header and valves can be
provided. The chemical is usually provided via the production umbilical.
• Heat tracing. While not commonly done, heat tracing can be provided on the manifold
piping.
• Subsea Multiphase Pump. A booster pump installed on the manifold to provide more
delivery pressure into the production flowline. This is relatively new technology that
shows promise for long tie-backs, low pressure reservoirs and higher viscosity fluids.
ROV Valve
Actuator
Buckets
Flowline
Attachment
Point
Figure 3.11 - Another View of a Typical Deepwater Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM)

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3.3.7 Deep Water

An important design consideration for subsea manifolds and templates in deep water is the
method of installation. The installation method must be considered early during the
equipment design and appropriate installation aids included. In particular, the deep water
compounds the difficulty of positioning and leveling of the template, and the designer or
installation contractor needs to provide a means to maneuver the template into position, to
orient it in the right direction and once set on the bottom, to level it. It may be necessary to set
clump weights nearby and use pull-in lines to aid with the maneuvering of the template. ROVs
may be used for observing the maneuvering and leveling operations, and can be used for
connecting messenger lines, actuating hydraulic devices, etc.
ROV access is critical in deep water. Horizontal and vertical access and connection systems
for flowlines and ROV tooling are routinely used. Valve interfaces should be arranged at or
near the same interface plane with common interfaces if possible. Grab handles can be
provided for stabilizing the ROV while it conducts its work. Uniformity of interfaces and
commonality of intervention tooling is ideal. Integration testing using a mock-up of the ROV is
often useful. Intervention tooling must be integration tested by interfacing with the subsea
hardware before deployment.
For the components of subsea manifolds and templates the deep water design
considerations are the same as those discussed in Section 2.3 for subsea Christmas trees.
3.4
Tree
ROV
Jumper
Flowline
Jumper Connector Umbilical
Figure 3.12 - A Four Satellite Well Cluster Tied Into a Manifold With Rigid Pipe
Jumpers.

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Ancillary Equipment
3.4.1 Valves
The individual flowline branch valves employed on subsea manifolds are often identical to the
types of valves used on subsea Christmas trees. Larger header valves may be specially
designed for manifold service. Ball valves developed for subsea pipelines are often used in
the larger sizes. Valves used for subsea manifold service are typically designed, fabricated
and tested in accordance with API 17D, API 6A and API 6D.
Subsea valves are typically furnished with manual (ROV) actuators or hydraulic actuators.
For critical service the hydraulically actuated valve may have a ROV override. ROV operated
valves should have a visual position indicator.
Manifold valve service is usually less critical than subsea tree service, in that a small amount
of valve leakage may be tolerable. Also, manifold valves may be designed to fail open,
whereas subsea tree valves are nearly always designed to fail closed. A combination of fail
open and fail closed valves may be provided in the manifold piping so that a control system
failure will allow production to continue uninterrupted in a safe mode and/or flowline pressure
management – typically for hydrate prevention after a shut down. Large valves may have
double acting actuators that fail “as is”.
Manifold valves are usually full opening. Header valves often must be piggable and the bore
must be smooth and may have to be closely matched to the inside diameter of the flowline
and header piping.
The manifold valves and the actuators must be designed for high hydrostatic pressure in
deep water service. Hyperbaric testing is recommended. Pressure balanced actuator designs
help to mitigate the effects of hydrostatic pressure, but testing is essential to identify
unanticipated effects on seals, unrecognized leak paths and such.
Subsea tree valves rated for 10,000 psi are commonplace. As more subsea trees are
designed for 15,000 psi, high pressure valves in smaller sizes will become more available.
High pressure valves (10,000 and 15,000 psi) in larger sizes lag in development. Availability
of valves in the required pressure rating needs to be considered when conceptually planning
the manifold performance requirements.

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3.4.2 Chokes
Chokes are flow control devices designed to take the rigors of high pressure drop and high
fluid velocities through the ports and across the seats. They are normally provided on the
individual well flowlines, and are designed to control the flow and pressure from the wells into
the manifold. They may be mounted on the manifold or on individual trees.
Figure 3.13 - Examples of a Non-Replaceable Subsea

Choke
Adjustable chokes provide flexibility for start up and commingling of fluids from different wells
and are commonly used. Chokes can also be used for controlled well shut ins to prevent
cutting across critical sealing valves at high flow rates. Chokes are not expected to be
completely pressure tight and act as full flow shut off mechanisms though they often are
capable of complete shut off until they wear. Due to the effects of erosion they often
experience wear, and occasionally require replacement.
Some subsea chokes are designed to close rapidly for the purpose of saving the critical
pressure retaining valves by closing before the valves do thereby eliminating potential cutting
across the valve as it closes with high flow.
A fully adjustable choke actuator is a complicated part of the choke assembly with many
moving parts and sometimes proves to be the part of the choke that wears out first requiring
replacement before the choke trim.
Choke actuators normally include a means of ROV override to allow the choke to be adjusted
manually if the actuator fails.
Choke actuators normally come in two design categories. They are either Stepping or Rotary
drives. Stepping chokes are robust and provide very accurate trim adjustment but are slow
and take significant times to open and usually to close. They may take 100 or 200 or more
control pressure cycles to actuate the ratchet and pawl stroke mechanisms to fully open or
close the choke. This can often take half an hour or more to fully open or close the choke.
Rotary actuators are much quicker but less accurate and less robust than the stepping
actuators. They are also smaller and cheaper. At high pressure, the flow rate is very
sensitive and requires adjustment accuracy.
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Hydraulic and ROV actuated chokes are both usually provided with a visual position indicator.
In addition, hydraulically actuated chokes are normally provided with a position transducer.
There are a variety of choke trim designs and each has useful application for flow control
depending on numerous factors such as fluid composition, flow rates, pressures, accuracy of
control requirements, debris content, bi-directional flow requirements and others. The
varieties of trim design include Plug and Cage, Orifice and Bean, Rotating disk or Plate, and
others.
Choke trims are normally coated with hard wearing material such as Tungsten carbide to
prolong the life of the trim. Trims are sometimes designed so that the high velocity fluid
impinges upon itself in the turbulent area of flow in the choke to also assist to prolong the life
of the trim.
Reverse flow or even reverse pressure differential can damage some choke trim designs and
thus if the possibility of this occurring exists, alternative designs should be selected.
Instances where this can happen occur in fields where multiple wells are commingled into a
single flowline or even during flowline commissioning pressure testing.
Subsea chokes are routinely designed and built to enable the remote replacement of the
choke internals and actuator without retrieving the rest of the subsea hardware. The main
outer body of the choke remains in place fixed to the piping on the subsea hardware. The
choke internals or “choke insert” can be removed and replaced with a dedicated tool and
ROV.
The retrievable choke insert is designed as a module that can be installed and removed using
a running tool. These are sometimes run on guidelines, but in deep water are usually
guidelineless and directed into guidance funnels by ROV.
An alternative simple choking device that is often employed on subsea trees is the orifice
choke. This is a gate valve with a small orifice in the gate position that would normally be the
closed position on the gate. The orifice choke is used for well start up, to prevent dramatic
and damaging draw down across the reservoir, and to slowly pressurize a flowline. The
actuator is then functioned to fully open the choke – by moving the gate to the full open
position. Orifice chokes are not normally remotely replaceable as insert chokes.

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3.4.3 Flowline Connectors

Flowline connections to manifolds in deep water may be done by a diver in an ADS, by ROV,
by a remotely operated retrievable tool, or by a combination of all these methods. The
following types of connections may be employed:
• API flange (fixed or swivel) with SBX or SRX gasket. These work best arranged
vertically with guide funnels for capturing and guiding the flange into position.
• API hub and clamp per API 16A, or proprietary version of same. The segmented
clamp is sometimes mounted on a carrier plate with an ROV actuator.
• Proprietary mechanical connector, such as a collet style connector, similar to that
used for a wellhead connector, but smaller.
• Multi-bore connector. A proprietary mechanical connector design for connecting a
pipeline bundle. These involve complex sealing requirements between adjacent bores
and are expensive.
Figure 3.14 - A Variety of Horizontal

Flowline Connectors
Figure 3.15 - A Vertical Flowline Connector
See Section 4.2 for more discussion of flowline tie-ins and jumpers.
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3.4.4 Flow Meters

Flow meters in subsea applications are still a relatively new concept. The main benefit of
subsea flow metering lies in the ability to meter flow at the manifold before commingling, and
avoiding shut-in of adjacent wells for well testing or installing a separate well test flowline.
The most promising multiphase flow meters employ a gamma ray source passing through a
thoroughly mixed and homogenized stream of fluid, and inferring from the signal detected on
the other side of the stream the relative fractions of oil, water and gas.
3.4.5 Sand Monitoring

Sand erosion in subsea production equipment can be very destructive, resulting in
catastrophic failures. Subsea monitors can warn of excessive sand production before too
much damage is done. There are several types. One method commonly used in subsea
applications relies on acoustic signals generated by the particles impinging on the walls of the
piping. It is typically installed immediately past a bend in the piping. It can be strapped onto
the pipe and hence can be retrofit to the subsea production system. A disadvantage is
susceptibility to flowline noise, such as might occur near a flowline choke.
Other sand and erosion monitoring systems are based on measuring the change in electrical
resistance of thin sensing elements which are eroded by sand. The system reads the erosive
effect directly and is highly resistant to acoustic noise from pumps or variable flow. There is
no need for calibration, and the system is particularly sensitive to cumulative erosion over
time. Several sensor strips are used for redundancy and to cover the entire cross section of
the pipe. The probe is read by sophisticated electronics. The 'raw' data are corrected using a
reference element located on the back side of the probe. Software tools can predict worst
case erosion on critical pipe elements such as chokes or bends based on erosion
measurements or sand production data from other applications.

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4 SUBSEA SYSTEM INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS
Successful management of subsea projects is largely a matter of managing interfaces:

physical, functional and organizational. The subsea equipment designer needs to consider
installation and future intervention issues such as diver access and ROV tooling compatibility.
Control systems must interface with subsea production equipment, drilling rig equipment and
host production facilities, both physically and functionally. Drilling, completion and workover
planning needs to anticipate the subsea production equipment requirements. The drilling rig
equipment and personnel need to be properly prepared for the installation of the subsea
equipment.
• Early planning, frequent communication and methodical integration testing will help
avoid costly surprises later.
• This section addresses the physical and functional interface requirements of a subsea
production system. The interface areas addressed are:
• Controls and Umbilicals
• Flowline Tie-Ins
• Installation and Workover Risers
• System Commissioning and Startup
4.1 Production Control System

By its nature a subsea production system consists of a collection of discrete components.
Since the components of a subsea production system are inaccessible for operator
intervention and must work together in a coordinated manner, it is necessary that they be
controlled remotely with an integrated control system. The control of the components of a
production system is managed by the subsea production control system. The control
functions include the following:
• Opening and closing subsea tree production, annulus and crossover valves.
• Opening and closing the SCSSV.
• Opening and closing subsea production manifold flowline valves and pigging valves.
• Opening and closing chemical injection valves.
• Adjusting subsea choke position.
• Monitoring pressure, temperature and other data from tree-mounted, manifold-
mounted or downhole instrumentation.
The following are some of the key design issues that must be considered when specifying or
designing the subsea control system:
• Offset distance. Distance affects signal strength, hydraulic pressure loss, response
time and cost.
• Valve control requirements: The number of valves, types of valves, types of
actuators, size of valves, failure position of valves.
• Chemical injection requirements. Valve operation, umbilical sharing.
• Instrumentation requirements: Pressure or temperature monitoring, pig detection.
• Installation and workover requirements and interface with the IWOC system.
• Redundancy requirements.
• Expandability. Future wells, future flowline tie-ins.

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4.1.1 Types of Control Systems

There are four basic types of production control systems:
• Direct Hydraulic Control System
• Piloted Hydraulic Control System
• Electro-Hydraulic Piloted Control System
• Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed Control System
Manufacturers are also developing all electric control systems, but they have not yet been
applied commercially.
Figure 4.1 - Example of a Direct Hydraulic Control System HPU and Panel for
Six Subsea Wells
4.1.1.1 Direct Hydraulic Control System

The direct hydraulic control system is the simplest and least expensive production control
system. It consists of a topside Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU) with one dedicated control line
for each remotely actuated valve on the subsea tree. This type of system is typically
recommended for 1-2 well tiebacks within 3 miles of the host platform. The advantages of
this type of system are:
• Simple and inexpensive.
• Easy to maintain and diagnose problems.
The disadvantages of this type of control system are:

• Umbilical tube required for each valve function.
• Slow response time.

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4.1.1.2 Piloted Hydraulic Control System

The piloted production control system is similar to the direct hydraulic control system, except
that the valve that requires fast closing time will have a pilot valve and will vent to sea upon
closing.
The advantages of this type of system are:
• Improved response time for the critical valve.
• Extends the offset distance possible for direct hydraulics.
• Allows use of smaller umbilical tubes for the pilot operated functions.

• Higher cost than direct hydraulic system.
• Umbilical tube required for each valve function.
• Response time still limited by offset distance.
4.1.1.3 Electro-Hydraulic Piloted Control System

The electro-hydraulic piloted production control system is used for medium offset subsea well
tiebacks. This system consists of a topside electrical and hydraulic control system tied to one
or more service umbilicals to the field. Each tree, well center or manifold has a subsea
control module (SCM or pod) which takes LP and HP supplies and directs them to local
valves when commanded by the topside system.
The advantages of this type of system are:
• Improved response time for critical valves
• Greater offset distance than hydraulic piloted system.

• Higher controls equipment cost than hydraulic piloted system.
4.1.1.4 Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed Control System

The electro-hydraulic multiplexed (EH-MUX) production control system is used for medium to
long offset subsea well tiebacks where there are numerous subsea wells, well centers or
manifolds with many functions. The EH-MUX system consists of a topside electrical and
hydraulic control system tied through a service umbilical to one or more trees, well centers or
manifolds. Each end device or node in the system has a subsea control module (SCM or
pod) which receive the multiplexed electrical control signals and the LP and HP hydraulic
supplies and directs them to control tree or manifold mounted valves or other functions when
commanded by the topside system.
This system is common in large multi-well deepwater developments. Its main advantage is
the use of a multiplexed electrical control signal over a single pair of conductors, resulting in a
smaller control umbilical. This system accommodates future expansion easily and reduces
umbilical costs significantly.

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Comparison of Control System Types
System Major Typical

Advantages Disadvantages Range
Type Components Applications
Direct • HPU • Simple • Slowest 0-3 Miles • Single Satellite
Hydraulic Response
• Control Panel • No Subsea • Small Fields
• Umbilical Pods • Large • Short Distances
• High Umbilical
• Local Manifold
Reliability
Piloted • HPU • Improved • Subsea 2-5 Miles • Medium
Hydraulic Response Equipment Distances
• Control Panel
• Umbilical • Reduced • Large • Satellite Trees
Umbilical Umbilical
• Subsea Pilot
Valve • Proven • Costly > 5
Reliable Miles
Electro- • HPU • Quick • Subsea 2 – 15 • Long Distances
Hydraulic Response Equipment Miles
Piloted • Control Panel • Satellite Trees
For Selected • Large
• Umbilical • Minimum
Tree Valve Umbilical
• Subsea Mini Feedback
Pod • Costly > 15
Miles
Multiplex • HPU • Fastest • Complex 5 Miles + • Long Distances
Electro- Response
Hydraulic • Control Panel • Subsea • Data Feedback
• Umbilical • Subsea Equipment • Large Templates
Data • Subsea
• Subsea • Remote
Feedback Electrical
Control Pod Manifold
• Smallest Connection
• Complex Fields
Umbilical • Costly
• Greatest Electronics
Flexibility
4.1.2 Production Control System Components and Functions

The following is a description of an electrohydraulic multiplexed production control system.
4.1.2.1 Topsides Control Unit (TCU)

Control of the subsea production system is managed by the Topsides Control Unit (TCU).
The TCU is generally made up of three main components, the Master Control Station (MCS)
the Electrical Power Unit (EPU) and the Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU). It should be noted that
terminology and acronyms may vary from one supplier to the next.

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Master Control Station (MCS)

The MCS is the “Master Control Station” which provides power, control logic and
communications for the subsea control system. The MCS also provides the man-machine
interface (MMI) for the control system. The MMI consists of a microprocessor based control
system, display screen and keyboard for the operator to monitor the system and input and
retrieve data. The MCS has the following main functions:
• To condition the topside electrical power supply to provide independent, electrically
isolated, protected and regulated, single phase power to the subsea control modules.
• To condition the topside electrical power supply to provide two redundant, electrically
isolated, protected, and regulated single phase power sources to the subsea control
modules.
• To provide the conditioning of the control signals into a format suitable for
transmission though the conductors of the umbilical, compatible with the modem of
the subsea control module.
• To combine these two signals into a form that can be transmitted together on a single
pair of conductors within the umbilical.
The MCS consists of a computer (or a serial interface with the platform DCS computer),
power conditioners, modems and multiplex/de-multiplex (mux/de-mux) circuits.
The mux/de-mux circuits process the signal data so it can be transmitted over the same
conductors that carry the electrical power. The output from the mux/de-mux to the subsea
control system is typically a maximum of 600V.
Figure 4.2 - A Master Control Station (MCS) for a

Multiplexed Subsea Production Control System
Two power channels within the MCS convert the power from the topside supply. It is then at a
level for transmission through the umbilical to the subsea control modules. Components in

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each output channel are identical and completely separate. Power modules, controllers and
other components can be removed from one channel without affecting any other.
A line insulation monitor is incorporated on each power module to provide protection against
insulation faults in the channel output line. The line insulation monitor has two alarm levels at
adjustable resistance settings. At the first level an alarm signal is issued to the master control
computer. At the second, lower impedance, the affected power supply is isolated and a
secondary alarm generated.
The outputs from each channel are electronically protected against over voltage transients
and over current. The voltage and current for each output are displayed on the controllers’
front panel and transmitted to the master computer for display.
Both the power channel outputs and the modem line connections interface with the umbilical
via a power and signal combiner. A combiner is required for each channel. The
communications circuits are bi-directional for both up-link and down-link transmissions. An
output circuit breaker is fitted on each combiner.
Electrical Power Unit (EPU)

The EPU provides electrical power for the subsea control modules (SCMs). Power is
generally supplied from a topside power supply with battery backup (UPS). The EPU
monitors status of the dual redundant power circuits in the umbilical, and allows a circuit to be
Figure 4.3 - Typical Electrohydraulic Subsea Production Control System

Topsides Components
isolated in case of damage. Filters and modems in the EPU allow communication signals
between the MCS and the SCM to be transmitted over the same circuits that are used to
transmit power.
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Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU)

The HPU supplies low pressure (LP) and high pressure (HP) hydraulic control fluid to the
system. It includes a hydraulic fluid reservoir, hydraulic pumps, hydraulic accumulators,
pressure regulators pressure gauges, flow meters and other instrumentation and controls.
The HPU usually has redundant HP and LP pump and filter systems. The HPU is to be
designed for use in the appropriate platform hazardous area classification. The hydraulic
system uses water based control fluid. Typical control fluid cleanliness requirement is NAS
1538 class 6, although all components within the hydraulic system should operate
satisfactorily up to NAS 1538 class 10.
• A hydraulic analysis should be performed when a field’s architecture becomes
available. The key hydraulic considerations are:
• Field layout (distances between wells and to the host).
• Number of hydraulic users (valve actuators, chokes).
• Pressure requirements (HP and LP systems).
• Umbilical characteristics (tube size, tube material, elasticity, fluid compatibility).
• Actuator characteristics (volume, pressure opening speed required, closing speed
required).
• Number of open/close cycles in a given time period to design for.
• Platform features (umbilical routing, elevation above water).
The hydraulic distribution system for the EH-MUX system is open loop with valve actuator
returns vented to sea via a relief valve in the SCM.
Valve Signature Emulator (VSE)

The TCU sometimes will include a Valve Signature Emulator. The VSE records and monitors
the pressure versus displacement characteristics of the hydraulic actuation of the subsea
valves. Each valve will have its own unique signature. Using this signature data, the
behavior of valves during actuation may be monitored and malfunctions such as leaks,
incomplete actuation or sticking actuators may be detected.
4.1.2.2 Subsea Control Module (SCM)

The SCM is the interface between the control system and the various end users, such as tree
valve actuators, manifold valve actuators, transmitters, downhole valves, smart well functions,
etc.
A SCM may be installed on a subsea tree, a manifold, a template or other component. One
SCM can manage dozens of functions as well as digital and analog inputs. Individual SCMs
may be linked together by control umbilicals and controlled as a single large integrated
system.
The SCM is usually designed to be replaced using either a running tool or ROV. All electrical
jumpers can be pre-installed, parked on the templates or trees, subsequently connected by
ROV, and can be replaced by ROV if required. The SCM is normally installed with the tree or
manifold, but may be recovered separately.
The SCM is a self-contained, pressure compensated “pod” consisting of a rectangular
cylindrical housing containing control valves, sensors and subsea electronics modules. The
lower base plate is usually integral with the tree frame or manifold structure. The base plate is
the interface for all hydraulic functions. The SCM is usually filled with a dielectric fluid that
acts as a secondary barrier against the ingress of seawater.
Power supplies, signal supplies and remote sensor connections are made up via ROV
umbilical connectors. The connectors are high integrity controlled environment connectors

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with dual oil filled barriers protecting the contacts. Either Tronic or Ocean Design Inc.
manufacture most of the subsea electrical connectors currently in use. Electrical connectors
housings can be manufactured from duplex stainless steel grade UNS 32550, titanium or
other suitable alloys. Typically the non seal containing half (male pins) are mounted to the
permanent subsea structures.
Within a project, it is best to standardize on one SCM design for all trees and manifolds if
possible.
Lockdown
Mechanism
Electrical/Optical
Connectors Accumulators
Subsea Electronics
Module
Control Valves
and Manifolds
Hydraulic
Couplings
Figure 4.4 - Typical Subsea Control Module (SCM)

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Figure 4.5 - Internal View of a Typical Subsea Pod – The Outer

Housing Is Yet To Be Installed

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4.1.3 INSTALLATION AND WORKOVER CONTROL SYSTEM (IWOCS)

The subsea production control system provides the means to control subsea trees during the
day to day production operations. The Installation and Workover Control (IWOC) System
provides control during installation, workover or other intervention operations. The IWOC
system is an essential consideration in the design of the overall subsea tree controls and
involves many interfaces.
As with the production controls, there are four main types of workover control systems.
These are, direct, piloted, electrohydraulic (EH), and electrohydraulic multiplexed (EH-MUX)
systems. The most common are the direct and multiplexed systems with the others being
considered to be older technology.
The IWOC system must integrate with the production control system on the subsea tree and
in many ways mimics the production control system to allow the rig control of the tree during
installation or workover operations. The components are much the same.
When first installing a tree, the rig must control the tree connector, valves for circulation,
running tool hydraulics and other functions. If the production system is not yet available from
Figure 4.6 - A Typical Surface Make-Up

Subsea Umbilical Termination
the host production facility the rig must provide all power and control. If the production control
system is available, the option to use the production umbilical for power is available.
Philosophically, most (but not all) operators dictate that when a rig intervenes on a subsea
tree, this action disables the platform from controlling the tree. This is particularly important
on trees with valves in the vertical bore, such as dual bore trees, because the rig would never
want the platform to inadvertently open or close a valve on the tree while the rig was working
on it. Closing a valve could cut wireline or coiled tubing that could be in the well, while

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opening one could unexpectedly bring well pressures and fluids to the rig. There is less risk
with horizontal trees because there is no tree valve in the vertical bore.
The lockout of control can be accomplished in a number of ways. Conventional tree designs
have a tree cap with all the key hydraulic functions usually passing through a junction plate in
the cap. When the cap is removed, it disables the platform controls to the tree by breaking
the control circuits. When the tree running tool, lower marine riser package (LMRP) or other
Figure 4.7 - A Typical Remote Make-Up Subsea

Component Hydraulic Interface
interface is mated to the top of the tree, hydraulic functions are re-established to the broken
circuits and control is now with the rig.
If the IWOC connection is by flying lead, a similar principal can be applied with a “bridging
plate” or “logic cap” that, when removed to allow the IWOC control umbilical to be plugged in,
also breaks the circuits controlled by the platform.
These two methods of transferring control circuits are usually employed when an EH-MUX
Figure 4.8 - Another Type Of Remote Make-

Up Hydraulic Interface
system is used on the tree. The tree cap or bridging plate circuitry normally disrupts the
hydraulic pod (or subsea control module) outputs so that the pod is rendered ineffective.
In direct hydraulic controlled systems, the production control umbilical or flying lead from it is
normally unplugged to allow the rig controls to plug into the tree. This thereby transfers
control from the platform to the rig.
The hydraulic power unit (HPU) is the source for hydraulic pressure and power. The HPU will
often include a control panel for directing hydraulic power as required. Larger systems may
have a separate control panel. Direct hydraulic systems require a complex panel with panel
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mounted valves, gauges, hydraulic tubing and relays. An EH-MUX system relies on a
computer as the control interface. The HPU typically includes a number of accumulators to
store hydraulic power. These help to speed up response time when opening valves and
prevent the pumps from stopping and starting continuously to compensate for pressure
bleed-off.
In addition to the main IWOC panel, some control functions may be included on the umbilical
reels and often the side of an IWOC umbilical reel will be a mini panel. Hydraulic functions
that are required to remain “live” (such as a tree running tool or tubing hanger running tool)
during the spooling out of the reel will be controlled on the reel. A single supply line can be
connected through a swivel at the axis of the reel and distributed to the appropriate hoses in
Figure 4.9 - A Typical IWOC HPU Panel
the umbilical through the reel mounted panel. After deployment of the umbilical the main
supply jumper can be hooked up.
EH-MUX systems can be controlled during installation or workover by a computer and electric
down line (umbilical) plugged into the pod on the tree. Hydraulic power must also be supplied
to the tree in order to provide motive power for the actuators on the tree. As mentioned
earlier, this can be supplied through an IWOC hydraulic umbilical that is run from the rig or if
the production umbilical is available from the host production facility.
During workover, it is often preferred not to break any of the hydraulic circuits from the
production control umbilical because they are known to be functional and pressure tight. An
EH-MUX system is highly suited to this principle in that the system can be designed such that
plugging in of an electric down line will disable the control from the host production facility.
This can be accomplished by unplugging the electric line from the production umbilical to plug
in the down line. Alternatively, it can be done by having a separate IWOC receptacle on the
pod and building into the pod the logic that prevents it from acting on any instruction it
receives from the production host while a down line from another computer is plugged into it.
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The IWOC system also controls the LMRP and EDP for a conventional or mono-bore tree
system. The IWOC system provides the controls and umbilical to operate the tubing hanger
running tool, perform seal and gallery tests within the tree system, and the means for
chemical injection for the tree and down hole as required.
Figure 4.10 - A Typical IWOC HPU and Reel System
Figure 4.11 - A Typical Output Plate From an IWOC

HPU Panel
Proper placement of the IWOC on the rig is important for running the umbilicals. The
umbilicals are passed from reels through roller sheaves above the point where the umbilicals
go down into the riser or splash zone. The umbilical reel needs to be located within line of
sight of the sheave. The sheaves must be securely attached because the weight of the
umbilical will be supported by them. It is good practice to have sheaves certified with a proof
load and include weld NDE and load testing of the mounts.
The HPU can be located anywhere because the hydraulic power can be relayed or distributed
to the various reels by hoses as required. The HPU is distributed to the umbilical and reel

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through jumper hoses that may run around the deck of the rig. The umbilical reels are
typically air powered for paying out and hauling in the umbilicals. They should include a fail
safe brake that is released when air is supplied to the drive motor.
Figure 4-12 - Typical Input Plate to an IWOC

Reel

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4.1.4 Umbilicals And Flying Leads

The umbilicals and flying leads provide the interface between the topsides control system and
the individual subsea components.
4.1.4.1 Topsides Umbilical Termination Assembly (TUTA)

The TUTA gathers the hydraulic supplies hoses from the HPU and the electrical and signal
cables from the MCS and provides a connection interface with the umbilical.
The TUTA has a junction box for termination of the umbilical electrical conductors and the
platform cabling from the MCS. A set of valves can be added to this box for umbilical
commissioning purposes. That allows filling and flushing of all umbilical lines from one point
on the host.
Figure 4.13 - An Example Of A TUTA –Topside Umbilical Termination

Assembly– The Subsea Umbilical Starts At This Box On The Production
Facility. The HPU Ties Into This Point To Supply Hydraulic Power.
This unit goes by other names and acronyms, such as Topside Umbilical Termination Box
(TUTB), Umbilical Junction Box (UJB), Production or Platform Umbilical Termination
Assembly (PUTA), etc.

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4.1.4.2 Umbilicals
The main functions of a subsea production umbilical are:
• To deliver hydraulic or electrical control signals to subsea control devices such as pilot
valves, solenoid valves or relays.
• To provide power for subsea actuators or motors, either hydraulic or electric.
• To convey injection chemicals to subsea trees or manifolds.
• To monitor well annulus pressure.
Umbilical Tube Materials

There are many options for umbilical tube materials. They include, but are not limited to,
duplex stainless steels, thermoplastic hose, zinc coated carbon steel tube, and other alloys.
Material selection is dependent on a number of factors, including pressure rating, chemical
resistance, water depth and cost. The following table is a simplified application guide for
umbilical tube materials.
Pressure Water Depth

Material Services
Limitations Considerations
Most chemicals.
THERMOPLAS 10,000 psi for Methanol may
TIC HOSE Limited water depth.
3/8” hose permeate Nylon 11
liner.
High Collapse Most chemicals.
10,000 psi for
Resistance Methanol may Unlimited
3/8” hose
(HCR) Hose permeate.
Super Duplex 15,000 psi for ½”
Most chemicals. Unlimited
Stainless Steel tube
Most chemicals.
10,000 psi for up Hydraulic fluid
Carbon Steel Unlimited
to 1-1/4” tube cleanliness a
possible issue.
Note: This table is a guide only. It is recommended to check with suppliers.

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Cross Section Design

Cross section design of umbilicals is dependent on the tube size, tube material selection,
desired hydrostatic resistance, desired dynamic characteristics and installation issues. For
long offset distances weight can become an important factor. The umbilical must be handled
by the manufacturer and transferred to the installation vessel. The installation vessel must
have the weight capacity, and installation tensions can be very high, especially for steel tube
umbilicals.
Figure 4.14 - Umbilical Armour Pot

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Umbilical Design Interface Issues
Umbilical Supplier • Umbilical manufacturing and QA requirements.

• Commissioning and installation activities support.
• Umbilical shipping and transfer to installation
vessel.
Host Facility • Offset distance.
• Hang off dynamic requirements.
• Hang off weight.
• Cathodic protection or insulation issues.
• Interface to platform mounted TCS.
• Commissioning and installation activities.
• Chemical injection system design.
Umbilical • Umbilical handling.
Installation
Contractor • Installation vessel reel capacity.
• Installation method and limitations of umbilical.
Subsea Umbilical Termination

The ends of the umbilical are fitted with umbilical terminations. The end terminations are
designed to take the installation and hang-off loads imposed on the umbilicals. A common
method of transferring the imposed loads into the umbilical is through the use of an armour
pot. The pot interlocks with the armouring or other structural components in the umbilical
without loading the hoses. End accessories can then be mechanically fitted to the armour
pot. The end termination often includes a bend restrictor to prevent excessive bending
stresses at the connection during service or installation.
Individual cable terminations are commonly fitted with caps offering protection during
deployment. The caps may also feature resistive loads between the individual pins to enable
monitoring of the umbilical conductors for any faults during installation.
Hose connections are also fitted with protective caps. The hydraulic caps may also contain
loops to facilitate umbilical commissioning.

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Umbilical Splices
Umbilical splices are successfully and routinely used, particularly on very long umbilicals.
They must be well designed and correctly installed. If not, they often represent weak points
and frequently turn out to be the source of water ingress leading to electrical failures and
hydraulic leak points. They can be very reliable, but as a general rule, should be avoided
where possible, as they are a potential source of failure. Splices are a useful means of repair
to a damaged umbilical, and enable very long umbilicals to be created and installed from
shorter flaw free lengths. Unplanned field splices are time consuming to install during an
umbilical installation procedure and should be conducted under the close supervision of a
representative of the umbilical manufacturer. Planned field spices can be preinstalled on
umbilical lengths to minimize field splice make-up time.
Figure 4.15 - Umbilical Splice Connections. Left Photo is a Planned Field Quick Make
Up Splice Kit. Right Photo is a Permanent Factory Splice -It Is Similar To a Repair
Splice- the Cover is Not Installed.

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Umbilical Integration Testing

It is beneficial, after the completion of umbilical FAT (factory acceptance test) and the
controls components have completed their testing to bring the system together. This testing
usually involves multiple suppliers and verifies that interfaces are correct before installation
activities begin. The components included in this test are normally the topside control system
simulator, the production umbilical, the hydraulic/chemical jumpers, the electrical jumpers and
the subsea control module (pod).
Figure 4.16 - System Integration Testing of A Thirty-Mile Long Control Umbilical.
Reference Standards
Standards governing the material selection, manufacturing and testing of umbilicals include
API 17E and ISO 13628, Part 5.

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Umbilical Termination Assembly (UTA)

The subsea end of the umbilical is terminated with the UTA. The UTA serves to secure the
umbilical and provide an interface to the umbilical flying leads. It can also serve as an
installation aid for lifting and handling the free end of the umbilical and lowering it to the
seabed. The UTA often includes a sled-like structure designed for resting on the soft seabed
and securing the end of the umbilical.
The electrical and hydraulic flying leads are connected from the UTA to the subsea tree,
manifold or other end device.
Electrical Connection Points

Bend Restrictors
Flying Lead
Figure 4.17 - A Typical Subsea Control Umbilical Termination Assembly For Two
Subsea Wells. Note The Hydraulic Flying Lead Plugged Into One of The
Hydraulic Junction Plates. Note The Electrical Connection Points.

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For a complex system the UTA might be broken down into a number of sub-components
consisting of an umbilical termination head (UTH), electrical distribution unit (EDU) and the
hydraulic distribution module (HDM).
Figure 4.18 - A More Complex Umbilical Termination Assembly for Several

Wells –Note the Electrical Connections Are Not Included In This Sub Assembly.

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4.1.4.3 Electrical Distribution Unit (EDU)

The EDU provides electrical distribution to a number of end devices, such as individual
subsea trees on a template. The EDU is an oil filled and pressure compensated enclosure,
within which the incoming electrical power and electrical signals are distributed to two or more
satellite SCMs. More than one EDU may be chained together, with each EDU serving a
number of satellite SCMs.
EDU
Hydraulic Junction Plates
Figure 4.19 - Example of a Large Umbilical Termination Assembly with a Large EDU
Included.

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4.1.4.4 Electrical Flying Leads

Electrical flying leads (EFLs) provide the electrical interface between the umbilical termination
assembly and the subsea tree (or other end component). There are often two redundant
electrical flying leads from the UTA to the end component. The electrical conductors are
usually run inside oil filled hoses. The electrical contacts are protected by dual oil filled
barriers. Electrical flying leads are easily installed by ROV. They can be coiled and stowed
on the equipment before deployment and uncoiled and installed by the ROV after
deployment.
Hydrostatically Balanced
Dielectric Oil Filled Cable
ROV Connectors
Figure 4.20 - Diagram Of an Electrical Flying Lead with Typical ROV Wet Mate-
Able Electrical Connectors

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4.1.4.5 Hydraulic Flying Leads

Hydraulic flying leads (HFLs) provide the hydraulic (and chemical injection) interface between
the umbilical termination assembly (or hydraulic distribution module) and the subsea tree (or
other end component).
The most commonly used and easily maneuvered hydraulic flying lead is made with
thermoplastic hose. The individual hoses are terminated at a junction plate with low force
make-up, self-sealing, hydraulic couplings. The hoses are typically constructed with Nylon 11
liner material, braided Kevlar® reinforcement and two outer layers of extruded thermoplastic
material. Monel® hose end fittings are permanently swaged onto the hose.
Figure 4.21 - Picture of a UTA with A Hydraulic Jumper during Systems

Integration Test.
For deep water applications a new high collapse resistant hose has been developed. High
collapse resistant hose is steel reinforced to prevent the collapse of the hose in deepwater.
The flying leads are stiffer than those of Kevlar® reinforced hose, but can be deployed in a
similar manner.
Another type of hydraulic jumper is the steel flying lead (SFL). The steel flying lead is a
bundle of steel alloy tubes terminated into couplers on a junction plate. Most designs use
super duplex stainless steel material for its high strength. This allows thin wall construction
for flexibility. Even so, the steel flying lead is stiffer than the thermoplastic flying leads.
Deployment may require additional tooling besides just the ROV. Various deployment kits
exist to lay the steel flying lead like a small umbilical. Once the lead is deployed, the ROV
can complete the end connections.

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4.1.4.6 Hydraulic Junction Plates

The hydraulic flying lead connects at either end by means of hydraulic junction plates.
Junction plates consist of two halves, one on the flying lead, and a mating half on the other
component (subsea tree, manifold, umbilical termination assembly, or hydraulic distribution
module).
The junction plates on the hydraulic flying lead are designed with ROV buckets so an ROV
can connect to them, disconnect them from their pre-deployment “parked” position, maneuver
them into position for connection to their mating connectors, and effect the connection,
usually by means of a rotary torque tool which drives the two junction plates together and
effects the mating of the individual hose coupling halves on each junction plate. Junction
plates often employ low force couplings that can be mated under pressure, though balancing
of forces may have to be considered in such a case. The coupling seals are typically on the
recoverable half of the junction plate (i.e. the flying lead).

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4.1.5 ROV Interface
4.1.5.1 General
Remotely Operated Vehicles are commonly referred to as ROV’s. These are remotely
controlled unmanned submersible robots – submarines. They are available in a variety of
capabilities and sizes. The most basic ROV is merely a camera carrying vehicle with
thrusters to drive it to location under water. Larger work class ROV’s include many cameras,
manipulator arms with a variety of capabilities, numerous thrusters, sonar, and other sensors.
They are available with a variety of different depth ratings.
ROV’s are controlled from a central computerized control room – often nicknamed the ROV
Figure 4.22 - Typical subsea mated junction plates with hydraulic

couplings, where the inboard plate contains the male couplers and is
permanently mounted. The outboard plate contains the female
couplers and the ROV bucket for installation interface.
shack – with power and control signals passing through an umbilical to the vehicle. The
umbilical stays permanently attached to the ROV. The deeper classed systems include a
powered diving cage and tether management system to reduce current drag on a long
umbilical system from the surface vessel.
ROV’s can perform a wide variety of functions underwater. The only constraint is that most
functions must have been pre-designed for ROV interfacing before the equipment is installed
subsea. In addition to the manipulator and gripper functions, ROV’s can easily be equipped
with special additional and often standard tool packages. These are designed to interface
with the equipment being installed subsea.
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ROV interface is a system level issue as it affects almost all work packages and certainly all
of the subsea installation, workover and intervention activities. There is effort within the
subsea industry to standardize the ROV interfaces on all subsea equipment. To do this, the
connection, handling, and marking interfaces must be the same on all subsea equipment.
The specification that most manufacturers, ROV companies, and operators have followed for
ROV interfaces is API Specification 17D. This specification was created based on the two
most common interface standards that were present in the industry at the time of writing it.
As such, and although a great deal has been standardized, the two standards were mixed
together, and perfect standardization has not been accomplished.
4.1.5.2 Types of Interface

There are several different categories of tools that a standard working ROV will use to
interface with subsea equipment. These include:
• Torque tools - There are five ranges of torque settings for overriding or mating of
components subsea. The torques are assigned a Class rating per API 17D.
• Manipulator – Depending on how an ROV is outfitted, it may have a variety of “arms”
for handling purposes outfitted with a variety of end “hands” called grippers. ROVs
sometimes are equipped with one but often have two manipulators. The manipulators
vary in complexity with varying degrees of freedom. It is common to have
manipulators with a minimum of three axes or more. Five function manipulators,
seven function manipulators and even nine function manipulators are available on the
market.
Figure 4.23 - Standard ROV torque buckets -the end effector inside the
bucket is difficult to see in these photos. The end effector size and shape
determines the torque ratings for the bucket - note the optional grab handles
on the panel in the right hand photo
• Hot stab – The hot stab is used to introduce hydraulic fluid into a port for testing
purposes, chemical injection, hydraulic power to actuate devices such as connectors
or actuators. The fluid supply can often be arranged to come from the ROV package.
• Tool Deployment Unit (TDU) – The TDU facilitates secure docking of the ROV and
precise X-Y indexing of tools for specific functions. The TDU can be configured to
carry numerous small tools used to connect and disconnect flowline clamps, operate
valves and undertake hot stab operations. The TDU can offer advantages over “free
flying” of tools, particularly in strong currents. The disadvantages of using a TDU are
that the ROV intervention equipment must be purpose built, requiring more interface
engineering, and expense. Typical TDUs are shown in Figure 4-24.

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4.1.5.3 Testing
Torque tools are commonly used during tree and manifold testing to verify torque values for
functions on the actuators and to check for fit and accessibility.
An ROV bucket contains two slots where the dogs on the torque tool latch in on both sides
inside the bucket. The distance between the latching dogs and the nut to be driven is critical
and is dictated by the API 17 D specification. Also, surrounding the bucket or likely, nearby
Figure 4.24 - Single Point Docking TDU (Left) and Twin Point Docking TDU (Right)
will be placed a grab bar. The grab bar can be used by the ROV to stabilize while attempting
to engage or torque. Grab bars are also specified diameter. The valve or location is also to
be marked in a manner to allow ease of visibility by the ROV camera, both upon initial
installation and long term, for intervention purposes.
The junction plates are also mated by ROV. The plates are made up using a torque tool
inserted into the bucket and then the torque strokes the plate to mate the hydraulic couplings.
4.1.5.4 Manipulator Functions

The manipulator serves as an arm and hand for the ROV. The manipulator can stabilize the
ROV by grabbing onto the structure, turn the handles of small needle or ball valves, plug in
electrical connectors, disconnect slings and rigging, and even tie knots.

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4.2 Flowline Tie-Ins

The following are some types of applications for subsea tie-ins.
Spreader Beam
Hydraulic
Jumper
Connectors
Insulated
Hard Pipe
Figure 4.25 - An insulated hard jumper with flowline

connectors at each end being deployed from a rig
– note the spreader beam at the top.
• Individual flowline connections between satellite subsea trees.

• Flowline connections from individual satellite trees to a subsea manifold.
• Flowline connections between one manifold and another.
• Departing flowline connections from a subsea production manifold to a production
center.
• Connection between sections of production bundles.

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4.2.1 Flowline Tie-In Design Issues
• Installation method is a prime consideration of flowline tie-ins. The design is geared

toward the installation method chosen.
• The installation method is dependent on the installation vessel and installation
equipment availability.
• The number and size of flowlines.
• The design pressure and temperature of the flowlines.
• Flowline length or flowline jumper span.
• The seabed conditions such as temperature, visibility, topography and soil properties.
• Displacements, thermal cycling and flexibility requirements.
• External loads or installation loads likely to be imposed.
• Speed of deployment, actuation and recovery. Installation often takes place from
vessels demanding high day rates.
• Minimum of equipment left subsea. A design with the hydraulics on the running tool is
better than one in which the hydraulics are left in place when numerous connections
are involved.
• Effects of hydrostatic pressure on installation aids (e.g. spreader beams with tubular
members).
ROV PANEL JUMPER PIPE
CONNECTOR
MAKE-UP CYLINDERS SOFT LAND
CYLINDERS
TOP PLATE RING

COLLET
CONNECTOR
ACTUATOR
RING
ALIGNMENT
FUNNEL
HUB
ALIGNMENT
STRUCTURE
Figure 4-26 - An example of a vertical make up mechanical connector

with hydraulic running tool

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4.2.2 Flowline Tie-In Methods
4.2.2.1 Jumper Tie-In Connection

For tie-ins between satellite wells and flowlines, the flowline is commonly furnished with a
Pipeline End Termination (PLET) that consists of a sled-like structure on the end of the
flowline supporting the end fitting and sometimes a pipeline valve or small manifold (PLEM).
The final connection to the tree is accomplished with a jumper.
Jumper tie-ins may employ rigid pipe, flexible pipe and various connectors and installation
techniques. The following are some variations:
• Hard pipe jumper using bolted flanges. The use of bolted flange connections dictates
diver intervention and can only be employed within the limits of the ADS (about 750
meters). Its advantage is the hardware is relatively cheap. The tie-in flanges are
usually oriented facing up. The distance between the flanges can be measured by a
special Pre-Measurement Tool (PMT) that can be deployed by an ROV. The PMT
uses a wire to measure the distance between flanges and the relative angles of the
flanges. The jumper connection employs guide funnels to swallow the upward facing
tie-in flanges. A guide sleeve arrangement aligns the flanges horizontally. One side
of the connection employs a swivel flange for angular alignment. Bolts are extra long
and tapered, nuts on the mating flange are captive to facilitate make-up of the flanges
by the diver.
• Flexible pipe jumper using ADS and bolted flanges. Similar to hard pipe technique,
but the use of flexible pipe allows less precise fitting of the jumper length to the span.
Flexible pipe is advantageous where large relative movement is likely. A
disadvantage is the high cost of flexible pipe jumpers.
Figure 4.27 - Typical Vertical

Flowline Connector
• Hard pipe or flexible pipe jumper using hydraulic/mechanical connector. The

connector in this case can be completely diverless. The PMT can be used as before
to pre-measure the spool length. Actuation of the connector is hydraulic. In some
connectors the hydraulics are part of the running tool, and in others the hydraulics
stay behind as part of the connector. These can be actuated from the surface or by
ROV.

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4.2.2.2 ROV Pull-In System

Subsea intervention companies have developed a number of ROV flowline pull-in systems.
The following is a description of a typical pull-in system (more details can be found in the
specific chapters on Deepwater ROVs and Tools and Tie-In Systems). All the currently
available pull-in systems share similar traits.
• The subsea tree or manifold has a more or less horizontally oriented tie-in connection,
usually oriented at an angle slightly below horizontal.
• A special pull-in tool is attached to the pipeline. It can be installed by the ROV. It
includes a wireline winch.
• The ROV connects the pull-in wire at the other end of the connection.
• The winch is activated and the flowline ends are pulled together. Guide structures are
employed to assist with the self alignment of the ends.
• Once the connection is engaged it is actuated by the ROV or hydraulically from the
surface.
• A test port is sometimes provided for testing the seal integrity externally. It can be
pressurized by the ROV.
Wires to
surface
Flowline
or
Manifold
ROV or Tree
Pulled In Flowline
Figure 4.28 - Typical ROV Flowline Pull-In System

Deployment

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4.2.2.3 Stab and Hinge-Over Tie-In

The stab and hinge-over concept can be used for lay-away of a flowline from a subsea
manifold or subsea tree flowbase. A receptacle captures the end of the flowline as it is
lowered from the surface. A hydraulically actuated mechanical connector latches the flowline
in place. As tension is applied the installation vessel moves away and an articulated joint
allows the flowline to be hinged over and eventually laid down. After the flowline is in its
resting position the seals in the articulated joint may be hydraulically energized. This obviates
the need for dynamic seals in the hinge.
Figure 4.29 -Typical Vertical Flowline Connector
4.2.2.4 Tag Line Pull-In System

This method relies on a pull-in line that is brought to the surface. Reaving of the line may be
prearranged prior to initial deployment of the subsea manifold. An ROV connects one end to
the flowline and the other end is connected to a line from the surface. By pulling on the
surface line the flowline may be pulled into position. The flowline connection may be as
described for the ROV pull-in system. Obviously the main limitation of this technique is its
sensitivity to the motions of the surface vessel. It is best limited to benign areas and relatively
modest water depths.

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4.3 Installation and Workover Riser Systems
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION
An installation and workover riser, sometimes referred to as a “landing string” is used

primarily for running subsea tubing hangers, running subsea trees, pressure contained
access to the well bore, and for temporarily flowing the well to the drilling platform.
The primary functions of an installation and workover riser and associated equipment are to
provide a means of lowering and setting subsea tubing hangers and/or trees and then to
provide a pressure conduit into the well bore while simultaneously facilitating acceptable well
control operations and disconnect possibilities during inert and live well flowing conditions.
There are different designs of installation and workover riser systems for different types of
subsea trees and for different sized subsea trees.
Figure 4.30 - Dual Bore Riser in a Typical Riser Shipping Basket
4.3.2 Riser System Design
The design of a riser system requires investigation of a complex interaction of the following
variables:
• Pressure rating – the riser must be able to contain well shut in pressure
• Bore size – wireline or coiled tubing equipment that will be used in the well must be
able to pass through the riser, additionally the well fluid flow regime will be dictated by
the bore
• Structural strength – the riser shouldn’t fail when being handled, or with applied
tensions and bending moments
• Fatigue life – the riser must have a reasonable fatigue life – particularly if being
utilized for a number of wells and for the life of a field.
• Practical operating limitations for the riser – driven by factors including allowable
operating envelopes to prevent over stressing the riser, handling and make up time on
the drilling rig, and physical size and weight limitations.
• Water Depth – affects loading on the riser
• Sea States - affects loading on the riser
• Current - affects loading on the riser
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• Vessel Characteristics - affects loading on the riser

• Vessel Offset - affects loading on the riser
• Rig Handling and Deployment
There are two basic operating scenarios for an Installation and Workover Riser. These are 1)
Deployment within a Drilling Riser and 2) Deployment in open water.
Deployment within a drilling riser can be considered to be less severe service than
deployment in open water in that the workover riser is shrouded within the drilling riser, but
the variables noted above affect the performance characteristics of the riser in both scenarios
as discussed below.
As the water depth increases, the bending loads on the riser reduce, but the tensile loads
increase. In shallow water, the problems are associated with the limitations to the operating
envelopes for the vessel. Very small offsets can produce high bending loads in shallow
water. The vessel’s motion characteristics in response to the Sea State also have a greater
significance on the loading and a greater influence on the fatigue life in shallow water.
In deeper water, the Sea States and vessel characteristics tend to have less influence and
fatigue life improves. However, high currents can produce increased bending loading on a
riser. This can lead to a lower fatigue life and a reduction in the operating envelope. When
designing for deeper water, the wall thickness of the riser tubular may need to be increased in
order to withstand the increased tensile loading, resulting in an increased stiffness. As the
stiffness of the riser increases, the bending loads become greater and this again reduces the
fatigue life.
Sea States provide the forcing functions that are applied to the vessel. The vessel
characteristics determine the vessel’s response to these forces that result in the vessel
motions. These motions are more significant to the riser in shallower water than deeper
water and in combination with vessel offset influence the allowable operating envelope for
both riser strength and fatigue life.
Sea currents have significant effects in deeper water. They can not be neglected in shallow
either. The currents can vary with depth, magnitude, and direction. The larger the diameter
of the riser, the greater the loading. In deep water, these loadings can create significant
bending loads and fluctuating currents can result in greater fatigue loading despite depth.
These are more significant in shallower water. Vessel Characteristics under varying sea
states influence the loadings on the top of the riser. These effect fatigue life more than
loading. Vessel Offset, the horizontal distance that the vessel is away from being vertically
over the well, has a direct influence on the bending loads on the riser.
To design a large bore workover riser for a multiple field role, a reasonably open operating
envelope, a long fatigue life, shallow to deep water flexibility, under all conditions is probably
impossible.
It is therefore preferable to define all these variables prior to initiating the riser system design.
The resultant design would be specific to a fixed set of conditions, but could then be analyzed
for any variations in the conditions.
The specific limitations, usually in the form of operating envelopes, need to be addressed for
each set of field conditions. In some cases, this will result in a reduced operating envelope or
maybe even a reduction of the full pressure rating.
Historically, land based and then platform surface trees were concentric mono bore trees.
The production bore rose concentrically through the casing and passed vertically through a
stack of flanged individual gate valves. The tubing tended to be of smaller diameter and the
pressures lower. Initially, subsea trees were surface trees with their materials and coatings
selected for submersed operations. The annulus was spurred off horizontally, low down on
the tree. The concepts of multiple completions down one well and Through Flow Line (TFL)
techniques required a tube to pass vertically through the tubing hanger and down into the
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annular cavity around the production tubing. Wire line plugs and tooling were required to
enter this tubing for down hole operations and the riser had to provide the access. This was
the Dual Bore Riser.
In a dual bore system, and after the tubing hanger has been set, the annulus and production
bores are sealed by setting a wire line plug in each bore at the tubing hanger. This will then
allow the BOP to be retrieved with a barrier in the wellhead. The tree is then run and landed
on the wellhead and tubing hanger. The two plugs are then retrieved through the dual bore
riser. The annulus traditionally became a 2” bore - not for the three barrels per minute
required for circulation, but because the smaller plugs had less reliable setting mechanisms.
Current dual bore annulus tubing, still has 2 to 2 ½ “ diameter bores.
Structurally dual bore risers generally rely on the strength of the production riser pipe with the
annulus pipe hung between its connections. At these connections, the annulus pipe has
telescopic joints - these avoid pressure, temperature and bending loads producing coupling
forces at the connections. The connection tends to be of similar diameter to the tubing
hanger. The production tubing is attached eccentrically by threading or welding and the
annulus pipe is fed through another eccentric and diametrically opposed hole. The
Figure 4.31 - Tree Being

Deployed on Dual Bore Riser
connections are proprietary and often not suited to the vessel’s casing handing equipment.
The demand for larger bores and higher pressures has pushed these pipes closer together.
In many instances, the larger pipe and the need for vertical access to the down hole
production tubing has forced the annulus to ‘dog leg’ through the tubing hanger body
preventing down hole plug access. These twin bores passing through the major forgings for
the tubing hanger, tree, lower riser package, and surface flow head are also reaching a limit.
For sour gas applications, the forging material is either required to have a low hardness and
therefore yield strength or utilize expensive and difficult to machine alloys. The low yield
strength eventually restricts the differential pressure capacity. Yields are reduced further by
high temperature applications. Connectors requiring welding of the tubular members also
reach their limitations with restrictions on post weld hardness and the difficulty of welding
higher yield materials. Higher yield pipe reduces the wall thickness and therefore the
suspended weight of the riser.

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The weight and costs of two pipes rather than one can become limiting as depths increase.
Dual bore risers are used on about 50% of the trees in the world today. Horizontal trees,
which do not utilize dual bore risers, make up the vast majority of the remainder of riser
utilization. Horizontal trees use a mono-bore riser made from premium threaded tubing and
readily rented riser valve and disconnect equipment and.
Other riser types that have been deployed but in very limited numbers include a 1) mono-bore
riser with a selector or diverter mechanism, or 2) a concentric riser system or a 3) mono-bore
riser system with a mono-bore tree.
Figure 4.32 - A Subsea Tree Being Deployed With An

Installation And Workover Riser

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4.3.3 Interface Considerations

A number of riser system interfaces that need to be considered whenever planning to deploy
a rig and subsea system for installation or workover work on a subsea well include the following.
• Vessel Response Amplitude (RAO)
• Met-ocean Design Criteria
• Rotary Table
• Vee Door Size
• Rig Floor Facilities / Geometry
• The BOP and component elevations
• Effective Derrick Height
• Coil Tubing Equipment
• Drilling Riser System
• Pipe Handling Facilities
• Wire line Equipment
• Riser Tensioning System
• Maximum Hook Load
• Riser Storage Capability
• Subsea Production Tree
• Control System Requirements
• Subsea Intervention System
• Tubing Hanger Running Tool
• Coil Tubing Lubricator
• Coil Tubing Lift Frame
4.3.4 Types of Installation and Workover Riser Systems
The primary Installation and Workover riser configurations are:

• Conventional dual bore riser for operations carried out within a drilling riser while it is
attached to an 18 ¾” wellhead and installing a dual bore tubing hanger.
• Conventional dual bore riser for intervention operations carried out in open water
while attached to a conventional dual bore tree.
• Mono-bore riser for operations carried out within a drilling riser while it is attached to a
horizontal tree and installing a mono-bore tubing hanger.
• Mono-bore riser with a diverter or selector mechanism for use with a conventional
dual bore tree system
• Mono-bore riser for use with a mono-bore dual bore tree system – annulus access
normally provided by hose in these systems and can thus be limited by water depth,
pressure and hose cost or availability constraints.
Simple drill pipe or tubing configurations for basic functions are also deployed for running
basic systems or simple elements such as debris caps and are not discussed here as an
installation and workover riser configuration.
A brief discussion of these configurations is included in the following pages. Generally the
descriptions of the riser systems and its major components start at the wellhead and move up
the riser to the surface. Many of the principles for deployment and reasons for employment
of different riser systems elements are shared between the different systems described.
Obviously the design details may not remain constant between the various systems but will
share common principles.
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4.3.4.1 Dual Bore Conventional Riser System

Dual bore conventional risers are so named because they have two bores which enable
wireline tool access into both the annulus and production bores and because this is the
traditional configuration for subsea trees until the advent of the horizontal tree design.
Subsea Christmas trees were originally designed so that the production tubing and tubing
hanger would be installed in the wellhead through a subsea BOP stack and the tree later
landed on top of the wellhead.
Access to the two bores is required in order to be able to plug the bores off with wireline set
plugs to mechanically isolate the well. This isolation would in turn enable the removal of the
subsea BOP which in turn would allow the installation of the subsea tree which mates with
the tubing hanger.
Thus conventional dual bore trees are generally run on dual string risers, after the tubing
hanger has been run and set. The same riser reconfigured in a different manner is used for
tubing hanger and then tree deployment. This classically requires the tubing hanger to be
orientated and locked down before retrieving the BOP stack and running the tree so that tree
stabs that interface with the hanger correctly match up when the tree is run. As mentioned,
the tubing hanger is run through the marine drilling riser and BOP stack before the tree is run.
The tubing hanger is generally orientated with respect to the BOP stack, which in turn is
orientated to the guide base on the wellhead. This can be done with a hydraulically actuated
orientation pin added to the BOP stack, or with a preinstalled slot in the BOP hydraulic
connector. The tubing hanger running tool interfaces with one of these orientation devices
thereby orienting the tubing hanger with respect to the BOP stack. The BOP stack is
orientated with respect to the guide base. Refer to the accompanying figures.
Dual bore risers are normally specially built for each conventional specific tree size and type.
Figure 4.33 - Dual Bore Subsea Tree Being Deployed

With LMRP And EDP Visible Above The Tree

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Figure 4.44 - Typical Dual

Bore Conventional Riser
System With Associated
Tools, Adapters, And
Accessories
The diagram shows only one
riser joint (below the tension
joint). The majority of the riser
length in the field is made up of
several of the standard riser
joints. Various shorter length
standard riser pup joints may
be used to adjust to overall
make up length – particularly if
the riser is used for several
different wells. Note that the
subsea tree and tubing hanger
are not shown.

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Figure 4.45 - Dual Bore Riser Configured With Orientation Helix

(Rotated 90 Degrees In View On The Right). The Tubing Hanger
Running Tool Is Shown With The Riser On Right – Omitted On The Left.

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Figure 4.46 - A Dual Bore Riser System Configured To Run A Subsea Tubing
Hanger Inside A Subsea BOP And Marine Riser

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Figure 4.47 - Dual Bore Riser System (See Previous Diagram) After Retrieval of the Subsea
BOP and Marine Riser, Ready to Run the Subsea Tree Onto the Preinstalled Tubing
Hanger

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The guide base is a common interface with the tree and therefore the tree can be orientated
to a known tubing hanger orientation. There are numerous types of guide bases such as
guidelineless, retrievable, and flow bases. If used a tubing hanger adapter spool may have
its own guidance for the tree instead of relying on the guide base. Whichever design is
employed, they will all share a means of orientation with respect to a common interface
between the BOP stack and tree to enable orientation of the dual bore hanger and tree. It is
very common for a reference slot on the 30 inch wellhead housing to determine the
orientation of the guide base or tubing hanger adapter spool.
Figure 4.48 - Typical Dual Bore Riser Configured

With An Orientation Joint Ready To Run A Tubing
Hanger. Note The Helix Clearly Visible At The Lower
End Of The Riser And The Dual Pipe Above The Slick
Joint.
If a tubing hanger adapter spool is used, another means of orientation includes a helix
orientation shoe inside the tubing hanger adapter spool. A tubing hanger adapter spool is a
piece of equipment that can be optionally placed on the subsea wellhead to provide a new

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tubing hanger landing profile instead of the wellhead. The adapter can also be used to
convert from one wellhead profile to another.
Some concentric tubing hangers do not require orientation but this is generally with some
compromise in the hanger capability or reliance on remotely operated annulus sleeve or other
mechanism. Hanger capabilities that can be compromised are such things as electrical
penetrations for gauges or other equipment.
Dual bore risers are typically specially built for individual tree designs and can represent
significant investment. Consequently, operators may try to use a single riser design across a
variety of projects, which can impose restrictions on tree design or selection options. This can
also have the disadvantage of leading to equipment availability conflicts if more than one field
requires work at the same time while a restricted number of riser systems are available.
Dual bore risers have historically not been generally readily available on the market for rent.
This may traditionally have been due to the fact that there are many different dual bore tree
THRT
Dual Bore Helix
Riser BOP Slick Joint
Muleshoe
Figure 4.49 - Dual Bore Tubing Hanger Orientation Joint With “Slick Joint” Clearly
Visible – Shown Being Lifted From It’s Shipping Basket To The Rig Floor
designs with variables such as pressure, bore sizes, bore spacings, and water depths
different on different projects. Consequently large numbers of varieties of riser systems are
required to accommodate all tree designs and equipment suppliers were not prepared to
invest and have money tied up in varieties of riser systems.
The Tubing Hanger Orientation Adapter can also be referred to as the "Tubing Hanger
Orientation/Extension Joint." An acronym for this item of equipment is "THOJ". As described
above, the lower section of the THOJ will include an orienting sleeve configured with a helix
leading longitudinal slot.
The tubing hanger orientation/extension joint includes two sections of flow pipe for the
production bore and the annulus bore. The lower end of the THOJ includes stab subs to
connect the THOJ production and annulus bores to the tubing hanger.
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The middle section of the THOJ is smooth and has a reduced ID to allow both annular
preventers of a typical subsea BOP stack to close for well control and for pressure testing of
the tubing hanger seal. This area of the riser is often referred to as the “slick joint”. The
lower end of the THOJ will normally include hydraulic stabs and sometimes electrical
connectors that interface with the tubing hanger running tool.
Umbilical clamps are located near the riser connections including at the top of the THOJ. The
clamps secure the umbilical lines to the top of the THOJ. Hydraulic functions pass through
the THOJ. This allows the BOP rams or annular bags to be closed on the joint and external
pressure to be applied to the joint without affecting the hydraulic functions passing through it.
When the tubing hanger is tagged out during installation, a hydraulically actuated BOP
orientation pin mounted through the BOP makes contact with the THOJ and engages the slot
on the orienting sleeve. As the THOJ is raised, the BOP orientation pin contacts the edge of
the orienting helix and forces the THOJ to rotate until the pin engages the longitudinal slot.
While landing the tubing hanger, the pin remains engaged in the slot to ensure proper
orientation of the tubing hanger. Note that the hydraulically actuated orientation pin is not
Figure 4.50 - How The Orientation

Helix Interfaces With The Orientation
Pin Installed On The BOP
normally standard on BOP stacks and has to be purposely installed for subsea installation
and workover work. Note additionally, that various rigs have a huge variety of different BOP
designs and stack up configurations. This means that the orientation system must be
individually tailored to each rig. Consequently, the orientation system that may have been
used to install a subsea tree system will more than likely have to be reconfigured to work the
well over if a different rig is used for the workover.
After the tubing hanger has been run, orientated and set or locked down, wireline plugs are
set in the two bores and the riser retrieved to surface. The BOP stack is then retrieved to
surface.
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The riser is then reconfigured to deploy the subsea tree. This reconfiguration starts at the
bottom of the riser where a Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP) and Emergency Disconnect
Package (EDP) are installed. The logistics of how and when this is done will depend on
particular rig operating designs and procedures but generally, the subsea tree is prepared in
the moon pool and the LMRP and EDP are stacked on top of it to be connected to the riser.
When any type of pipe or riser are being run from a drill rig, some means of supporting the
weight of the pipe must be provided. When drilling, rigs are equipped and set up to handle
pipe at the rotary table through the use of “slips”. These are friction devices that are easily
and quickly set and removed each time a connection is made at the pipe. Rotary tables and
slips are designed for single round pipe.
Dual bore risers have two sets of pipe and therefore cannot be hung off at the rotary table
with conventional slips. The method that is used to run dual bore riser is to employ a device
often referred to as a spider.
Riser Spider
The primary function of the Riser Spider is to provide a means to support the weight of the
entire Riser or Landing String at the rotary table and thus relieve the hang-off weight from the
travelling block. This allows the elevator to be unlatched in order to pick up another riser
joint. The elevator is then available for handling joints as required, during the running and
retrieving operations. For a dual bore riser, the spider enables slips to be set to hang off two
strings. For all riser types, it also provides an opening for umbilicals, DHSV control tubing,
and/or downhole gauge line(s) to exit from the rotary table master bushing to the rig floor.
The Spider’s last function can often be to provide guidance to the Surface Joint as it strokes
through the rotary with the vessels’ heave, after the Tubing Hanger has been landed.

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Figure 4.51 - Example Of A Spider For Running Installation And Workover Riser.

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Figure 4.52 - Dual Bore Riser Being Made Up At The Drill Floor. Note Use Of
Dedicated Spider For Supporting The Already Suspended Riser.

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Figure 4.53 - Example Of A Spider Used To Run Dual Bore Risers
Figure 4.54 - This Drawing Shows A Typical Spider Design

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Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP)

The Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP) plays a major role in emergency shutdown (ESD)
operations as dictated by the rig well test or other control logic system. Additionally, the
LMRP provides unrestricted access for wireline tools and coiled tubing when the LMRP, tree,
and tubing hanger are connected together. The LMRP shuts the well in at the tree and is
almost always designed to be capable of cutting wireline or coiled tubing in the event that
they are in the well when the shut is required. The LMRP, when shut in, will allow a safe
disconnect of the riser and therefore the rig from the subsea tree and well even if the well is
live.
Figure 4.55 - Typical Lower Marine Riser

Package (LMRP) and Emergency
Disconnect Package (EDP) On Its Test
Stand.
All pressure containing components must have the same rating as the tree. A lower riser
package (LMRP) usually includes three major components:
• Valve block or Ram assembly with LMRP connector and Re-entry mandrel
• Frame
• Control System
The LMRP valve block assembly can be described as consisting of three portions: upper,
center, and lower. The upper portion of the valve block assembly includes a re-entry hub. The

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re-entry hub includes production and annulus bore seal pockets that mate with the EDP
Assembly as well as seal pockets that inter-face with the seals on the EDP stab subs. The
OD profile of the hub mates with the EDP Assembly. The re-entry hub is part of the riser
system that enables disconnect and reconnect and is designed with seals that make up
remotely.
A hydraulic stab plate is usually set at the re-entry hub. It contains hydraulic couplers that
provide communication to the LMRP functions and to selected tree functions. It allows the
installation workover control (IWOC) umbilical to be disconnected without damage if required
with the EDP.
The center portion of the valve block assembly is usually a composite valve block and may
Upper
Upper
Mandrel Alignment Guide
Guide Pin Frame
Mandrel
Post Top Connection
Control
Hydraulic Stab Cross
Coupler Plate Over
Valve
Annulus
Swab Valve
Production
Swab Valve
Annulus Production
Master Master
Valve Valve
Accumulator Accumulator
Lower
Annulus Seal Mandrel
Sub
Production Connector
Seal Sub
Secondary
Stab Plate Unlock
Locking Alignment Piston
Hydraulic Segment Primary Hole
Coupler Piston
Figure 4.56 - A Basic Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP)
contain small BOP rams or valves corresponding to the bore sizes in the tree and riser. The
block houses production and annulus valves or BOP rams or both.
The valves or BOP rams on the production and annulus bores are normally fail safe-close
design with a facility to shear. That is to say, if hydraulic power to the tree is lost, by for
example umbilical damage, the valves or rams will close automatically, and will shear wire if
in the well.
Often a crossover valve is an integral part of the valve block assembly and provides
communication between the production and annulus bores.

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Methanol injection valves are often included in or on the valve block. Communication is
achieved by direct porting into the production bore.
The lower portion of the valve block assembly is a hydraulic connector that locks to the
subsea tree mandrel. The connector is designed for remote operation and often has facility
for both primary and secondary hydraulic unlocking.
It will also have visual indicators that enables an ROV, or other conveyed camera, or diver to
ascertain the status of all relevant, remotely operated functions for the connector.
A second, lower LMRP stab plate fits onto the connector. It provides hydraulic communication
with the tree upper stab plate. Certain couplers connect to valves that can vent fluid pressure
upon disconnect. All others are able to seal to prevent ingress of seawater upon disconnect.
Many tree systems are designed so that the installation and workover riser system and the
hydraulic couplers contained in it disable the host production platform controls of the tree.
The same mating halves of the described couplers on the tree are required to mate with the
tree cap and its associated couplers before the production facility can take control of the tree.
The lower end of the valve block at the subsea tree interface includes production and annulus
bore, stab subs that seal in the tree upper seal pockets.
The LMRP frame is a protective structure with bumper bars for protection of exposed
equipment and guidance. Landing alignment posts on the LMRP frame provide primary
guidance for orientation of the EDP/LMRP to the tree.
The LMRP runs at the bottom end of the workover/completion riser string with the emergency
disconnect package (EDP) latched to its upper mandrel profile. The assembled unit is then
run on the dual bore riser system. The LMRP lands and locks to the tree upper mandrel
profile. The workover umbilical, which mates with a stab plate on the EDP/LMRP assembly,
provides communication from the workover control panel to selected tree functions.
Emergency Disconnect Package (EDP)

The Emergency Disconnect Package (EDP) provides the means for rapidly disconnecting
from the lower riser package (LMRP) during completion or workover operations.
The top of the EDP consists of a connector which mates with the pin on the lower end of the
stress joint at the bottom of the riser. The base of the EDP consists of a hydraulic connector,
which engages with the re-entry (upper) mandrel on the LMRP. The EDP is run latched to
the re-entry mandrel of the LMRP. EDP assemblies are designed to be capable of being
unlocked with the riser being pulled over at angles of 5 or more degrees from vertical.
The connector will normally be designed to allow high angle release but sometimes, lift-off
cylinders or jacks, which are activated after the EDP has been unlocked, are employed to lift
the EDP connector up to make high angles of release possible.
Seal subs provide communication in both the production and annulus bores. The bores have
a pressure rating equal to the tree and provide unrestricted access for wireline tools and
coiled tubing.
A hydraulic stab plate which mates with a corresponding plate mounted to the frame of the
EDP is usually employed to terminate the installation and workover umbilical. Hydraulic
communication to the EDP, LMRP, and tree functions are typically routed through a stab
plate mounted on the EDP frame. A hydraulic stab plate containing female hydraulic couplers
is fitted to the body. This plate engages with a corresponding plate on the LMRP to establish
communication.
The EDP will normally also include a frame which acts as a protective structure and provides
guidance for remote make up to the LMRP subsea tree during running.

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Stress Joint
A Tapered Stress Joint or stepped stress joint is included in almost all installation and
workover riser designs. It engages with the emergency disconnect package (EDP) and
accommodates the larger loads that occur at the bottom of the dual bore completion riser
system.
It is called tapered because the wall thickness of the joint tapers from very thick at the bottom
to thinner at the top – thus distributing stress more evenly through the joint than a straight
pipe would. Alternative designs use a series of steps to provide the transition from thick wall
at the base to thinner at the top. This is done because it is cheaper to manufacture and is
almost but not as good as a true taper.
It is important to note that the design of an installation and workover riser system and the
stress joint in particular, is based on analyses that take into account the characteristics for a
specific range of drilling rigs and the operating conditions under which it is anticipated to
operate.
Radial Bolt Top

Connection
Radial Bolt Connector

Locking Dog
Umbilical
Connector Annulus
Plate Seal Sub
and Seals Production
Seal Sub
Guide and Seals Lift Off
Frame Accumulator
Connect
or Primary Connector
Actuating
Piston
Stab Plate
Alignment Hole
Hydraulic
Emergency Coupler Connector Secondary
Liftoff Unlock Piston
Cylinder Locking Segment
Figure 4.57 - A Basic Emergency Disconnect Package (EDP)

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Standard Riser Joints

Standard Riser Joints make up the largest length of the dual bore workover/completion riser
system. They are used to run the EDP/LMRP and tubing hanger running/orientation joint.
The riser joints have a dual bore design. One bore is the production line, which is normally
the main load-carrying member. The second bore is the annulus line. It provides
communication to the annulus bore but typically does not support any of the riser loads. It
typically does not have connectors that restrain the pressure end load. Instead it is fixed to
the production pipe with clamps that hold the pipe rigidly.
The riser joints are typically compatible with all other joints in the system. The joints are
normally fitted with clamps, which can accommodate the tubing hanger running tool or
installation and workover umbilical(s). The joints will be designed to land out securely in
manual and hydraulic riser spiders for running purposes.
Alignment
Riser Box Key Slot
Connection Riser Box
Annulus Connection
Bore Production
Bore
Retainer Retainer
Ring Ring
Riser
Annulus Clamp
Bore
Production
Bore
Alignment
Ring
Retainer
Ring
Riser Pin Riser Pin

Connection Connection
Annulus Production
Bore Bore
Figure 4.58 - Typical Dual Bore Riser

Standard Joint
In addition to standard riser joints usually about 40- 45 feet long, there are typically 20 feet,
10 feet, and 5 fee. pup joints. These pup joints allow for optimization of space-out.

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Tension Joint
A tension joint assembly is positioned near the top of the riser below the drill floor. It is used
to attach motion compensated tensioning cables. The tension joint is a dedicated joint that
provides a means of tensioning the dual bore riser system during completion and workover
operations.
It is generally equipped with tension line connection eyes fitted to an independently rotating
ring. The ring allows rotation without affecting the riser system.
The tension joint is compatible with all other joints in the riser system. It should be sized to be
run though the 37-1/2" diameter hole in the rotary table after removal of the riser spider
assembly.
Figure 4.59 - Riser Tension Joint In Service In The Moon Pool

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Riser Box
Riser Box Connection
Connection Production
Annulus Bore
Bore
Alignment
Plate
Retainer
Nut Retainer
Nut
Rotating
Tension Line Production
Connection Bore
Ring
Tension Line
Connection
Eye
Annulus
Bore Riser
Clamp
Alignment
Ring
Retainer
Riser Pin Riser Pin

Connection Connection
Annulus Bore Production Bore
Figure 4.60 - Conventional Dual Bore

Installation and Workover Riser Tensioner Joint

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Surface Tree or Surface Flow Head

A Surface Tree is always run at the top of the riser often just above an optional surface
protection joint on the dual bore completion riser system. The surface tree is the primary
control for the well during normal well testing or clean up operations.
The optional surface protection joint protects the production line, annulus line, and the tubing
hanger running tool umbilical from damage at the point where the riser passes through the
rotary table.
Valves fitted in both the production and annulus bores provide a shear/shut-in mechanism
during completion and workover operations. Both valves are normally capable of shearing
braided cable or slickline.
The surface tree provides an upper flow control barrier for the riser. Its wing valves direct
production flow to the choke manifold and well test equipment on the rig. Generally, a swab
valve allows vertical access into the riser bore for wire line or coiled tube deployed tools.
Figure 4.61 - A Photo Of A Simple Surface Tree (Or Flowhead) For A Dual Bore
Riser System –Shown On Its Side.
The riser weight is suspended from the surface tree that is in turn suspended from the crown
block. A swivel is generally installed beneath the tree to enable the tree to be rotated to assist
with the line up of the choke and kill lines above the drill floor. In a horizontal tree system, the
swivel also allows the tubing hanger to orientate when landing, or the tree to orientate in a
dual bore tree system. The swivel also eases the make up of the last riser connection, if the
connection is threaded or requires orientation.
The surface tree must also be elevated above the deck to accommodate vessel vertical
movement. One of the limiting features of the surface tree is its overall stack-up height when
combined with the Swivel, the Surface Joint and a Coiled Tubing Tension Frame inside the
derrick.

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Typically an elevator profile is machined below the upper connection on the surface tree to
enable the tree and riser to be supported by the draw-works. A working platform is often
mounted around the surface tree to enable personnel to operate manual valves and work the
connection of the lubricator unit.
Lubricator adapters at the top of the tree block assembly enable the attachment of wireline or
coiled tubing lubricators which in turn allow tool access to a live well bore. The production
lubricator adapter is normally shouldered to be compatible with elevators for handling
purposes.
Wing valves are fitted to outlets on the production and annulus bores and are typically
Figure 4-62: Example Of A Simple Surface Tree (Or

Flowhead) For Dual Bore Riser System. Note Only One
Master Valve In The Annulus And Production Strings.
Many Systems Contain Additional SWAB Valves Above
Master Valves.
hydraulically actuated so that they will shut in automatically when tripped by the rig well test ESD.
A large (e.g. twenty-inch) casing elevator profile on the block allows the tree to be suspended
by a tension frame assembly – see description below.
The derrick system applies motion compensated tension to the installation riser. The load
path could pass down bails hung from the travelling block, through an elevator to the surface
flow tree and on down to the riser. However, this method restricts coiled tube and wire line
access to the top of the tree. To obtain this access a tension frame is used above the surface
tree. A coiled tubing gooseneck, injector head, and the lubricator can then be installed within

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the frame if required. It can take 24 hours rig time to change from the bails system to the
tension frame and operators install the frame as a safety precaution.
Figure 4.63 - A Variable Length

Tension Frame.
It is suspended from the travelling
block in the derrick and it in turn
suspends the surface tree (shown)
and riser (not shown). It provides
room above the surface tree for
wireline lubricators (not shown) and
enables the easy placement of a
coiled tubing or snubbing unit if
required.

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A surface tree is run at the top of the riser in the same manner and for the same reasons as
in the dual bore riser system.
Figure 4-64: Surface Tree In

The Derrick – Note The Man On
The Sling At The Wireline BOP
To Install The Lubricator
Above The Surface Tree.

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4.3.4.2 Horizontal Tree Riser System

Horizontal trees are generally run on drill pipe with a tree running tool at the bottom of this
“drill pipe riser”. The drill pipe riser and tree running tool are then retrieved. Unlike the riser
system for a conventional dual bore tree described above, the tubing hanger is not run before
the tree in a horizontal tree system and thus only one pressure containment riser is deployed.
The marine drilling riser which is part of the BOP system on the drilling rig is then used to
deploy the BOP stack and become the environmental riser for access into the well through
the tree, primarily for drilling and completion tubing deployment.
Recall that the pressure rating of the marine drilling riser is typically very low –around
500 psi– and is almost certainly expected to be rated less than the well shut in pressure. The
BOP rams or annular bags are utilized to isolate the marine riser from the well pressure if
there is any form of kick during any of these preliminary horizontal tree operations by closing
them.
Finally, when the tubing hanger is landed in the horizontal tree, it is done with the installation
riser inside the marine-drilling riser. This riser is often referred to as the “landing string”
because it is used to land the completion and tubing hanger. The riser is designed so that the
BOP rams are closed on the riser during well operations once the riser is installed. This
F lo w H ead
M arin e R iser (not sh ow n)
L u bricato r V alve
Sh e ar S u b
BOP
S tack
9 -5 /8 r a m s
T u b in g H a n g er R etain er V alv e
S u bsea T ree S u bsea T est T ree
S lick Jo in t
W ellh ead T u bin g H ang er R un n in g T o ol
T u bin g H ang er
Figure 4.65 - Typical Horizontal Tree Installation And Workover Riser System Deployed
Inside A Subsea BOP Stack.
ensures that the Marine drilling riser is not exposed to high pressures.
The installation and workover riser for a horizontal tree normally consists of premium
threaded tubing or casing and is additionally normally configured with a number of valves and
disconnect mechanisms to safely handle a number of unplanned possible events that could
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occur that may compromise safety. This is the riser of interest and discussed below. All the
valves and bore sizes must be suitable to pass the wireline plugs required in the tree. These
are normally larger than any other tools or device than must pass into the production tubing
down hole and usually dictate the size of the riser or landing string.
Test Tree
The subsea test tree (SSTT) is deployed at the bottom of the installation and workover riser
for a horizontal tree system. The SSTT is typically configured with two valves. The tree is
hydraulically operated and requires an umbilical to be run with the riser system inside the
marine drilling riser. They are normally fail safe close valves.
The SSTT serves several functions.
Figure 4.66 - Subsea Test Tree

With Disconnect Feature
The primary function of the SSTT is to provide valves at the bottom of the riser to shut-in the
well at the tree if desired because there are no valves in the vertical bore of the tree. The
valves are designed to be capable of cutting wireline or coiled tubing if they were in the bore
at the time of closure and to be capable of sealing after cutting.
Another function of the tree is to allow the riser to be disconnected above the closed valves
on the SSTT if desired. This feature is reversible and enables a remote reconnect if
disconnection did take place. The SSTT connection system includes a hydraulic interface for
all the hydraulic functions for the SSTT and the tubing hanger running tool. The reconnect
feature is designed to be self-aligning and all stingers will only make up once the correct
alignment is achieved.
The SSTT also incorporates a slick joint, which allows the BOP rams to be closed on the riser
system. This serve to prevent high pressure from entering the marine drilling riser and as a
secondary hold down of the lower end of the riser. The slick joint is generally at the bottom of
the SSTT. If the tubing hanger running tool is hydraulically functioned (for deep water, they
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virtually all are), the slick joint will have porting through it for the tubing hanger functions. This
allows hydraulic communication without hose or piping and thus prevents the rams or
externally applied pressure from affecting the hydraulic functions. The slick joint is the
interface between the SSTT and the tubing hanger running tool. Once the riser has been run,
it can be tested against a closed valve in the SSTT for pressure integrity.
Coiled Tubing
Ball Valves
Figure 4.67 - Cut Away Section View Of

Subsea Test Tree (SSTT) Used With Horizontal
Tree Riser Systems

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Retainer Valve
The retainer valve, or riser containment valve, is deployed low in the installation and workover
riser, above the SSTT. The purpose for the riser containment valve is to prevent high
pressure and/or hydrocarbons in the riser from being released into the marine drilling riser in
the event of an emergency disconnect.
Figure 4.68 - Retainer or

Riser Containment Valve
The release of hydrocarbons into the marine drilling riser or open sea is problematic, but the
uncontrolled release of riser pressure into the marine drilling riser could prove to be
catastrophic. This could launch the riser up into the rig floor. It could burst the drilling riser. It
could divert large quantities of hydrocarbons including gas to the drill floor, which could burn
or explode. It could evacuate the drilling riser then allowing external hydrostatic pressure to
collapse it.
The retainer valve typically incorporates logic that does not allow a disconnect to occur until
the valve is closed. The valve is hydraulically actuated. It is normally the termination point for
the tubing hanger running tool and SSTT control umbilical(s). The hydraulic lines are typically
ported through the body of the valve to the SSTT from the umbilical termination.

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Lubricator Valve
The lubricator valve is an optional valve usually installed in the installation and workover riser
just below the rotary table.
It allows long tool strings to be deployed in the well without exceptionally long lubricators
being deployed above the surface tree above the drill floor.
Figure 4.69 - Lubricator Valve or Well

Re-entry Valve

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4.3.4.3 Other Installation And Workover Riser Systems

Other tree types such as the “Thru-Bore” tree and mono-bore trees have utilized slightly
different riser configurations from those described but they employ the same principles of well
control issues and disconnect. The systems utilize hose access to the annulus for circulation
and pressure relief functions. Hose can be restrictive in cost, through bore, availability,
pressure rating, and depth tensions and so are not normally used in deep water.
Figure 4.70 - Example of a Mono-Bore Riser System

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4.3.5 Well Test and Clean-Up of Wells

Among other things, installation and workover risers are used to flow wells for test purposes
and/or for clean-up of wells before turning the well over to production operations.
This requires that the riser be connected to well test equipment on the rig, such as test
maseparator. The well test equipment is used to handle the produced fluids. The well test
equipment is not covered in the scope of this section
4.4 System Commissioning and Start-Up

The following are some items to consider when planning the commissioning and start-up of a
subsea production system.
• Conduct a full functional test of the production control system.
• Verify operation of all valves. Record operating time and valve actuation response
signatures. Observe operation using ROV.
• Confirm choke actuation response. Observe with ROV. Calibrate choke position
versus flowrate.
• Verify proper operation and calibration of downhole pressure or temperature
transmitters.
• Establish threshold settings for acoustic sand monitoring sensors.
• Pressure test certain critical seals in field made-up connections. This may be done
with the IWOC umbilical or ROV hot stab, depending on the design.
• Verify electrical umbilical continuity and insulation integrity.
• Flush and pressure test hydraulic and chemical umbilical hoses.
• Verify hydraulic and chemical umbilical communication.
• Conduct cold start procedures for the well. Even oil wells may have an initial charge
of gas that can affect the start-up procedures. Procedures may involve specific valve
opening sequences just for start-up, special choke settings, or methanol injection for
hydrate prevention.

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5 FIELD ARCHITECTURE
5.1 Field Architecture Considerations

The purpose of the field development is to safely and efficiently recover the reservoir
hydrocarbons, process them, deliver them to market and dispose of unwanted byproducts.
This involves many considerations and, as is the case with most field developments, must
usually be undertaken with less than the desired amount of information. The objective is to
maximize the return on investment within a tolerable level of risk. The numbers of issues to
be considered are many. The following is a summary of some important ones:
• Existing Infrastructure. Installation of new infrastructure in deep water is exceedingly
expensive. The first thought when considering a new development should be to make
use of existing infrastructure if possible. This includes existing production platforms,
pipelines and even wells.
Figure 5.1 - Examples of Host Platforms Available For Tieback
• Well groupings. Clustering wells or installing well templates can facilitate drilling
operations and save flowline cost.
• Optimizing intrafield flowline configuration.
• Pigging requirements must be identified and addressed.
• Long tie-backs will dictate the use of electrohydraulic production controls. This may
add some expense for a development of only a few wells.
• Possible need for subsea production boosting (pumping) as part of the initial
development or future needs

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Figure 5.2 - One Example of a Subsea Pumping Module

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5.2 Well Grouping

Field development planners need to work closely with the reservoir and drilling engineers
early in the planning stages to establish a good well location plan. Once the reservoir is
mapped and reservoir models created the number of wells, types of wells and their locations
can be optimized. Well layout is usually an exercise of balancing the need to space the wells
out for good recovery of the reservoir fluids against the cost savings of grouping the wells in
clusters. Add to this the consideration of using extended reach wells, and the number of
possible variables to consider becomes great.
A further consideration, reservoir conditions permitting, is the use of fewer, high production
rate wells through horizontal well completions or other well technology. Here again, there are
cost tradeoff considerations.
Single Well
Well Pair
3-Well Manifolded Cluster
Figure 5.3 - Three Types Of Well Grouping: Single Well (Satellite), Well Pair and
Cluster

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5.2.1 Satellite Wells

A satellite well is an individual subsea well, usually supported in a single free standing 30”
conductor. Satellite wells are typically used for small developments requiring few wells.
Often the wells are widely separated and the production is delivered by a single flowline from
each well to a centrally located subsea manifold or production platform. Various field layouts
must be examined. This evaluation must involve hydraulic calculations and cost sensitivity
analyses taking into consideration flowline cost, umbilical cost, installation cost and flow
assurance issues.
5.2.2 Template and Clustered Well Developments

If subsea wells can be grouped closely together, the development cost will usually be less
than for an equivalent number of widely dispersed wells. Well groupings may consist of
satellite wells grouped in a cluster, or a well template, in which the well spacing is closely
controlled by the template structure.
5.2.2.1 Clustered Satellite Wells

Clustered satellite subsea well developments are less expensive than widely spaced satellite
wells mainly because of flowline and control umbilical savings. If several satellite wells are in
close proximity to one another, a separate production manifold may be placed near the wells
to collect the production from all the wells and deliver it in a single production flowline to the
production facility. Also, a single umbilical and UTA can be used between the well cluster
Host Facility
Umbilical
Flowlines
UTA Flying
Manifold Lead
Tree
Flowline Jumper
Well Jumper
Figure 5.4 - Typical Well Cluster

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and the production platform. Figure 5-4 shows a field with three clustered satellite wells, a
subsea production manifold and a single production umbilical and UTA.
In the case of clustered satellite wells, wells may be placed from several meters to tens of
meters from one another. The wider well spacing is often dictated by a desire to be able to
position the drilling rig over one well without imposing dropped object risk on adjacent wells.
It is hard to precisely control the spacing of individual satellite wells, so crossover piping and
control umbilicals must be able to accommodate the variations in spacing.
5.2.2.2 Production Well Templates

Another way of clustering wells is by means of a well template. Well templates are structural
weldments that are designed to closely position a group of well conductors. Well templates
may support two wells or more than a dozen wells. Apart from reservoir considerations, the
number of wells in a well template is only limited by the size of the well template that can be
handled by the installation vessel. Small templates are usually deployed from the drilling rig.
Larger ones may require a special installation vessel with heavier lift capacity or better
handling characteristics.
The following are some benefits of production well templates as compared to clustered
satellite wells:
• Wells are precisely spaced.
• Manifold piping and valves can be incorporated.
• Piping and umbilical jumpers between the trees and manifolds may be pre-fabricated
and tested prior to deployment offshore
• Piping and umbilical interfaces are less expensive than for clustered wells.
• Installation time is reduced by modularizing much of the equipment.
• Short flowline piping distances (compared to a cluster) reduce the problems
associated with flow assurance (e.g. wax and hydrate formation) and the need for
extensive pipe insulation.
• Horizontal loads imposed by drilling can be taken by the template structure as
opposed to the tree and conductor in the case of a satellite well.
The following are some disadvantages of production well templates as compared to clustered
satellite wells:
• Design and fabrication time may be longer due to greater complexity.
• There may be safety concerns related to simultaneous drilling and production
operations.
• Heavy templates may be more susceptible to subsurface instability, such as shallow
water flows.
• Less flexibility in determining well locations.
• Fewer qualified contractors and suppliers.
• ROV access may be limited due to space constraints.

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5.3 Drilling and Well Intervention Considerations

Some of the drilling and well intervention issues that should be considered during subsea
field development planning are :
• Satellite well spacing may be dictated by a desire to be able to position the drilling rig
over one well without imposing dropped object risk on adjacent wells, thus allowing
production to safely continue through adjacent wells during drilling or workover
operations.
• Production template size may be limited by the installation rig equipment handling
capabilities. The same applies to manifolds and other equipment that may be
installed by the rig during drilling or well completion operations.
• Satellite trees, production template, and manifold controls, junction plates and other
control interfaces must be designed to accommodate the IWOC system to be used on
the installation or workover rig.
• The ROV intervention system and ROV tools must be compatible with ROV and ROV
handling equipment to be used on the installation or workover rig.
• BOP compatibility. The well completion equipment must be compatible with BOP
equipment typically available in the area. The most common area of conflict is the
BOP connector profile which can be addressed by using a compatible wellhead and
tree connector, or changing the wellhead connector on the BOP. If an atypical size or
pressure rating is to be accommodated, such as a 16-3/4” or 15M wellhead, a suitable
BOP will have to be obtained.
• Well wireline or coiled tubing intervention from DSVs may become more
commonplace.
5.4 Intrafield Flowlines

Intrafield flowlines are the network of pipelines between the individual wells, well templates,
subsea manifolds, and production platforms. Intrafield flowline requirements will be
established by the number of wells, well locations, well grouping and manifolding
arrangements, well testing requirements, pigging requirements, gas lifting requirements, gas
injection requirements, water injection requirements, operating pressures, production rates
and shut-in pressures.
5.4.1 Flowline Routing

Each well has at least one production flowline that must be routed to a delivery point, usually
a centrally located production facility or a manifold. The most efficient arrangement of wells,
flowlines, manifold and production platform is usually the one that results in the fewest
number of flowlines of the least combined length. Other factors may force developers to
consider other flowline routings, however. These include the following:
• Differences in reservoirs and well performance. Some wells are capable of flowing
greater distances than others due to their higher pressure or lower pressure drop
(such as a high gas-oil ratio well versus a low gas-oil ratio well). This might affect
where the production facilities are located or how the flowlines are routed.
• Differences in flowline metallurgy (such as a well high in CO2 versus one that is low in
CO2). Minimizing the length of the more expensive (alloy) flowline might result in net
savings.
• Differences in pigging requirements. The platform might be best located nearer the
wells requiring frequent pigging versus those that do not.

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• Providing clear areas or easements for future wells or flowlines.

• Avoiding interference with production platform moorings. The same applies to drilling
rig moorings if anchored rigs are considered.
• Avoiding hazards such as debris, outcroppings, canyons, or geotechnically unstable
areas.
• Avoiding existing pipelines or cables.
• The direction of approach to production platform, often dictated by the riser
configuration.
• The type of well fluid. A water injection line may be cheaper than a production line.
5.4.2 Tie-Back Distance

For a large scale new field development involving the installation of new production facilities,
the production platform is usually optimally located relative to the planned production wells.
Many marginal fields are developed with subsea completions with subsea tie-back flowlines
to existing production facilities some distance away. Subsea tie-backs are an ideal way to
make use of existing infrastructure. Long tie-back distances impose limitations and technical
considerations, however. The following are some of the main considerations:
• Reservoir pressure must be sufficient to provide a high enough production rate over a
long enough period to make the development commercially viable. Gas wells offer
more opportunity for long tie-backs than oil wells. Hydraulic studies must be
conducted to find the optimum line size.
• Because of the long distance traveled, it may be difficult to conserve the heat of the
production fluids and they may be expected to approach ambient seabed
temperatures. Flow assurance issues of hydrate formation, asphaltene formation,
paraffin formation and high viscosity must be addressed. Insulating the flowline and
tree might not be enough. Other solutions can involve chemical treatment and
heating.
• The gel strength of the cold production fluids might be too great to be overcome by
the natural pressure of the well after a prolonged shutdown. It may be necessary to
make provisions to circulate out the well fluids in the pipeline upon shutdown, or to
push them back down the well with a high pressure pump on the production platform,
using water or diesel fuel to displace the production fluids.
5.4.3 Commingling of Production

Commingling production is a good way to reduce the number of flowlines and save cost.
Production from a group of individual wells may be commingled in a subsea production
manifold situated near the wells. The commingled production may be delivered in a single
flowline to the production facilities.
When wells are commingled, the performance of the wells must be matched. Higher
pressure wells must be individually choked so as to not impede the flow of weaker wells. If
the expense can be justified, a HP and LP manifold can be provided with separate flowlines
for each.

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5.4.4 Well Testing

Good reservoir management requires individual wells to be periodically flow tested to
measure their individual performance and production fluid characteristics. For dry tree
production, a well testing manifold and test separator are usually provided as part of the
production facilities. The flow from each well may be individually diverted through the test
header to the test separator. The same can be done in the case of subsea wells.
For satellite wells with individual flowlines tied back to the production platform, it is often
simply a matter of connecting the well flowlines to the well test manifold. A well test heater
may be needed ahead of the separator that otherwise might not be necessary in the case of
dry tree production.
If the subsea production is coming from a subsea manifold, the subsea manifold could be
provided with a well test header. This requires additional manifold valves for each tree, and a
separate well test flowline to deliver the test well production to the test separator on the
production platform. Sometimes, if only one flowline is available and several wells are
producing into it, the wells may be “tested by difference”, that is one well is individually shut-in
and the difference in the production rate of each phase of the remaining production is
measured. This requires a test separator large enough to handle production from more than
one well, or metering on the production separator.
For long tiebacks it becomes very expensive to add a flowline and production platform riser
just for well testing. That has led to the development of subsea multiphase flow meters.
Multiphase flow meters are capable of measuring the oil water and gas phases separately.
Their applicability is limited, but the technology continues to improve and when faced with no
simple alternatives they are definitely worthy of consideration.
5.4.5 Pigging
Pigging of flowlines is often necessary to remove paraffin deposits, produced sand and other
debris that may accumulate in the flowline. Pigging may be done on a regular basis as
preventive maintenance, as a remedy to an unforeseen fouling problem, or as a diagnostic
tool. Different types of pigs are available for different situations. Some impose limitations on
the pipeline design and should be considered beforehand. The following are a number of
issues that should be considered when planning a field development that will include
provisions for pigging flowlines:
5.4.5.1 Pigging Loops (Round Trip Pigging)

Because only one end of the pipeline is usually accessible from the production platform it is
common to provide a looped path for the pig with the pig launcher and receiver on the same
platform. The loop may be two pipelines parallel to one another with a pigging crossover
valve at the far end from the production platform. The far end of the lines might be at a
production manifold or an individual satellite subsea tree. Pigging operations require pushing
the pig from the platform, through the crossover, and back again. A production well, pump,
compressor, buy-back gas or other fluid pressure source must be available on the platform to
displace the pig. Production operations might have to be curtailed, some wells shut-in or
production re-routed during the pigging operations.
The extra line required for pigging may have uses other than pigging. During normal
operations both lines could be used to handle production fluids, or one line might be used for
flow testing one well while the other handles production from other wells, or one could serve
as a high pressure (HP) production line while the other serves as a low pressure (LP)
production line.

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Satellite wells, each with a separate flowline to the production platform, may be connected to
one another to create a pigging loop. A pigging tee would be required on each tree and a
pigging crossover valve on one or both trees.
5.4.5.2 Subsea Pig Launchers and Receivers

Pigging loops become expensive for long tiebacks and pigging very long distances may be
problematic due to the amounts of fluid involved, the time involved, or the pressure required
to displace the accumulated wax and debris.
If operating conditions allow, consideration might be given to using a subsea pig launcher and
pigging from the subsea production manifold or tree to the production platform. The
production fluids can be used to propel the pig. It may be necessary to regulate the
production rate so as to control the pig speed. The optimum speed is usually 1-2 m/sec.
Alternatively a subsea pig receiver may be installed at the far end of the pipeline and the pig
driven from the platform to the receiver. Because of the problem of where to deliver the
displaced fluid, this method is best reserved for pipeline de-watering, or other situations
where displaced fluid disposal is not a problem. Sometimes a loop may be available but the
pipeline sizes are incompatible. In such cases one-way pigging may be possible, by
displacing the fluids from one section of the line into the other.
Because of the need for subsea intervention for subsea pig launching and receiving, this is
best approached as a contingency provision for service that would require only very
infrequent pigging. It is possible that a loaded pig launcher could be pre-installed on a tree or
manifold prior to initial deployment so that subsea intervention would not be required the first
time. Subsea pig launchers and receivers have not found wide usage. They are typically
unique, project-specific designs.

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5.5 Future Development, Expansion

Good field development planning requires making provisions for future development or
expansion. Unfortunately, contingency provisions usually add cost, and it is often very difficult
to foresee what the future development needs may be. The following are some future
development planning ideas the subsea field development planners might consider:
• Allow space for future satellite wells, including rig access.
• Provide spare slots in templates for future wells.
• Allow space for future flowlines, or size flowlines to handle future capacity.
• Provide spare subsea manifold valves and flowline tie-in provisions.
• Provide space for future risers on the production platform, or pre-install risers.
• Design capacity for future wells into the production control system.
• Design capacity for future wells into the production control umbilicals.
• Allow space for future umbilicals.
• Provide interfaces for additional flying leads on subsea manifolds or subsea trees.
• Make provisions for future gas lift, such as pre-installing gas lift flowlines or
configuring tree to accommodate a future gas lift tie-in.
• Plan for future gas injection wells or water flood wells taking into account all the issues
raised above for production well
Figure 5.5 - Cluster Type field development.

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6 RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
Risk may be defined as an unexpected or an undesired outcome of an action or series of

actions. All human endeavors entail risk. In offshore field developments the risks that are of
greatest concern are those that can negatively affect the health and safety of individuals, the
environment, or the economics of the project.
6.1 Potential Areas of Risk

The following are potential areas of risk in a subsea development project.
6.1.1 Project Management
• Poor interface planning and management.

• Poor communications.
• Unrealistic schedules or budgets.
• Poor resource planning. Inadequate resources.
• Poorly trained personnel.
• Labour disputes.
• Failure to identify or anticipate regulatory requirements.
6.1.2 Engineering
• Inadequate or erroneous design information.

• Calculation errors.
• Drawing errors.
• Poor document control and engineering QA procedures.
• Inadequate risk or hazard assessment.
• Failure to anticipate and design for likely off-spec conditions.
6.1.3 Manufacturing
• Delay in receipt of materials.

• Defective materials.
• Manufacturing errors.
• Component failures during testing.
• Poor fit-up of components.
• Inadequate quality assurance procedures or implementation.

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6.1.4 Installation
• Inadequate equipment.
• Poor interface planning.
• Installation equipment availability delays.
• Installation equipment failure.
• Installation errors or delays.
• Equipment or system failures during commissioning.
• Failure to anticipate and prepare for weather risks.
6.1.5 Operations
• Inadequate operator training.

• Unanticipated operating conditions.

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6.2 Risk Management

Operators and contractors should implement proactive risk management programs. Risk is a
product of uncertainty. With the accumulation of relevant experience in the industry, risk can
be mitigated. When entering a new area of development, extending the limits of current
technology, or undertaking a new contractual commitment, new risks are introduced. Risk
management should be applied early and continue through the project.
Employees, contractor personnel, operators and other participants should be indoctrinated
with an awareness of the risks faced by the project within their sphere of involvement, and the
mitigation measures available to them. Adequate resources should be committed to the
mitigation of risk and responsibilities formally assigned.
6.2.1 Risk Analysis In The Project Phases
6.2.1.1 Phase 1, Feasibility Study

• Identify alternative concepts for screening.
• Evaluate relative capital cost and operating costs for each concept.
• Identify areas where technology development may be necessary.
• Conduct a high-level comparative risk assessment of each concept
6.2.1.2 Phase 2, Concept Study

The concept study focuses on the concept (or concepts) resulting from the feasibility study.
The engineering is taken to a higher level of definition.
• Prepare conceptual drawings and bases of design.
• Conduct a high level hazard identification review.
• Identify areas of risk for further study.
6.2.1.3 Phase 3 – Preliminary Engineering

The goal of preliminary engineering is to develop the design to the point that a detailed
engineering contractor can carry it to completion. In preliminary engineering the basis of
design is firmly established, the scope of work is clearly laid out, and specifications for all
major systems and components are prepared.
• Conduct a formal hazard identification review and identify areas of focus for further
engineering to further mitigate risk.
• Conduct a formal hazard and operability review using the project basis of design and
the preliminary drawings.
• Follow up the hazard reviews with a punch list of items to be addressed by further
engineering. As these are addressed, revise drawings and other documents
accordingly.
• Conduct a follow-up hazard review to assure that all punch list items have been
addressed and no new issues introduced.

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6.2.1.4 Phase 4 Detailed Engineering

• Track and document all changes to the preliminary design basis of drawings during
detailed engineering.
• Near completion of detailed engineering, conduct final hazard and operability reviews
with most up to date drawings, addressing all new developments introduced during
detailed engineering.
6.2.1.5 Phase 5, Construction

• Review contractor’s qualifications and financial stability.
• Review contractor quality plans and QA procedures.
• Audit contractor performance.
• Review contractor personnel qualifications.
• Conduct safety evaluation of work procedures and emergency procedures.

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6.3 Lessons Learned

The following are some specific issues arising from “lessons learned” during previous subsea
projects.
• Fluid incompatibility –particularly completion fluids mixed with control fluids or injection
chemicals can result in formation of gels or precipitants, causing line blockage.
• Pressure differentials due to hydrostatic column heads of differing fluids. Example: riser
full of completion brine and umbilical control line at same depth can result in unexpected
pressure differences resulting in component failure or undesired fluid migration.
• Even light corrosion (rust) in chemical storage tanks can damage high-pressure
chemical injection pumps.
• Significant corrosion has been experienced on subsea control pods that had been
installed but not operated for some months.
• Hydraulic compensation system must accommodate ROV override before control system
activation, otherwise seawater can be pulled into the SCM during override functions.
• Client imposed requirements have demanded that a vendor change standard product
lines to use unsuitable grades of stainless steel.
• Catastrophic filter failure has contaminated clean control fluid.
• Cracks have occurred in the duplex stainless steel materials after deployment subsea.
• Overactive cathodic protection levels have caused hydrogen embrittlement in bolting
and other steels.
• There is a need for better understanding of the factors inducing cracking in duplex
stainless steel materials, when cathodically polarized in seawater.
• As with duplex stainless steel materials, there is potential for hydrogen embrittlement,
when 13% Cr. is subjected to cathodic protection.
• Trees have been dropped due to operator error at hydraulic panel.
• Umbilical reels have shifted on deck – should be welded down.
• Poorly designed reels have injured people – projections on the reel catch body parts
while rotating. Control handle should not be near moving parts.
• Thermoplastic umbilical hoses have the potential for hose collapse in deepwater,
because during blow-down the internal pressure could be zero. A remedy can be
control by operational procedures.
• Cleanliness with carbon steel umbilical tubes is difficult to maintain.
• Storage fluid in carbon steel tubes should be heavily inhibited.
• Hydraulic control equipment should be filled with inhibited control fluid.
• Hydrogen cracking has been reported in Monel 400 end fittings in the termination
assembly.
• Dissimilar metals at pressure fittings must be closely evaluated. Example case is
corrosion of copper washers in methanol hose connections caused by galvanic
reaction with the Monel® 400 fittings.
• Titanium electrical connectors may need to be isolated from the cathodic protection
system.
• Either coupler or both hydraulic couplers shall be allowed to float in the equipment it is
mounted in to allow proper seal usage.
• Hydraulic coupler poppets and/or small tubing and tube fittings can cause blockage
points in high flow and/or high trash lines like methanol and annulus vent lines.
• Salt crystals in the methanol hose and termination due to ingress of seawater.
• Stem seals on tree and manifold valves in some cases were not rated for the
appropriate external pressures.

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REFERENCE BOOK
SEALINES
Rev. 0 Page 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

1.1 SCOPE ................................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
1.2 REGULATIONS, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS ......... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS .............................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
1.4 REFERENCES ......................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2 PIPELINE DESIGN FOR DEEP WATER .................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.2 MATERIAL SELECTION ............................................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.3 PIPELINE DESIGN METHOD....................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.3.1. General consideration........................................................ Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.2. Pipeline diameter determination. ....................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.3. Pipeline wall thickness....................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.4. Dynamic calculations. ........................................................ Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.5. Stability check. ................................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.6. Span calculations............................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.7. Pipe expansion calculations. ............................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.8. Upheaval buckling.............................................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.4 DESIGN BASED ON LOCAL BUCKLING CRITERIA VERSUS BUCKLING PROPAGATION CRITERIA
ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.5 RADICAL ALTERNATIVE APPROACH IN DEEPWATER PIPELINE LAY ........ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON
DEFINI.
3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT..................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

3.2 PIPELINE END TERMINATIONS .................................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
3.3 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEM ................................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
3.4 INSTALLATION VESSELS........................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
4 SEALINE TECHNOLOGY REVIEW ............................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

4.2 C-MN STEEL PIPE – RIGID PIPE ............................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
4.2.1 Steelmaking process: ........................................................ Erreur ! Signet non défini.
4.2.2 Seamless or seam welded pipe......................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
4.2.3 Main steel pipe manufacturers:.......................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
4.3 FLEXIBLE PIPE ........................................................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
4.4 STAINLESS STEEL ................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
Rev. 0 SEALINES Page 2

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4.5 CLAD PIPE SYSTEM ................................................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

4.5.1 Manufacturing procedures ................................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
4.5.2 Hot rolling process: ............................................................ Erreur ! Signet non défini.
4.5.3 Thermo-hydraulic fit method .............................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
4.6 WET INSULATED RIGID PIPE ..................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
4.7 PIPE IN PIPE SYSTEM............................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
4.8 PIPELINE BUNDLE SYSTEM....................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
5 INSULATION TECHNIQUES & SUPPLIERS.............. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

5.1 PIPE IN PIPE SYSTEM............................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
5.2 INTEGRATED TOWED FLOWLINE BUNDLE SYSTEM ..................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
5.3 WET INSULATION PIPE SYSTEM ................................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
6 HEATING TECHNIQUES ............................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

6.2 ELECTRICAL HEATING SYSTEM ................................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
6.2.1 SECT Heat tracing ............................................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
6.2.2 Combipipe Induction Heating............................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
6.2.3 Combibundle induction heating .........................................Erreur ! Signet non défini.
6.2.4 Direct heating..................................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
6.3 HOT FLUID CIRCULATION HEATING SYSTEM .............................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
6.3.1 Hot water heated wet insulated pipe ................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
6.3.2 Hot water heated bundle / pipe-in-pipe system ................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
6.3.3 Hot water heated flexible ................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
7 BURIAL TECHNIQUES............................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
7.2 PLOUGH TECHNIQUE ............................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
7.3 JETTING TECHNIQUE ............................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
7.4 MECHANICAL CUTTER TECHNIQUE ........................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
7.5 BACKFILLING / ROCK DUMPING ................................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
7.5.1 Introduction ........................................................................ Erreur ! Signet non défini.
7.5.2 System description............................................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
7.5.3 Pre-lay pipeline support ..................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.

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8 INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES .................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

8.2 S- LAY METHOD ...................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
8.3 J-LAY METHOD ........................................................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
8.4 REEL-LAY METHOD ................................................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
8.5 TOW METHOD ......................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
8.6 FLEXIBLE LAYING METHOD ...................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
9 INTERNAL CORROSION MONITORING ................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

9.2 PRINCIPLE .............................................................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
9.3 ARRANGEMENT OF SENSING PINS ............................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
9.4 MONITORING SYSTEM ............................................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
10 APPLICATIONS & LIMITATIONS............................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

10.1 SEALINE TECHNOLOGY............................................................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
10.2 INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES ..................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
11 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES ........................ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

11.1 C-MN STEEL PIPE ................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
11.3 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL PIPE ............................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
11.4 CLAD STEEL PIPE .................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
11.5 BUNDLE SYSTEM ..................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
11.6 PIPE-IN-PIPE SYSTEM .............................................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
11.7 13% CR PIPE ......................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
11.8 SUMMARY TABLE .................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
The challenges of deepwater oilfields and inter-continental gas transportation present the
biggest opportunities the pipeline technology faces today. Sealine new thermal insulation
technologies will be required to assure that produced fluid will flow through long distance
subsea lines, at low seafloor temperature.
The scope of this study will cover the following topics:
• Give an overview of problems related to the transport of unprocessed and

sometimes corrosive multiphase well streams in deepwater pipelines, in low
ambient temperature and high external pressure environment, conducive to the
formation of paraffin deposits, wax or hydrates (sections 2 and 3)
• Review material and sealine technology currently available in the industry to
overcome the above technical problems while keeping cost at competitive levels
(section 4)
• Provide information on flow assurance topics, insulation material and heating
technique applied to deepwater pipeline, to mitigate the deleterious effects of wax
and hydrate formation and internal corrosion (sections 5 and 6)
• Give list of installation and tie-in methods dedicated to different types of sealine
system including interface requirement, burial technique, etc. (sections 7 and 8)
• Provide information on internal corrosion monitoring system ( section 9)
• Finally analyse the applications and limitations, along with the advantages and
disadvantages of each sealine technology and its installation methods (sections
10 and 11).

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1.2 Regulations, Codes, Standards & Specifications
‘’ Rules for submarine pipeline systems ’’, 1981 – (amended as DnV

needed by 1996 edition)
‘’ Guidelines for design, fabrication and installation, submarine N.P.D.

pipelines and risers ‘’
‘’ Submarine pipeline guidance notes ‘’ DoE
‘’ British standard code of practice - pipelines ‘’ BS 8010
‘’ Pipeline safety code ’’ IP 6
‘’ Recommended practice- Control of internal corrosion in steel NACE

pipelines and piping systems ’’
‘’ B 31.4 Liquid petroleum transportation piping systems ’’ ANSI
‘’ B 31.8 Gas transmission and distribution piping systems ’’ ANSI
‘’ R.P. 1111 – Design, construction, operation and maintenance of API

offshore hydrocarbon pipelines ‘’
‘’ RP 14E - Design and installation of offshore production platform API

piping systems ‘’
‘’ Specifications for pipeline ’’ API 5L &.5LC
‘’Guide for gas transmission and distribution pipeline system 1080’’ ASME
‘’ Z 183 - Oil pipeline transportation systems ‘’ CSA
‘’ Z 184 - Gas pipeline systems ‘’ CSA
‘’ Submarine pipeline code ‘’ SAA
‘’ Gas pipeline code ‘’ SAA
“ Part 2 – Flexible pipe systems for subsea and marine applications” ISO 13628
(in preparation to replace API RP 17B)
“ Pipeline transportation system for the Petroleum and Natural Gas ISO 13623
Industries “

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1.3 Definitions & Abbreviations

Flowline = The conduct system e.g. steel pipeline, flexible line, bundle, etc; divided in two
parts: "sealine" section resting on seabed and dynamic "riser" section from
seabed to surface
Sealine = "Static" section resting on seabed of a conduct for the flow of liquid and/or gas
Pipeline = The conduct system uses to export oil and gas from fixed or floating production
system to shore
A&R = Abandonment and Recovery
C-Mn = Carbon-Manganese
CRA = Corrosion Resistance Alloy
DGPS = Differential Global Positioning System (Satellite positioning of DP vessel)
DP = Dynamic positioning
DSV = Diving Support Vessel
ERW = Electric Resistance Weld
FBE = Fusion Bonded Epoxy
FSM = Field Signature Method
GTAW = Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
HAZ = Heat Affected Zone
HDPE = High Density Polyethylene
HIC = Hydrogen Induced Cracking
HP = Horse Power
LCC = Life Cycle Costing
LPM = Liter per minute
GMAW = Gas Metal Arc Welding
NDT = Non-Destructive Testing
PA 11 = Polyamid 11
PC = Personal computer
PEX = Cross Wound Polyethylene
PUF = Polyurethane Foam
PVDF = Polyvinylidene Fluoride
PGMAW = Mechanised Pulsed Gas Metal Arc Welding
ROV = Remote Operated Vehicle
SAW = Submerged Arc Weld
SCC = Stress Corrosion Cracking
SECT = Skin Effect Current Tracing
SSCC = Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking
SWC = Stepwise Cracking
TFL = Through Flow Line
TFP = Tight Fit Pipe
TMCP = Thermo-Mechanical Controlled Processing
VIV = Vortex Induced Vibration
VLS = Vertical Laying Spread
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WD = Water Depth
1.4 References
1. Offshore Technology Conference papers from 1969 to 1998
2. In-house technical database
3. In-house experience in rigid and flexible pipeline installation
4. Manufacturer and subsea contractor product leaflets
5. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Tie-in Methods”
Document n° TOTAL/Z/EN-005/98 (SEAL Engineering)
1.5 Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with courtesy of
technical information and photographs of their products.

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2 PIPELINE DESIGN FOR DEEP WATER
2.1 Introduction
A typical deepwater flowline system is designed to transport produced fluids from several
subsea wells directly or through a subsea manifold on to the floating production system via
sealines and risers. In addition to the production flowline system, there are flowlines to export
gas and/or oil to shore. Pipelines are far the most economical method for transporting large
quantities of fluids. Other modes are more economical only when the quantities are too small
to justify the capitol cost of a pipeline or where technical difficulties make it impossible to
construct a pipeline. The principal technical difficulties are related to extreme depths, and
occasionally to uneven seabed and to high currents.
The primary factors that predict the difficulty of a deepwater pipeline project are the maximum
depth (high hydrostatic pressure) and the diameter and weight of the pipe.
A pipeline has to meet several design criteria. It has to be strong enough to resist internal
pressure, which in force terms is usually much the largest load it has to carry. It has to be
strong enough to withstand other loads applied during installation and operation, principally
external pressure and bending, but also axial tension, torsion and shear. It may have to carry
large concentrated loads applied by installation method. It has to be made out of materials
which guarantee the life time of the pipeline under erosion and corrosion effects. It has to be
heavy enough to be stable against hydrodynamic forces, but not so heavy that it sinks into
the seabed or become over-stressed when it spans low points.
It would be wrong to suppose that all these questions become more severe when the pipe is
in deep water. On some instances, many of them become easier. Usually, though not always,
the currents near the bottom are quite small in deep water, because surface wave action is
insignificant more than half a wavelength below the surface, and because tidal flows are
insufficient to generate high velocities because of the large flow cross-section.
Most pipelaying techniques lay the pipe with the internal atmospheric pressure. In deep
water, the pipe wall is then subject to a net external hydrostatic pressure during installation..
In operation, the pipe is subject to a net internal pressure, and the depth and hence the
external hydrostatic pressure may serve to reduce the required minimum burst wall thickness,
particularly if the selected wall thickness includes a corrosion allowance which will be present
during installation and consumed during operation.
The obvious difficulty is that external pressure may cause the pipeline to propagation buckling
which is first initiated by a local buckling of the pipe wall due to external hydrostatic pressure,
axial force and bending moment then run along the pipe under the effect of external pressure,
collapsing the pipe into a dumb-bell cross section. Buckle propagation could destroy many
miles of pipeline. The determination of pipe wall thickness to mitigate the buckling problem is
presented in section 2.3 Pipeline Design Method.
Some deepwater pipelines are designed so that the maximum net external pressure is lower
than the propagation pressure, so that propagation cannot possibly occur. This becomes an
onerous requirement in deep water, and a less conservative approach is to install buckle
arresters, so that a buckle initiated by unexpectedly severe bending might propagate to the
next arrester, but could not destroy a long length. The calculation and design of buckle
arresters is a well known technique.
External pressure governs the design of pipelines conventionally installed in deep water. This
condition is most severe during installation, when the pipelines carries demanding
combination of external pressure, bending and tension.

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2.2 Material selection

The selection of a material for a pipeline or flowline is a compromise between optimum
corrosion resistance, required mechanical properties, fabricability, availability and cost. It may
often be the case that a final choice has to be made between two or more optional materials
which may differ in the extent to which they meet all the desired service requirements for the
anticipated required lifetime of the project.
In the extreme cases where corrosion risks are either negligible or very severe, material
selection is fairly simple and a typical choice will be carbon steel or corrosion resistant alloys
respectively.
Between these two extreme cases, the final choice of material may lie between carbon steel,
with corrosion allowance and coating, cladding or inhibitor protection, or various corrosion
resistant alloy options. In this situation, past practice may have been to select the option
which requires the least upfront capital expenditure.
Increasingly, however, the selection of materials is being made not simply on what is
immediately the cheapest technically acceptable option, but on a longer term view of the
costs incurred for the duration of a project. The Life Cycle Costing (LCC) approach utilises
established accounting methods to compare the costs of alternative materials selections by
calculating the ‘’present day value’’ of future costs associated with the chosen materials. By
using LCC it can often be demonstrated that paying out more at the start for corrosion
resistant alloys rather than an apparently much cheaper material, results in substantial
savings in operating, maintenance and repair costs in the future.
One of the key benefits of using LCC in a comprehensive way is that it obliges the user to
take a global view of the issue in question and not to solve a single problem in isolation of all
the other factors which are affected or may affect the decision making process. Each case
has to be calculated separately taking into consideration the material dimensions, fabrication
method and pipe laying rate for the different materials, oil/gas production rate, inhibitor or
glycol injection rate for carbon steel, appropriate inspection methods and frequency, etc.
2.3 Pipeline design method
2.3.1. General consideration

The pipeline design calculations aim to determine the pipeline characteristics, such as
external diameter or wall thickness, which will allow it to withstand not only the requirements
of the production phase (resistance to the internal pressure and corrosion, stability on the
seabed despite the seabed current forces, etc.) but also the installation loads (external
pressure if the pipe is installed air filled, bending and compression forces, tension, etc.).
In the past, pipeline design or rules were based on allowable stresses computed from the
material Specified Minimum Yield Strength to which a usage factor is applied (typically from
0.7 - 0.9 depending on the load cases).
The last few years have seen the introduction of reliability-based Limit State Design (LDS) for
offshore pipeline, this is a radical change in design philosophy as its application is based on
risk assessment and probabilistic approaches.
The relatively recent code DNV 96 which is based on the Limit State Design, has been first
used for the design of the Asgard 42" x 700 km gas trunkline.
Pipeline design is a key issue within the offshore oil & gas engineering disciplines, and is
outside the scope of this document. However, the following section aims to describe a typical
pipeline design approach and its general philosophy based on the DNV 96: “Rules for
submarine pipeline systems”.

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During the design phase, the following points will be checked out:
1. Pipe material selection (based on produced fluid chemistry)

2. Pipe inside diameter
3. Pipe wall thickness
3.1 Internal pressure containment
3.2 Hydrostatic collapse
3.3 Local buckling
3.4 Buckling propagation
4. Stability check
5. Span calculations
6. Pipe expansion calculations
7. Upheaval buckling
2.3.2. Pipeline diameter determination.

The design basis fixed the pipe inside diameter by fluid flow considerations. This is mainly
based on the fluid properties such as the viscosity, the expected pressure at the well head,
the flow rate, etc.
2.3.3. Pipeline wall thickness.

A first wall thickness evaluation is performed using the following criteria:
• Internal pressure containment:
The tensile hoop stress σh is to fulfil:

σh < ηs . SMYS
σh < ηu . SMTS
where: σh = (pi – pe) . (D-t) / (2 t) (Mpa)

pi, pe are the internal and external pressures (Mpa)
D is the pipe outside diameter (mm)
t is the pipe wall thickness (mm)
SMYS is the minimum specified yield strength (Mpa)
SMTS is the minimum specified tensile strength (Mpa)
ηs, ηu are usage factors typically within 0.64-0.96 (see DNV 96, section 5
C204)

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• Hydrostatic collapse:
The wall thickness must satisfy:

pc
p e<
1.1. γ r
where: pc is the pipe collapse pressure and depends on the wall thickness, the
diameter, the Young modulus (E), the Poisson coefficient (ν), the minimum
specified yield strength (SMYS) and the ovalisation (see DNV 96 section
5C306) (Mpa).
pe is the external pressure (Mpa).
γr is the resistance factor (typically between 1.19 and 1.58).
• Buckling propagation:
The design is based on this criterion if no buckle arrestor is expected on the pipeline.
The buckling propagating pressure is to fulfil:
ppr > pe
where: ppr = 26 . SMYS . (t/D)2.5 (Mpa)
All these criteria allow to define a first wall thickness that will then be checked during the
following design phases. A corrosion allowance must be considered (depending on the
corrosivity of the environment, of the producing fluid and on the inspection means). This
corrosion allowance is not to be taken into account for resistance calculations during
operation but can be considered for the installation phase.

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2.3.4. Dynamic calculations.

Dynamic calculations, modelling the installation phase, are then performed using time domain
simulation based software such as Orcina, Deepline, Flexcom 3D, etc, and static forces
resulting from adequate laying analysis. Local buckling verification allows to check whether
the pipeline will suffer buckling or not, and so to eventually re-adjust the wall thickness.
The local buckling condition can be written:
2 2
γ f. γ c . M f γ e. M e pe
<1
Mc pc
γ r γ r
where: Mf is the characteristic functional bending moment (kN.m)

Me is the characteristic environmental bending moment (kN.m)
Mc is the characteristic limit bending moment (kN.m)
pe is the external pressure (Mpa)
pc is the collapse pressure (Mpa)
γf, γe, γc are load factors (typically between 1 and 1.3, see DNV 96 section 4)
γr is the strength resistance factor
2.3.5. Stability check.

The embedment and the stability of the pipeline depends on the soil characteristics, on the
current loads (and wave loads when considering shallower conditions or area with internal
waves), on the overall outside diameter and on the weight of the pipe. Checking the
horizontal and vertical stability of the pipe aims to eventually adapt its diameter and weight,
for example by adding a concrete layer if necessary.
The DNV 96 gives, as primary verification, a simple calculation method for the on-bottom
stability check but more accurate methods ( dynamic analysis) can be employed. The DNV
96 static analysis method may be expressed by:
γ . (Fd – Fi) < µ . (W sub – FL)
where: γ is a safety factor (>1.1)

Fd is the hydrodynamic drag force per unit length (N/m)
Fi is the hydrodynamic inertia force per unit length (N/m)
µ is the lateral soil friction coefficient
(provided by American Gas Association Research)
W sub is the submerged pipe weight per unit length (N/m)
FL is the hydrodynamic lift force per unit length (N/m)

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2.3.6. Span calculations.

The length of unsupported spans on an offshore pipeline may support excessive stress due
to its own weight and transported fluid mass. Moreover, spans exposed to flow of seawater
due to currents and waves are subject to a phenomenon commonly referred to as vortex
shedding.
Span calculations are performed either to determine the maximum allowable span length in
order to check that no problem concerning spanning will occur or to define a new wall
thickness that allow the pipe to withstand the non-even support conditions expected.
Span calculations are based on both a static analysis, which check that the pipe can support
its own weight, and a dynamic analysis which verify that either no VIV occurs or that it is
acceptable regarding the fatigue life.
The maximum allowable span length static calculation, based on formula of strength of
materials, may be written as follows:
0.5
I
L 16. . SF. SMYS
. .
DgWs
where: L is the maximum allowable span length (m)

D is the outside diameter of the steel pipe (m)
Ws is the submerged weight per unit length of the pipeline (N/m)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
SF is the safety factor (typically 0.5)
SMYS is the minimum specified yield strength (Pa)
Determining the maximum allowable span regarding VIV aspect can be performed, as a
primary study, by determining the maximum first natural period of the pipe spanning part
which avoids VIV (i.e. a first natural period out of the VIV period range).
Two sorts of VIV may occur: the in-line oscillations and the cross-flow oscillations ("in-line"
means parallel to the current direction). Even if the cross-flow vibrations are of primary
interest regarding the fatigue damages, the in-line oscillations are the most stringent when
considering the natural periods.

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The maximum natural period of the pipe to avoid VIV can be defined as follows:
V r.max. D o
T max
V
where: Tmax is the maximum natural period of the pipe (s)

V is the current velocity (m/s)
Vr.max is the maximum reduced velocity, determined by the following empirical
curve and the parameter Ks (See figure 01):
2. m e. δ
Ks
2
ρ sea. D o
where: me is the effective mass per unit length of the pipeline (kg/m)
δ is the logarithmic decrement of structural damping (typically 0.1885)
ρsea is the sea water density (kg/m3)
Do is the overall outside diameter (m)
Figure 01- Reduced flow velocity for onset of in-line motion

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The corresponding maximum span length is defined by the expression of the first natural
bending period of the equivalent beam:
0.5 0.5
I
L C. T max. E.
me
where: L is the maximum allowable span length (m)

C is a support condition factor (about 2.5)
Tmax is the maximum natural period of the pipe (s)
E is the Young modulus (N/m2)
I is the inertia modulus of the pipe section (m4)
me is the effective mass per unit length of the pipeline (kg/m)
2.3.7. Pipe expansion calculations.

The pipeline experienced internal compression forces due to pressure and temperature
variations. An estimation of these efforts allows to check that they are acceptable and to
determine the dilatation length.
The compression force can be taken as:
π 2
T comp N pi p inst . . D i . ( 1 2. ν ) A. E. T T inst . α
4
where: T comp is the compression force (N)

N is the residual axial tension (after installation) (N)
pinst is the internal pressure (installation) (Mpa)
pi is the internal pressure (operation) (Mpa)
Di is the internal diameter (mm)
ν is the Poisson coefficient
E is the Young modulus (Mpa)
A is the steel cross sectional area (mm2)
Tinst is the internal temperature (installation) (°K)
T is the internal temperature (production) (°K)
α is the thermal expansion coefficient (°K-1)
The pipe expansion calculation depends on the soil friction coefficient, on the manner the
pipe is laid on the seabed (whether embedded or not), on the boundary condition, etc.

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2.3.8. Upheaval buckling.

The above compressive force could be the cause for upheaval buckling appearance (i.e.
pipeline local elevation due to the thermal expansion). Buried pipelines operating at high
temperatures and pressures may also experience upheaval buckling due to compressive
loads resulting from the axial restraint of the soil and imperfections in the seabed or uneven
burial depth. Some calculation methods can be found in the literacy, trying to model the pipe-
soil interaction and to anticipate the problem. These methods can be used to design the
required embedment depth of the pipeline if upheaval buckling appearance is expected.
For embedment depth, a pipe-soil interaction model gives the following formulae:
H
qs γ . g. H. D o. 1 f.
Do
where: qs is the uplift resistance of a cohesionless sand cover (N/m)

γ is the submerged weight of the soil (kg/m3)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
H is the height of cover (m)
Do is the outside diameter of the pipeline (m)
f is an empirical uplift coefficient (typically between 0.1 and 0.5)
The total downwards force is hence equal to:
W sp . g qs
Where: W sp is submerged weight of the pipeline (kg/m)
This force must be greater than the upward force due to the thermal expansion and
unevenness of the soil. A model gives the following force:
1 1
2 2
δ . W sp . g . .
4.76 . EI W sp g
w T comp. . 1.16
EI T comp δ
where: w is the upward force (N/m)

Tcomp is the compressive force (N)
EI is the bending stiffness of the pipeline (N.m2)
δ is the average unevenness height at the considered location (m)
The above basic design phases must be considered as part of a "design spiral" as some
iterations are required to define the pipeline characteristics. Other design phases or criteria
can be added, such as the insulation calculations, depending on the pipeline system.

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2.4 Design Based on Local Buckling Criteria versus Buckling Propagation Criteria
For deepwater pipe lay projects, with the adoption of limit state design factors which allow
design to be based on specific risk failure modes, the current trend is to design the pipeline
against the local buckling criteria instead of the buckling propagation criteria (i.e. the later
criteria will result in a higher pipe wall thickness) based on the following reasoning :
• risk assessment - the pipeline is exposed to the maximum load case during the
installation phase which is limited in time (e. g. days or weeks) versus its life cycle (e.g. 20
to 30 years), the contingency in case of pipe buckle would be to relay a line
• cost consideration - the adoption of the local buckling criteria will result in substantial gain
in steel pipe procurement and offshore installation cost, up to 30 % cost saving (versus
the buckling propagation design basis)
• technical consideration - the lay tension of a typical API 10" pipeline at 2000 m water
depth is some 400 tons (based on buckling propagation criteria) which is the tensioner
limit for the latest deepwater lay vessel (i.e. Allseas Solitaire) when local buckling criteria
will concede 140 tons lay tension which is more in line with most current deepwater lay
vessel capabilities.
2.5 Radical Alternative Approach in Deepwater Pipeline Lay

The design of pipeline in deep waters is conventionally governed by the large external
pressure which implies a large wall thickness, as most pipeline are laid in 'air' at surface
atmospheric pressure so that the submerged weight shall be small.
Once the pipeline is in service, it only has to withstand the positive difference between the
pipeline internal service pressure and the external hydrostatic pressure. It follows that the
additional wall thickness steel requirement to resist external pressure during laying is wasted.
The conventional thinking is that a water-filled pipe would be unacceptably heavy, and that
the pipe must be laid air-filled to be within laying equipment acceptable range. This is true in
shallow water. In deep to ultra deep water it is not longer true.
Certain design engineering companies and laying contractors are looking into the field of
water-filled pipe lay possibilities, based on the following general lay tension results :
• water-filled pipe required less lay tension than heavy wall (propagation buckling
requirement) air-filled pipe as off the 1000 m water depth range
• water-filled pipe start to be lighter than thickener wall (local buckling requirement) air-
filled pipe as off the 2500 m water depth range
There are many cost advantages to lay pipeline liquid-filled (1) by reducing the cost of steel
procurement, (2) which in terms required less offshore spread time (less welding time on
thinner wall pipe) and (3) to prevent the excessive capital expenditure for the upgrading of
laying equipment and vessels.

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3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT
3.1 Introduction
Development of the field requires several subsea wells to be drilled at different water depths
and locations. These wells will be connected by means of sealines and risers to floating
production system positioned near the field.
The main interface requirement in the sealine design is related to:
• Pipeline end terminations

• Subsea production system
• Subsea connection and tie-in methods
• Lay vessels and methods
For the interface requirement related to subsea connection, please refer to the document
"Tie-in Methods" (Reference 5) of Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book.

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3.2 Pipeline end terminations

A typical rigid steel pipe is terminated either with a flange or hub for future clamped/bolted
connection or with a pipeline end module (PLEM) consisting of an emergency shut down
valve, a horizontal or vertical connection hub, and a swivel to assure that the PLEM will be
installed within the designed inclination tolerances in order to allow the direct horizontal or
vertical connection (see figures 02 and 03).
Horizontal
Connector
Sealine
terminated
with male
hub
Figure 02 - Male hub mounted on pipeline end termination
Flexible terminated
with gooseneck
and female
connector
Vertical connector
PLEM
terminated with
flange for
connection to
sealine
Figure 03 - Pipeline end manifold (PLEM) terminated with a flange connector

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The flexible pipe structure is terminated with end-fittings at both ends (see figures 04a, 04b
and 04c). This end-fitting provides a link between the unbonded layers of the structure and a
flange which allows for connection with the floating production platform, rigid/flexible lines or
sled piping. Each end-fitting is an assembly of several steel components.
Figure 04a - CSO end fitting mounting
Flexible line
Figure 04b – NKT

end fitting concept
End fitting
Bolted flange
connection
Figure 04c – Flexible intermediate

connection at working platform

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3.3 Subsea production system

The subsea manifold system or the riser base, where the sealine will be connected to, must
be designed and equipped with due consideration of the following additional mechanical
aspects (see figures 05 and 06):
• Space/dimension provision for the selected connector, the tie-in tools and ROV
operations
• Permanent and temporary subsea hardware related to the tie-in method
• Connection/reaction loads which vary with the tie-in method
• Resist to the in-service load conditions such as temperature, slugging, etc.
Subsea hardware used for the diverless connection of pipelines and permanently mounted on
subsea structure or landed on seabed are as follows :
• pull-in sheave and rigging

• landing base for running tools
• ROV platform
• alignment modules
• pipeline end termination
• subsea winch
The following are examples of subsea hardware temporarily mounted on subsea structures in
order to perform the desired tie-in :
• buoyancy modules
• winch and cables
• protection caps
• blind and test caps
• pull-in/connection tool and pull-in head
• positioning and measuring equipment
• pig launcher / pig receiver

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ROV panels
Pre-
installed
clamp
connector
for
connection
to sealine
Figure 05 – Deepwater subsea manifold
Satellite tree
Pre-installed
male hub for
connection
to sealine
Subsea cluster manifold
Figure 06 – Subsea cluster well system

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3.4 Installation vessels

Outwith the tow method for the installation of bundle, there are three (3) main laying
techniques that can installed rigid pipelines in deep water:
• Steep S-Lay
• J-Lay
• Reel-Lay
Each above laying method will induced high dynamic load onto the pipeline with different
cumulative and residual strains which need to be addressed in the pipeline design.
In deepwater applications, flexible pipelines are mainly installed using the J-Lay method with
tensioners integrated in a laying ramp or a dedicated vertical flexible laying system.
The typical dynamically positioned lay vessels are hereafter illustrated:
Firing line
Figure 07 – Steep S-Lay vessel: Allseas Lorelay

(1998 record, 12" Marlim rigid export line in 1650m)

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J-LAY ramp
Figure 08 – J Lay semi-submersible: Heerema Balder

(30" rigid pipelay capability and up to 2000m WD)
Lay ramp Pipe storage Reel
Figure 09 – Reel-Lay vessel: CSO Apache

(1998 record, 12" rigid reeled gas line in 1373m WD)

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Flexible
Lay ramp vertical
laying
spread
Firing line
Figure 10 – Combined flexible & rigid pipe lay vessel: Seaway Falcon
(500m WD 12” flexible and rigid pipe lay capacity)
Flexible
Flexible storage vertical
laying
carousel spread
Figure 11 – Dedicated flexible pipe installation: CSO Sunrise

(2500m WD 12” flexible pipe lay capacity)

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4 SEALINE TECHNOLOGY REVIEW
4.1 Introduction
For the deepwater field development, the following sealine material and technology are
readily available:
Material :
• Carbon-Manganese steel pipe
• Duplex and Super Duplex stainless pipe
• Stainless steel
Technology :
• Wet insulated rigid pipe
• Flexible pipe
• Pipe-in-pipe system
• Pipeline bundle system
• Clad pipe system
The following sections will further describe the above material and technology.
4.2 C-Mn steel pipe – Rigid pipe

Currently, it is believed that most line pipe steels are made by either basic oxygen or electric-
arc furnace steelmaking. Another steelmaking process called open-hearth steelmaking, if still
available, should be avoided because it doesn’t allow for the production of clean and low-
carbon steel. The two former processes can produce line pipe steel of acceptable quality.
4.2.1 Steelmaking process:

The making of steel by the basic oxygen process or in an electric-arc furnace can result in
material with lower carbon and lower sulfur contents. Materials with lower carbon contents
have lower ductile-to-brittle transition temperature and are more readily weldable. Reduction
in the sulfur content tends to reduce the occurrence of elongated non-metallic sulfides. The
latter are quite detrimental to ductile toughness and are especially detrimental in skelp
destined to make into electric resistance welded (ERW) line pipe or in any material that may
be exposed to H2S in service.
Aside from the steelmaking process, a producer may also employ ladle processing to further
reduce the sulfur content and to introduce beneficial alloying elements. In most cases the
molten steel in the ladle, shrouded from contact with air, is poured into a continuous slab or
strand caster. These casters allow the steel to solidify at the outside surface while remaining
molten internally to a point below the ladle outlet. The internally molten steel may be stirred
magnetically or subjected to ‘’soft reduction’’ to prevent alloy segregation. Spray cooling is
used to lower the temperature of the slab or strand as it is gradually curved into a horizontal
position. A resulting slab is sent to a hot-rolling mill ; a strand is generally cut into billets for
making seamless pipe.

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4.2.2 Seamless or seam welded pipe

Most line pipe is made as seamless, electric-welded, or furnace butt-welded pipe. Furnace
butt-welded pipe is so limited in size and grade that is not a practical method for making pipe
for high pressure pipelines. Therefore, the practical choices evolve to seamless and electric-
welded pipe. The seams of electric-welded pipe may be electric resistance welded (ERW) or
submerged-arc welded (SAW). Other seam welding processes (Gas metal arc welding MIG,
combination of gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding) are recognised by API
specification 5L, but they are apparently not widely used.
• Seamless pipe:
Seamless pipe is made one round at a time from single billets by one of several
possible multi-step hot-forming processes. However the general process is
practically the same:
- Heating of cylindrical or parallelepipedic billets up to 1300°C
- Piercing of billets (1150 – 1250°C) (see figure 12)
- Lamination at 1000 – 1100°C to obtain the required thickness (see figure 13)
- Final calibration (800 – 900°C) to fixe the external diameter
- Cut from the resulting pipe (12m long or more) to the desired length

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Pipe
Mandrel
Cylindrical billet
Guiding roller
Figure 12 – Billet piercing process
Mandrel Cylinder
Pipe
Diameter Thickness Thickness Diameter

reduction reduction regulation regulation
Figure 13 – Continuous lamination
As a result it is generally more expensive, than welded pipe. It is made in sizes

ranging from 2 3/8-in diameter through 24-in diameter and in grades from Grade
A through Grade X60. It may be obtainable in higher grades but such materials
may require special heat treatment. If so the cost will likely be quite high relative
to welded pipe.

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• Electric resistance welded pipe:

ERW line pipe is made from coiled skelp in a continuous process where the strip is edge
trimmed and cold-formed from its initial flat condition into a round shell. As the edges of the
strip are brought together electric current is passed between them heating them locally to the
point of melting or near melting just as they are forced together by a pair of rollers bearing on
the unheated portion of the shell (see figure 14). The pressure forces the heated edges
together, upsetting excess material to the outside and inside. The excess ‘’flash’’ is trimmed
from both surfaces. In most ERW processes the just-completed weld zone is then
immediately subjected to post-weld heat treatment. The weld zone is reheated to a
temperature which ‘’normalises’’ the microstructure in the area of the bondline minimising or
eliminating possibly unfavourable microstructural components created during welding. Pipe
segments of the desired length are then cut from the continuous tube. In a few ERW mills the
finished tube is subjected to ‘’full-body’’ normalising where the whole tube is heated to the
normalising temperature. In either case the pipe is sized by passing it through rolls. ERW line
pipe is obtainable in sizes ranging from 2 3/8-in diameter through 24-in diameter and in
grades ranging from Grade A through Grade X70. A few manufacturers may offer Grade X80
ERW pipe.
However, ERW pipe is not commonly used in deepwater applications,.
Pipe
Roller
Electrical electrodes
Pipe
Induction
current
1 Induction Welding 2 Resistance Welding
Figure 14 – Electric Resistance/Induction Welded pipe

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• Submerged arc welded pipe

The third type of line pipe is that made from individual plates with a submerged-
arc welded seam. Typically, very large diameter, heavy-walled line pipe materials
are made by this process. The process begins with the plates being squared at
the ends and edge trimmed and bevelled along the long edges. The plates are
then cold-formed into ‘’cans’’ roughly 40-feet in length. In some cases the cans
are formed in stages including edge-crimping, U-ing (forming to a U shape) and
O-ing (pressing the cans to a round shape). U-O pipe is generally cold-formed
(expanded) to its final size after being seam welded by mechanical or hydraulic
means (see figure 15). In other cases the cans are formed by means of pyramid
rolls and the pipe is sized after being seam welded by means of rolls in much the
manner as ERW pipe is sized.
The seam-welding of SAW pipe is done in two passes both in the flat position, one from the
ID side and one from the OD side. Usually the ID pass is made first by means of a three-to-
five wire welding head. The pipe is then turned 180 degrees, and the OD pass is made with a
two or three-wire welder. No post-weld heat treatment is required. Factors which can affect
quality are the filler-metal chemistry and flux chemistry and the manner in which the first pass
is made. Holding the edges in the proper position and preventing relative movement while the
first pass solidifies are essential. For this reason some manufacturers tack weld the edges of
the cans prior to seam welding. Others rely solely on mechanical restraint.
Edge trimming Internal

welding
External
U Forming Welding
Matrix
Pipe
O Forming
Expansion
Figure 15 – Submerged Arc Welded pipe fabrication process

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Straight-seam SAW pipe is obtainable in sizes ranging from 16-in OD through 48-
in OD (larger sizes may be available from manufacturers in Europe or Japan) and
in grades from Grade A through Grade X70. Grade X80 materials may be
available through certain manufactures. SAW pipe is also obtainable with a
spirally-oriented seam (see figure 16).
External welding
Internal welding
Figure 16 – Spirally-oriented seam welded pipe
In this process, the plates are welded end-to-end so that a continuous strip is fed
at the proper prearranged angle to a forming stand. The spiralling strip is then
continuously welded along the incoming edge into a round tube. Both an ID and
an OD pass are made. Pipes of the desired length are then cut from the resulting
continuous tube. Finally, if the pipe is to be coated with fusion-bonded epoxy, the
pipeline surface condition should be suitable for coating. The main problem to be
avoided is surface slivers which, when raised by grit blasting and heating, cause
severe coating defect problems.
In deepwater applications, SAW pipes are not commonly used except in bundle
configuration where the carrier pipe may be made from SAW pipe as a cost
effective alternative to seamless pipe.
4.2.3 Main steel pipe manufacturers:
The main steel pipe manufacturers are :
• Europipe (Mannesman of Germany and Usinor Sacilor of France)

• US Steel (USA)
• Sumitomo (Japan)
• Nippon Steel (Japan)
• Kawasaki (Japan)
• NKK (Japan)
• CONFAB (Brazil)
• Etc.

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4.3 Flexible pipe

There are only three (3) flexible pipe manufacturers listed below:
• Coflexip Stena Offshore (World Leader)
• Wellstream (Halliburton – Dresser Group)
• NKT (Danemark)
The "Coflexip" product of flexible pipe have been extensively used in Brazil Campos Basin
since 1977.
The world deepest application (at report date) was reached last year on Petrobras Marlim Sul
with 4" ID x 12km oil flexible line tied back of 2 wells at 1710m.
With the introduction of the "Teta spiral" technology by Coflexip and the application of
composite material, it is generally agreed that this technology has reached its maturity as
follows:
Maximum size 12 " ID 16" ID

Deepwater application 1400m 1000m
Ultra deep water (under development) 2500m 1500m
Design service (internal) pressure 3000psi 3000psi
NKT has been manufacturing flexible subsea pipes since 1968 and has been collaborating
with the FURUKAWA Electric Co. Ltd (FEC) for more than 10 years concerning the
development of flexible pipe technologies.
The first flexible pipe produced and laid in 100m WD by NKT was a ID 4-inch water drinking
flexible pipe with a pressure rating of 70 bar. NKT’s first high pressure offshore pipe for the oil
industry was delivered in 1991 to Maersk Oil and Gas AS for installation at the DAN field in
the Danish sector of the North Sea, consisting of a 500m long, ID 4-inch water injection pipe
with a design pressure of 4,000 psi.
NKT’s dynamic risers for dynamic applications use C-shaped steel profiles for internal
pressure containment whereas CSO flexibles utilise Zeta or Teta profile.
NKT’s product range starts from ID 2-inch to 14-inch with a design pressure of 10,000 psi and
3,000 psi respectively, both in static and dynamic configurations. The maximum design
temperature is 130°C when PVDF is used as polymer material for fluid barrier.

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The structure of a typical flexible pipe, produced by either CSO or NKT, is shown in figure 17:
Figure. 17 - Typical flexible pipe structure for produced fluid
The various layers constituting a typical flexible pipe are detailed hereafter, from the inside
part of the pipe to the outside :
1. Interlocked steel carcass (made of profiled stainless steel strips): to provide

mechanical resistance to radial forces either from internal pressure, hydrostatic
collapse or crushing loads, and to resist wear resulting from the use of scraper
pigs and Through Flow Line tools.
2. Pressure plastic sheath (e.g. made of polyamide) : to make the flexible pipe
leak proof and immune to corrosion. The material used depends on the
characteristics of the conveyed fluid (e.g. type, temperature, pressure, etc.)
and the working conditions of the pipe (e.g. static, dynamic, etc.)
3. Zeta or Teta spiral ( made of Z-shaped or T-shaped carbon steel wire wound
around the inner layer) : to resist to hoop stress due to the internal pressure
and to external crushing loads
4. Armours layers (made of two or more crosswound layers of carbon steel
wires) : to provide the high tensile strength of the pipe whilst also acting as a
weighting layer which can be adjusted to meet particular stability requirements.
Moreover, they give remarkable torsional stability
5. External plastic sheath (e.g. made of grade of polyamide) : to prevent
corrosion or abrasion of the metallic layers inside the structure and to bind the
under layer of amours. It is a continuously extruded thermoplastic layer which
prevents build-up of marine growth.

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The list of material used in flexible structure is shown in the following table:
Designation of layer Material used

Thermoplastic tube Polyamide 11, High Density Polyethylene, Coflon
Interlocked steel carcass Galvanized steel, AISI 3O4, AISI 304L, AISI 316,
AISI 316L, Duplex, etc.
Thermoplastic sheath Polyamide 11, High Density Polyethylene, Coflon
Teta spiral or hoop strength layer Low or medium carbon steel
Reinforcing layer Low, medium or high carbon steel
Thermoplastic friction sheath Polyamide 11, High Density Polyethylene
Double crosswound armors Low, medium or high carbon steel
Insulation foam Cofoam, Carazide
Table 1 – List of material
Note :
• Fabric tape is placed above the crosswound tensile armours to bind the under layer of amours
during manufacturing before the external plastic sheath is extruded.
• Antifriction tape (made of polyamide) is applied above the Teta layer to avoid friction and wear
between the Teta layer and tensile armours. It is also placed between the two layers of amour.
• If necessary for extreme high pressure, the interlocked layer is reinforced by a flat steel layer which
is not interlocked.
• For deepwater applications, armour layers made out of fiber glass and carbon have been produced
and tested in 1000m WD in Brazil. No further development is planned for this type of flexible due to
economical and technical limitations: high cost, requirement for high quality control in mass
production of uniform composite material, difficulty to link the composite armour layers to the steel
end fitting, etc).

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A typical ''smooth bore'' water injection flexible is shown on figure 18.
Figure 18 - Water injection flexible line
From the inside, it is composed of the following:
1. thermoplastic inner tube provides water tightness

2. double zeta pressure carcass resists internal pressure and external radial forces
3. intermediate thermoplastic sheath ensures the pipe is internally leakproof
4. double crosswound tensile armours resist axial and torsional forces
5. thermoplastic outer jacket protects the pipe from external corrosion and fluids
6. stainless steel outerwrap (carcass) protects the thermoplastic outer sheath
against mechanical damage (impacts, wear, handling, etc.)
The maximum design pressure of typical flexible structures in the range from 2 – 16-inch are
represented in the following table 2:
ID (in) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Design pressure (psi) 10,000 7,500 7,500 5,000 5,000 5,000 3,000 3,000
Table 2 – Design pressure of current flexible pipes
Remarks: The above information should be compounded with the water depth capability to define the
overall technical characteristics of a flexible.

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4.4 Stainless steel

When the use of carbon steel is not possible because:
• high corrosion rates are expected ; consequently high corrosion allowances are
necessary,
• corrosion inhibition is not feasible
• a coating cannot be used
then stainless steel must be considered. Two of the most widely used methods to produce
stainless steel pipe are shown in figure 19.
1. Centrifugation Process Melting steel
Matrix
Tube in progress Driving wheel
2. Hot Extrusion Process
Block-9,000 ton station Trim-3,000 ton trim station

9,000 ton press pipe
preforming sequence
Upset–3,000 ton station Pierce-9,000 ton station
30,000 ton press pipe Extrusion throat

extrusion sequence
Trim
Extrusion
punch
container
I.D. punch
Figure 19 – Different types of stainless steel fabrication process
The seamless hot-extruded pipe is produced on the 30,000 ton hydraulic press in the range
of 150 – 1200mm Diameter, 10 – 200mm Wall Thickness and 16 metre maximum individual
length.

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It is desirable that the material should be easily welded. This means, in terms of corrosion,
that the weldments must exhibit mechanical properties and a corrosion resistance similar to
the base material.
13% chromium steel, widely used for wells to mitigate against CO2 corrosion in the absence
of H2S, is much less utilised in surface installations. Austenitic Stainless Steel type 316L
(very low carbon content or stabilised to avoid intergranular corrosion) and the various
austenitic-ferric steels (Duplex) have a better weldability and above all a better corrosion
resistance than 13% Cr steel. However, they are very sensitive to corrosion pitting. An
intensive welding qualification programme has been set up for the Asgard project to allow the
implementation of 13%Cr steel as flowline material.
The use of these materials for sealine is viable even though the cost is greater than carbon
steel.

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4.5 Clad pipe system

The need for transport unprocessed corrosive multiphase well streams has increased
interest in clad corrosion resistant alloy flowlines as an alternative to installing inhibited
carbon steel. Handling unprocessed corrosive fluids then raises the issues of reliability,
safety, and the costs of possible failures.
Although the initial capital costs of a clad pipeline are quite high, the subsequent operating
cost over the life of the project are relatively low. The opposite is true for carbon steel where
relatively low initial costs may be coupled with significant operating and repair costs. For this
reason, a life cycle cost analysis provides a better measure of the overall costs of clad
versus carbon steel flowlines.
4.5.1 Manufacturing procedures

There are typically two (2) different clad pipe manufacturing processes:
· Hot rolling process
· Thermo-hydraulic fit method.
There are two methods for the hot rolling process:

· Thermo-mechanical control process to clad pipe
· As-quenching type heat treatment on welded clad pipe
These processes and methods are described hereafter:
4.5.2 Hot rolling process:

Figure 20 shows typical hot rolling clad pipe manufacturing process.
Cleaning Slabbing
Assembling
Plate Rolling
Backing Steel
(C-Mn steel)
Conventional TMCP
Clad Metal
(AISI 316L)
UO Pipe Forming
SAW For Base Metal
Mechanized GTAW For

Overlaying
Expansion
Example of clad pipe structure

Quenching
Sizing
Pipe Finishing
Figure 20 – Hot rolling clad pipe manufacturing process

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In the clad pipe manufacturing process, the clad metal and the backing steel are
metallurgically bonded by hot rolling process after slab assembling.
Two types of rolling processes are used:
- One is the application of the thermo-mechanical control process to clad pipe, in

which no heat treatment is applied on the clad plate or the welded clad pipe
(TMCP plate process)
- The other is conventional rolling process with as-quenching type heat treatment on
welded clad pipe by induction heating in a short time (pipe quenching process).
The selection from these two processes is determined by taking account of the
cladding materials and required properties.
In the application of TMCP to clad plate rolling, it becomes difficult to obtain both high
strength and good toughness of backing steel when wall thickness is increased. As-
quenching type heat treatment on welded pipes is useful for heavy wall thickness or superior
toughness requirement. Quenching from relatively high temperature is also effective to
improve corrosion resistance of the clad metal even if the corrosion resistance is deteriorated
by hot rolling or longitudinal seam welding.
Longitudinal seam welding procedure consists in first welding backing steel by submerged
arc welding (SAW) with one pass in each side, and next performing an overlay welding in two
molten pools by tandem Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) with the hot wire method.
Finally, inner surfaces of welded clad pipes are polished with wet brush to remove weld
scales and to smooth the surfaces, otherwise they deteriorate corrosion resistance of the
weld through the crevices created under weld scales.
4.5.3 Thermo-hydraulic fit method
Clad pipe can also be manufactured using the ‘’thermo-hydraulic fit method’’ as shown in
figure 21, which is, in principle, a combination of the ‘’thermal shrink-fit method’’ and
‘’hydraulic expansion method’’. This technique allows to produce economically long lined
pipe with high fit-in stress. The principle and the procedure of this method is as follows : Into
an outer pipe which has been heated and thermally expanded, a liner tube is inserted and
expanded by hydraulic pressure. After removing the pressure and heat in the outer pipe, the
tight fitted lined pipe (TFP) is obtained. By this method, the accuracy of fitting is achieved by
plastic expansion of the liner tube and the desired fit-in stress is achieved by thermal
shrinkage of the outer pipe. By the use of this manufacturing procedure, many problem
inherent to usual lined pipes, such as implosion, stress corrosion cracking and general
corrosion, have been solved.
Dpo DLO
Outer Pipe Inserting Liner Tube Depression & Cooling

Thermal Expansion Hydraulic Expansion
Figure 21 - Thermo-hydraulic Fit Method For Tightly Fitted Lined Pipe

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4.6 Wet insulated rigid pipe

The design of a deepwater wet insulated rigid pipeline is based on the following
considerations :
• to be safely placed on seabed during deep water installations

• to have an operating temperature up to 120°C
• to be able to fit for all the different laying methods, and especially reeling puts
stringent flexibility requirements to the pipe as external coating could be exposed to
more than 2% elongation when reel-laid.
From the above, a typical wet insulated system consists of (see figure 22):
• Thick and rigid pipe made in carbon-manganese steel, 13% Cr steel, clad steel
pipe or duplex stainless steel
• Corrosion protection on the steel surface made in fusion bonded epoxy instead of
coal tar due to the outstanding properties at elevated temperatures. Anti-corrosion
coating of a pipe consists to spray epoxy powder onto pipe pre-heated at about
232°C
• Insulation material made of syntactic foam (polyurethane or polyethylene)
• External coating (polypropylene) to ensure mechanical protection (towards
impacts) and sealing (towards the sea water) of foam shells which, when exposed
to external hydrostatic pressure, could be filled with water in a longer period of time
Thermal Insulation
Pipe
Thermal Insulation
Pipe
Corrosion Protection
Corrosion Protection
Figure 22 - Composition of wet insulated rigid line

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4.7 Pipe in pipe system
Flowline Thermal Insulation Outer casing
Flowline
Centralizers Outer Casing Thermal Insulation
Figure 23 - Typical pipe in pipe system
A typical pipe in pipe system for reel lay (see figure 23) consists of a casing pipe housing an
insulated wrap flowline pipe, concentrically positioned in the carrier pipe by means of spacer
blocks placed every 2.5m on the production flowline. Insulation material is strapped and
attached onto the production flowline pipe using galvanic steel, tape or band wire. The
assembly of pipe in pipe consists to pull the production pipe into the outer casing pipe in one
continuous length while securing spacer blocks and insulation material on production flowline
pipe.
A basic pipe in pipe concept applicable for other methods of installation (S-lay, J-lay, Towing)
comprises of an inner product carrying pipe inside an outer sleeve pipe. Variations occur
when the specific detail of pipe materials, bulkhead configuration, insulation system, field
joints or method of fabrication change.
The sleeve (or outer) pipe has a multipurpose role in the design of a pipe in pipe system.
Keeping the insulating material dry is one of the most basic requirements when designing and
installing an insulated subsea pipeline. An obvious solution is to surround the insulation with
an external waterproof sleeve (wet insulated system). The use of a sleeve will also protect the
insulation material from mechanical damage during installation and service. It reduces the
overall thermal loads within the system and can reduce the installation stresses experienced
by the system.

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Load transfer can occur between product carrier pipe and sleeve pipe, which results in
reduced thermal expansion. This is typically achieved by use of a welded connection
(bulkhead) between inner and outer pipe that also provides a high integrity water stop (see
figure 24).
8" Oil Line
14" Sleeve
Bulkhead Preformed Half 14" Sleeve Pipe

Foam Shells
8" Oil Line
Sleeve Pipe Half Shells Solidly Foamed
Figure 24 - Bulkhead assembled between 8-in oil line and 14-in sleeve
During the assembly of the pipe in pipe system, the flowline joints are welded together and
insulation field joints are applied to fill the gaps at the welds. The sleeve pipes are joined by
fillet welding half-shell steel sleeves over the insulation field joints. Preformed half foam shells
are top surface fire resistant to prevent from arc burn during welding operation. Preheating
may be required for TIG orbital welding process but there is no post weld heating for welded
joints of C-Mn steel pipe having nominal wall thickness less than 49mm.
The main drawbacks with the use of bulkheads in the pipe in pipe system are numerous cool
points along the flowline at every bulkhead locations.

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4.8 Pipeline bundle system
Electrical Umbilical
Low Density Foam Insulation
Hydraulic/Chimical Lines
Elastomer Spacer
Methanol Injection Line
Production Flowline
Water Injection
B / CROSS SECTION Insertion Rollers A / CROSS SECTION

BETWEEN SPACERS Protective Casing Pipe AT SPACER LOCATION
Figure 25 - Pipeline in bundle configuration
This configuration is defined as having multiple flowlines, hydraulic control and service lines,
and electrical umbilicals encased or integrated in a single carrier pipe or casing (see figure
25). As required electrical or circulating fluid heating lines could be integrated to reduce the
risk of hydrate and wax plug formation when production lines are shut down or to heat up the
production lines before start up.
In the deepwater pipeline bundle configuration, all flowlines are wrapped in two half shells of
moulded low density , open-cell polyurethane foam, approximately 2-in thick. This isolates the
warm space near the flowlines from the cool annular space in the casing. Hard polyurethane
spacers are used to secure all flowlines and umbilicals. Rollers wheels on the spacers
facilitate flowline bundle pull-in into the outer casing. There are no intermediate bulkheads
isolating the annular space of the casing. The entire annular space is permanently
pressurised with nitrogen, in order to maintain zero differential pressure across the casing
wall at the deepwater end. This allows the casing to resist collapse while minimising the
required casing wall thickness and bundle diameter. An unusual aspect of the bundle is the
high casing diameter to thickness (D/t) ratios, which approach 100 for deepwater pipeline
configuration.
The fabrication of the bundle started with the welding of carrier pipe followed by the pull-in of
the internal components as the assembling proceeds. The bundle is fabricated onshore using
a relatively inexpensive fabrication spread (compared to an offshore lay vessel), and then is
towed to location using a construction spread that may consists of two high bollard pull tugs
and a survey vessel.
The design of a pipeline bundle to be installed by tow method is considerably more complex
than that of a normal submarine pipeline. The design embraces fabrication, installation and
operational requirement, and proceeds from the inner pipe outwards to the carrier pipe with
iterations of design where necessary.

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Typical design considerations are as follows :
• the inner pipeline material and wall thickness are based on normal operating
and design conditions and maximum allowable stress, as well as accounting
for axial restraint imposed on the pipe by carrier pipe and seabed friction
• minimum thickness of PUF insulation is calculated on the allowable
temperature drop for a given duration
• nearest standard pipe-sizes and wall-thickness is chosen for the carrier pipe to
accommodate the required amount of lines and insulated material
• the carrier pipe is not subjected to direct effects of product flow, but is stressed
by heat transfer through the PUF and by pressure/temperature effects from the
inner pipe via the bulkheads placed at defined distance
• the carrier pipe is designed to provide adequate buoyancy during towing and
requires sufficient wall-thickness to withstand beach-pull, break-out load and
towing loads
• the bundle’s on bottom stability
• the whole bundle is checked to ensure it is capable of withstanding dynamic
loads occurring during launch, tow and installation
For ultra deep water application (i.e. beyond 1500m WD), there are practical difficulties in the
design of the carrier pipe for the tow operation due to:
• carrier pipe D/t ratio optimisation with regard to nitrogen pressure and weight
• bundle overall net submerged weight for tow operation
Note: On Asgard project, the annulus is filled with inhibited water at ambient pressure after the tow
operation.
In this case, the industry is proposing a wet-insulated bundle based on "syntactic foam" with
the adequate thickness (e.g. typically in 30" to 32" diameter shell) to provide:
• sufficient buoyancy during towing

• minimum thickness insulation material
A thinner carrier pipe (e.g. 6mm – 10mm wall thickness) can be retained for the purpose of
"wears" during beach-pull (or bottom-tow method), while providing a mechanical containant.
Under external hydrostatic pressure, this carrier pipe would collapse in a non controlled
manner onto the syntactic foam which is pressure resistant.
On completion of towing operation and position confirmed by ROV, the bundle will be
connected in diverless mode to the others subsea systems. Please refer to document “Tie-in
Methods” – Reference 5 – Deepwater Field development.

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5 INSULATION TECHNIQUES & SUPPLIERS
Deepwater fields are economically developed using subsea completions, with hydrocarbon
fluids typically conveyed via multiphase pipelines and flowlines to an existing floating
production platform. These flowlines operate in a low ambient temperature, high external
pressure environment, conducive to the formation of paraffin deposits or hydrates. The
leading strategy to circumvent these deleterious effects is to minimise heat loss from the
system using insulation. The proper design of flowline insulation requires a balance among
the high cost of the insulation, the intended operability of the system, and the acceptable risk
level.
Economical long distance production of multiphase wellstream fluids (oil, gas condensate,
and water) can be achieved with an effectively insulated flowline by minimising the costs,
revenue loss, and risks from the following :
1. Hydrate formation during steady state or transient flowing conditions

2. Paraffin deposit on the inner pipe wall, that can result in flowline obstruction or
flow rate reductions
3. Adverse fluid viscosity effects at low temperatures which lead to reduced
hydraulic performance or difficulties restarting a cooled system after a short
shut-in
4. Additional topside facilities required to heat produced fluids to aid separation
processes.
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U or U-value) is the parameter normally used to quantify
the heat retention characteristics of an insulated flowline. The U-value is directly proportional
to the heat transfer radially from the flowline centreline. The U-value can be calculated from
the flow behaviour of the production fluid, the thermal properties and geometry of the
insulation system, and the ambient environmental conditions.
Thermal insulation systems for subsea pipelines are normally designed for an overall heat
transfer coefficient U-value (W/m²°C) that aims at preventing a temperature drop below the
wax and hydrate formation limits for most of the expected steady state flow regimes.
However, transient conditions that frequently may occur at temporary stops or long lasting
shut downs, can also predict an U-value giving the operator time to respond before the fluid
supercooling reaches critical limits.
5.1 Pipe in pipe system

A pipe in pipe insulation system consists of a single production flowline concentrically
positioned inside a protective pipe jacket. Improved insulation can be achieved by filling the
annulus space with polymeric foam, silicate microspheres or by establishment of an active
vacuum.
A pipe-in-pipe system was a logical progress for shallow water offshore insulated flowlines
from onshore insulated pipeline experience by employing proven techniques and materials.
The attractiveness of pipe-in-pipe flowlines for deepwater is because they are simple to
fabricate, use low cost proven materials, and because a high strength protective steel jacket
offers nearly unlimited depth capabilities. However, the deepwater versions of these systems
can be cost prohibitive for small or marginally economic fields.

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Pipe in pipe systems are well suited for all relevant water depths and provides through a 3-4’’
thick insulation layer, an excellent U-value in the range of 0.8-3.5W/m²°C. Some examples
are given in the following table 3:
Insulation material “U” value Pipe dimensions (mm)

description
Microporous material 0.8 W/m2K Inner pipe = 168.6 (OD) x 11 (Wt)
( k=0.021W/m.K ) Outer pipe = 279.4 (OD) x 18 (Wt)
Polyurethane foam 0.8 W/m2K Inner pipe = 168.6 (OD) x 11 (Wt)
( k=0.05W/m.K ) Outer pipe = 318.6 (OD) x 15 (Wt)
2
Table 3 – Detailed description of pipe in pipe system with a “U” value = 0.8 W/m K
The higher value is tied to the use of solid polyurethane with a thermal conductivity
k=0.19W/m°C (or other high density polymer materials), as needed to improve the pipe
collapse pressure and to prevent insulation crushing during installation in deep waters.
The insulation material usually used for pipe in pipe are :
• conventional polymeric, open-cell foams with low densities (Polyisocyanurate)

• high density product consisting of styrofoam spheres in a polymeric matrix
(FT600S)
The main thermal insulation materials that are normally considered for use with pipe in pipe
are detailed below in table 4:
Base material Thermal conductivity Density

(W/m/°K) (kg/m3)
Low density polyurethane foam 0.025 70-500
(EMERSON&CUMMINGS)
High density polyurethane foam 0.05 - 0.06 250-500
FT6000S 0.85 534
Izoflex O.01 – 0.022 500
(INTERPIPE)
Table 4 – Thermal insulation material for pipe in pipe system

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5.2 Integrated towed flowline bundle system

Where two or more flowlines, injection lines and electrical cables are connected to the same
installation, they may be bundled in a common carrier pipe or outer casing.
Bundles are fabricated onshore in lengths up to 16km and are towed to their accurate
position, that currently can be as deep as 1000m (Ensearch GC-388 in Gulf of Mexico).
Bundled constructions do have the advantage that all flowlines can be accommodated in a
common insulation system, which can include additional pipes for heating medium circulation.
The carrier pipe is normally pressurised with dry nitrogen, allowing the use of low cost
insulation materials such as rock-wool or low density PVC foam shelves with very low k-
values of k=0.04W/m°K.
Overall heat transfer coefficient as low as U=0.6W/m²°K can be achieved.
The use of heat insulating gel with a k-value of k=0.273 W/m°K can be offset against the
more expensive conventional pipe insulation coatings. Gel will also provide adequate ballast
for in-place stability, corrosion protection for the flowlines and internal surface of the carrier
pipe. The gel is based on mono-ethylene glycol with heteropolysaccharide bio-polymer as a
viscosifer and a chelating agent.
5.3 Wet insulation pipe system

Wet insulation systems are flowlines or pipelines that have insulative coatings applied directly
to the pipe or corrosion coating. The insulation is not protected by a steel jacket pipe as with
either pipe-in-pipe or bundled systems. The essence of a non jacketed insulation is that it
must be able to withstand the hydrostatic pressure of the subsea environment, the crushing
loads during installation and retain its insulation properties in wet environment for the
predicted field life.
Wet insulation and corrosion protection systems have been used in the North Sea for more
than 15 years and were initially based on the use of bitumen and polyethylene elastomers.
Good experience has later encouraged the supplier industry to develop numerous options of
solid and foamed polymers/elastomers material that can be tailor-made for most applications
and demands in shallow water.
For the growing activities in deeper waters (>300m) the options are, however, reduced to the
use of solid materials, special engineered polymer composites and epoxy syntactic with
hollow glass or silicate microspheres, that can sustain a water depth of more than 1000m and
a temperature of 135°C.
Such constructions may be supplied with a thickness of 100mm and a k=0.1W/m°K,
corresponding to a U-value of 1.5W/m²°K.
There are two main concerns with wet insulated pipeline in deepwater applications:
- water-logging at high external hydrostatic pressure and thus loosing of its insulating
properties (estimated water absorption for syntactic foam at about 10 – 15 %)
- required mechanical strength to resist to loads imposed during installation
Sometimes pipeline could be coated with different types of insulating layers.

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The main thermal insulation materials that are normally considered for use with wet insulated
pipe are detailed below in table 5:
Material Max Water Depth Thermal conductivity Density

(m) (W/m/°K) (kg/m3)
Syntactic Polyurethane + Glass 1800 0.13 830
micro-spheres (ISOTUB,
BALMORAL)
Syntactic Polypropylene 900 - 1800 0.16 710
(ISOTUB)
beads (BPCL)
Test Syntactic Polyurethane 2750 0.1 700
(Joint venture project)
Syntactic Tape (also used for 1000 0.11 640
flexible lines)
Multi-layer Polypropylene 950 - 1070 0.17 750
Insulating Elastomer 1000 0.12
Thermoplastic Rubber No limit (R&D) 0.16 1029
Table 5 – Thermal insulation material for wet insulated pipe
A range of suitable high performance pipeline coatings adapted to spooling processes has
been developed. These materials include Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE), polyolefines
(polyethylene and polypropylene), neoprene and other insulated coatings.

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5.4 Flexible pipe

Insulated flexible pipe used tape wound on the pipe to the necessary thickness to meet the
insulation requirement (see figure 26).
The tape or flat sheet consists of hollow glass microspheres, in the size range of 100-200
microns, fibreglass macrospheres 0.124-0.5 inches in diameter and an epoxy, polypropylene,
or polyester resin binder.
Semi -rigid PVC foam
Figure 26 - A sample of thermally insulated flexible
For high temperature application, Coflon watertight sheath placed around the interlocked
layer is used as insulation material. This material is capable to withstand temperature up to
145°C.
In general there is a limitation on the insulation thickness, due to the sealine “on seabed”
stability criteria and “Vault effects” occurred in crushing loads during installation phase.
For a 6”-8” ID flexible line, a typical thermal exchange coefficient U of 1.5-2W/m²°K can be
achieved with “Carizide” (or Cofoam) insulation material.

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6 HEATING TECHNIQUES
6.1 Introduction
The seabed temperature at 100m water depth and deeper may range from 7°C to -1.5°C,
causing a rapid cooling of hot well streams being transported in subsea flowlines.
At such low temperature vulnerable crudes and multiphase compositions will deposit wax and
asphalt, and the gas - water phase may freeze solid hydrate particles that can permanently
block the pipeline.
A conventional approach to flow assurance has been to use thermal insulated flowlines in
combination with the following measures :
• Continuous injection of chemicals to reduce the hydrate freezing point and the
rate of wax deposition
• Depressurisation of the flowline to enable a further reduction of the hydrate
freezing-point
• Use of twin parallel flowlines to achieve a more effective depressurisation of
pipeline, and to perform pig cleaning operations. Further to circulate hot
water/oil in order to melt out wax and to pre-warm the flowlines after long shut
downs.
It is obvious that these measures do have physical, economical and environmental

limitations, especially in deeper waters and over very long transportation distances :
• The pressure head in deep water pipelines may give an insufficient pressure
relieve at blow downs
• Blow down and depressurisation of pipelines will involve pressure drop
expansions and a related Joule-Thomson supercooling of multiphase fluids,
that by itself can cause severe wax deposits and hydrate formation.
• Heat loss in long twin pipelines that shall be preheated in a serial configuration,
will restrict adequate heating above 10-15km length
• Continuous injection of large amounts of hydrate and wax inhibitors will
dissolve in the produced water that may have a restricted release to sea
• Long twin flowline installations will generate high investment and operational
costs (e.g. OPEX).
Thermal insulated and electrically or hot water heated flowlines represent alternative
prevention method for wax and hydrates that will not be restricted with the same limitations.
A review of different designs and functional principles conclude that electrical heating or hot
water circulation heating technologies are available for flexible and rigid pipelines, pipe-in-
pipe and bundle systems for all practical lengths in subsea transportation. Some of these
have been in operation with a satisfactory performance over a period of more than 20 years
in shallow water application.
Ongoing development and qualification of subsea electrical power distribution systems, is
believed to enhance use of electrical powered equipment and in particular heating of subsea
flowlines.
Heat loss compensation by electrical power or hot fluid (water) circulating system is ensured
by providing external heat to the pipe steel material corresponding to a desired temperature
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equilibrium that may well be higher than the fluid temperature. This operation will heat the
fluid to a higher temperature level, and all losses to the sea will be sought from the external
energy source.
The heating techniques may be designed for the following purposes:
- To maintain steady state pipe temperature above the hydrate formation temperature after
planned or non-planned shutdowns,
- Heating of the pipe, which have been cooled down to the ambient seawater temperature
(long shutdown due to equipment failure),
- To maintain the required temperature at low production rates.

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6.2 Electrical heating system

Electrical energy is well suited for this purpose, as the pipe ferromagnetic properties can
easily be utilised to convert electric power to heat. Various alternative conversion principles
and alternative methods of how electric power systems can be safely integrated into subsea
flowline thermal insulation systems have been developed.
Some of these were put into service in shallow waters during the period of 1970 – 80
whereas others are currently being qualified for the future demand of larger transportation
lengths and service in deeper waters.
Thera are mainly three methods of electrical pipe heating:
- Electric heating cables

- Electromagnetic induction heating
- Direct electric heating
The pioneer subsea system and most applied heating principle to date is the SECT system
(Skin Effect Current tracing) whereas Combipipe, Combibundles (based on induction heating)
and direct electrical heating systems for wet insulation are newcomers on the market place.
6.2.1 SECT Heat tracing

SECT heat tracing may be used and integrated into most of current thermal insulation
systems for subsea flowlines. It is characterised by having heating elements consisting of a
cable in a magnetic steel tube, where the cables are jointed at each second pipe length (see
figure 27).
The SECT heat tube and the cable connected together at one end and a source of 50/60Hz
AC power is connected between the tube and conductor at the opposite end. A current will
then flow from the power source through the conductor and return through the heat tube.
This phenomenon is called skin effect, and generates a Joule’s heat that increases with the
frequency and voltage level. 80 - 90% of the power supply is generated as heat in the SECT
tube and the rest in the cable.
In order to achieve a good heat transfer, the SECT tubes are stick-welded to the flowline.
Their size may range from ½’’ to 1½’’ with corresponding cables of 5.5 to 60mm2 and 0.6 to
6.6 kV rating.

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Each heating element (tube) may generate between 15 and 150W/m and has a maximum
circuit length of 15km. A typical dimensioning for a 36’’ pipeline is, however, to use five 1’’
tubes in a 5km long 3-phase power system, where 2 tubes are spare, and the other 3
generate up to ~ 40W/m each.
Temperature Indicating Controller
Thermal Insulation Layer

Weld
Production Line
Electrical
Junction Box
SECT Cable
SECT Tube Power leading cable
Transformer for SECT

Control System of
Heating System
SECT Heating Assembly
Figure 27 - General View of SECT System
A genuine SECT design under the trading mark TTDPISQ has been developed for pipe-in-
pipe sections where the inner and outer pipes are coupled through Special Joint Connectors
that are butt welded at the ends. The SECT cables are conveyed in the pipe annulus through
the connectors and into junction boxes located between the connector (s). Each pipe section
may be 12 or 24m long.
This solution is well adapted to pipeline in bundle configuration as it is very difficult to
implement such technique when installing long pipeline with J-lay, S-lay or reel lay
techniques.
SECT heat tracing was utilised in Panarctic project in the Canadian High Arctic in 1977 where
the SECT cables were integrated in a bundle pipeline.

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6.2.2 Combipipe Induction Heating

Combipipe systems are designed for a simple installation of induction cables into rigid and
flexible flowlines wet thermal insulation system (see figure 28).
This is achieved by pre-machining or moulding 2 or 3 grooves in the full axial length of the
flowline thermal insulation, whereas the cables normally are installed offshore during the
flowline lay operations.
The cable grooves are typically 30-50mm deep and also comprise a guidance for a flat
protection strip at top of the cable, which is strapped in place. The maximum distance from
the pipe to the induction cable in deepwater application is limited to 100mm.
Groove
Flat Protection Strip
Production line
Induction Cable
Flowline
Strap
Thermal Insulation
Figure 28 - Combipipe heating
The embedded cables are at one end connected to a high voltage source of 12kV with a
variable frequency control of 50/60-200Hz. The opposite ends of the cables are connected to
each other in a prefabricated joint that is integrated in to the pipeline insulation.
Coulomb heat is generated in the outer skin of the flowline ferromagnetic material by
electromagnetic induction from the high frequency alternative current in the cables. 60-70% of
the power supply is generated as heat in the flowline and the rest in the cable.
Combipipe heating systems may generate between 50-200W/m and have a maximum circuit
length of some 70 km. This distance limitation is mainly due to the difficulty in producing high
voltage (more than 36 kV) small cable to compensate the voltage drop in long pipeline.

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6.2.3 Combibundle induction heating

Combibundle will generate heat in the same way as Combipipe, but with the induction cables
located inside the thermal insulation of the flowlines (see figure 29) . The cable will thus be
installed onshore during the bundle assembly.
Umbilical Induction Cable Flowline & Service Lines
Induction Cable
Thin Steel/Al Plating
Centralizer
Figure 29 - Combibundle Heating
A Combibundle heating system does not have any physical limitation with regard to maximum
heat generation and electrical circuit lengths as the number of induction cables is only limited
to size of the carrier pipe.
This solution qualified for a specific installation at a full scale test in 1992 is more expensive
and efficient than the SECT heat tracing.

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6.2.4 Direct heating

In direct heating systems the flowline ferromagnetic material is used as a return conductor.
Of practical importance for subsea flowline heating, two different AC system arrangements
are available for respectively pipe-in-pipe and wet thermal insulation systems.
Direct heated pipe-in-pipe is a system arrangement where the flowline is electrically insulated
from the outer concentric pipe (see figure 30). The dry end of the flowline and the outer pipe
are connected to a suitable single phase AC power source, whereas the opposite ends are
electrically junctioned. The electrical current will partly be conducted through the outer pipe
and the sea water, but the full current will be returned through the thermally and electrically
insulated flowline.
Thermal Insulation Outer Pipe Electrical Connector
Cross-section
Power Supply Concrete Protection Flowline
Figure 30 - Direct heated pipe-in-pipe
Coulomb heat will as a function of the pipeline (s) Ohmic resistivity be generated both in the
flowline as well as in the outer pipe. No operational data or research results have been
obtained for the direct heated pipe-in-pipe system, but it is assumed that approximately one
half of supplied power is lost in the uninsulated outer pipe, leaving one half for effective
heating of the flowline.

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Direct heated wet thermal insulated flowline is another alternative arrangement for direct
heating of wet thermal insulated flowlines, where both phases of the voltage source are
connected to each end of the flowline (see figure 31). No external electrical potentials will be
exposed towards the flowline ends (platform/subsea production wellheads), as the current will
solely pass between the connection points of the feeder cable (s).
Flowline
Feeder Cable Thermal Insulation

Power Supply
Figure 31 - Direct heated wet insulated flowline
Conduction of the current will however be divided between the seabed, seawater and the
flowline with a ratio that is mainly dependent on the flowline electromagnetic properties and
the flowline electrode/anodic system. Furthermore, this system does not impact the pipeline
cathodic protection.
A carbon steel flowline with an ordinary thermal insulation and Aluminium-sacrificial anode
system will, according to test, distribute some 40-60% of supplied current through the flowline
steel material, whereas the rest is transferred through the seabed and water.
The heating exposure is also dependent on the distance between the flowline and the parallel
feeder cable.
A full scale subsea test showed that adequate heating in the range of 50-200W/m could
safely be achieved, both when the feeder cable was laid 500mm away from an 8’’ pipe, as
well as when the feeder cable was clamped as a piggy-back on the 50mm thick thermal
insulation. This system has been qualified for the Asgard and Huldra projects.
Further expectations are that heating by this method would become available for all actual
lengths of flowlines, both as a permanent installation made during pipe lay as well as being
possible to install if and when a demand arises. The current limits are due to the cable
insulation level (36 kV), fixing the max pipeline length to 50 km.

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6.3 Hot fluid circulation heating system

Review of contractor and supplier technology shows that circulation of hot fluid is probably
more reliable at this time for very deepwater applications than electrical heating. Moreover,
the geometry of the flowlines suits the circulation of hot fluid which is boosted by the
hydrostatic head as the hot fluid is injected from the floater and dumped to sea. This
hydrostatic head will increase in deeper waters.
6.3.1 Hot water heated wet insulated pipe

The architecture of the system is designed for a simple installation of hot water lines in piggy
back during the offshore installation of subsea flowlines. It consists in installing concentrically
hot water lines on the production line by means of wet insulated shelves, which are strapped
in place during the flowlines lay operations (see figure 32).
Hot water line
Wet insulated shelf

Flowline
Strap
Figure 32 - Hot water wet insulated pipe
The hot water lines are used to flow hot water to heat up the production line. The water is
injected from the floating production platform and dumped to sea.
By using 2-in hot water lines and circulating hot water at 80°C at the floating production
platform, the estimated time to heat up a 10-in production line from 5°C to 30°C over 5000m
is 6 hours, which is reasonable.

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6.3.2 Hot water heated bundle / pipe-in-pipe system

This system will generate heat in the same way as above, but with the hot water lines located
between the thermally insulated production line and carrier pipe or outer sleeve (see figures
33 and 34)). The hot water lines are held in place by means of insulated centralizers or
interlocked devices strapped in place during the onshore assembly of the bundle or pipe-in-
pipe. This dry insulation with active heating configuration provided very low U-values (down to
0,5 W/m²°k).
Hot water line Production line
Thermal insulated shelf
Service line
Carrier pipe
Control umbilical Thermal insulation material
Figure 33 - Hot water heated bundle
Hot water line

Insulated interlock device
Outer sleeve pipe

Production line
Figure 34 - Hot water heated pipe-in-pipe

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6.3.3 Hot water heated flexible

The hot water heated flexible is a system arrangement where the hot water lines ,made in
rigid or flexible pipes, are radially placed between the lower and upper intermediate
thermoplastic sheath layers of the flexible structure by means of plastic filler (see figure 35).
Hot water line

Upper intermediate sheath layer
Lower intermediate sheath layer

Production line
Plastic filler
Figure 35 - Hot water heated flexible
By using 2-in hot water lines and circulating hot water at 80°C at the floating production
platform, the estimated time to heat up a 10-in production line from 5°C to 30°C over 5000m
is 6 hours, which is reasonable.

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7 BURIAL TECHNIQUES
7.1 Introduction
Many submarine pipelines have to be trenched. A trench protects the pipe against damage
from fishing gear, reduces hydrodynamic forces from waves and currents, gives a degree of
protection from small anchors and from construction vessels’ mooring lines, and may be
desirable for safety or environmental reasons. The relative importance of these factors
naturally varies from project to project. If the trench is backfilled, protection against fishing
gear and wave is fully fulfilled, risk due to others damages is reduced, and heat transfer
between pipe and the sea is reduced.
However in deepwater there is no fishing activity, this explains the fact that most sealines are
laid untrenched in current deepwater field development.
The requirement for better thermal insulation of the sealines could dictated the sealines to be
trenched and backfilled; in transient conditions a trenched sealines could provide a longer
shut down time by a factor of 4 when compared to the same untrenched sealine.
For the purpose of sealine flow assurance at low seafloor temperature, there is a need to
review existing burial or trenching techniques which could be used in deepwater applications.
Jetting was the technique almost always used to trench submarine pipelines. Since jetting
techniques were first developed in the 1950s, they have been substantially modified, but their
efficiency is much affected by geotechnical conditions of the sea bed. In medium clay, for
instance, jetting cuts a neat rectangular trench, but in loose sand it leaves a wide and shallow
trench, with side slopes less than 10°, which does little to protect the pipeline. In the wrong
conditions, jetting is slow and expensive.
A creative dissatisfaction with the high cost and limited efficiency of jetting led to a search for
better trenching methods. There have been two principal axis of development, ploughs and
mechanical cutting systems. Each of these systems is appropriate in the right conditions. At
first, mechanical cutting systems (bucket wheels, cutter-heads, ripper wheels) were plagued
by mechanical and electrical faults, and by sensitivity to bottom soils and topography. These
problems have now been largely overcome and good results have been achieved with cutting
systems in a number of project particularly the trenching of power cables in the English
Channel.
At the same time, there has been a major development of pipeline trenching ploughs which
met a hostile and often derisive response in the past. Ploughing is now an accepted and
widely used technique, and in many conditions is the method of choice.

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7.2 Plough technique

Ploughs were used to trench pipelines in the UK and the Middle East in the 1960s. With
hindsight, it appears that the difficulty of designing a good plough had been underestimated.
A plough designed incorrectly either digs too far and becomes anchored, or fails to penetrate
and scrapes along the surface without making a proper trench. Moreover, it is sensitive to soil
strength, and cuts at different depths in different soils.
In all subsequent pipeline trenching operations, the long beam configuration has been
adopted based on the following considerations :
• The plough was to be pulled by a tug with a bollard pull corresponding to plough
weight and soil conditions
• Accurate depth control was essential, since otherwise the specified trench depth
would not be achieved everywhere, and the plough might require more force than
the tug could apply.
The outstanding advantage of this configuration is precise and consistent depth control. Skids
or wheels hold the front end of the beam at a fixed height above the sea bed. The rear end of
the beam carries a share, which cuts the soil and lifts it upwards and sideways (see figure
36).
REAR
Twin hinged
FRONT Half shares
Skid
Figure 36 - Single pass plough (long beam configuration)
Mouldboards push the spoil outwards, so that it does not fall back into the trench. Under the
share, and fixed to it, there is a rigid heel. In normal operation, the plough runs so that the
heel is horizontal, and the plough is in balance under the combined action of the soil force on
the front of the share, the reaction under the heel, the pull force at the front end of the beam,
and its own weight (usually small by comparison with the other three forces. If the plough
attitude alters, so that it cuts less deeply, the heel loses contact with the trench bottom, the
heel reaction falls to zero, and the share reaction pushes the share downward so that it cuts

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more deeply. If, on the other hand, the plough cuts too deeply, the heel itself has to cut the
soil, and the heel reaction increase and lifts the share to reduce the cutting depth. In
consequence of the long beam configuration, the plough cuts at a uniform depth , and the
trench does not change if the soil strength changes (unless it becomes so weak that it cannot
support the heel or the skids).
Pipeline can be trenched in different modes :
• Pre-trenching mode consists in cutting a trench into which a pipeline would

afterwards be pulled/laid
• Post-trenching mode involves the pipeline to be laid first, by a laybarge, a reel
or a tow, and then the trench is cut beneath the pipe.
In both cases it is required that the trench will not collapse, although this is more critical in a
pre-trenching mode, where it may take several days before pipeline installation will take
place. In a post-trenching it will only be the few minutes the pipeline requires to settle down.
In the post-trenching mode, the principal design problem is to configure the shares so that
they can be placed over the pipeline without risk of damage, so that they can close beneath
the pipe to excavate a trench under it, and so that the plough can be recovered easily at the
end of the operation. The solution to this problem is the ‘’butterfly’’ configuration : twin half-
shares are hinged to the rear end of the beam, are placed over the pipe in an open position,
and rotate and close under the pipe as the plough is pulled forward (see figure 36).
The dimensions of a plough are primarily determined by the depth and cross-section of the
trench it has to cut. The structural weight is determined both by the size of the plough and the
draft, the pull force required to advance the plough through the bottom soil. The draft
increases rapidly with the depth of trench. In clay, for geometrically similar trenches, the draft
increases roughly as the square of the trench depth, while for trenches of constant width the
draft increase more than linearly with the depth. In sand, the draft increases still more rapidly
with trench depth.
Consequently any plough that cuts a deep trench in a single pass will necessarily be both
large and heavy, and will require a large pull force. Once the pull force exceeds 500 tonnes,
the difficulties multiply. Not only does the structural weight of the plough begin to become
excessive, but friction generated by the weight itself begins to make a significant contribution
to the draft. Because the plough is so heavy, it becomes difficult to handle. A large barge is
required to transport it, and a large crane to lower it safely onto the pipeline. There has to be
a strong link between the plough and whatever is pulling it : even allowing a rather small
factor of safety of 2 on minimum breaking load, a wire rope of some 125 mm in diameter is
needed to pull 500 tonnes. Finally the pulling system must be anchored, finding good holding
ground, and balancing and controlling mooring line tensions become relatively important if the
pull force exceeds 500 tonnes, whereas the requirement to anchor against 100 or 200 tonnes
is common and easily satisfied, in deepwater laybarge pipelaying for instance.
All these factors indicate that a deep trench should not be cut in a single pass, but that it will
be better to adopt a multi-pass technique, in which the required depth is reached in two or
more cuts. In this concept, the trench is cut by the front plough to a trapezoidal cross-section,
with a level bottom and sides at 30° to the horizontal. In the second pass, a deeper triangle is
cut from the bottom of the first-pass trench by the rear plough (see figure 37).

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The burial performance of the multi-pass plough technique is as follows:
♦ Pipe capacity : 500 mm OD maximum size

♦ Trench depth : 0 – 1.8 metres maximum
♦ Operational depth : 500 metres maximum
Second
Plough
Fisrt
Plough FRONT
REAR
Skid
Figure 37 - Multi-pass plough
When pipeline engineers speak of ‘’burial’’, they generally mean ‘’trenching’’. Trenching
techniques usually leave the pipeline in an open trench. Ploughing leaves the spoil neatly
piled along the trench sides, rather than dispersed into the water. As well as eliminating water
pollution, this has the advantage that once trenching is complete a backfilling device can
move along the trench, to push the spoil back to cover the pipeline. A back filler can be
constructed on the long beam principle.

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7.3 Jetting technique

All submarine pipeline burying methods require the preparation of a ditch or trench in which
the pipe is lowered during the operation or afterwards. Most methods can be applied
successfully in sea beds consisting of cohesive soil such as clays. In cases where the sea
bed is noncohesive (e.g. sand) the trench will fill up rapidly, resulting in a too small burial
depth of the pipeline.
For those areas where the sea bottom consists mainly of sand and soft clay, the adequate
method involves fluidisation of the bottom adjacent to the pipeline over such a length that the
pipeline, having lost its support, sags to the desired depth, aided by its flexibility and the load
exerted by the fluidisation device resting on the pipeline.
Some pipeline burial vehicles using the jetting technique up to a water depth of 1000m are
described hereafter:
• Flexjet from Perry Tritech
• Capjet from Alcatel Kabel Norge
The Flexjet, a lightweight flexible pipeline burial vehicle was designed based on the above
principle. It consists of a 400 HP water jetting system which is electrically and hydraulically
controlled by a 100 HP Triton Work Class ROV located in the center of the Flexjet vehicle
(see figure 38).
Trenching arm
Jetting pump
Motorised
Track
Figure 38 - Flexjet
The Flexjet has a set of tracks that are used during burial operations and general bottom
crawling. When transiting to the operational area on the seabottom the Flexjet is neutrally
buoyant and ‘’flies’’ as a standard ROV. Once on the seabottom the vehicle can be ballasted
down by bringing on board 1.5 tonnes of water with the variable ballast system. The 1.5
tonnes ballast load during crawling allows a 1 tonne draw bar pull of the Flexjet.
Trenching results are obtained with 400 total HP of jetting power split between high pressure
and low pressure jetting systems.

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The high pressure jetting system consists of 2 x 125 HP pump/motor sets. The high pressure
jet on the trenching arms face forward into the direction of Flexjet travel and are used to cut
or fluidise the soil. Each 125 HP assembly produces 6,623 LPM at 8.5 bar. The low pressure
clearing jet systems consists of 2 x 75 HP motor/pump assemblies. The low pressure jets on
the trenching arms face aft and are used to clear the fluidised soil from the trench as it is
fluidised by the high pressure jets. Each 75 HP assembly produces 13,247 LPM at 1.7 bar.
Several sets of trenching and backfilling flange mounted arms are available with the Flexjet
system. Since 1993 Flexjet has been successfully used for the trenching of telecom/power
cable, electrical umbilical, 2’’ to 8’’ flexible flowline, rigid service and injection bundle.
The burial performance of the Flexjet is as follows:
♦ Pipe capacity : 400 mm OD maximum size
♦ Trench depth : 0 – 2 metres maximum
♦ Operational depth : 1000 metres maximum
The Capjet trenching system, developed for the protection of subsea cables, umbilicals and
pipelines, uses the waterjetting principle for both trenching and propulsion thus presents no
risk of damage to the subsea lines or structures (see figure 39).
Simultaneous backfill with the fluidised materials is achieved during the trenching operation.
The Capjet system is an alternative to existing heavy equipment that can cause damage to
cables, umbilicals, flexible and rigid pipes, and subsea installations. The cable or pipe does
not pass through the Capjet, and the machine can therefore start and stop trenching
operations at any point along the route. No forces are applied to the cable, umbilical or
pipeline during the operation. The system is neutrally buoyant in water, but can be ballasted
during the trenching operation.
Figure 39 – Capjet
The Capjet systems are capable of trenching in most clay and sandy soil conditions. The
systems are suitable for offshore operations (up to 1000m) and have all modern positioning
and data collection equipment. Depending on the soil conditions, a trench depth up to 3m can
be achieved by the existing jetting trenchers.
Main experience of Capjet system is listed below:
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♦ -Haltenpipe (1996) 57km 16” rigid steel pipe trenched to 0.6 – 1.2m,
♦ Troll Olge and TOGP projects (1994- 1998) 200km of umbilical and flexible pipe,
♦ Oseberg Ost (1998) 24km 12” rigid steel pipeline trenched to 2m for insulation
purpose.
7.4 Mechanical cutter technique

For large size pipelines an alternative to a protection technique can consists in an overdesign
of the pipe and coating mechanical characteristics in order to make it capable of taking up
possible accidental impact loads.
For small size lines, that are power and telecommunication cables, rigid of flexible flowlines or
pipelines, flowline bundles, the more convenient protection is to bury them in a properly sized
trench ; different methods such as sand bagging or backfilling are often more expensive or
may prove hazardous for line safety or may not satisfy required protection standards.
A specific surface controlled trenching system conceived for the task of burial small size lines
consists of a steel frame which connects the two motorised tracks and support the main
subsystems.
The vehicle can move on sea bottom by means of large supporting surface hydraulically
motorised tracks. The guidance of the vehicle along the line path is obtained by means of an
arm which, articulated at the vehicle bow, supports the line on rollers ; such a device,
following the line route, gives the locomotion system the proper indications for guidance
during trenching (see figures 40 and 41).
The trenching system consists of a cutting chain which runs on steel rollers supported by a
proper frame. The chain is driven through a reduction gear by a hydraulic high speed motor.
The chain-frame system is placed at the center of the vehicle and can rotate in a longitudinal
plane in order to reach the selected digging depth ; it can moreover rotate laterally to ease
the operations of line installation on the supporting rollers
During operations the line to be buried is held above the trench by means of a roller
supporting device which is connected to the digging chain frame. The supporting device
geometry and roller design guarantee the acceptable line bending and local loads. In case of
flexible line burial a conveying device, consisting of a rigid arm hinged at the vehicle stern,
guides, by means of rollers, the line itself onto the trench bottom.

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Flexible pipe
Trench
Figure 40 - Mechanical cutting trencher in flexible trenching configuration
Rigid pipe
Trench
Figure 41 - Mechanical cutting trencher in pipe burial configuration
The monitoring of the line supporting device geometry and loading allows a real-time
knowledge of the mechanical stresses in the line itself and of the burial depth during
trenching.
In general, a trench depth of 2-3m can be achieved with existing mechanical cutter trenching
technique.

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Digging chain
Motorised track
Figure 42 - Other type of digging chain trencher
Cutting wheel
Figure 43 - Trencher with cutting wheel

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7.5 Backfilling / Rock dumping
7.5.1 Introduction
The requirements of the authorities for a minimum distance (typically 0.9m) between top of
pipe and mean seabed level or fully covered pipe have created the need to develop different
backfilling methods in addition to the sandbagging :
• To take the material from the seafloor by suction hopper ship dredgers and
pumping it through a floating hose to a DP vessel positioned above the pipeline.
The material will then be transferred through a vertical fallpipe down to the gas
pipeline
• To use a converted bulk carrier with a DP system. This vessel utilises material
taken from shore and placed above the pipeline through a vertical fallpipe
equipped with a guiding thruster at the lower end.
7.5.2 System description

The system based on the use of dredged seafloor material in two layers with fine sand as the
first layer and a coarser gravel layer at the top is applicable if these materials are available
nearby the pipeline. The spread consists of two trailing suction hopper ship dredgers to
dredge the sand and the gravel respectively. A dynamically positioned ship stationed above
the pipeline to act as a feeding vessel (see figures 44 and 45). The dredgers are linked to the
drill ship by a floating hose and pumped the backfill material to the moonpool of the ship
where the material was directed to the trench via a fallpipe assembly. The fallpipe string is
made up of steel sections and suspended from the derrick hook. It provided guidance to the
backfill material from the feeding vessel to the subsea pipeline. A telescopic-joint is
incorporated in the fallpipe string to provide flexibility with respect to depth variations along
the pipeline.
Navigation of the dump vessel is performed by its DP system. Position references are
provided from a combination of bottom acoustic system and surface positioning system.
Angle indicators are mounted on the fallpipe giving the distance of the discharge head to the
feeding vessel reference point. During unloading of the hopper dredgers, the material is
sucked out of the holds using dredging pumps. The water and gravel/sand mixture is pumped
through a connection pipe, quick release-coupling and floating hose to the feeding vessel.
The dredger takes position towards the feeding vessel in such a way that the 400 m long
floating hose is protected as well as possible against the influence of wind, waves and
current. For keeping their position, the dredgers used the bow thrusters and twin screw
propulsion. For surveying, a sub-bottom profiler is mounted on the lower end of the fallpipe.
This made it possible to locate the pipeline during conditions of poor visibility and it was also
used as a back-up for the navigation system.

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Figure 44 - Feeding vessel
Figure 45 - Trailing suction hopper dredger

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Figure 46 - Deep sea dredger (R & D)
The deepsea dredger as illustrated in figure 46 has been developed for the mechanical
backfilling of deepwater pipeline up to 1000m water depth. In this concept, the backfill
material (if available) is dredged directly on location nearby the pipeline then directed to the
pipeline. Thus, the pumping of backfill material to surface and the discharge through fallpipe
are avoided in this efficient and cost effective solution.
The other system is based on a converted bulkcarrier doing the backfilling operation as well
as transporting the backfilling material stored in several holds from shore to the location (see
figure 47). The vessel is equipped with retractable azimuth thrusters for the DP system. The
primary navigation equipment for position keeping is interfaced to the DP system and
consisted of three different positioning systems. These systems have fixed radio beacons on
the platforms in the area or use satellite navigation system DGPS. In addition the equipment
could utilise an acoustic underwater navigation system based on transponder located on the
seabed. The vessel uses any of these position keeping systems or a suitable combination.
The accuracy of the primary navigation systems enabled the DP equipment to hold the vessel
stationary within 2 to 3 meters of a desired position. The system also enabled the vessel to
automatically follow a predetermined track at a constant speed varied according to the need.
Once the vessel is on location, a fallpipe made of polyethylene is lowered through a
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moonpool. At the lower end of the fallpipe is an electro-hydraulically driven thruster unit. The
thruster unit consisted of three propellers located tangentially to the fallpipe at 120° to each
other. This enables the operator to move the thruster and the fallpipe in any direction. The
thruster unit is equipped with an underwater navigation system based on acoustic
instruments which enables the operator on the vessel to ‘’see’’ the exposed or buried
pipeline and the sea bottom profile. This system consists of two sub-bottom profile arrays
containing transducers, a scanning profiler with transducers and miscellaneous auxiliary
equipment such as TV cameras, lights, etc.
By means of the acoustic reference system the position of the thruster unit could be
accurately determined in relation to the vessel or in relation to marker transponders on the
bottom. The thruster operator on the vessel could then, by means of the underwater
navigation system, position the end of the fallpipe directly above the pipeline and move it in a
pattern which ensured correct placement of the backfilled material. In each of the cargo holds
there is an excavator mounted on a pedestal. From each hold, there is a belt conveyor which
transported the backfill material to a collecting conveyor, taking the backfill material to the
hopper above the moonpool from where it is conducted through the fallpipe to the seafloor. In
the moonpool hopper, water is added to the backfill material in order to compensate for the
displaced water when the backfill material fell through the fallpipe.
Figure 47 - Flexible fall pipe vessel in rock dumping operation

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7.5.3 Pre-lay pipeline support

The installation of pipelines over highly irregular seabed requires a pre-lay gravel support to
prevent excessive free-spans and overstressing of the pipelines (see figure 48). These gravel
supports with heights up to 12 m and sides slopes of 1:2 to 1:3 were accurately placed in
water depths down to 1000 m. Installation tolerances were +/- 1 m horizontally and +/- 0.15 m
in height.
Figure 48 - Pre- lay pipeline support

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8 INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
8.1 Introduction
The choice of installation methods is considered to be project specific ; at this time, there is a
cost incentive to extend the use of conventional S-lay vessels into deep water. In very deep
water, however, S-lay may not be technically and economically possible, and the installation
option is limited to the J-lay method. Towing the system can also be considered for limited
length pipelines. Reeling methods are limited by pipe diameter, either due to strain limitation
during reeling or by the maximum pipeline length which can be installed in one operation.
For installation of large diameter pipelines in very deep water, the J-lay and towing methods
are potentially the most attractive.
However in 1996 to the surprised of the laying industry, the Dutch company Allseas has
completed the 12” flowline laying for Shell Mensa at 1620m, from the DP Lorelay vessel.
Allseas has innovated with a variation of the S-lay technique known as Steep S-Lay and have
recently completed the installation of the deepest sealine of 12” Marlim (GoM) export line in
1650m water depth.
In the Steep S-Lay technique, a shorter stinger (e.g. 80m long) with a smaller radius of
curvature is being used, to reduce the pipeline departure angle closed to the J-Lay method.
With improved weld quality control and management of the Steep S-Lay ramp, a medium
diameter pipeline can be laid at a strain value of 0.4%. This strain value requires a radius of
curvature of 40m for a 12” pipeline and 50m for a 16” pipeline with the necessary tension no
greater than J-Lay.
At report date, there are only few lay vessels to be equipped for the Steep S-lay technique:
• Allseas Lorelay and Solitaire DP vessel

• Global Chickasaw and Hercules DP barge
However newcomers shall be expected e.g. ETPM, EMC.

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8.2 S- lay method

Most pipelines are constructed by the laybarge method, and most pipelay barges carry out
pipelaying in the S-lay mode, see figure 49.
Lay Ship
Sea Level
Stinger
Rigid Pipe
Seabed
Figure 49 - S-lay configuration
This technique consists in installing offshore pipeline with the pipe axis in the horizontal
position (5G) on the lay barge. The lay barge typically has a serie of tensioners to hold the
pipe into a ‘S’ bend. The near horizontal ramp allows space for several welding stations, an
X-ray station and a field joint station, tensioners, and a stinger of acceptable length can be
combined with an acceptable tension level. A very long stinger is undesirable, because it is
excessively vulnerable to wave and current forces. High tension is undesirable, because of
the risk of damage to the pipe coating caused by the tensioner and because the tension has
to be balanced by the barge’s mooring or dynamic positioning system.
S-lay was applied to lay the vast majority of pipelines in the world and this technology was
believed not suitable for ‘’deep’’ water. The maximum effective depth for S-lay is dependent
on the pipe diameter and lay vessel characteristics. Some examples of laying parameters are
provided in the following table 6:
Lay depth Steel pipe dimensions Subm. weight Eff. mass Hor. force
150m OD 406mm, wt 15.9mm 121.57 kg/m 582 kg/m 333 kN

(concrete coating wt 63.5mm)
237m OD 508mm, wt 23.8mm 84.366 kg/m 501.5 kg/m 279 kN
Table 6 – Examples of laying parameters

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8.3 J-lay method
Figure 50 - J- lay configuration
It has been recognised for a long time that J-lay has significant advantages, particularly in
deep water. It eliminates the vulnerable stinger, or at least allows it to be very short, and
allows tension to be substantially reduced. Furthermore it allows more flexibility in terms of
pipeline route. The J-lay technique places the pipe axis in the vertical position (2G) on the lay
barge with a continuous radius to the sea bottom (see figure 50). Generally, this technique
reduces the tension required (less strain in the pipeline) and makes it possible for much
smaller vessel to perform the pipelay operation. The major limitation of the J-lay technique is
the number of working stations. A conventional lay barge will have 5 to 10 working stations.
The work of welding, inspection, repair, and field coating is divided over these stations to
maximise production. In the case of J-lay construction all these functions must be performed
in one station making the cycle time of adding one pipe length much longer than on a
conventional barge. Moreover, the obvious disadvantage is that the steep ramp means that if
welding operations are carried out at a number of separate stations, line-up and first welding
stations are at the upper end of the ramp, high above water level. That has major implications
for the layout of the vessel, as well as for its stability and resistance to rolling in a seaway. If,
however, welding operations can be carried out at a single station not far above the waterline,
then J-lay becomes attractive. A pipe transfer system elevates pipe strings (e.g. 72m six-
joints or 48m quadruple-joints) which had been welded together offshore or onshore and
brought out by cargo barge.
Most of the proponents of J-lay have focused on its applications in very deep water. However,
there is no reason to confine the method to deep water, and it has advantages in intermediate
depths. If these technical advantages can be realised as commercial advantages, J-lay can
be competitive in projects conventially thought of as the preserve of S-lay. It may be
necessary to reduce the ramp angle, as is routinely done in reelship pipelaying (see figure
51).

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Figure 51 - J-Lay System. Variable angle ramp for shallow and deep water
Note: The laying angle is dependent on the water depth, laying tension and vessel RAO.
Because the pipelay is without residual strain, most pipelay contractor have invested in the J-
Lay method:
• Heerema balder DP semi-submersible with a 2 x 6 strings J-Lay tower

(Shell New Zealand 20” Clad pipe in 110m WD)
• Mc Dermott DB 50 with a 4 string J-Lay tower
(Shell Auger TLP 2 x 12” oil and gas export line in 870m WD)
(Shell Mars TLP 14” oil and gas export line in 950m WD)
• MSV Amethyst with a 2 strings J-Lay tower
(Petrobras Marlim 10” gas export line from P26 to P18 semi-submersibles in
910m water depth)
• Seaway Falcon with a reverse bend J-Lay system
• Saibos FDS with a 4 strings J-Lay tower (under construction)
• Saipem 7000 with a 2 x 4 strings J-Lay tower

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J-Curve laying tension parameters for pipeline with D/t = 20 in 915m water depth are
presented in the following table 7:
PIPE DIAMETER TENSION (T)
(inches) EMPTY FLOODED
8.6250 99 231
10.750 143 352
12.750 165 462
14.000 198 572
16.000 242 726
20.000 528 1254
24.000 715 1738
Table 7 – J lay tension parameters for different pipe sizes

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8.4 Reel-lay method

Though reelship pipelaying is not generally thought of as J-laying, it is in reality identical as
far as the mechanical behaviour of the suspended span is concerned (see figure 52). The
reelship takes advantage of the low tension that J-lay allows : this is particularly useful
because the reelship is dynamically positioned. The reelship method had been developed in
parallel with the S-laybarge method. The original idea can be traced back to the PLUTO
project which laid 3-inch products pipelines across the English Channel in 1944, from floating
reels towed behind tugs, but the technology implemented in the reelship is much more
sophisticated and controlled. The pipe is wound onto a vertical plane - horizontal axis reel
with a 16.3m hub diameter and the ability to carry 2000 tonnes of pipe. Pipe is paid out onto
the reel from a ramp, with an aligner at its highest point which also serves as a level wind.
The pipe leaves the reelship through the aligner, then through a straightener and tensioner
(s) and down an adjustable steep ramp into the water. A pipe clamp is located at the foot of
the ramp. In the actual reelship concept, the maximum diameter that can be handled is 16
inches.
Figure 52 - Reel-lay configuration
This technique requires an onshore welding yard to prepare long strings (e.g. 500m) which
will be later joined together during the reeling process onto the lay vessel.
During the reeling process at quay-side and the subsequent unreeling offshore, the pipeline
will experienced plastic deformation and cumulative strain deformation which are to be
maintained within acceptable criterias.
There are less reel-lay vessels when compared to J-Lay vessels; with Coflexip Stena
Offshore leading the way in deepwater laying generations:
• CSO Apache 2000Te reel capability with a 1998 world record 12” gas pipeline in
more than 1300m of water depth in the Itapemerin Canyon offshore Brazil
• CSO Kitt new 5000Te reel lay capability to be available early year 2000
• ETPM Norlift 1250Te reel capability
• DSND Nordica 1500Te reel capability

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8.5 Tow method

Pipelines can also be installed in deep water by tow techniques (see figure 53). Bottom tow
sets the pipe on the bottom through the entire tow, and does not need a separate lowering
operation. Mid-depth tow transports the pipe at a relatively shallow depth, and the pipe then
has to be lowered into place, either by controlled lowering or by pull-down. The surface tow
method is not commonly used because of the influence of surface waves and currents on the
bundle. It is bent by currents and develop dynamic stresses under wave actions. Wave-
induced cyclic stresses may cause fatigue damage in the bundle. The waves also create
dynamic forces in he bands which connect the pipe and the floater. The bottom and mid-
depth tow operations become more complicated as the installation depth is increased, but
remain feasible at great depths. In principle the tow technique involves the transportation of a
bundle suspended between two tugs, the Leading Tug and the Trailing Tug.. To maintain
control during tow, the bundle is designed and constructed within specific tolerances with
respect to its submerged weight.
Figure 53 - Controlled depth tow method
Current limits on bundle length are approximately 7km using Controlled Depth Tow Method,
and 20 km for Bottom Tow. These limitations are set by bundle size and bollard load of
towing equipment.
Further innovations are now under planning, including installation in water depths down to
1800m and mid-line tie-ins to allow unlimited lengths.
The tow speed is typically lower than 3 knots for a bottom tow method, and in the range of 4 –
5 knots for a controlled depth tow method.
The controlled depth tow method has been used mainly in the North Sea (e.g. Shell Gannet,
Statoil Asgaard, etc.) while the bottom tow is the preferred solution for the Gulf of Mexico
application (e.g. Placid green canyon, BP Troïka, etc.)

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The recognised specialists for the tow method are:
• Rockwater (Brown & Root) for controlled depth tow

• Smit Costain for controlled depth tow
• Kvaener/RJ Brown/Doris for bottom tow
8.6 Flexible Laying Method

Flexible laying operations in deep waters required the mobilisation of a Vertical Laying
Spread (VLS) onboard the lay vessel (see figure 54). This spread, a Coflexible Stena
Offshore patented system, is specially designed to install large diameter up to 16-inch flexible
flowlines in deep waters.
Figure 54 – Vertical flexible lay configuration
It is composed of a gutter, which limits the radius of curvature of the pipe entering the derrick,
several sets of tensioners inside the derrick and a working table. Depending on its load
tension capacity, it can lay flexibles from 2.5’’ up to 16’’ internal diameter over 2000m water
depth. Pipeline sections, stored on dolly base reels or carousel, can be passed through the
system and connected at the working table below the VLS derrick. The opening of the table
when completely retracted allows the lowering of modules up to 3 x 3m size (e.g. Plem, Pig
launcher, etc.). This has been particularly developed for connections of second extremities, in
which the catenary of the line is suspended to the table, and connected to the hub which is
then lowered on the sea bottom and connected onto the subsea equipment.
The operations of lowering, abandonment or recovery are carried out with the A&R winch or
the pipe follower, a Coflexip Stena Offshore patented technique, which consists in replacing
the classical abandonment steel cable by a flexible pipeline.

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Rigid steel pipelines can be also recovered from the sea bottom with the A&R system in order
to connect a flexible line (e.g. riser) or, in case of damage, to weld an intermediate device and
carry out a repair.
The load cases of standard flexible lines in a 1600T basket storage carousel are presented in
the hereunder table 8:
Inside diameter Outside Weight in Maximum Total Filling

(in) diameter air empty length product rate
(mm) (kg/m) weight (%)
(m)
(T)
2 101 26.1 61000 1600 44
4 164 57.5 27500 " 54
6 227 104.3 15300 " 58
8 286 144 11000 " 68
10 346 195.4 8000 " 75
12 405 249.7 6400 " 77
14 470 316 5000 " 90
16 526 374.5 4000 1500 100
Table 8 – 1600T basket storage carousel load cases
Note : 1600T basket storage carousel dimensions:

y Outside diameter: 17m
y Inside diameter: 4m
y Maximum product height: 7m
The following lay vessels have the capability to lay flexible flowlines with a vertical laying
spread:
CSO Flexinstaller (at 500m WD) Seaway Falcon (at 500m WD)
rd
CSO Wellservicer (at 500m WD) SAIBOS FDS (at 2500m WD) available 3 year quarter 2000
st
CSO Flexservice I (at 1000m WD) CSO Kitt (at 2500m WD) available 1 year quarter 2000
CSO Sunrise (at 2000m WD) Rockwater GSV (at 500m WD)

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9 INTERNAL CORROSION MONITORING
9.1 Introduction
Protection pipelines from corrosion is achieved externally by use of cathodic protection (for
buried or subsea pipelines) and internally by injection of inhibitors to mitigate internal
corrosion.
Various inspection and monitoring techniques monitor both a pipeline’s condition for early
warning of failure and the efficiency of any mitigation program to reduce or arrest corrosion.
While traditional NDT techniques and in-line inspection tools (intelligent ‘’pigs’’) may
represent effective solutions for assessment of the condition and integrity of a pipeline, the
sensitivity and accuracy of these methods may be inadequate for monitoring inhibitor
performance. In this latter case, both the sensitivity and frequency of data collection must be
high regularly to produce reliable trends.
Even more important to the pipeline operator may be the economics of an inspection and
monitoring program. Suitable design of an NDT inspection and corrosion monitoring program
may help reduce the expenditures considerably.
A combination of monitoring of an actual pipeline with a certain number of Field Signature
Method (FSM) stations along a line combined with running smart pigs through the line at
infrequent intervals may represent an optimum solution in terms of condition and integrity
monitoring of the pipeline.
At the same time, such a program may be designed substantially to reduce the costs for
inspection as a result of the reduced frequency required of smart pigging.

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9.2 Principle
When a structure is in a known condition, reference FS (Field Signature) measurements are
made by feeding an electric current into the structure between two feeding studs. The current
spreads out into a pattern which is determined by the geometry of the structure and the
conductivity of the material. Any flaws or defects in the structure, like a corrosion pit or a
crack will cause a distortion in the electrical field pattern. Also general corrosion, causing a
reduction in the wall thickness will result in an increased voltage drop and change in the
electrical field. By measuring this electrical field pattern and changes over a period of time, an
accurate assessment can be made of actual corrosion, of corrosion rates and trends and the
location and severity of pits and cracks (see figure 55).
Small sensing pins or electrodes are distributed in an array over the monitored area, to detect
changes in the electrical field pattern. A voltage measurement between any two selected
electrodes is compared to a measurement between a reference pair of electrodes (for
compensation of temperature and current fluctuations) and to the corresponding initial FS
values when monitoring started.
1. Ideal field pattern 3. Corrosion distorts ideal pattern
2. Pipe equipped with sensors
Figure 55 - Field Signature Method principle

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9.3 Arrangement of sensing pins

When designing an NDT or inspection program, the inspection engineer will select critical
locations of a structure where the risks of corrosion, erosion or cracking are high , or serious
hazards might arise in the event of failure.
Typical areas chosen for monitoring are :
• Girth welds of pipes and pipelines
• Bottom sections, e.g. at 4-8 o’clock position in horizontal pipes where corrosive
water may be deposited (see figure 56)
• Combinations of the above, and area subject to corrosion induced by CO2, H2S
or biological activity
• T-joints of pipes where there is a risk for erosion/corrosion
• Pipe bends and welds (see figure 57)
Figure 56 - FSM applied to subsea pipeline
Figure 57 - FSM applied to subsea production template

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The selected area is fitted with the current induction transformer and the minimum number of
24 sensing pins. This number must however, be increased in multiples of 8 up to a maximum
of 64 pins for one FSM spool and instrumentation module.
The sensing pins may be distributed in a matrix over the critical area where the matrix
spacing or pin-to-pin distance may vary typically from 2-3 cm (1inch) up to 10-15 cm (4-6
inches), depending on the sensitivity required for detection of smaller pits. With a matrix
spacing of 2-3 cm the system has a proven capability of detecting and monitoring the growth
of pits in welds as small as 1-2 mm in diameter and depth. A matrix spacing of 10-15 cm is
used in the case of uniform corrosion, or when wide and shallow pitting is expected. Typical
surface area covered per instrumented module may range from 0.1 to 1.1 m2.
9.4 Monitoring system

Permanent instrumentation systems for on-line monitoring are based on FSM stations to be
fitted locally, one at each location, and connected via a field bus system to a Master unit in a
control room. The Master unit can handle up to 15 FSM stations, and is controlled by an on-
line monitoring software installed on a standard PC (see figure 58).
Figure 58 - Online FSM system based on field bus
For subsea and remote monitoring, the FSM system can be supplied as ready made spools
for subsea production systems or pipelines. The subsea system consists of the following
components (see figure 59):
• Instrumented pipe section with sensing electrodes, current feeding

arrangement, reference electrodes and subsea matable connector for the
instrument unit
• ROV replaceable instrument unit contains all electronics and batteries for
many years of unattended operation. The instrument unit is hooked up to the
instrumented pipe section via the subsea connector. Data communication
alternatives are direct cabling or hydro-acoustic telemetry
• Top-side data collection and storage unit, including the FSM software package.

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ROV
ROV retrievable instrument unit
FSM Station
Subsea connector
Com. connector
Pipeline
Figure 59 - FSM system in subsea remote monitoring

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10 APPLICATIONS & LIMITATIONS
10.1 Sealine technology

Pipelines constitute a significant part of costs for field developments. From an economic point
of view application of C-Mn steel pipelines is desirable. Such pipelines are, however,
vulnerable to corrosion. Selection of C-Mn steel for multiphase pipelines implies that
extensive evaluations of corrosivity and inhibitor performance have to be carried out. More
accurate models for prediction of corrosion rates have contributed to extended use of C-Mn
steel pipelines while change to more environmentally friendly and less effective corrosion
inhibitors has the opposite effect.
For those fields where C-Mn steel cannot be used due to high corrosivity of the transported
fluid, flexible, clad pipe, lined pipe or stainless steel pipelines have to be used. The cost
penalty by using such pipelines is presently quite high and for marginal fields it can contribute
to restrict field development. By applying new welding methods and technology it is possible
to reduce the costs for stainless steel pipelines.
This new technology makes it possible to weld duplex stainless steels with the same rate as
C-Mn steel. Methods for welding 13% Cr stainless steels which is significantly cheaper than
duplex stainless steel are under development.
High CO2 contents in aqueous liquids cause rapid weight loss type corrosion and the
corrosion loss is increased as service temperature is high. The Cr content of the alloy is
essential to improve the corrosion resistance in CO2 or CO2-Cl environments. Therefore,
13%Cr martensite stainless steel and 22%Cr and 25%Cr duplex stainless steel will be
selected for use in such environment. The duplex stainless steel can be used for higher
temperature service because of their higher Cr content.
The presence of H2S causes sulphide stress corrosion cracking in martensite stainless steel
and duplex stainless steel. Another effect of H2S is to exacerbate chloride stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) at high temperatures. On the contrary, High Ni alloys are generally
characterised by good corrosion resistance in non-oxidising acids and SCC resistance in Cl
containing solutions at high temperatures. Commonly used austenite stainless steel such as
304L or 316L showed SCC under the condition of 0.1atm H2S, while duplex stainless steels
and high Ni alloys showed no corrosion. An increase of partial pressure of H2S up to 1atm
makes the environments more aggressive, which resulted in occurrence of SCC in duplex
stainless steels. High Ni alloys showed neither corrosion nor cracking even in this condition.
These results indicate that higher Ni alloy is preferable for use in H2S-CO2-Cl environment
and 42%Ni alloy is one of the most promising materials.
The purpose of flexible lines has changed from flexible lines for drilling operation (kill and
choke lines) to production lines. In a general view, the structural layers (carcass, pressure
armours and tensile armours) were strengthened with thicker wires and different profiles ;
some anti-wear layers were added to prevent friction between metallic layers and a fabric
layer was also added for a better constraint of tensile armours in order to prevent ‘’bird
cages’’ at empty lines submitted to high external pressures.
Flexible lines were intensively used for the exploitation of marginal fields in deep waters. The
use of flexible pipelines allowed for rapid development of new fields, and the ability to recover
and re-use flexible lines reduced their capital cost.
Flexible pipes allow rather sharp turn to avoid mooring line interference whereas it would be
impossible to accommodate the tight bends in the flowline route using steel pipe. The use of
flexible pipe also provided the needed flexibility to modify and adapt the flowline route to
accommodate changes in well locations, even at the advanced stages of the project.
Throughout the project, well locations were being updated to reflect the results of the drilling
and reservoir appraisal, which resulted in changes in flowline and umbilical lengths.

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An attractive alternative to the use of flexible pipe flowlines is the use of rigid pipe flowlines.
This is especially true in deep water giant fields or marginal fields, where the distance from
floating production units to the wells is often several kilometres. As the flowline length
increases the cost effectiveness of flexible pipelines is reduced when compared to rigid
pipelines.
The choice of flowline for a given deepwater project is a complex topic, where both technical
and economical “life of field cost” issues are to be thoroughly evaluated.
There is no universal resistance steel and each steel has a particular application domain,
which has to be well known to avoid costly mistakes.
The following table 8 will summarise the above information:
PIPELINE TYPE ENVIRONMENT MATERIAL

FLEXIBLE PIPE
* MOST CASES 304L
* HIGH TEMPERATURE (100°C) 316L

* HIGH CO2 & H2S CONTENT
* HIGH TEMPERATURE (130° ) DUPLEX STAINLESS

* HIGH CO2 & H2S CONTENT STEEL
STEEL PIPE
* HIGH CO2 CONTENT - 13%Cr
* CO2-CL CONTENT - 22%Cr or 25%Cr
DUPLEX S.S.
* HIGH CO2 CONTENT - 22%Cr or 25%Cr

* CO2-CL CONTENT DUPLEX S.S.
* HIGH TEMPERATURE
* H2S – CO2 – CL - DUPLEX S. S.

* at 0.1atm H2S - HIGH Ni ALLOY
* H2S – CO2 – CL - HIGH Ni ALLOY

* at 1atm H2S ( INCOLOY )
Table 8 – Material selection
Each flowline material (i.e. C-Mn steel or stainless steel) and technologies (i.e. wet insulated
pipe, flexible pipe, bundle, etc.) have their own merits and limitations, as further detailed in
the hereafter chapter 11.

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10.2 Installation techniques

The following table 9 will summarised the limitations of each sealine technologies versus the
installation techniques :
INSTALLATION METHOD AND LIMITATIONS

SEALINES S-Lay (Steep) J-Lay Reel-Lay Tow
1. Wet Insulated Pipe • Medium size • No known • Medium size • Not
flowline limitation besides flowline with D/t recommended
• Residual plastic the lay rate ratio within 16-24
deformation at for reelability
stinger departure • Cumulative
• Water depth strain deformation
limitation • Water depth
(e.g. 2000m) limitation
(e.g. 2500m)
2. Flexible pipe • Not applicable • Could be • Flexible flowline • Not

defined as vertical can be reeled and recommended
lay lay with the ramp
• Limitation is tensioners
related to the • Limitation on
flexible technology product
technology
3. Clad pipe • Same limitation • No known • Not • Not

as for 1.above limitation besides recommended recommended
(see note) the lay rate
4. Pipe-in-pipe • Same limitation • Will require • Bulkheads to be • Larger carrier

as for 1.above bulkheads replaced by pipe
• Lay rate spacers for
reelability
• Same limitation
as for 1. above
5. Bundle with dry • Not • Only for piggy- • Only for piggy- • Water depth
carrier recommended back bundle to back bundle to limitation (1000m-
main flowline main flowline 1500m)
6. Bundle with wet • Not • Only for piggy- • Only for piggy- • No known
carrier recommended back bundle to back bundle to limitation for
main flowline main flowline bottom tow
• Lay rate • Lay rate
Table 9 – Installation methods and limitation versus sealine technology
Note: At report date, Allseas Solitaire DP Vessel has been awarded the Shell Malampaya pipelay which
includes a 16” diameter carbon steel incoloy 825 clad pipe at 850m WD.

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11 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
Solid pipes made in C-Mn steel, 13%Cr steel, or duplex stainless steels, pipe-in-pipe or
bundle configurations, or flexible pipes are possible alternatives for pipelines. Advantages
and disadvantages of different types of pipelines are given hereafter.
11.1 C-Mn steel pipe

The most popular measure to prevent a pipeline from corrosion is the use of inhibitors which
form a protective film on the inner surface of the pipe. It is necessary to continuously throw in
the proper inhibitor in the proper amount. Mishandling of inhibitors may cause upset of
sweetening units or dehydrators.
Wall shear stress is a main parameter limiting the application of corrosion inhibitors. The
maximum acceptable wall shear stress and, thus, maximum flow rate, depends on the
inhibitor used and the geometry. The maximum acceptable flow rate will be higher in a
smooth section than in flow restriction. Today’s green (environmentally friendly) inhibitors
generally have lower film strength than the more toxic ones which may restrict application of
C-Mn pipelines.
Pipelines carrying wet gas with condensed water are generally difficult to corrosion protect
due to low pH of the unbuffered water. Research on the influence of pH on corrosivity has
shown that the corrosivity is decreased by increasing the pH to above 6 by using such as
bicarbonate. By doing this the general corrosion rate became lower, but the steel suffered
from pitting corrosion. Another disadvantage by using buffers is that the efficiency of the pH
stabiliser to prevent corrosion is reduced below 50°C. Application of buffers alone is thus not
recommended. Combination of moderate buffering and corrosion inhibitors seems on the
other hand to be very effective. Internal corrosion control of wet gas pipelines with this
method can extend the application limits of C-Mn steel pipelines. It must, however, be born in
mind that buffers cannot be used in pipelines with formation waters since they can lead to
scaling deposition.
Plastic coated pipes are widely used. Their coated surface is soft and must be carefully
handled, and welding of pipe joints is especially difficult. Plastic coated pipes have an
additional problem of durability because of loss due to abrasion by rapid flow velocity.
11.2 Flexible pipe

One of the main advantages of the flexible lines is the ability to recover and relay used
flexible lines in new projects. The used lines are recovered from the sea bottom, transported
to onshore base and submitted to this procedure to assure a safe and efficient utilisation :
• visual inspection
• internal cleaning
• outer sheath repair or new endfittings installation
• redefinition of the class of application
• hydrostatic test
The cost/benefit relation of this procedure is very impressive.

The main reason for this is low installation costs. In order to compare the life costs of flexible
and rigid pipelines it must be possible to carry out lifetime prediction for rigid as well as
flexible pipelines. Presently the knowledge on lifetime prediction for flexible pipes is
insufficient.

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The pressure and tensile armour are encapsulated between an outer and an inner polymer
barrier, and one may believe that the armour wires remain unaffected by both the sea water
and the fluid carried in the pipe as long as the polymer barriers are intact. Polymers are,
however, open to diffusion of gases such as CH4, CO2, H2S and water vapour. Diffusion of
water and corrosive gases into the annulus means that the armour wires are exposed to a
corrosive environment. It is well known that the fatigue properties of metallic materials
become poorer in corrosive environments. Fatigue testing of wires in corrosive CO2/water
environments has clearly shown the number of cycles to failure is significantly reduced in the
corrosive environment compared to non-corrosive conditions. Lifetime estimation of flexible
pipes should therefore include the effect of corrosion fatigue. It may be necessary to design
flexible pipes in such a way that this failure mechanism is avoided.
Ageing properties of polymers for flexible pipes are also extensively investigated. Two years
testing of PA 11, PVDF and PEX at 400 bar and 90°C in methane/oil/water show that PA 11
exposed to water become brittle, while PVDF and PEX are nearly unaffected.
Polymers such as PA 11 and PVDF contain 12-15% plasticiser. During service the plasticiser
will leak out and the polymer will shrink. PEX, on the other hand, will swell. The
consequences of this also have to be investigated.
11.3 Duplex stainless steel pipe

Duplex stainless steel has been used successfully for completion of highly corrosive wells.
The corrosion resistance and mechanical properties make it attractive for highly corrosive
pipelines. The advantages of using corrosion resistant alloy instead of C-Mn steel are that
corrosion monitoring, intelligent pigging and uncertainties connected to inhibition are avoided
and the risk for leakage and oil spill is reduced. The wall thickness can be reduced since the
tensile strength is higher than C-Mn steel, and no corrosion allowance is required. Stainless
steel is the most economical and effective solution against general corrosion and thus is
widely used. In the use of stainless steel, care must be taken as to weldability, stress
corrosion cracking (SCC), and the precipitation of chromium carbide which causes
intergranular corrosion called ‘’weld decay’’. The biggest problem in the use of the corrosion
resistant alloys such as brass, bronze, stainless steel, Monel, Titanium, etc., is high cost as
they contain energy consuming such as Cu, Cr, Ni and Titanium.
The common factors which play a role in determining the particular economic benefit of using
duplex stainless steels are listed below :
• the high yield strength of the material (typically 450Mpa for 22%Cr and
550Mpa for 25%Cr duplex in the annealed condition) which allows thinner
walls whilst retaining the sample pressure-containing or load bearing capability
• the high resistance to corrosion in the internal environment such that, unlike
carbon steel, it is not necessary to add a corrosion allowance to the wall
• thinner walls which result in reduced fabrication times and reduced weight
• the high corrosion resistance which means that it is not necessary to have
chemicals to inhibit corrosion, thus reducing the operating costs
• the high predictability of the performance of the material such that inspection
requirements are minimal and maintenance and unscheduled shut-downs
negligible.

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11.4 Clad steel pipe

Clad steel pipe is also being tried as a possible solution to the above economic problem. This
is a reliable and effective measure both in corrosion resistance and strength. There are
several methods to clad materials, such as hot-roll, over-lay welding, explosion, etc., but all
these methods require special costly techniques especially in the preparation of joined
surfaces, and it is difficult to obtain a completely bonded surface. Further, the tensile residual
stress in the clad layer which is generated in the cladding process may be a cause of stress
corrosion cracking.
11.5 Bundle system

A key advantage of the bundle concept is the ability to use very effective (low k-value), low
cost insulation materials in the annulus of the bundle. Another advantage is the ability to
incorporate subsea manifold or even a subsea template in a towhead structure. The incentive
is to reduce installation requirements and costs for subsea installation and tie-ins.
The bottom-tow configuration requires the casing be pressurised in order to withstand
external hydrostatic collapse, and to allow the use of open-cell polyurethane foam insulation.
As design water depth increases, up to several pressurisation stages are required during the
tow to site to avoid burst or collapse during tow. Therefore, the maximum bundle length is
limited, necessitating mid-line tie-ins of bundle segments. Each such segment must be
optionally designed for its appropriate depth range.
The leading technical issues for towed bundles in deepwater concern 1) the need for high D/t
casings, which lead to low safety factors against burst and collapse, 2) the lack of experience
with mid-line tie-ins, 3) the needs for analysis tools and methods to predict bundle thermal
performance, and 4) the need to evaluate bundle damage consequences.
If a hydrate plug occurs in a singly laid insulated flowline, it may be difficult or impossible to
use flowline depressurisation or local chemical treatment to sublimate the plug. Hydrostatic
pressure from the fluid column in the deepwater flowline and riser may exceed the minimum
pressure required at ambient seawater temperatures. Local chemical treatments may require
running coiled tubing to target the chemical at the plug, and the flowline lengths may limit the
ability to run coiled tubing in this manner. From an operational standpoint, the bundled
flowline configuration provides certain advantages that cannot be realised using individually
laid and insulated flowlines. Since all flowlines can be contained within the same insulated
space, warm fluids can be circulated through adjacent looped flowlines to sublimate a hydrate
plug. Such additional flowlines could be incorporated in the bundle to provide a dedicated
circulation loop. Heat-traced flowlines still requires the flowline to be insulated in order to
conserve heat, generally using singly insulated pipe or pipe-in-pipe configuration.

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11.6 Pipe-in-pipe system

Rigid, polymeric centralizers placed periodically in a pipe-in-pipe system do not improve the
collapse resistance of the outer pipe, unless spaced less than 3 pipe diameters apart.
Pipe-in-pipe carrier pipes with higher D/t values exhibited significant increases in collapse
resistance and critical curvature when foam insulation completely filled the annulus.
Pipe-in pipe flowlines with an evacuated annulus maintained by a platform based pump
spread is technologically feasible with available materials, fabrication processes, pumping
capacities, and installation methods. However, the operational risks involved with annular
flooding will require extensive development of rapid and economic repair technique.
11.7 13% Cr pipe

The application of weldable modified 13%Cr linepipe is considered a cost effective alternative
to solid duplex stainless steels and bi-metallics currently used by the Oil & gas industry for
subsea Corrosion Resistant Alloy (CRA) pipelines.
The use of martensitic 13%Cr stainless steels offer excellent resistance to corrosion in CO2
containing fluids and consequently have been extensively used as downhole tubular products
for the oil and gas industry. More recently, the development of super 13%Cr steels has
improved the general corrosion resistance of these materials and offers limited resistance to
SSCC in environments containing small amounts of H2S.
In the past, 13%Cr stainless steels have been precluded from use as linepipe due to their
poor weldability. As these materials are considerably cheaper than duplex stainless steels
and offer comparable corrosion resistance in CO2 environments containing small amounts of
H2S, there has been considerable interest in recent years for the development of a weldable
13%Cr. On the basis of this, linepipe manufacturers have undertaken extended development
programmes to produce a weldable 13%Cr linepipe. This was claimed to be achieved by
principally lowering of carbon and nitrogen contents.
A testing programme performed by a Group Sponsored project using mechanised PGMAW
and manual GTAW with duplex (25%Cr) filler wires has shown good weldability of 13%Cr
linepipe similar to duplex stainless steels, and satisfactory welds made in a productive
manner with desirable and corrosion properties.
13%Cr steel used for this test has low Carbon and Nitrogen levels to offer good weldability
and minimise hardness values in a HAZ. In addition the materials are highly alloyed with
Nickel (Ni). All material were supplied in the quench and tempered condition and varied
between laboratory and production samples. The addition of Molybdenum (Mo) is claimed to
improve SSCC resistance in the HAZ and Ni to obtain a single martensitic phase plus
increase toughness.
For pipeline welding, a fundamental factor in the selection of the welding process/system is
being able to achieve the required weld quality and properties at the desired productivity
levels. An additional consideration for CRA’s is the requirement for back purging of the root
bead to avoid oxidation. Based on these considerations, the (PGMAW) process using an
internal pipeline clamp with copper backing shoes, which supports the solidifying weld pool,
was selected. This technique when applied in the form of a mechanised process (welding bug
and band system), offers the maximum productivity for a single sided welding technique. One
restricting factor with such a technique is the minimum internal pipeline size available with
copper backing shoes. This at present is limited to 8’’ diameter pipe size and above. For 6’’
diameter and smaller, this technique has not yet been fully developed for single sided welding
without the use of internal clamp with copper backing shoes, therefore, an alternative welding
process was selected for these diameters, namely , GTAW.

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11.8 Summary table

Pipes Advantages Disadvantages
C-Mn Steel Pipe - Low purchase cost - Corrosion problem
- Low installation cost - High operating (inhibitor),
- Good experience in field welding maintenance and repair cost
Duplex stainless steel - Good corrosion resistance - High purchase cost
- Good experience in field welding - High installation cost
- Low operating cost
Clad pipe - Medium purchase cost - High installation cost
- Good corrosion resistance - Potential problems:
- Low operating cost 1. ‘’Implosion’’
2. ‘’Interface gap’’
3. ‘’Residual stress’’
4. ‘’Weld decay’’
13%Cr - Medium purchase cost - Field welding to be qualified
- Medium corrosion resistance - Medium installation cost
- Low operating cost
Wet insulated pipe - Medium purchase cost - High U value increasing with
- Medium installation cost time
- Low compressive strength
Flexible - Low installation cost - High purchase cost
- Flexibility on seabed “snagging” - Temperature limitation
- Re-usable - Potential problems due to WD:
- Good corrosion resistance 1. ‘’Bird cages’’
- Low operating cost 2. ‘’Reverse end cap effect’’
Pipe in pipe - Medium installation cost - High purchase cost
- Low U-value - Potential problems:
1. ‘’Slippage of internal pipe’’
2. ‘’Bend radius of reeled pipe’’
3. “Lost of sealine in case of
wet buckle if designed
without bulkhead”
Bundle - Low installation cost - Availability of bollard pull tug
- Onshore fabrication and test - Length and weight limitation
- Low purchase cost (e.g. 7 – 20 km)
- Low U-value - Potential problems:
- Integration of subsea equipment 1. “Line pressurisation’’
and system within bundle 2. ‘’Connection to subsea
- Seabed congestion minimised structures’’
- No requirement for burial 3. ‘’Controlled depth tow
4. ’’Less flexibility for change in
development plan”
Table 10 – Advantages & Disadvantages summary table

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REFERENCE BOOK
RISER SYSTEMS
Rev. 0 Page 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 5
1.1 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 REGULATION, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS .................................................. 6
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... 6
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 7
1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ 7
2 PROCESS DESIGN FOR DEEPWATER RISER............................................................ 8

2.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 STEEL RISER SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 8
2.2.1 Design methodology .....................................................................................................8
2.2.2 Selection of the riser section.......................................................................................10
2.2.3 Selection of the basic configuration (static analysis)..................................................10
2.2.4 Dynamic analysis – extreme conditions .....................................................................10
2.2.5 VIV analysis ................................................................................................................11
2.2.6 Fatigue analysis ..........................................................................................................11
2.2.7 Temporary conditions .................................................................................................11
2.3 FLEXIBLE RISER........................................................................................................ 12
2.3.1 Hydrostatic collapse at design water depth (pipe empty condition) ...........................12
2.3.2 Axial compression of the pipe structure due to the reverse end cap load .................12
2.3.3 High tension load in operation of dynamic risers due to pipe weight and dynamic
amplification.............................................................................................................................13
2.3.4 Installation loads .........................................................................................................14
2.4 DESIGN SOFTWARE FOR RISER SYSTEMS ................................................................... 15
3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT...................................................................................... 16
3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 WITH FLOATING PRODUCTION SYSTEM ...................................................................... 16
3.3 AT SEABED .............................................................................................................. 18
3.3.1 Flexible risers..............................................................................................................18
3.3.2 Top tensioned risers ...................................................................................................20
3.3.3 Hybrid riser tower........................................................................................................21
Rev. 0 RISER SYSTEMS Page 2

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4 RISER SYSTEM REVIEW............................................................................................ 22

4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 22
4.2 FLEXIBLE RISER SYSTEMS ........................................................................................ 22
4.2.1 Structural description of flexible pipe riser..................................................................22
4.2.2 End fitting ....................................................................................................................24
4.2.3 Bending stiffener .........................................................................................................25
4.2.4 Bending restrictor........................................................................................................26
4.2.5 Riser configurations ....................................................................................................27
4.3 RIGID PIPE RISER SYSTEMS ....................................................................................... 31
4.3.1 General .......................................................................................................................31
4.3.2 Riser configurations ....................................................................................................31
5 INSULATION TECHNIQUES ....................................................................................... 45

5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 45
5.2 SELECTION OF AN INSULATION MATERIAL ................................................................... 45
5.3 INSULATION MATERIAL FOR STEEL RISER AND HYBRID RISER TOWER ............................ 46
5.4 INSULATION MATERIAL FOR FLEXIBLE RISER................................................................ 47
6 HEATING TECHNIQUES ............................................................................................. 49

6.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 49
6.1.1 Pipeline .......................................................................................................................49
6.1.2 Design criteria .............................................................................................................50
6.2 ELECTRICAL HEATING ............................................................................................... 50
6.2.1 Direct Heating System description .............................................................................50
6.3 HOT WATER CIRCULATION HEATING ........................................................................... 52
7 VORTEX INDUCED VIBRATIONS............................................................................... 53

7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 53
7.2 VIV PREDICTION....................................................................................................... 53
7.3 VORTEX SUPPRESSION DEVICES................................................................................ 55
8 ARTIFICIAL LIFT REQUIREMENT .............................................................................. 57

8.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 57
8.2 GAS LIFT METHOD.................................................................................................... 58
8.2.1 Internal gas lift using coil tubing .................................................................................59
8.2.2 Internal gas lift lines integrated to production riser.....................................................61
8.2.3 External gas lift line.....................................................................................................62
8.2.4 External common gas lift line......................................................................................64

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9 INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES ................................................................................... 66

9.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 66
9.2 INSTALLATION OF FLEXIBLE RISERS ............................................................................ 67
9.2.1 Flexible riser in “Free hanging” configuration .............................................................68
9.2.2 Flexible riser in “Lazy S” configuration .......................................................................70
9.2.3 Flexible riser in “Lazy Wave” configuration ................................................................72
9.2.4 Flexible riser in “Steep S” configuration......................................................................74
9.2.5 Flexible riser in “Steep Wave” configuration...............................................................76
9.2.6 Flexible riser in “Pliant Wave” configuration ...............................................................78
9.3 INSTALLATION OF METALLIC RISERS ........................................................................... 80
9.3.1 General .......................................................................................................................80
9.3.2 J lay technique ............................................................................................................80
9.3.3 Tow out method ..........................................................................................................82
9.3.4 Drilling riser running techniques applied to top tensioned risers................................84
10 APPLICATIONS & LIMITATIONS................................................................................ 86

10.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 86
10.2 FLEXIBLE RISERS ...................................................................................................... 86
10.3 STEEL RISERS .......................................................................................................... 87
10.3.1 Top-tensioned riser tower ...........................................................................................87
10.3.2 Steel catenary risers ...................................................................................................88
10.3.3 Offset hybrid riser tower..............................................................................................88
11 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES ......................................................................... 89

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
A riser is usually a pipe, which connects subsea pipeline (sealine) to the floating platform
system. In deepwater field development, the riser can be made out of rigid or flexible pipe in
the size range from 2" DIA to 16" DIA depending on requirements.
Risers are key components of all offshore production facilities having major economic and
safety significance. The riser provides access from the sea bed to the platform facilities for
subsea satellite developments (produced oil and gas, test lines, water and gas injection, and
control umbilicals), product import and export pipelines and platform utilities (control and
power lines).
Until now most deepwater projects have extended shallow water technology through the use
of new materials (e.g. titanium, composite, etc.) and manufacturing techniques. Although high
pipe flexibility is needed to accommodate vessel motions in shallow water, at greater depths
stiffer pipe is considered by many to be of worthy consideration because of the beneficial
effect of water depth on riser system compliancy. Riser systems are used to transport
hydrocarbons from the seabed to the platform facilities, and are dynamic systems which
operate at both high pressures and temperatures often with highly corrosive fluids. As a
result, they are technically complex and the materials and methods of manufacture and
installation make them very costly. These issues are of course compounded as depths
increase, due to higher loads and lengths involved making riser system selection and
optimisation even more complicated.
In recent years new riser arrangements have been conceived to meet the challenge of deep
water, offering significant commercial and technical advantages over conventional flexible
riser systems. These new riser systems utilise steel pipe which has a relatively low cost
compared to flexible pipe.
Two of the most promising concepts are the steel catenary riser and the hybrid riser
(combination of rigid and flexible pipe).
Riser system is a key issue within the offshore oil & gas industries and each riser type (e.g.
flexible, steel, composite) and configuration (e.g. Steep, Lazy, Compliant) would be a major
engineering topic for further design, analysis, etc…
The aim of this document is to review the current state of the art riser technologies, which are
well adapted to deepwater field development, and to highlight its key engineering topics,
limitations, advantages and disadvantages.
This document commences, in chapter 2, with a brief overview of the design process for
deepwater riser made out of flexible pipe or steel pipe used in hybrid riser tower, top
tensioned riser and free hanging catenary riser.
Chapter 3 provides information on top and bottom interfaces requirements for the different
riser systems (material and configuration), which are further analysed in chapter 4.
Technical solutions such as thermal insulation and heating to mitigate hydrate and/or wax
formation later in field life are described in chapters 5 and 6.
Chapter 7 discusses deepwater riser vortex induced vibration (VIV) problem affecting riser
fatigue life, and provides some options often chosen for VIV suppression.
As high well productivity is essential in offshore deep waters, chapter 8 describes one of the
most widely used artificial lift method, namely, gas lift.
Chapter 9 is dedicated to the installation methods related to the type of riser configurations.

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Applications and limitations on riser material (flexible or steel pipe) are discussed in chapter
10, and chapter 11, Advantages and disadvantages of different riser configurations concludes
this document.
1.2 Regulation, codes, standards & specifications

• DNV : "Rules for submarine pipeline systems", 1981 – (amended as needed by
DNV 1996 Edition)
• API RP 2 RD : "API recommended practice for design of risers for floating
production systems and tension leg platforms", October 1996 (January 1997)
• API RP 14 E : "Offshore production piping systems", October 1996
• API Spec 5L & 5LC– "API Specification for line pipe", May 1984
• API RP 17 B : “Recommended practice for flexible pipe”
• API Spec 17 J : “Specification for un-bonded flexible pipe”
• ISO 13623 : “Pipelines transportation systems for the Petroleum and Natural Gas
Industries
• ISO 13628 – Part 2 : “Flexible pipe systems for subsea and marine applications”
(in preparation)
1.3 Definitions & abbreviations

Flowline The conduct system e.g. steel pipeline, flexible line, bundle, etc., divided in
two parts: static “sealine” section resting on seabed and dynamic “riser”
section from seabed to surface
Sealine “Static” section resting on seabed of a conduct for the flow of liquid or gas
Riser “Dynamic” part of flowline connecting sealine to the termination point of
platform
FPS Floating production system
FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
PLEM Pipeline End Module or Manifold
PVDF (Poly-Vinylidene-di-Flouride) innerliner material
RAO Response Amplitude Operators
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
SCR Steel Catenary Riser
S-N Stress range – Number of cycles to failure
TLP Tension Leg Platform
TDP Touch Down Point
VIV Vortex Induced Vibration

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1.4 References
1 Offshore technology conference papers from 1969 to 1998
2 In-house technical database
3 In-house experience in rigid and flexible flowline installation
4 In-house capabilities of hybrid riser system dynamic analysis
5 Manufacturer and subsea contractor product leaflets
6 Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Tie-in Methods”
7 Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Sealines”

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2 PROCESS DESIGN FOR DEEPWATER RISER
2.1 General
There are mainly two types of riser: (1) flexible riser and (2) steel riser, which are available for
the deepwater field development from a floating production system. Each of these
technologies have its own design basis as further presented in the following sections.
2.2 Steel riser system
2.2.1 Design methodology

The steel catenary riser design methodology flowchart is presented in the following figure 1.

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Figure 1 – Steel catenary riser design flow chart
The design checks related to the different design phases of a steel riser system are described
in the following sections.

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2.2.2 Selection of the riser section

A starting point of the design process is the definition of the riser internal diameter as a
function of the fluid characteristics and of the required flow rate. The wall thickness is initially
defined to guarantee:
- Containment of the maximum internal pressure (bursting)

- Adequate strength against local buckling due to external hydrostatic over-
pressure (if any) axial force and bending moments
- Sufficient strength to resist propagating buckling in absence of buckle arrestors
- Adequate apparent weight for the on-bottom stability against lateral current loads.
Consideration for corrosion due to internal fluid and to the sea environment shall be
performed to identify the actual material characteristics, the required corrosion allowance and
the specifications for external coatings (if any)
2.2.3 Selection of the basic configuration (static analysis)
Static analysis is the fundamental step for preliminary definition of the riser configuration. The
design water depth, the maximum static offsets and the heave motions imposed by the floater
allow the designer to select the most suitable geometry from the possible alternatives. The
definition of the riser total length and the amount of buoyancy (if any) are the next step to
achieve a well-balanced initial configuration. Such configuration results into a compromise
between the top end tension, the peak combined stresses arising in the touch down point
(TDP) or in the bent areas (e.g. arch) and the maximum angle variations at the riser
terminations. An adequate margin against the expected dynamic amplification must be
accounted for starting from this phase, in order to consider realistic data (e.g. dynamic
amplification factor, typically within 1.2-1.3 range, is used to determine the dynamic tensions
from the static results).
2.2.4 Dynamic analysis – extreme conditions

The mooring system analysis, using numerical or physical models with a statistical
representation of the environmental conditions, allows the prediction of the extreme offsets
for the floating production system. These values shall be determined for intact or damaged
mooring conditions, considering both parallel (current, waves and wind colinear) and
transverse weather (current, waves and wind non-colinear) conditions. The transfer functions
for the six components of the vessel motion (Response Amplitude Operators or RAOs) in the
wave frequency range are usually provided. The top end of the riser is generally subjected to
the direct action of waves and current in conjunction with the imposed motion defined by the
combination of RAOs with the considered Sea State. The dynamic analysis of the riser is
generally based on a time domain approach with non-linear structural and loading models,
using both regular and spectral wave conditions.
The main parameters subjected to checks are:
- Effective tensions
- Bending moments and combined stresses along the entire riser length
- Angular excursions and reactions forces at the top end
- Transverse riser motions
- Bending moments and potential compression at the TDP
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Particular attention has to be paid, under severe storm conditions, to avoid excessive axial
compression in the lower part of the riser (close to the TDP), which can lead to uncontrolled
deflected shape and involve high bending radius and hence buckling of the pipe.
2.2.5 VIV analysis
The need for VIV suppressors should be investigated with respect to VIV effects induced as
part of the riser fatigue damage. Should excessive motions be expected, effective
suppressors will be selected and applied to the required riser extension. Numerical model of
the problem is required in order to evaluate the envisaged solutions. Limited developments
have been identified in this particular area and, among these, the widely recognised work of
Prof. J.K. Vandiver is a key reference, being also the basis of a specific software (SHEAR7
by MIT) potentially suitable for handling this problem.
2.2.6 Fatigue analysis

The total fatigue damage is assumed being generated by the combined action of the following
contributions:
- Mean motions of the vessel caused by the sequence of storms foreseen in the
long-term distribution
- Slow-drift motions of the vessel inside each storm event
- Wave-frequency motions of the vessel and hydrodynamic loads applied directly to
the riser for each of the above events
- Vortex induced vibrations (VIV) effects in some portions of the riser (e.g. first 100
meters below sea surface level)
The admissible fatigue life is assumed to be equal to 10 times the design life for the entire
pipe length. Suitable criteria will be defined to couple a particular environmental condition
(wave and current) with the corresponding vessel offset. A time-domain approach will be
followed to describe the dynamic response of the riser generated by the representative sea-
states of the long-term distribution. The damage is then evaluated by means of a suitable
procedure that shall be aligned with the solution approach, considering a reference S-N
(Stress range – Number of cycles to failure) curve like HSE, API X (in RP 2A) and the
Palmgren-Miner law for summing the partial contributions.
2.2.7 Temporary conditions

Temporary conditions are generally associated with the life phases of the system before
operation. They include:
• Construction: On-shore or off-shore assembly and handling of the riser

• Transportation: Using surface, immersed or controlled-depth towing methods
• Installation: Directly operated by the towing vessels or by the laying vessels.
These phases, together with potentially disconnection and retrieval operations, must be
considered within the analysis methodology in order that maximum riser responses in
transient static and dynamic conditions are captured. The reference meteocean conditions
are identified on the basis of the estimated duration of each operation and of the period of the
year selected for the activity.

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2.3 Flexible riser

The main design aspects, which need to be addressed in deep water flexible pipe design,
are:
2.3.1 Hydrostatic collapse at design water depth (pipe empty condition)

In conventional flexible pipe, the internal carcass has been designed to provide all of the
collapse resistance to the flexible structure. The pipe must be designed to have sufficient
collapse resistance with the outer sheath damaged. In this case, the external hydrostatic
pressure penetrates the structural layers (pressure and tensile armours) and bears against
the fluid barrier.
For deepwater application, a solution to provide additional collapse resistance without adding
substantial weight will consist in modifying the pipe structure such that the external
hydrostatic will bear outside the pressure armour. Thus both the pressure armour and the
carcass will provide internal ring stiffness increasing the collapse resistance.
Further improvements in the collapse resistance for larger diameter and deeper water
requires increased ring stiffness of the internal carcass and/or pressure armour.
2.3.2 Axial compression of the pipe structure due to the reverse end cap load
The axial compressive stiffness of conventional flexible pipe is an order of magnitude lower
than the tensile stiffness. When a flexible pipe is subject to axial compression, the tensile
armour layers expand radially (i.e. increase of the diameter under compression known as
Poisson's effect), with resistance to expansion provided by the helical wrapped tape over the
tensile armour and the external sheath itself. The reverse end cap load in deep water is
substantial. For example, a 6" ID empty pipe at a water depth of 2000 meters is subject to
more than 80 tonnes reversed end cap load
There are three potential modes of failure of the flexible pipe resulting from the reverse end
cap load:
- Buckling of the tensile armour wires themselves

- Rearrangement of the tensile armour layers resulting from the radial expansion
- Failure of the outer sheath
If the flexible pipe is not torsionally balanced under axial compression, or has residual torque
due to the manufacturing, reeling or installation processes, then the resulting twist can
increase the radial expansion of either the outer or the inner tensile armour layer. This would
increase the potential for these failure modes to occur. Thus torsion loading must also be
considered in evaluating the resistance of a flexible pipe structure to reverse end cap loads.

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2.3.3 High tension load in operation of dynamic risers due to pipe weight and dynamic
amplification
In order to reduce the tension loads on flexible pipe for deep-water applications, a system
approach can be applied. Multiple flexible pipe structures are used with a mid-line connection
between the pipes. The top section is designed for higher tensile capacity and the lower
section is designed for high collapse resistance. This approach saves substantial weight over
making the entire pipe designed for both the required collapse resistance and top tension
capacity. The high tension capacity pipe can be made with composite tensile armour to result
in further weight reduction.
The estimated weight saving versus steel armoured pipe by using a combination of steel
structures composed of high tensile capacity top section and high collapse resistance bottom
section is 25%, and 50% for high tensile capacity top section with composite armour and high
collapse resistance bottom section with steel armour
Figures 2 and 3 present the pipe design and capabilities of the composite armour relative to
the steel material currently being used. In addition to weight reduction, the composite armour
offers the advantage of being essentially inert to corrosion, hydrogen induced cracking and
sulphide stress cracking, all potential mechanisms for reducing the service life of a flexible
pipe.
LAYER MATERIAL FUNCTION

FLEXSHIELD NYLON 11 EXTERNAL FLUID BARRIER
FLEXTENSIBLE CARBON STEEL TENSIBLE STRENGTH LAYER
FLEXWEAR NYLON 11 ANTI-WEAR LAYER
FLEXTENSIBLE CARBON STEEL TENSIBLE STRENGTH LAYER
FLEXLOK CARBON STEEL HOOP STRENGTH LAYER
FLEXBARRIER NYLON 11 or PVDF FLUID BARRIER
FLEXBODY STAINLESS 316L COLLAPSE RESISTANT LAYER
Figure 2 – Non-bonded flexible pipe structure
LAYER MATERIAL FUNCTION

FLEXSHIELD NYLON 11 EXTERNAL FLUID BARRIER
FLEXTENSIBLE COMPOSITE TENSIBLE STRENGTH LAYER
FLEXTENSIBLE COMPOSITE TENSIBLE STRENGTH LAYER
FLEXLOK CARBON STEEL HOOP STRENGTH LAYER
FLEXBARRIER PVDF FLUID BARRIER
FLEXBODY DUPLEX 220S STAINLESS COLLAPSE RESISTANT LAYER
Figure 3 – Non bonded flexible pipe structure using composite armour material

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The following table provides mechanical properties comparison between steel and composite
materials:
Steel Carbon Fiber Composite

Configuration Cold rolled/Heat treated Thermoplastic/Carbon fiber matrix
Rectangular cross section Rectangular cross section
3 – 6 mm thick 1 – 2 mm thick
Mechanically performed to helical 2 – 4 layers

structure Helically wrapped
Strength 759 Mpa 1,255 Mpa
Modulus 207 Gpa 80.7 Gpa
Elongation 11% or higher 1.4 %
Density 7.85g/cc 1.48g/cc
Table 1 – Mechanical properties comparison
2.3.4 Installation loads
The flexible pipe structure must be designed to withstand the following installation loading
conditions:
- Radial compression with tension to simulate loading condition at tensioner

- External hydrostatic pressure, zero internal pressure with and without bending
and torsion
- Tension and radial compression loads on external sheath
The pipe structure is checked by stress analysis to verify that it can withstand these
combined loading conditions. Where necessary, the pipe layer dimensions or materials are
modified to assure that the loading is within the allowable utilisation factors prescribed in API
specification 17J.

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2.4 Design software for riser systems

Time domain non-linear dynamic analysis:
• Flexcom 3D (developed by MCS International)

• Visual Orcaflex (developed by Orcina)
• Deepline (developed by IFP)
• TIARA (Total Integrated approach to Riser analysis with VIV analysis, developed
by Shell)
• RICOL (developed by Marintek)
Finite Element, Frequency domain, Time domain non-linear analysis:
• ABAQUS (developed by ?)
• COSMOS (developed by Structural Research & Analysis Corp)
Vortex Induced Vibration analysis:
• Shear 7 (developed by MIT)

• VIVA (developed by DTCL ltd)

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3.1 General
The main interface requirements in the riser design are related to:
- Pipeline end terminations

- Subsea production system
- Subsea connection and tie-in methods
- Lay vessels and methods (e.g. J-lay, Reel lay and Towing)
- Attachment point on the floating production system
- Anchoring point at the seabed
This study will address only the two last topics as the other subjects have already been
covered in the documents "Tie-in Methods" (Reference 6) and "Sealines" (Reference 7) of
Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book.
3.2 With Floating Production System

Considering FPS such as semi-submersible, SPAR or TLP, the hang-off point can be either
at the pontoon level or at the deck level with the following advantages and drawbacks:
- Interface at pontoon level allows the riser to avoid the dynamic wave splash zone,
hence avoiding high environmental loads and eliminating the risk from accidental
vessel impact. This solution has the disadvantage of involving subsea connection,
which complicates the connection installation, inspection and maintenance.
- A deck level hang-off point has the advantage of being an above water connection.
However it require the riser to pass through the splash zone and increases the
reversal efforts applied on the floating production system (as riser tension is applied
above the centre of buoyancy) with a consequent impact on stability and payload.
For flexible riser, a hanging device is used to maintain the top of a riser on a support fixed to
the floater, for example at the top of a I or J tube. The I or J tubes are designed to protect the
riser against environmental loads (wave and current) and accidental collisions with vessel
(see figure 4). They are often equipped with a bell mouth system using mechanical dogs to
hold the riser bending stiffener with a conical structure facilitating the riser entry and allowing
angle deflection.

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Riser Pulling Head

Hang-Off System
I Tube
Flange
Unlock Ring
Polymeric Spring
Dogs Device
Figure 4 – Top attachment arrangement of flexible riser
In the case of rigid riser hung in a free catenary, a flexjoint receptacle fixed to the pontoon or
deck level acts as a hanging point (see figure 5).
Pre-Installed Spool Piece
Hull Piping Support Clamp
Field-Installed
Spool Piece
End Connection
Flexjoint
Guide Ring /
Wear Bushing
Main Housing
FPS
Elastomer Element
Installation Bumper
Catenary Riser
Flexjoint
receptacle
Figure 5 – Top attachment arrangement of steel catenary riser
For the top-tensioned risers, a tensioning system is required to support the riser, maintain
required tension and compensate for the relative motions of risers and platform.
From a semi-submersible platform, riser is typically supported by hydro-pneumatic cylinders
and lines rigged through sheave blocks to magnify the movement of the cylinders and so
allow large relative motions between the platform and the riser.
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The amount of relative motion between the TLP and the riser is small and simple
hydraulic/pneumatic cylinders may be connected directly to the riser at the special "riser
tensioner joint".
In a Spar platform, the risers will only require a simple static tensioning system to be used
mainly during the riser installation. Once the desired mean tension is achieved the risers may
be locked off with the buoyancy cans attached to the riser and compensating for the platform
movements (see section 4.3.2 II.).
3.3 At seabed
The free hanging (rigid or flexible) catenary riser system is characterised by the absence of
additional hardware components except at the seabed connection to a steel sealine. This
sealine can be terminated by either a mechanical flange or a pipeline end module requiring a
mechanical connection and a jumper installation respectively.
In the other configurations and depending on the type of risers, the following subsea
interfaces are required:
3.3.1 Flexible risers

In order to increase the riser system compliance (particularly in relative shallow waters), the
Lazy "S" or Steep "S" configurations can be adopted (see section 4.2.5). Mid-water arches
are used to support the risers in these configurations (see figure 6).
The mid-water arch and associated subsurface buoy is tensioned by means of a sling and a
dead weight in the case of a lazy "S" configuration, and by means of the flexible pipe itself in
the case of a Steep "S" configuration (see figures 16 and 18).
The mid-water arch keeps the flexible riser at an acceptable curvature.
Buyancy modules
Mid-water
arch
Flexible risers
Figure 6 – Mid-water arch supporting flexible risers

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In the wave configurations, the mid-water arch is replaced by buoyancy modules consisting of
two parts (see figure 7):
- A steel clamping system which ensures the attachment of the buoyancy module to
the flexible.
- A buoy with a torus shape. The material used for this buoy (usually a syntactic
foam) is designed according to the water depth.
Buoyancy
module
Figure 7 – Distributed buoyancy modules being installed on flexible riser
The anchoring base of a riser in Steep "S" or Steep "Wave" configuration consists of a steel
and/or concrete structure. It may include piping, valves and elbows (see figure 8).
RISERS
CONCRETE SLAB
SPOOL PIECE TO TEMPLATE
Figure 8 – Typical riser base for Steep system
The soil conditions are an important parameter. In fact, the angle of the subsea end fitting of
a riser in a Steep "S" or Steep "Wave" configuration has to be carefully controlled and
depends on the riser base being horizontal (+/- 2°). The riser base is generally stabilised by
its own weight, but can be piled if soil conditions so require.
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3.3.2 Top tensioned risers

For the top tensioned risers, the riser base is a steel structure mounted on a well template or
a subsea manifolding template and equipped with a male hub facing upwards for connection
to the riser by means of tie-back connector (see figure 9).
Figure 9 – Riser base mounted on subsea template

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3.3.3 Hybrid riser tower

In the hybrid riser tower, a riser base is placed on the seabed to provide an anchoring system
to resist tension loads. In addition the riser base acts as a connection point between the
sealine coming from the wells or manifolds to the vertical riser.
The riser base consists of a central core structure housing the foundation receptacle, which is
attached to a template structure. The riser base-foundation may be piles (steel), gravity
(concrete) structures, suction caisson or a combination thereof. Typical installation inclination
relative to vertical is +/- 2°.
Gas Injection Valves

With Protective Cage Riser
Riser
Plate Girders
Riser Funnel
Pinned Stress Joint
Riser Bottom
Connector
Concrete Ballast
Seabed
Concrete Infill
Foundation Receptacle
Suction Pile
Foundation Receptacle
Typical Riser
Arrangement
Suction Pile
A/ SIDE VIEW B/ TOP VIEW
Figure 10 – Subsea foundation for hybrid riser tower

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4 RISER SYSTEM REVIEW
4.1 General
A riser system must be designed/selected to adapt the following requirements:
• Provide enough flexibility to allow for FPS motions:

- First order wave motions.
- Second order wave motions (slow drift).
- Static offset due to environmental loads.
- Static offset after mooring line failure.
• Acceptable behaviour under environmental conditions encountered (i.e. resists to
the environmental loads and especially current loads, avoids riser clashing, and
overreaching of the maximum loads which can be withstood by the floater or the
riser base).
• Satisfy the flow assurance requirements:
- Sufficient insulation or heat supply.
- Resistant to the fluid aggressions (i.e. internal pressure, corrosion, erosion).
- Artificial lift means if required (e. g. gas-lift, multi-phase pump)
• Resist to transportation/laying loads (i.e. external overpressure, eventually
clamping pressure onboard the laying vessel, etc.).
A wide range of riser configuration concepts have been designed and sometimes applied.
Variations occur due to the specific requirements of each application. These configurations
can be distinguished on the basis of:
• The structural properties of the riser section (i.e. rigid or flexible) and the materials
• The cross-section complexity (i.e. mono-bore or multi-bore)
• The general arrangement/configuration.
4.2 Flexible Riser Systems
4.2.1 Structural description of flexible pipe riser

Non-bonded flexible pipe has been applied in the offshore oil and gas industry for about 20
years. It is used for dynamic risers connecting seabed flowlines to floating production
systems, and for static seabed flowlines. In some cases flexible pipe has proved to be more
economic than rigid pipe: in harsh environments or when it is desired to recover the flowline
for reuse after a short field life.
The basic flexible pipe design (see figure 11) consists of a stainless steel internal carcass for
collapse resistance, an extruded polymer fluid barrier, a carbon steel interlocked hoop
strength layer, helically wound carbon steel tensile armor for axial strength, and an extruded
watertight external sheath. For dynamic applications extruded polymer or tape polymer
antiwear layers are applied between adjacent steel armor layers. For extremely high pressure
applications, an additional layer of rectangular shaped helical reinforcement over the
interlocked hoop strength layer, or a second set of tensile armor layers, may be applied. The

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flexible pipe structure is inherently thermal resistant and corrosion resistant. Thermal
insulation layer(s) can be added under the external sheath to provide additional thermal
resistance.
Internal carcass
Fluid barrier
Hoop strength layer
Anti-wear layers
Tensile Armors
External sheath
Figure 11 – Non-bonded flexible riser construction
This pipe structure design has been employed successfully in water depths up to 1710
meters on Marlim Sul 3 in Brazil 1997. Recent plans to produce oil and gas from subsea wells
in 1000 – 2000m water depths pose new challenges for flexible pipe and other offshore
technologies.
The material of main layers used in flexible pipes are outlined in the following table 2:
Designation of layer Material used

Thermoplastic tube Polyamide 11, High Density Polyethylene, Coflon
Interlocked steel carcass Galvanized steel, AISI 3O4, AISI 304L, AISI 316, AISI
316L, Duplex, etc.
Thermoplastic sheath Polyamide 11, High Density Polyethylene, Coflon
Teta spiral or hoop strength layer Low or medium carbon steel
Reinforcing layer Low, medium or high carbon steel
Thermoplastic friction sheath Polyamide 11, High Density Polyethylene
Double crosswound armors Low, medium or high carbon steel
Insulation foam Cofoam, Carazide, hollow glass micospheres –
macrospheres + resin binder
Table 2 – Materials used in the flexible structure
The current flexible technology is restricted in terms of design pressure, water depth and
design temperature. These parameters are interdependent and also vary with the line
diameter. Typical values are 8000psi as a maximum design pressure, about 1500m
maximum water depth and a maximum design temperature of 130°C.

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For example, 9" production flexible risers (5700psi and 130°C) and 9" gas injection risers
(7200psi and 90°C) were installed as part of the Asgard project (300-320m water depth),
which represented a technical challenge in the use of the flexible technology.
It is generally agreed that the “Flexible” technology has reached its maturity and the current
development would extend its application within the next 2-3 years, as follows:
Maximum size 8” ID 12” ID 16” ID

Deepwater application 1400m 1400m 1000m
Ultra deepwater (under development) 3000 m 2500m 1500m
Design pressure 7000 psi 3000psi
4.2.2 End fitting

Flexible riser is terminated with two end-fittings composed of (see figure 12):
- The termination which ensures the seal and the mechanical attachment of the end-
fitting to the flexible pipe
- The connector to allow the connection of the end-fitting to any other compatible
connector. All types of connectors can be supplied with any end-fittings, the most
common being API hubs (formerly "CIW hubs"), hammer unions and flanges.
Flexible Bend Stiffener Termination Connector
Figure 12 – Flexible pipe end fitting

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4.2.3 Bending stiffener

In dynamic risers, the smallest bending radii (i.e. higher bending moment) are generally found
near the end fittings at the connection with the floating production system.
In order to avoid any over-stressing of the flexible pipe at this location, a moulded plastic
bending stiffeners are placed around the riser (see figure 123). Their conical shape ensures a
smooth transition between the end fitting and the riser.
Bending Stiffener
Figure 13 – Bending stiffener mounted on riser

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4.2.4 Bending restrictor

A bending restrictor is made of several vertebrae which physically limit the curvature of the
flexible pipe to an admissible radius (see figure 14). The bending restrictor is used mainly:
- At the bellmouth of a J tube (e.g. to control the bending load and the minimum
bending radius).
- At the horizontal connection of a wellhead or a template, when the distance
between the connection and the sea-bed is important (i.e. to control the bending
radius)
- As external protection for the flexible pipe (e.g. when crossing a large diameter rigid
pipe).
- In order to avoid any over-bending during installation, generally when the flexible is
connected to a structure (plem, automatic connector, skid, etc.) before installation.
Bending restrictor
Figure 14 – Bottom end riser termination equipped with a bending restrictor

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4.2.5 Riser configurations

Flexible risers have been used extensively in recent years for floating and early production
systems. Such risers offer the advantage of having inherent heave compliance in their
catenary thereby greatly reducing the complexity of the riser-to-rig and riser-to-subsea
interfaces. In shallow waters and mild environments the risers have been used in a simple
catenary. With increasing water depths coupled with severe environments several alternate
configurations have been used and proposed, namely, the Lazy S, Steep S, Lazy wave,
Steep wave and Compliant wave.
These different configurations are available on a custom design basis. The choice of the
adequate configuration is made according to different parameters such as:
- Weather conditions
- Water depth
- Number of lines
- Crowding of seabed
- Surface floater motions
- Maximum platform admissible loads
- Current profile
- Ease of installation
- Etc…
The different flexible riser configurations are described below:
I. "Free Hanging" configuration (see figure 15)

This is the configuration of a flexible riser which runs in a catenary shape from the upper
connection point on the floater straight down to the seabed where it can be connected to any
of subsea equipment (flexible sealine, plem, satellite tree, subsea manifold, etc.).
Flexible riser
Sagbend
Figure 15 – Flexible riser in "Free Hanging" configuration

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The flowline system can be either all flexible pipe, or a combination of rigid sealine and
flexible riser. The installation of a flexible riser / rigid pipe consists in basically, after a
steel pipe has been installed and abandoned on seabed, retrieving the rigid line by the
flexible pipe lay vessel and connecting above surface a flexible flowline end segment.
The entire assembly is then lowered to the seabed and the continuation of flexible
flowline installation continues till the transfer of riser flowline to the floating production
system.
At seabed sagbend location, the FPS first and second order motions can induce
compression buckling in the flexible, or problem of pipe embedment in soft soil,
especially in the case of an FPSO. If this appears to be critical, the solution may be to
adopt another riser configuration such as "Wave" or "S".
II. "Lazy S" configuration (see figure 16)

This is a configuration where a dynamic flexible riser runs down to the sea bed in a
double catenary shape from the upper connection on the floater via a subsurface buoy,
and a mid-water arch. The lower part of the flexible riser lies on the sea bed. The mid-
water arch and buoy are tensioned by means of a sling and dead weight. The mid-water
arch keeps the flexible riser at an acceptable curvature.
Flexible riser
Dead
Weight
Mid-water arch
(with sub-surface buoys)
Figure 16 – Flexible riser in "Lazy S" configuration

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III. "Lazy Wave" configuration (see figure 17)

This is a configuration where a loop is formed between the upper connection and the
seabed by clamping buoyancy modules along a given section of the dynamic flexible
riser. The lower part of the riser lies horizontally on the seabed. The Lazy Wave
configuration is a straight forward extension of the classic Lazy S configuration where
the mid-water arch, and associated subsurface buoy, sling and dead weight are
replaced by a number of buoyancy modules.
Flexible riser
Buoyancy modules
Figure 17 – Flexible riser in "Lazy Wave" configuration
IV. "Steep S" configuration (see figure 18)

This is a configuration where a flexible riser runs down to the sea bed in a catenary
from the upper connection on the floater, via a subsurface buoy and mid-water arch.
The flexible riser itself is tensioned by the subsurface buoy and the mid-water arch, and
is connected to a riser base at the subsea connection point.
Flexible riser
Mid-water arch
Riser base
Figure 18 – Flexible riser in "Steep S" configuration

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V. "Steep Wave" configuration (see figure 19)

seabed by clamping buoyancy modules along a given section of the dynamic riser
base. The lower part of the riser is connected to a riser base.
The Steep Wave configuration is a straight forward extension of the classic Steep S
configuration where the mid-water arch and associated subsurface buoy are replaced
by a number of buoyancy modules.
The Steep wave configuration is perfectly adapted to the Early Production and Testing
vessel concept. The basic idea behind this concept is to simultaneously generate
reservoir data through extended well testing and provide early cash flow by export of
the produced crude/gas. Such a vessel is typically used for a few months on a field
where reserves are not yet known with the accuracy required for the definition of a
comprehensive development scheme.
Flexible riser
Buoyancy modules
Riser base
Figure 19 – Flexible riser in Steep Wave configuration

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VI. "Pliant Wave" configuration (see figure 20)

seabed by clamping buoyancy modules along a given section of the dynamic flexible riser.
The lower part of the riser lies horizontally on the seabed. One end of the lower part is
connected to the subsea production system and the other end is attached to a dead weight
to withstand the uplift generated by the buoyancy modules.
This configuration is well adapted to a field development using a floating production
platform located directly above the subsea production system and flexible lines to
connect the subsea wells to the floater.
Flexible riser
Buoyancy modules
Dead
Weight
Figure 20 – Flexible riser in Pliant Wave configuration
4.3 Rigid pipe riser systems
4.3.1 General
Flexible risers have been extensively used for the field development based on the main
floating production systems (i.e. semi-submersibles, FPSO’ s). With the increase of water
depth, there are technical and economic limitations in the manufacturing of large diameter
flexible risers: collapse due to high hydrostatic pressure, reverse end cap effects, etc.
A rigid steel riser system can provide a technical and cost effective alternative to the high
procurement cost for flexible lines, which cannot always compensate for their lower
installation costs.
4.3.2 Riser configurations
The main rigid pipe riser system configurations are:
− Top tensioned riser tower (semi-submersible application)

− TLP or Spar top tensioned riser
− Steel catenary riser
− Hybrid riser tower

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I. Top Tensioned Riser Tower applied to Semi-Submersible (see figure 21)

This riser configuration has been implemented by Enserch Exploration Inc on
Green Canyon block 29 (466m WD) in 1988, recovered for refurbishment in 1990
due to reservoir declared non-commercial, and reinstalled on Copper Garden
Banks 388 (638m WD) in 1995 in the Gulf of Mexico.
The Top Tensioned Riser utilises a rigid, buoyant production riser with a titanium
stress joint at the base. Titanium was selected for the stress joint material due to
its reduced modulus of elasticity (about half of the steel Young's modulus, which is
equal to 207,000Mpa) and its resistance to the fatigue and the effects of corrosion
in sea water. The riser, connected at its base to a multi-slot template, provides
individual access and surface control to each well and can remain connected
throughout the life of the field including 100-year storm conditions. The top of the
riser is located 55m below sea level and is connected to the floating production
system by tensioning tethers. The depth of the riser top is selected to minimise the
action of the waves and still allow air divers to work at that level. Flexible flowlines
and umbilical make the connection between porches mounted on the rig pontoons
and the upper riser connector package on top of the riser. The rigid riser is
installed in a manner similar to conventional drilling riser running techniques. The
production, annulus, oil and gas export lines use standard tubing and line pipe and
all are installed into the riser through the rotary table using conventional methods.
Water Line
Pontoon
Tensioner centralizer Riser connector
50 m Package
Flexible Pipe Riser umbilical
Tensioner cables
Upper Riser
Tensioner Sheave
Connector
Package
Flexible pipe
Upper Riser Buoyancy

30 m Air Tanks
Top of Riser Tower
365 m Buoyant Guide &

Support Column
Tapered stress joint
Lower Connector
15 m
Riser Base
Template
Seabed
Figure 21 – Top tensioned riser applied to semi-submersible (Enserch Green Canyon)

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The Top Tensioned Riser consists of the following main components from the bottom to the
top:
- Riser base (positioned permanently on the pile anchored template)

- Lower riser connector
- Stress joint (e.g. in titanium alloy)
- Riser joints
- Upper riser connector package
- Riser tether system
The Enserch Green Canyon riser tower components are described below:
Riser base
The riser base consists of a hub profile centered between four radially located posts and four
pile sleeves. Vertical female receptacles surround the hub to provide production/annulus/oil
export line connections to the riser. Within the central hub connection, at a slightly lower
elevation than the others, is a vertical receptacle for the gas export line.
Lower riser connector
The lower riser connector provides the structural link between the riser stress joint and the
riser base at the template. The connector will transmit the tensile and bending loads from the
riser to the riser base. The lower riser connector guides the riser onto the riser base and
orients the riser for subsequent installation of the production annulus and export tubing. The
connector allows the riser to be hydraulically locked to the riser base during installation and
released for retrieval.
The connector is a field proven collet type connector which is modified to increase its bending
capacity. The centre section of the connector has a stinger which extends into the mating hub
to provide a moment carrying interface. This allows the collet segments to carry all tensile
loads and only a portion of the bending moment.
Titanium Stress joint
The stress joint provides required flexibility and stress reduction between the riser connector
and lowermost riser joint. Steel transition spools at each end have flange - hub connections.
The lower flange connects to the lower riser connector, while the hub clamps to the stress
joint. The upper spool hub clamps to the tapered end of the stress joint, while a bolt flange
connects to the lowermost riser joint.

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Riser joints
The rigid riser is constructed of long bolt flange to flange steel joints. When fully assembled
the riser has sufficient buoyancy to make it free standing so as to reduce the deck loads on
the vessel. This buoyancy is provided by three separate methods. Each individual joint has
passive syntactic foam, which offsets the weight of each riser joint. The syntactic foam made
the joints lightly negatively buoyant in seawater. In addition to the syntactic foam modules,
each joint has an independent internal air can which provides air buoyancy to offset the
weight of the production and annulus tubing. The air cans can be filled through an umbilical or
independently filled or vented by an ROV. Five large air tanks are installed near the top of the
riser. These tanks provide the buoyancy needed during the installation phase, and also
allows the riser to withstand 100year storms and loop currents, even when it is disconnected
from the rig.
Fiberglass guide tubes (to guide the production lines) are moulded in the syntactic foam
modules mounted around the structural member. Each joint has twelve quarter sections of
foam.
On the outside of each foam module are attachment points for vortex strakes and umbilical
guides that are bolted and banded in place as joints are run through the moonpool.
Bolted to the uppermost riser joint with a flanged connection is the upper riser mandrel, which
acts as the structural connection between riser and the upper riser connector package. The
assembly includes a hub profile at its upper end surrounded by a guide plate to locate riser
guide tubes for flowlines and four guided posts to align the upper riser connector package.
Upper riser connector package
The upper riser connector package acts as the interface point between the rigid riser and
flexible flowline jumpers to the rig pontoon. It is locked in place by a collet connector at its
lower end.
Around the main collet connector are "mini" collet connectors that lock to the annulus and
production lines when the upper riser connector package is landed on the riser. Goosenecks
attached to the mini-connectors make an 180-degree bend and terminate in a clamp hub
facing down. Flexible lines are attached to these hubs and hang in a catenary shape to
pontoon connection points on the floater. The export line is also located radially from the
central collet connector with a similar connector.
In normal operating conditions, the mini-connector/gooseneck assemblies are each free to
move independently in the vertical direction. This movement is necessary to compensate for
vertical tubing deflections due to riser deflection, temperature effects, and pressure effects.
Riser tether system
Although the production riser tether system utilises drilling tensioned components, it is more
accurately described as a riser centraliser than as a riser tensioner. The riser is free standing
and does not depend on the tensioner for structural support.
If the floater moves away from the top of the rigid riser by the environmental forces, the
flexible flowlines take a shallower catenary curve. Without the restraint of the tensioner
system, the flexible flowlines would have to be significantly longer to prevent damage to their
terminations and would consequently cause greater stresses in the riser due to increased
weight and drag.
Applying a restraining force to the top of the rigid production riser and limiting its motion
relative to vessel keeps the flexible flowlines to an optimum length and allows them to remain
connected during the most severe environmental conditions. The tether system has line travel
capability that is adequate to keep the riser top in an appropriate position below the vessel.
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The production riser tether system consists of the following:
- Riser interface sheave package

- Riser tether centraliser structure (fairleaders and turndown sheaves)
- Wire rope tensioners
- Tether control system
- Production riser tensioner slipping winches
The tensioner lines exit the fairleader on the floating production system and travels through
the water to the riser interface sheave package, which is attached to the gas export line hub
on the upper riser connector package by a manual diver assisted connector below the ocean
surface.
The tensioner cables are centralised by means of a riser tether centraliser structure. This
structure consists of fairleaders mounted to the rig structure below the water line. Six wire
rope tensioners are mounted on the deck of the floater. All six tensioners operate together to
produce the required riser tension thereby controlling the riser excursion within the necessary
radius. The wire rope tension is controlled from the tether control system, which regulates the
flow of air high pressure supplied to pneumatic tensioners.
II. Top Tensioned Riser applied to TLP and Spar (see figures 22 and 23)
The Neptune Field development is the first Spar-based floating production system
using multiple top tensioned production risers from seafloor wellheads back to the
surface trees in the Gulf of Mexico at a water depth of 580m.
Rigid risers act as tensioned beams. To avoid buckling under its own weight, and
excessive bending stresses under lateral wave, current and vortex shedding
loads, the riser is tensioned.
In a TLP, there is still a small amount of movement of the risers and platform. Its
riser system uses simple tensioning system composed of hydraulic cylinders. In
the case of the SPAR buoy, there are still considerable vertical movements and
buoyancy cans are used instead of the cylinders, taking advantage of the deep
draft of the SPAR hull, which protects the buoyancy cans against the
waves/current action. In both cases, flexible jumper pipes are used to link the
trees to the fixed piping of the platform.
The following section will consider this more complex top tensioned riser applied
to SPAR.

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Surface Tree
Sea Level
Buoyancy Modules
Bottom of Spar Hull
Keel Joint
9 - 5/8 Riser
Figure 23 – Top tensioned riser applied to TLP
Tapered Stess Joint Surface Tree

& Wellhead
Tieback Connector
Subsea Wellhead
Seabed
Hydraulic-Pneumatic
Tensioners
Tensioner Joint
Figure 22 – Top tensioned riser
Splashzone Joints
applied to Spar
Sea Level
Riser Coupling
Riser Joints
Stress Joint
Tieback Connector
Seabed
In this configuration, the riser system provides a pressure-contained link between surface tree
and seafloor wellhead system. Each riser system acts as an extension of the well's
production casing string providing primary pressure containment during well maintenance and
work-over operations and secondary pressure containment during routine production.
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The production riser system provides guidance for downhole equipment and various
maintenance and stimulation activities associated equipment. Each riser has an internal
diameter compatible with the well's production casing. Well production, gas lift/annulus
access and downhole control are through dual tubing strings and umbilical lines within the
riser.
Riser installation uses casing installation equipment and techniques. Component assembly
during installation is limited to make up of threaded-and-coupled connections. The few
flanged connections within the string are pre-assembled and tested on shore.
The SPAR production riser system consists of the following main components (see figure 24):
-Buoyancy cans
-Adjustable riser support structure
-Keel joint
-Riser joints
-Tapered stress joint
-Tieback connector
-Centralising riser joints
-Waveform joint
-Tubing spool
Wellhead
Riser Centraliser
Upper Riser
Transition
joint Production Deck Level
Mean Water
Riser Joint Keel Joint Level
Foam Buoyancy
Keel Joint
Bouyancy Can
Wear sleeve
Lower Riser
Transition Joint
Riser Riser Centraliser
Within
Upper Riser Spar
Transition
Joint
Stress
Joint
Standard
Riser Joint
Tie Back
Connector
Figure 24 – Detailed description of Neptune SPAR production riser

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Functionality of these components are described below:
Buoyancy cans
Each riser is independently tensioned by long buoyancy cans (which volume depends
on the riser submerge weight). Stem from the upper can extends upward to the
underside of the surface wellhead providing riser support. The lower two cans can be
either flooded with water or displaced with air through two service lines running back to
the production deck. The cans are fabricated in steel structures and lowered into the
SPAR well slot as a single assembly using a crane barge. The buoyancy cans are sized
to support the riser, surface wellhead, tubing strings, and tree.
Adjustable riser support structure
The adjustable riser support structure is a tool temporarily used to support a riser when
weight increases are anticipated and at the same time allowing vertical adjustment to
prevent riser over tensioning. If environmental conditions worsen to the point where
allowable motions may be exceeded, the riser is lowered into a controlled buckled
configuration and supported by the adjustable riser support structure. This prevents
riser over-tensioning that might result from increased displacements of the Spar.
Tieback connector
The tieback connector is the lowermost component in the production riser string and is
part of a riser subassembly that includes a Titanium stress joint and lower riser
transition joint. By making theses items a subassembly, critical flanged connections are
made up and fully pressure tested before they are shipped offshore.
The tieback connector is remotely locked through an ROV hot stab to the wellhead
housing, forming a pre-load structural connection and pressure containing interface with
a through bore.
At the upper end of the tieback connector, a compact flange with beryllium-copper
radial interference seal forms the load and pressure containing attachment to the stress
joint.
Titanium stress joint
The use of Titanium stress joint reduces stresses in the riser and bending moments
applied to the tieback connector due to its flexibility. This is especially critical during
lateral offsets for the drilling operations. The stress joint is made from a high strength
alloy, Ti-6A1-4V ELI.
The Titanium stress joint consists of cylindrical tubes. The two tubes with different OD
are welded together and compact Ti flanges are welded to each end for connection to
the steel flanges of interfacing components. The flanges incorporate radially energised
metal-to-metal beryllium-copper seals. To prevent deleterious galvanic corrosion
between the Titanium and steel, each steel flange is Inconel 625 overlaid. All the outer
surfaces of the stress joint, plus the two flange connections are encapsulated in an
elastomeric coating to prevent hydrogen absorption by the Ti and mitigate galvanic
interaction between Ti and steel.

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The lower riser transition joint is the uppermost part of the bottom subassembly and
forms the pressure containing and structural crossover between the Titanium stress
joint and production riser string. The upper connection to the riser string is a threaded-
and coupled TCII. For corrosion protection, the outer surfaces are coated with thermal
sprayed aluminium.
Riser joints
The bottom 3 riser joints have syntactic foam buoyancy modules. If a riser undergoing
work-over operations is lowered on the adjustable riser support structure and supported
by the Spar, its lower end goes into a controlled buckled configuration. The buoyancy
modules provide additional lift reducing the curvature in this area of the riser. The
syntactic foam, sized so it easily passes the buoyancy cans, is attached around
standard riser joints and vertically restrained by thrust collars.
The riser strings use TCII threaded-and-coupled connections. This connection creates a
joint efficiency approaching that of L80 pipe in tension and compression with radially
energized metal-to-metal seal.
The use of threaded-and-coupled connection allows the use of conventional casing
string installation techniques and equipment.
For corrosion protection, the riser's outer surface is coated with thermal-sprayed
aluminium. The coating acts as a combination barrier coating and cathodic protection
system.
Keel joint
The keel joint provides a pressure containing conduit, hull to riser wear surface, and a
reaction point for load transfer between the riser and Spar. The keel joint prevents
detrimental wear using a wear sleeve that rides within a bushing at the keel of the Spar.
The wear sleeve is attached to and supported by the inner pipe with a elastomeric
bearing at each end.
Lateral loads between the Spar and riser cause localized bending and the much-stiffer
wear sleeve limits the inner pipe deflection by distributing the load through the
elastomeric bearings and allowing the inner pipe to deflect into a curved configuration.
The keel joint is also a threaded end coupled joint. Because of the pipe size differences,
transition joints are used above and below the keel joint to crossover to the riser string.
Centralising riser joints
Above the keel joint and inside the hull the riser is made of standard casing. As the riser
comes up through the hull, it enters the buoyancy cans where it is laterally supported by
centralising riser joints.
The centralisers are standard riser joints with neutrally buoyant 3m long syntactic foam
modules. Like the buoyant riser joints, these foam modules are pre-installed on a
standard riser joint and vertically restrained by thrust collar assemblies.
Three centraliser joints are added into the riser string positioned near the bottom, centre
and top of the buoyancy cans.

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Waveform joint
The last joint within the riser string is a waveform joint that provides for riser space-out
using adjustable slips in the surface wellhead. Once the riser is locked to the seafloor
wellhead and tensioned, the proper wellhead is determined and the waveform slips are
set.
The landing ring, which is previously attached to the buoyancy can stem is stroked
upward using the adjustable riser support structure and attached to the surface
wellhead. The remaining waveform joint above the wellhead is removed and a seal
assembly installed. A clamp hub and seal pocket at the upper end of the wellhead is
used for attachment of the tubing spool.
Tubing spool
A tubing spool is attached to the wellhead that provides an internal bowl for tubing
hanger support, sealing and lock-down. The upper end of the tubing spool has a clamp
hub for attachment of either the surface tree or blowouts preventer spool. The hanger
supports dual CRA (corrosion resistant alloy) tubing strings that run through the riser
and lock into a packer located below the seafloor wellhead. A control umbilical strapped
to the tubing strings provides riser annulus dewatering, subsurface safety valve control,
and chemical injection.
III. Steel Catenary Riser (SCR)

Steel Catenary Riser is essentially an extension of the pipeline, suspended in a
near-catenary shape from the platform to the seafloor (similar configuration as
depicted in figure 15). The SCRs are composed of steel pipe sections welded end-
to-end, terminating at a flexible joint which is supported by a receptacle mounted
on a support frame (see figure 5 in chapter 3 “Interface requirement”). Deck piping
is connected to the steel riser by means of a flange connection mounted on top of
the flexible joint.
The entire riser has a triple coat epoxy/polyethylene coating for corrosion
protection, abrasion resistant coating is also required in the touchdown area.
The upper 150m have neoprene coating for additional protection and marine
growth prevention, plus triple start helical strakes for suppression of vortex
induced vibration.
The lower section of riser resting on the seabed could be anchored as required to
minimise the horizontal displacement and to prevent excessive pull on connection
point to sealine when the floating production platform is in far position.
The Flexjoint technology (see figure 5) which accommodates the riser motions at
the platform has made the steel catenary riser possible.
Steel catenary risers, used for oil and gas export, have been successfully
deployed on the Shell Auger TLP ( 2 x 12" in 870m WD), Shell Mars TLP (1 x 14"
and 1 x 18" in 950m WD) and British-Borneo Morpeth Mono-column TLP (518m
WD) in the Gulf of Mexico.
The world's first steel catenary riser to be used in conjunction with a semi-
submersible based floating production system has just been installed by Petrobras
on floater P18 in 910m WD Marlim Field Campos Basin Brazil.
This 10" riser will be connected later with flexible lines to the P 26 platform.
Following the trend of using steel catenary risers for export lines in Campos basin,
Petrobras will install 2 X 12" oil export SCR's on the semi-submersible P 19, at

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Marlim Field, in a water depth of 770 meters. The platform will be taut leg
anchored with 16 polyester/chain lines.
The successful installation of this riser is expected to be the next evolutionary step
in deepwater production technology for floating production systems, which impose
more motions on the riser than on the tension leg platforms.
The use of steel catenary riser system on FPSO’ s is still under development with
main concern on the fatigue issue due to the ship first order motion characteristics.
IV. Hybrid Riser Tower

As an alternative to the previous riser systems, the hybrid riser tower appears to
be an attractive solution for deepwater applications (see figure 25).
The hybrid riser tower concept began with the non-offset configuration
implemented on the Green Canyon field in 470m water depth (see section 4.3.2 I.,
where this type of riser is referred as "top tensioned riser tower applied to semi-
sub"). It was, thereafter refurbished and re-used on Garden Banks in 670m water
depth.
The offset hybrid riser was then elaborate for the Deepstar Project, to improve the
riser tower compliant motions, and this concept was retained for the Girassol field
development (West of Africa in 1350m water depth).
Hang-Off platform
FPSO
Bending Stiffener
0m Sea Level
-50 m
Sub-surface Buoy
Flexible Risers -50 m
-65 m
-70 m
Bending Stiffener
Gooseneck
Insulation Foam Steel Line Hang-off Leve
Central Air Can
Jumpers Central Air Can
Riser Tower Riser Base
-1000 m
Suction Piles
150 m
-1000 m Seabed
Figure 25 – Offset hybrid riser tower concept

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The hybrid riser tower system has two unique features:
− a “compliant” reaction during the slow drift motion of the FPS,

− a versatile concept as the main riser body (neutrally buoyant) can be
extended to any required water depth.
The concept of the offset hybrid riser tower includes the following main items:
• A riser base, anchored on the seabed by means of suction piles and

including a connection system to latch the riser tower (i.e. Merlin, Thor or
collet connector, Roto-latch, etc.). Flexible or rigid jumpers allow the
connection of the sealines to the flowlines contained within the riser tower.
• A riser tower, which raises from the riser base to about 70m below the sea
level (in order to mitigate the current-waves action on the subsea buoy).
This is a bundle composed of steel lines (flowlines, injection and service
lines, heating lines, etc.) arranged around a structural member (i.e. the
central air can) and contained within buoyancy / insulation foam modules.
• A subsea buoy, which provides additional buoyancy to the riser tower in
order to improve the dynamic behavior and keep the riser tower in tension
whatever are the environmental conditions. The subsea buoy top is located
between 50m –100m below the sea level in order to minimise the influence
of surface current and waves and to avoid high first order motions.
• Flexible risers connecting the tower top assembly to the FPS while allowing
relative motions.
The riser tower is designed with steel flowlines spread around a central air can.
The latter combines both functions of (1) providing additive buoyancy and (2) load
resistance by taking tension and bending moment. The flowlines are suspended
at the riser tower top level and are free to move axially along the tower due to
thermal expansion. Spacers and thrust collars are welded and spread along the
riser tower length to guide the flowlines and to transmit the uplift force of the
buoyancy modules to the central air can.
The subsea buoy is attached to the central can (e.g. by means of a flex-joint)
providing uplift force to maintain the top of the riser tower within a desired watch
circle under the drag and weight action of the flexible risers, and also the FPS
motions.
The flexible risers are connected to the upper riser tower connection system
composed of connectors and goosenecks. This assembly enables the transition
between the upper end of the flowlines spread around the central air can, and the
flexible risers.

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A typical analysis method of a hybrid riser tower system is presented hereafter:
IV.1. Hybrid Riser System Global Analysis

The analysis is mainly concerned with:
• the hydrodynamic loads induced by waves and current,

• the relative dynamic offset between the hybrid riser tower and the FPS in both
plans (parallel and perpendicular to the FPS longitudinal axis),
• the dynamic responses of the system: natural frequencies, wave excitation and
vortex induced vibration, fatigue,
• tow to site and the upending analysis of the hybrid riser system to its vertical
position.
IV.2. Mechanical Sizing

The mechanical sizing of the flowlines and the central air can is based on burst
and hydrostatic collapse analysis.
A local buckling analysis will be performed based on the dynamic results in order
to check the initial wall thickness evaluation.
The lines are not designed against the buckle propagation criterion. Because low
bending radii are not expected during installation and production phases.
Designing the lines to meet the buckle propagation requirement would be over-
conservative and would involve higher steel weight, a bigger subsea buoy and
therefore higher drag loads on the riser system.
IV.3. Riser Tower Insulation Sizing

Syntactic foam in modular forms are used for the purposes of (1) flowline bundle
insulation requirement (U<6 W/m² °K) and (2) buoyancy adjustment of the riser
tower through its entire length. The minimum foam thickness is given by
manufacturing process, mechanical resistance and insulation considerations. The
external diameter of the riser tower and the foam modules is governed by:
• the riser tower section arrangement (i.e. the number, the diameter and the
repartition of the flowlines around the central air can)
• the minimum thickness of foam
• the required buoyancy of the tower, especially for tow stability
considerations.
IV.4. Subsea Buoy Sizing

The subsea buoy’s net uplift force is dictated by:
• static equilibrium of the riser system in production mode with the required
tension provision in order to avoid any dynamic compression of the central
member. The dynamic analysis will verify that no compression occurs.
• Eigen period analysis, as the first natural period of the hybrid riser system is
mainly governed by the subsea buoy tension (see the following section for
further information on "Eigen-mode analysis").

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IV.5. Eigen - Mode Analysis

The Eigen mode analysis is required to prevent the hydrodynamic coupling
between the Riser System and the FPS 1st and 2nd order motions.
The analysis will consider the 1st and 2nd Eigen periods of the Hybrid Riser Tower.
In general, such natural periods would be expected to be:
• pendulum mode, parallel and perpendicular to the FPS longitudinal axis

• bending mode (2nd Eigen period associated with the first bending mode)
The dynamic response can be of two different natures: (1) inertial response
governed mainly by the excitation period, and (2) resonant response at a natural
period of the system, governed by the existing damping rate.
The pendulum resonance mode (i.e. low frequency resonance) can be prevented
by a proper hydrodynamic design of (1) subsea buoy tension and (2) flexible riser
configuration, to obtain a pendulum frequency higher than the FPS slow drift
frequency but lower than the subsea buoy vortex shedding frequency.
The riser tower bending mode can be excited in the high frequency range, which
can varied from high frequency (flexible riser VIV) to the wave frequency range
(e.g. FPS 1st order motion, riser tower VIV).
For the subsea buoy, the vortex shedding frequency falls in the low frequency
range.

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5 INSULATION TECHNIQUES
5.1 General
Deepwater offshore oil and gas fields are economically developed using subsea completions,
where produced fluid may travel a quite long distance, before reaching process facilities on
the floating production system.
During transport, the produced fluid could cool down to the ambient seawater temperature as
low as 4°C or less. Studies and experiences have shown that produced fluid at such a low
temperature could cause unacceptable emulsion, hydrate, and paraffin wax deposition
problems.
The field proven solutions to above problems are discussed below:
- Emulsion: Installation of crude heaters and/or injection of demulsifying agents on

the floater could be used to breakdown emulsions, but these alternatives required
space, weight and cost on an already congested floating production system.
- Hydrates: Once again, establishing facilities for continuous injection of methanol or
glycol to depress hydrate formation temperatures add burden to the floating
production system and increase operating costs.
- Wax: same impact as above if injection of wax suppressants is implemented.
An insulated flowline (sealine + riser) approach could overcome these problems by keeping
the produced fluid temperature above a required temperature for the different operation
modes : e.g. 40°C for production mode and 13°C for well testing.
5.2 Selection of an insulation material

The first step in engineering an insulated riser or sealine is to find an appropriate insulation
material. Properties and requirements to be considered included thermal conductivity, weight
(density), compressive strength, availability, manufacturing technique, attachment methods
etc.
In order to select the type, and estimate the amount required, a computer program is used to
calculate temperature drops in a riser or sealine with a single phased fluid. A variety of cases
are then calculated for various flowline lengths, production rates, water cuts, etc. – assuming
insulated coatings ranging from different types of insulation material.
The selected material should provide sufficient insulation value to meet design criteria, retain
its insulation properties in wet environment, resist to installation loads and finally have
sufficient compressive strength to keep it from being crushed under hydrostatic pressure
encountered in deepwater field development.

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5.3 Insulation material for steel riser and hybrid riser tower
For the growing activities in deeper waters (> 300m) the options are limited to the use of solid
materials, special engineered polymer composites and epoxy syntactic with hollow glass or
silicate microspheres, that can sustain a water depth of more than 1000m and a temperature
of 135°C.
Such constructions may be supplied with a thickness of 100mm and a thermal conductivity
k=0.1W/m°C, corresponding to a heat transfer U-value of 1.5W/m2°C.
The most promising thermal insulation material in deepwater applications are syntactic foams
which fall into two groups as described below:
− Pure syntactic foam composed of base polymer as initial constituent with a specific
gravity around 1.0 hence the material is almost neutrally buoyant. The density of the
polymer is reduced by including large numbers of small hollow glass spheres known
as microspheres. The microspheres typically have a diameter of between 100 and
150 microns. Their presence can result in a reduction of the specific gravity to
between 0.5 and 0.6. This material is well adapted to rigid steel riser.
− Composite syntactic foam where a third component known as macrospheres is
added to further reduce the material density. Macrospheres are typically hollow
thermoplastic spheres with a nominal external diameter of 50mm. Inclusion of the
macrospheres can reduce the syntactic foam specific gravity to between 0.3 and
0.4. This thermal insulation material is well adapted to hybrid riser.
The main thermal insulation materials that are normally considered for use with wet insulated
steel riser are detailed below in table 3:
Material Max Water Depth Thermal conductivity Density

(m) (W/m/°K) (kg/m3)

micro-spheres (ISOTUB,
BALMORAL, BPCL)
Syntactic Polypropylene 900 - 1800 0.16 710

(ISOTUB)
Syntactic Foam = epoxy resin + 3000 0.12 500

microspheres + macrospheres
(CRP)
Test Syntactic Polyurethane 2750 0.1 700

(Joint venture project)
Syntactic Tape (also used for 1000 0.11 640

flexible lines)
Multi-layer Polypropylene 950 - 1070 0.17 750
Insulating Elastomer 1000 0.12
Thermoplastic Rubber No limit (R&D) 0.16 1029
Table 3 – Thermal insulation material for steel and hybrid riser

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5.4 Insulation material for flexible riser

It should be stressed that the thermal insulation properties of a typical flexible production riser
are extremely good in comparison with those of a wet insulated rigid pipeline, due to its
multiple plastic layers.
However, in some instances, where the temperature loss along the riser must be kept to a
minimum, the thermal insulation of a typical flexible riser is not sufficient.
Several methods are available in order to increase the thermal insulation properties of a
flexible riser. The main methods used at present are:
- Increasing the thickness or changing the material of the thermoplastic layers

(double internal thermoplastic sheath, double external thermoplastic sheath).
- Using a special thermal insulation design based on coiling Cofoam material around
the pipe. Cofoam (about 1500 kg/m3) is an extruded semi-rigid polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) foam (see figure 26).
- Using tape wound on the pipe and composed of hollow glass microspheres, in the
size range of 100-200 microns, fibreglass macrospheres 0.124-0.5 inches in
diameter and an epoxy, polypropylene, or polyester resin binder.
Cofoam layer
Figure 26 – Thermally insulated flexible pipe

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It should be noted that the Coflon (thermoplastic material used in flexible riser to cope with
high temperature produced fluid) has a lower thermal conductivity than Polyamide which in
turn has a lower thermal conductivity than high density polyethylene. The thermal conductivity
coefficient of these thermoplastics is very low:
- K Coflon = 0.16 Kcal/m.h.°C at 34°C and 0.14 Kcal/m.h.°C at 104°C

- K Cofoam (Carizite) = 0.13 Kcal/m.h.°C at 70°C
- K Polyamide 11 = 0.288 Kcal/m.h°C (between 50 and 100°C)
- K High density polyethylene = 0.35 Kcal/m.h.°C at 20°C
For 6-8 inch ID flexible riser, a typical heat transfer coefficient U-value of 1.5-2W/m²K can be
achieved with "Carazide" (or Cofoam) insulation material.
Please refer to chapter “Insulation techniques” in "Sealines" Document (Reference 7) for
further information on thermal insulation material applied to deepwater flowline.

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6 HEATING TECHNIQUES
6.1 General
Heating technique, considered as active subsea insulation method, is viewed as a key
technology for flow assurance as the industry moves into increasingly deep waters. This will
help to reduce the risk of hydrates and wax plug formation when production lines are shut
down while at the same time reducing the risk of environmental contamination through
leakage of chemicals currently injected into the lines as a preventive measure.
The heating techniques may be designed for the following purposes:
- To maintain steady state pipe temperature above the hydrate formation temperature
(typically 15-25°C) after planned or non-planned shutdowns. The objective is to start
the system prior to hydrate formation
- Heating of the pipe, which have been cooled down to the ambient seawater
temperature. This situation might be valid after the unlikely situations of either a very
long major electric power system shut-down, > 10 hours, or after a simultaneous
process shut-down and heating system failure
- The system could also be used to maintain the required temperature at low
production rates.
The rating of a heating system is dependent on many factors. These might be material or
operational parameters, or design criteria.
The following parameters are essential for the design of the heating system:
6.1.1 Pipeline
- Material/composition thermal data
- Dimensions: diameter/thickness
- Riser insulation: dimensions (thickness), thermal conductivity (with corresponding
U-value and heat capacity)
- Thermal data and dimensions of protection on the riser section resting on the
seabed (surrounding/seabed, including depth of gravel, rock dumping, etc.)
- Thermal properties of the pipe content in different operation modes
- Geometry/length of riser

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6.1.2 Design criteria

- Temperature of seawater
- Sea depth
- Steady state temperature
- Required heating time
- Required melting time
At present, the main techniques proposed by manufacturers to heat up risers are listed
below:
- Electrical heating applicable to thermally insulated rigid steel risers

- Hot water circulation heating applicable to flexible and rigid steel risers
6.2 Electrical heating

The following techniques based on electric heating may be used:
- Electric heating cables

- Electromagnetic induction heating
- Direct electric heating
Refer to chapter “Heating techniques” in "Sealines" Document (reference 7) for further

information on electrical heating systems.
In all three methods, electric heat is used to maintain or raise the pipe temperature above the
critical value for hydrate (typically 15-25°C) or wax formation (typically 20-40°C).
The induction heating system has previously been qualified for a specific installation at a full
scale test installation in 1992 (Statoil/EFI Combipipe). It is technically an efficient method, but
the comparatively high installation cost makes it normally more expensive than a direct
heating system. The "SECT (Skin Effect Current Tracing) heating system", where the electric
cable is located in a small steel pipe welded to the well stream pipe, is applicable only for
short pipeline lengths.
This section will therefore only cover the most promising and cost effective solution to heat up
steel risers i.e. direct electric heating which was qualified for the Asgard and Huldra projects.
6.2.1 Direct Heating System description

The direct heating system, developed for thermally insulated rigid steel pipe, is based on the
fact that an electric alternating current in a metallic conductor (i.e. cable/pipe etc.) generates
heat. In the direct pipe heating system the pipe to be heated is an active conductor in a
single-phase electric circuit, together with a single core power cable as the forward
conductor, located in parallel with and close ("piggy-back") to the heated pipe (see figure 27).
The heating system is supplied from the FPS power supply by means of two power cables.
One of the two single core cable is connected to the near end of the pipe, and the other to the
forward conductor which is connected to the outmost end of the pipe.

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Power Cable
Straps
a/
Topside
b/ Power Supply Thermally Insulated
Pipe
Power Supply
Cables
Connections Power Supply

"Piggy-Back" Connection
Well Stream Pipe

Current Transfer Zone Current Transfer Zone
Anodes On Pipe Anodes On Pipe
Figure 27 – Direct electric heating principle
For safety and reliability reasons, the heating system is electrically connected ("earthed") to
surrounding seawater through several sacrificial anodes for a length of approx. 50m at both
ends where the cables are connected.
The following results can be drawn from the qualification test performed on 8-12" single rigid
steel pipe:
- No problems are foreseen for the concept on pipe dimensions up to 20"

- The typical power requirement is 100-150W/m
- The restriction concerning cable insulation level (36kV) limits the length of heated
pipeline to 50km
- No corrosion on normal carbon steel or 13%Cr steel pipes caused by the electric
heating system is observed during qualification tests

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6.3 Hot water circulation heating

For small to medium diameter risers requiring low heat compensation, the circulation of hot
water can be a cost effective and reliable alternative to the electric heating in deepwater
applications.
The hot fluid circulation heating system consists in flowing hot water in external lines
circumferentially installed on production risers (see figures 28 and 29). The water is injected
from the floating production system and dumped to sea (i.e. to save a return line).
Hot water line

Upper intermediate sheath layer
Lower intermediate sheath layer

Production line
Plastic filler
Figure 28 – Hot water heated flexible riser
Hot water line Insulated buoyancy module
Production line
Central can
Gas lift line
Water injection line Gas injection line
Figure 29 – Hot water heated production lines in hybrid riser tower
The heating lines are either in coiled tubing pipes or flexible pipes dependent on riser design
criteria. The diameter and number of the heating lines will mainly depend on the dimensions
of the riser to be heated up and the temperature variation between seawater and the
produced fluid for different operation modes.
The heat transfer value between the heating lines and the production riser to be heated is
low, but it can be improved by either creating a heating chamber with thermal insulation
material or using a conductor material placed between them.

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7 VORTEX INDUCED VIBRATIONS
7.1 General
The vortex vibrations are induced by a fluid flow acting on cylinder elements (i.e. vibrations
due to vortices, see section 7.2) and forcing them to vibrate by exciting their closest eigen
mode (i.e. mode shape associated to natural frequencies of the pipe closest to the vortices
oscillation frequency).
Mainly the rigid pipe riser systems are associated to the VIV problem. The high inertia value
of the rigid pipes involves high natural frequencies, which correspond to the VIV excitation
periods. But even risers made of flexible pipe, which have large structural damping, can
experienced VIV, although the consequences are quite minimal and thus are not a real
concern.
VIV generally does not induced high stresses in the rigid pipe riser, but it is damageable to
the system as it reduces its fatigue life by inducing high cyclic loads.
7.2 VIV prediction

The VIV prediction is a complex subject, especially for deepwater riser systems. This
vibrating phenomenon can be basically described as follows:
- The riser, immersed in a fluid flow, creates vortices; the two separation points (see
figure 30) oscillate on the riser sides, thus creating forces that oscillate at the vortex
apparition frequency. There are two types of oscillation: (1) oscillation in-line with
the velocity motion and (2) oscillation perpendicular to the velocity vector.
Flow
Flow separation points
Figure 30: Fluid flow sketch
- This vibrating phenomenon becomes critical when the cross flow force frequency is
relatively close to one natural period of the riser. This phenomenon called “lock-in”
occurs (i.e. pipe oscillates at its natural frequency which is closest to the excitation
induced by the vortices) which can result in serious damage by reducing the fatigue
life of the system.

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Predicting VIV and estimating response amplitude and frequencies are key issues when
determining the fatigue life of a riser system.
The difficulty in predicting VIV occurrence and effects is due to:
- Uncertainties about the environmental conditions that will be encountered by the

riser system, especially current profiles (magnitude and shape variation with depth).
- The inability to fully understand and model the fluid-structure interaction.
- Lack of full scale response data; the VIV prediction formulae are based on empirical
coefficients which are not well defined as they were determined for some particular
cases and often in laboratory conditions. These empirical coefficients are highly
dependent on several parameters such as the riser system data (diameter, length,
shape of the riser, marine growth, etc.) and the environmental conditions (i.e.
current profile).
- Multiple mode VIV that may occur due to the current profile variations with depth,
several natural bending modes may be simultaneously excited into VIV (i.e. the riser
experienced different frequencies of excitation with depth).
- The presence of adjacent riser, which modify the fluid flow and create shedding.
Some verification rules and methods are recommended by classification societies or institutes
supplying with regulations and codes (such as DnV, API, etc.). These methods are based on
simplified formulae, which allows quick verifications and estimations but are generally
conservative.
Programs are also available to help in VIV occurrence and effect prediction. The most widely
used is the MIT program SHEAR7. It was initially developed to model straight risers. Current
versions are also able to perform runs with other structure models, such as catenary, by
utilising hybrid techniques (i.e. equivalent model calculated by a finite element program, can
be read in file data form); the program limitations for catenary shapes introduce uncertainty.

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7.3 Vortex suppression devices

If potential VIV effects are detected during the engineering phase of a riser system, one of the
two following solutions may be used:
- Either redesign the riser by modifying the tension, changing its mass or designing
another configuration. This solution is generally costly and may have repercussions
on the production floater.
- Or add vortex suppression devices.
The main VIV suppression devices are:
• Helical strakes
• Fairings
• Perforated or axial rod shrouds
• Splitter plates
SPLITTER PLATE
HELICAL STRAKES
PERFORED SHROUD
FAIRINGS
AXIAL ROD SHROUD
Figure 31: Main VIV suppression devices

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The most popular devices are the helical strakes and the fairings. Weathervaning fairings are
for example used in the Gulf of Mexico on the Shell Mars TLP risers, while helical strakes
equipped the export steel catenary risers of Auger. Both strakes and fairings can dramatically
reduce VIV fatigue damage (by over 80%) but introduce intrinsic disadvantages:
- Both complicate the installation phases as the equipped riser system is difficult to
handle.
- Strakes increase the riser drag, which is detrimental to the riser behaviour, and
require a continuous coverage of the VIV sensitive length.
- Fairings can reduce drag loads and only require a partial coverage of the critical
length of the riser, but they need to rotate with current direction, which is a great
disadvantage for long-life utilisation, as efficient anti-fouling devices are required to
avoid their gripping by marine growth.
Figure 32: VIV helical strakes

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8 ARTIFICIAL LIFT REQUIREMENT
8.1 General
Artificial lift is required when the natural reservoir pressure is insufficient to lift the produced
fluids to surface at economic production rates. This can occur in the event of water
breakthrough at the wells (increasing the weight of the liquid column), low pressure at the
reservoir or the production of low GOR heavy crude.
Artificial lift also helps to stabilise the fluid flow regime, and hence eliminate slugging in the
production riser.
Artificial lift may be a cost effective solution to develop satellite fields as it facilitates the
transportation of produced fluids over longer distances, thus reducing the investment by
simplifying the production layout and reducing the number of platforms. Furthermore, it
increases field life and recovery rate.
The offshore oil and gas production is typically based on natural flow driven by reservoir
pressure, water injection and artificial lift, whenever necessary.
The flow rate requirement on top of the production riser is formulated as follows:
WP – TPD – HP – TRP > 0
Where: WP = Wellhead Pressure

TPD = Total Pressure Drop in Wellhead, Sealine and Riser
HP = Hydrostatic Pressure = ρgh (ρ effluent density along fluid column)
TRP = Required Top Riser Pressure
Or, in the case of Riser Artificial Lift:
BRP – HP – RPD - TRP > 0
Where: BRP = Bottom Riser Pressure

HP = Hydrostatic Pressure = ρgh (ρ effluent mixture & gas density along riser)
RPD = Riser Pressure Drop
TRP = Required Top Riser Pressure
In this formula, two terms can be adjusted to improve the flow rate:
- The Bottom Riser Pressure, which can be increased by adding a pump unit
- The transported fluid density ρ along the riser, which can be reduced by gas
injection. The lower is the injection point, the better is the lightened effect. Therefore,
the injection point should be positioned close to the riser base.

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THE FIRST METHOD CALLS FOR ELECTRICAL SUBMERSIBLE PUMPING TO PERFORM

THE ARTIFICIAL LIFT WHEREAS THE SECOND FOR GAS INJECTION.
Product Flow Condition

BRP – (ρgh) – RPD - TRP > 0
Pumping Gas Lift

BRP > (ρgh) + RPD + TRP ρ < (BRP – RPD – TRP)/gh
THE DIFFERENT ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS ARE LISTED BELOW:
The different artificial lift methods are listed below:

- gas lift
- electrical submersible pump
- hydraulic jet pump
- progressing cavity pump
- multiphase pump
- subsea separation system
The following covers only the gas lift method (i.e. the most cost effective solution) applied to
rigid or flexible riser and hybrid riser tower having the gas injection point at the riser base.
8.2 Gas Lift Method

The gas lift method principle is to increase the flow rate by reducing the specific gravity of the
producing fluids.
For subsea application only gas lift has been widely used as artificial lift method, due to its
intrinsic similarity with onshore' s gas lift method. This similarity comes from the fact that it is
driven by a power fluid using roughly the same components for both onshore and subsea
application. For this reason, gas lift is today seen as the subsea conventional artificial lift
method.
Sometimes, gas lift may not be the best method to fit specific field's requirements. This
happens, for instance, when there are long distances between well heads and the host
platform system, and the gas injected, even though helping the flow in the vertical sections
(well and riser), increases pressure drops in the horizontal section of the flowline.
Additionally, this method demands compressors and an increase of gas facilities to handle
the extra recycling gas, with consequent drawbacks on platform weight and space
requirements, which have a high impact on offshore installation costs.
Other problems with the gas lift method are its contribution to the cooling of the producing
fluid due to the gas temperature and expansion (Joule-Thomson effect) and a relatively low
efficiency (i.e. a ratio between output and input hydraulic power of about 20%). The cooling of
the produced fluid will aggravate the wax and hydrates formation problems.
The gas lift method hence requires to be early integrated in the riser design as a part of the
riser system; this is especially true for concepts such as riser bundle or hybrid tower.

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No difficulties, regarding the riser system definition, are expected when using the
conventional gas lift method; the only requirement is the provision of a sufficient number of
gas lift line. But an activated riser configuration requires additional studies, mainly due to the
lack of experience. As the injection point is positioned on the lower part of the riser, special
studies must be conducted to precisely define the required equipment (valve, gas diffuser,
etc.) and the consequences on the riser structure (reinforcement to increase high stress and
fatigue resistance) and behaviour.
The gas lift method is characterised by two modes:
- Internal mode: In this mode the gas lift method uses coil tubing introduced from the
top of the riser to the riser base or gas lift lines circumferentially arranged around the
riser (e.g. integrated flexible riser)
- External mode: In this mode, each production line has its own gas lift line clamped
to the outside diameter. The production lines can also be activated by a common
gas lift line through the subsea manifold
8.2.1 Internal gas lift using coil tubing

The artificial lift is performed by means of a coil tubing deployed from the inside of the
production riser at the surface (see figure 33). This method is well adapted to flexible and
rigid riser.
The gas injection point can be selected by adjusting the length of the coil tubing. This solution
requires one coil tubing per riser, which can also be used for the chemical injection.
Produced fluid + Gas Gas injection
Riser
Coil tubing
Sealine
Produced fluid
Figure 33 – Gas lift through coil tubing

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The advantages and disadvantages of this solution are summarized in table 4:
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Possibility to adjust the injection point to - Recovery of coil tubing before pigging
the production type (specially during start - Difficulty to study the dynamic behavior of
up) both lines (vibration of gas lift line,
- No requirement for thermal insulation on potential wear by friction, requirement for
gas lift lines (i.e. gas remains at effluent centring devices, etc.)
temperature as there is no contact with - Flow section reduced by the presence of
sea water) the gas lift line
- No interaction with the environment loads - High cost due to coil tubing unit and deck
on the production line space
- Not applicable to hybrid riser
Table 4 – Advantages & disadvantages summary table 1
List of main equipment is provided in table 5:
SURFACE EQUIPMENT SUBSEA EQUIPMENT

- Gas compressor - Production riser
- Gas injection control system
- Coil tubing unit
Table 5 – Main equipment list 1

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8.2.2 Internal gas lift lines integrated to production riser

In this method the artificial lift is performed by means of gas lift lines surrounding the
production riser. The bottom end terminations of the gas lift lines are connected to isolation
valve (s) controlled from the surface for safety reasons (see figure 34). This technique is well
adapted to flexible risers (i.e. Coflexip Integrated Pipeline Bundle).
Gas injection Produced fluid + Gas
Riser
Gas lift line
Sealine
Cross section view
Produced fluid
Figure 34 – Gas lift line integrated production riser
The advantages and disadvantages of this solution are summarised in table 6:
- Standard installation method - Increase drag and VIV due to larger
- No interference with pigging or coil tubing external diameter
operations - Increase tension load during laying
- No requirement for thermal insulation on operation and at hang off platform
gas lift lines - Requirement for specific tensioners
- No interaction with the environment loads - Flexible technology to be qualified for
on the production line deep waters including manufacturing
process
- Technical and economic limitations to
small production risers (ID = 6"-8")
- High purchase cost

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- Gas compressor - Production riser : 6 or 8 inch
- Gas injection control system - Gas lift lines : ½ - 3 inch
- Umbilical line
- Surface controlled isolation valve (s)
- Gas diffuser head
8.2.3 External gas lift line

The artificial lift of the produced fluid is made using gas lift at the riser base. The gas injection
is performed from the surface to each production riser through a dedicated line.
Several solutions can be considered for the installation of the gas lift line:
- Externally mounted on each production riser using the piggy back method (see
figure 35).
- Inserted in the thermal insulation of the production riser.
- Clamped to the central member of the hybrid riser.
This technique is applicable for all type of risers.
Gas Injection Produced Fluid + Gas
Riser
Gas lift line
Sealine
Produced Fluid
Figure 35 – Gas lift line in piggy back

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The advantages and disadvantages of this solution are summarized in table 8:
- Surface control of the gas injection - Increase drag
- No interference with pigging or coil tubing - Longer installation time (two lines)
operations
- Requirement for thermal insulation on
- Applicable to most type of risers
both lines
- Complete independence between
- Dynamic behaviour of lines may impact
production and gas lift lines
on clamps (fatigue, wear, etc.)
- Configuration well adapted to coil tubing
- Critical injection point requiring detailed
pipe technology
engineering
- Low cost solution
- Lower operation and maintenance cost

- Gas injection control system - Gas lift lines : ½ - 3 inch
- Umbilical line
- Surface controlled isolation valve (s)
- Gas diffuser head

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8.2.4 External common gas lift line

In this configuration, the gas injection point is also at the riser base. The gas is routed from the surface
to a retrievable subsea manifold through a common gas lift line. The gas distribution is then made
using hard piping or jumpers connecting the subsea manifold to the production riser (see figure 36).
Gas injection
Produced fluid + Gas
Gas lift
Riser
line
Sealine
Produced fluid
Gas lift subsea manifold
Figure 36 – Manifold based gas lift method
An alternative to the above solution consists to gather all gas lift lines together in a multi-bore
line, which will be distributed at the riser base for the gas injection in the production risers.
In the first alternative, the gas injection is controlled from the surface by means of electro-
hydraulic umbilical connected to the subsea manifold, whereas in the second solution, the
control is done directly from the surface. This technique is applicable for all type of risers.
The advantages and disadvantages of this solution are summarised in table 10:
- Limited number of lines to be installed - Well adapted for compact riser configuration
- Surface control of the gas injection - Requirement for thermal insulation on

- No interference with pigging or coil tubing both lines
operations - High number of subsea connections
- Applicable to all type of risers - Number of production risers limited to
- Complete independence between subsea manifold and gas lift line capacity
production and gas lift lines - Requirement for subsea foundation to
Configuration well adapted to coil tubing pipe support all subsea equipment
technology - Low flexibility in operation and maintenance
- High cost solution

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- Gas injection control system - Gas lift line: 8 or 10 inch for common line
and 2 or 3 inch for multi-bore line
- Retrievable subsea manifold
- Umbilical line
- Choke valve (s) or isolation valve (s)
- Gas diffuser head (s)

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9 INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
9.1 General
Selection of methods for installing hybrid, flexible or metallic risers is strongly dependent on
field development type, vessel capability and availability, and riser material.
The following table 12 illustrated the installation techniques that can be considered depending
on the type of riser:
TYPE INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES VESSEL REQUIREMENTS
Non-offset hybrid riser Conventional drilling riser running 1. Drilling and/or production vessel
techniques and equipment (TLP, Semi-submersible, Spar)
Offset hybrid riser Surface or Controlled Depth Tow 1. Leading Tug

Method + Upending and flexible
jumper connection operations 2. Trailing Tug
3. Survey vessel
4. Combined flexible lay and

jumper connection vessel
Flexible riser J lay with tensioners 1. Installation vessel equipped with

J lay ramp and tensioners, or a
dedicated flexible lay vessel
2. Survey vessel
Metallic riser (e.g. SCR) 1. J lay with tensioners or collar 1. Lay vessel
hang off points
2. Survey vessel
2. Bottom tow technique + 1. Leading Tug

erection operation
2. Trailing Tug
( 2 x dual 10" insulated flowline
in 418m WD on BP Troïka) 3. Survey vessel
Table 12 – Installation techniques: Summary table
The installation techniques for flexible and metallic risers are further discussed below.

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9.2 Installation of flexible risers

Vessels equipped with dynamic positioning (DP) system, which allows accurate tracking of
laying routes, should preferably carry out the installation of flexible flowlines. The DP system
ensures station keeping with selection of optimum heading enables a close approach to
floating production systems and eliminates the risks of damage to pipe by anchors in
congested areas. In addition, the ideal vessel should have a large pipe and/or cable carrying
capacity.
As with any type of offshore installation work it is imperative that the installation vessel and its
equipment are suitable for the handling of the flexible product.
In the case of riser installations, the number of risers and their configuration will dictate the
vessel requirements.
For example, a free hanging riser system is the simplest to install due to the absence of
additional hardware components. A specialised DP vessel equipped with a J lay ramp with
tensioners or vertical laying spread is usually perfectly adequate.
The S systems, Steep S and lazy S, consists of components such as buoyancy tanks, arches
and riser bases. The installation vessel will require a crane with sufficient capacity, height and
outreach to allow for the over-boarding operations, while controlling the catenary lay radius at
the seabed sag-bend. Depending on the physical size of the riser system (riser diameters,
arches and buoys overall dimensions) a vessel with an A-frame may also be used for a lazy S
installation. Deck space and payload are also important considerations for both systems.
The Wave systems, Steep, Lazy and Pliant are often used for single well developments or
export systems. Utilising less bulky hardware components, wave systems require lighter
crane capacity and less deck space than the S systems.
In deep waters, the installation of flexible risers required the mobilisation of DP vessel
equipped with a Vertical Lay System, which is composed of a vertical derrick, a gutter, an
A&R winch, tensioner (s) and hang off/working platform. This equipment is typically located
over the moonpool or at the stern of the vessel (i.e. CSO Sunrise 2000).

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The simplified installation procedures of the different riser configurations are described hereunder:
9.2.1 Flexible riser in “Free hanging” configuration
Lay vessel
FPS
1 4
LAYING VESSEL POSITIONNING LOWERING OF RISER 1st END EXTREMITY
Messenger line Flexible riser
2 CONNECTION OF MESSENGER LINE

5 RISER TRANSFER TO FPS
Lay direction
3 6
RECOVERY OF MESSENGER LINE LAYING OF FLEXIBLE RISER
Figure 37 – Main installation phases of flexible riser in free hanging configuration

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A typical installation procedure would consist of the following phases (see figure 37):
1 – 3. A messenger line is passed from the floating production facility to the installation
vessel
4. The upper end of the riser is transferred from the installation vessel to the FPS
with the upper section of the riser
5. The upper end of the riser is secured to the riser hang off platform by means of
clamp
6. The flexible riser is paid out from the lay vessel until reaching the touch down
point.
Once the touch down point is confirmed by means of ROV, the flowline is laid in the direction
of its final destination

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9.2.2 Flexible riser in “Lazy S” configuration
FPS Lay vessel
1 LOWERING OF THE MESSENGER LINE
2 TRANSFER OF THE FLEXIBLE 1st 4 LOWERING OF THE DEAD WEIGHT

END EXTREMITY TO FPS AND LAYING OF THE FLEXIBLE RISER
Mid-water
arch
Flexible riser
3 LAUNCHING OF THE MID-ARCH 5 FINAL CONFIGURATION
Figure 38 – Main installation phases of flexible riser in Lazy S configuration

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1. A messenger line is passed from the floating production facility to the installation
vessel
2. The upper end of the riser is transferred from the installation vessel to the FPS
with the upper section of the riser
3. The mid-water arch is launched and positioned at mid-depth by means of the
dead weight while paying out of the riser continues
4. The retaining swivel is disconnected from the mid-water arch and the lower end of
the riser is laid on the sea bed
5. The flowline is laid in the direction of its final destination

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9.2.3 Flexible riser in “Lazy Wave” configuration
Lay vessel
FPS
Transfer line
TRANSFER OF THE RISER 1st END

2 EXTREMEITY TO THE FPS
4
Buoyancy
modules
Flexible riser
ATTACHEMENT OF BUOYANCY MODULES

3 5 FINAL CONFIGURATION
AS LAYING PROCEEDS
Figure 39 – Main installation phases of flexible riser in Lazy Wave configuration

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1. A messenger line is passed from the floating production facility to the

installation vessel
2. The upper end of the riser is transferred with the upper section of the riser
3. The buoyancy modules are attached to the riser as laying proceeds and
launched
4. The installation of the riser continues by the paying out of the riser
5. The flowline is laid in the direction of its final destination

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9.2.4 Flexible riser in “Steep S” configuration
Lay vessel
FPS
4 LAUNCHING OF MID-WATER ARCH AND DEADWEIGHT

Transfer line
TRANSFER OF THE RISER

2 st
5 DEAD WEIGHT POSITIONNING
1 END EXTREMEITY TO THE FPS
Flexible riser
3 PAY OUT RISER 6 TRANSFER TO THE RISER BASE
Mid-water
arch
Riser base
7 CONNECTION TO THE RISER BASE
Figure 40 – Main installation phases of flexible riser in Steep S configuration

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1. A messenger line is passed from the floating production system to the

installation vessel
2. The upper end of the riser is transferred with the upper section of the riser
3. The upper end of the riser is connected to the floating production system while
paying out of the riser continues
4. The mid-water arch and the dead weight are launched
5. The dead weight is positioned at a predetermined location. The riser may be
abandoned at this stage for further connection
6. The lower end connection is positioned relative to the riser base by means of a
come-along (or pulling line)
7. The lower end connection is tied-in to the riser base

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9.2.5 Flexible riser in “Steep Wave” configuration
Lay vessel
FPS Messenger
line
1 LOWERING OF THE FLEXIBLE RISER END 4 LAYING VESSEL POSITIONNING

EQUPED WITH CONNECTOR
Buoyancy
modules Pulling
Flexible
line
riser
ATTACHMENT OF BUOYANCY MODULES

2 AS LOWERING PROCEEDS
5 TRANSFER OF THE PULLING LINE
Riser base
3 CONNECTION TO THE RISER BASE 6 RISER HANG-OFF PERFORMED
Figure 41 – Main installation phases of flexible riser in Steep Wave configuration

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1. Lowering of the flexible riser and its automatic connector (vertical entry) at the
stern of the installation vessel.
2. Installation of the buoyancy modules at adequate locations on the flexible riser.
3. The flexible riser and its automatic connector is directed towards the riser base
by means of ROV.
Perform automatic connection of the flexible riser onto the riser base by means
of ROV.
4. Paying out of the remaining part of the flexible riser and the vessel takes its
position for the transfer of flexible riser to the floater.
5. On completion of messenger and pulling lines recovery, connect the pulling
line to the pulling head mounted on the flexible riser and start the transfer ot
the flexible riser to the floater.
6. Once load transfer is completed, recover A&R cable, resume pulling the
flexible riser and secure it to the hang off platform.

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9.2.6 Flexible riser in “Pliant Wave” configuration
FPS Lay vessel

Buoyancy
modules
Subsea tree
Dead weight
1 INITIATION AT SUBSEA STRUCTURE 4 TRANSFER OF RISER TO THE FPS
Securing
sling
2 CONNECTION OF THE TAUT LINE 5 PULL-IN OF THE RISER 2nd END EXTREMITY
Flexible riser
Transfer in final position
line
3 POSITIONING OF THE LAYING VESSEL 6 FINAL CONFIGURATION
Figure 42 – Main installation phases of flexible riser in Pliant Wave

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1. The first end of the flowline is initiated at the subsea structure and the flowline
is laid in the direction of the dead weight.
2. Installation of the clamp/attachment line sub assembly and the buoyancy
modules at adequate locations on the flexible line
Perform the connection of the attachment line to the dead weight by ROV
3. Recover flexible line to surface to form the loop before resume paying out
flexible in the direction of the floater
4. A messenger line is passed from the floating production system to the
installation vessel for the transfer of the pull in cable.
5. Once the pull in cable is connected to the pull in head mounted on top of the
riser, the second end of the riser is lowered with the A&R cable.
6. On completion of the load transfer and disconnection of the A&R cable by
ROV, the second end of the riser is pulled in I or J tube then secured to the
hang off platform.

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9.3 Installation of metallic risers
9.3.1 General
Outwith the conventional drilling riser running techniques used for the deployment of top
tensioned riser from semi-submersible, TLP and Spar, the two most promising installation
techniques for metallic risers are J-lay and tow-out. The other methods involving plastic
deformation of welds and pipes may affect fatigue life of metallic risers (e.g. reeling, S-lay,
combination horizontal firing line and vertical lay, etc…). Another reason restraining the use
of these installation techniques is the requirement for wet thermal insulation on metallic risers
due to roller friction on risers, which may damage thermal insulation coating.
The installation techniques for metallic risers are described hereafter:
9.3.2 J lay technique

The main advantages of J-lay technique are:
- Increased water depth capability

- Reduced weather sensitivity
- Reduced pipe stresses and lower tension due to steeper pipe departure
- Easier start-up, termination and abandonment & recovery operations
- Reduced complexity attaching buoyancy and ballast during lay
- Lower horizontal thrust requirement (compared to S-Lay) allowing the use of DP
vessel
During J-lay, pre-welded pipe strings consisting of 1 to 6 pipe joints (each approx. 12m long)
are welded to the riser, which is clamped on an inclined lay ramp. Pipe joints are welded
together, NDT tested and coated before leaving the working platform at a defined angle.
The simplified installation procedure of a steel catenary riser with second end transferred to
the floater is illustrated in figure 43:

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FPS Lay vessel
Pulling line
1 RISER LAYING AND VESSEL POSITIONING 4 LOWERING OF THE RISER 2nd END EXTREMITY
A&R cable
Steel riser
CONNECTION OF THE TRANSFER LINE

2 TO THE MESSENGER LINE 5 TRANSFER OF THE RISER
Hang off platform
Steel catenary riser
Messenger line Sealine
3 RECOVERY OF THE MESSENGER LINE 6 FINAL CONFIGURATION
Figure 43 – Main installation phases in steel catenary riser

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A typical installation procedure would consist of the following phases:

1. When the pipelay vessel is about 130m away from the floating production
platform, a messenger line is lowered from the floating production system.
2. A transfer line is lowered from the pipelay vessel at the same water depth to
allow ROV to connect the transfer line to the messenger line.
3. When the messenger line reaches the working platform of the pipelay vessel, it
is connected to the pulling head on top of the flexjoint welded to the steel riser.
4. The steel riser is lowered below the vessel on the pipelay's abandonment and
recovery cable until the riser starts swinging over towards the floating
production system
5. After disconnection of A&R cable by means of ROV release hydro-acoustic
shackle, a pull-in, run from hydraulic winch on the platform, is used to finally
pull the riser into the receptacle.
6. The pipeline is then free flooded, the spool piece that connects the riser to
preinstalled hull piping is installed and the pipeline system is ready for final
testing.
9.3.3 Tow out method

Tow out is an alternative method of installing metallic risers. This necessitates onshore fabrication
of the riser, followed by surface, sub-surface or near-seabed tow to the offshore site. The tow out
has the advantage that the riser can be inspected and tested before it is towed out.
This technique followed by an upending operation has been proposed for the installation of
the hybrid riser tower on Girassol project.
The installation of a hybrid riser tower is subdivided into three phases (see figure 44):
The tow out from the onshore fabrication site where the riser tower is assembled
and tested.
The upending operation
The connection of the tower to the riser base
Leading Tug Spar Buoy Buoyancy Modules Hybrid riser tower Trailing Tug
in subsurface tow
1
Sea Level 0m
2
Leading Cable
Trailing Cable
3
Riser Tower
in vertical position
Acoustic Release Shackle

Riser Base
Seabed -1000 m
Figure 44 – Main installation phases of hybrid riser tower (sub-surface tow)

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The flexible risers are installed and connected at a later phase, after the FPSO has arrived on
site.
The flexible jumpers could be either "pre-installed" at the onshore site or subsea installed.
The tow out operation consists in bringing the tower on site by towing it with the help of
leading and trailing tug (assisted by a survey vessel). The tower is supported by means of
subsurface and surface buoys, while its own weight is adjusted by temporary flooding of
some flowlines.
Once on site, the up-ending operation is performed. The tugs apply the adequate tension to
prevent any excessive bending while the buoys are removed. Two up-ending alternatives can
be considered:
− the controlled riser bottom end lowering, with the help of the trailing tug (quasi
static method).
− or the "free-fall" upending method.
The leading tug and the Sub-surface Buoy will control the riser tower top position.
Monitoring of tension and curvature of the riser tower is performed continuously during the
operation by the survey vessel using acoustic transponders installed on the riser tower.
On completion of the up-ending operation, the riser tower is towed at the vertical position of
the riser base.
The connection of the riser tower to the riser base is performed by ballasting the sub-surface
buoy, and by pulling down the riser tower by means of subsea winches. Once the tieback
connector is landed on the riser base and confirmed by ROV, the connector is hydraulically
locked.
When connection operation is achieved, the Sub-surface Buoy is de-ballasted to reach the
nominal tension, the tower is ready for top connection to the floater and bottom connection to
sealines with respectively flexible risers and flexible jumpers.
A typical top connection mainly consists in:
- Perform first end flexible riser initiation on top of the riser tower
- Once the connection is completed, the flexible riser is laid in the direction of the
FPSO
- A messenger line followed by the pull-in cable is transferred from the floater to the
installation vessel
- Connect the pull-in cable to the pull in head and start lowering the flexible riser
using the A&R cable
- When the load transfer is achieved, disconnect the A&R cable by ROV and pull
the flexible riser in I or J tube
- Lock the flexible riser bend stiffener in the I or J tube and secured the flexible riser
to the hang off platform.
Please refer to document "Tie-in methods" (Reference 6) for bottom connection using flexible
jumpers.

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9.3.4 Drilling riser running techniques applied to top tensioned risers

The main technique used for the installation of top tensioned risers is the conventional drilling
riser running techniques as used for the TLP (see figure 23)
The following will describe two different riser installations, but also based on drilling riser
technique: (1) top tensioned riser tower deployment from a semi-submersible (Enserch
Copper Project, Garden Bank 388) and a SPAR (Oryx Neptune Project).
I. Installation of top tensioned riser tower from semi-submersible (see figure 21)
a) Recover the protective cover over the riser base with the drill pipe running tool
b) The assembly composed of lower riser connector and stress joint is brought up
through the V door and lowered down through the spider setting the upper end of
the stress joint on the spider
c) Bring the first riser joint up into the derrick, land it on the upper stress joint
flange and perform bolt flange connection
d) Perform regular riser joint (e.g. 12m long) installation to reach the required
riser length
e) Install quarter sections of external air tank on the last 2 riser joints (or required
length) by bolting them together around the riser joint as it run through the
moonpool
f) Bolt the upper riser connection mandrel to the top of the last riser joint to
complete the assembly of rigid part of the riser
g) Install the riser installation string on the upper riser connection mandrel then
lower the riser to the riser base using the heave and motion compensator
h) Once the lower riser connector is landed on the riser base and confirmed by
ROV, the connector is hydraulically locked by ROV.
i) Pump air in the two external air tanks through a temporary umbilical to make
the riser neutrally buoyant
j) Lower gas export line bottom termination through the running string by welding
joints as needed, land and lock both ends from the inside using drill pipe running
tool
k) Using guide frame and assisted by diver or ROV, position casing and tubing
into the proper location within the upper riser connection package
l) Lower annulus and production lines having stab latches at the lower end that
lock to riser base receptacles
m) Pump air in the two external air tanks to make the riser positively buoyant and
therefore self-supporting
n) Position the upper riser connector package in the moonpool and connect the
flexible lines to the gooseneck hubs at one end and pontoon porches at the other
o) Using drill pipe, lower the upper riser connector package to the upper riser
connector mandrel
p) With the lift off cylinders, lower the mini-connectors onto the flowline hubs and
hydraulically lock them in place.
q) Lower and connect the upper riser sheave package to the upper riser
connector package
r) Activate the riser management system to maintain the riser within the desired
watch circle

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II. Installation of top tensioned riser from Spar (see figures 22 & 24)
Note: Buoyancy cans and stems are installed when the deck module is installed. The lower two of each set
of three cans are flooded and the cans are resting on their down stops. This placed the upper end of the
buoyancy can's stem at the production deck level where the riser-landing ring with the load cells is attached.
a) Riser installation starts with the crane lifting the tieback connector/stress
joint/lower transition joint and keel joint subassemblies aboard, upending and
hanging each in a vacant well slot.
b) The rig is skidded over the keel joint first, which is picked up through the rotary
table and stored to one side. Then the rig is skidded over the tieback
connector/stress joint/lower transition joint, which is also picked up through the
rotary table
c) Once the rig is skidded over the well slot and the messenger line, attached to
the lower end of the tieback connector stab sub, the subassembly is landed in the
spider
d) Buoyant joints are lifted up through the V-door and made up to the threaded-
and-coupled connection at the upper end of the lower transition joint. Threaded-
and-coupled riser joints are added until the proper length is reached for keel joint
placement.
e) An upper transition joint, the keel joint, and second upper transition joint are
placed in the string before running of standard joints continues.
f) When total riser length is reached, the waveform joint is made up and the
string slowly lowered as the ROV observes and laterally assists in stabbing the
tieback connector into the wellhead. The ROV then locks the connector through
an hydraulic hot stab. Afterwards, riser string over-pull and internal pressure tests
are made to verify connection integrity.
g) The riser is pulled to its operating tension while the Spar is de-ballasted to its
proper draft. The adjustable riser support structure is extruded to its full up
position, the waveform joint slips set, and the surface wellhead is attached to the
landing ring. With the riser lowered slightly, the excess length of waveform joint is
removed and the isolation seal and tubing spool are installed. Once the BOP
spool and surface BOP are attached, the well is ready for downhole completion
activities.
h) After the downhole completion is installed and the production and gas lift
tubing is landed and hung from a packer just below the seafloor wellhead, dual
tubing strings along with a control/chemical injection umbilical are run through the
riser and suspended from the surface wellhead. Finally the surface tree is landed
and locked to the tubing spool and the jumper flowlines and umbilical connect the
platform based manifolds and control equipment.
i) When the well is on stream, the riser's weight is transferred to the buoyancy
cans. This load transfer requires careful co-ordination of buoyancy can
deballasting and Spar ballasting. Once the load transfer is complete, the
adjustable riser support structure is removed and the riser system cans provide
complete support and tensioning of the production riser system.

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10 APPLICATIONS & LIMITATIONS
10.1 General
Risers play an important part in the drilling, production, and transportation of hydrocarbons
and other associated fluids with any offshore oil and gas production. For a floating production
system, risers provide the link between the floating platform and:
- the oil/gas wells close to or underneath the floating platform,

- subsea satellite wells at some distance from the platform,
- other floating or fixed platforms,
- export facilities, either a pipeline to the shore or to a shuttle tanker loading facility.
The risers may handle:
- Drilling or production.
- Hydrocarbon imports (from remote wells/platforms),
- Hydrocarbon exports (via pipelines to shore, another platform or a storage unit).
- Water or gas injection (into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil up
the well).
- Gas lift (gas pumped into the bottom of the well or at the riser base to help the oil to
flow more rapidly up to the floating production system).
Note: Other risers such as hydraulic and electrical lines, work-over risers are not covered by this study.
Risers may be classified either as rigid or flexible:
- Rigid risers manufactured from steel pipe and generally found in free hanging
configuration or in a vertical position (top-tensioned riser or hybrid riser tower).
- Flexible risers manufactured from layers of wires and polymers, which are hung in
suspended catenary or free hanging configuration.
10.2 Flexible risers

Flexible risers have the advantage that they can accommodate larger platform motions than
rigid risers. They are suitable, even in high sea states, for use with semi-submersibles and
turret moored ships when rigid risers would be unsuitable. Although flexible flowlines are
more expensive than rigid steel pipes (due to sophisticated plastic materials and
manufacturing methods) they are utilised for the development of short distance between wells
to production facilities, and also the development of deepwater small and marginal fields. In
these types of application, the used lines could be recovered from the sea bottom,
transported to onshore base and submitted to inspection and refurbishment, to assure a safe
and efficient reutilization. In predominant seabed irregularities where flexibility is required
flexible pipes are also used.
Despite the inherent advantages in the use of flexible risers, there are technical and
economic limitations. It is well recognised by the industry that the use of flexible risers from
the floater to the sea floor in deepwater needs exceptional flexible pipe design to withstand
the extreme external hydrostatic pressure and large top tension. On top of this , flexible pipes
of the sizes anticipated for export lines are at the current limits of manufacturing capabilities.

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10.3 Steel risers

The use of risers made of rigid pipe become more economical for deepwater applications as:
- the rigid pipe has no specific limitation concerning the water depth (the limits are
mainly fixed by the laying capacity of the installation vessel, the deck space and load
of floating production system)
- the reduction of the difference between the installation cost of rigid riser and flexible
lines in deepwater, combined with a lower fabrication cost for the rigid line, turn the
rigid pipe riser into a cost effective alternative.
- the flexibility of the overall riser in production phase increases with the water depth
(i.e. increased riser length induces increased flexibility).
At present, the steel pipe is mainly used in three types of riser configuration:
- top-tensioned risers
- steel catenary risers
- offset hybrid riser tower
10.3.1 Top-tensioned riser tower

The original philosophy for the top-tensioned riser tower, developed by Cameron Iron Works
in early 1983 for Placid Oil, was to design a system, for small or marginal fields, that could
drain a reservoir and then move on to a new location. By utilising established technologies
and fabrication methods, the top-tensioned riser tower has been proven to be a viable and
cost effective solution for deepwater projects. This technique is well adapted to marginal
fields using subsea drilled and completed wells tied-back to a floating production system
located directly above the subsea template/wells.
When compared with the offset hybrid riser tower, the top-tensioned riser tower has the
advantage of optimised jumper length, The coupled motions of the riser and the floater, by
means of tensioned system or buoyancy cans, allow the installation of short jumpers, thus
reducing the overall project cost.
However, a relatively stable floating production system is required to avoid the disconnection
when hurricane conditions are encountered: for a floating production system with a large
number of risers it is not practical to disconnect and it is undesirable to lose position.
Furthermore, the number of risers, tensioned using tensioner system with multiple wires,
hydraulic accumulators and jacks, is limited on the semi-submersible due to space
requirements and complexity of the tensioning system.
In the more severe environments special platform designs will be required. These may be:
- Tension Leg Platforms, which are constrained to move approximately on the same
arc as the top of the riser. The TLP riser tensioner is much simpler than the
tensioner required on a semi-submersible owing to the very small stroke requirement
(i.e. TLP low heave motions), so multiple risers are practical.
- Spar platforms, where the risers are tensioned by internal buoyancy cans in a deep
centre well in the platform

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10.3.2 Steel catenary risers

Steel catenary risers offer advantages over risers made of flexible pipe since steel catenary
risers are much less expensive. Steel catenary risers also offer advantages over top
tensioned risers since steel catenary risers need no heave compensation, no subsea
connections, and no flexible jumpers to transition to fixed piping at the production deck.
For some applications a disadvantage of steel catenary risers compared to top-tensioned
risers is the length of active footprint on the seafloor.
If soft soil conditions are encountered, problems of pipe self-embedment at touch-down point
may appear, thus limiting the compliance of this area and increasing stress magnitude.
Another major problem with some steel catenary risers is the high bending stress where the
riser touches down. Tension is typically low near touch-down point, so the riser is easily bent.
In addition to a high static touch-down curvature, the situation is often exacerbated by severe
dynamic response – characterised by waves travelling down the riser.
Theoretically, the problem is a complicated one, involving local tension, drag, mass and
weight distributions, as well as global dynamics. However, it is possible to overcome the
problem by using a length of titanium pipe in the touch-down region. Consideration of the
higher and lower stiffness of titanium shows that the minimum allowable radius of curvature of
a titanium pipe is three to four times less than that of a steel pipe with the same outside
diameter and wall thickness.
10.3.3 Offset hybrid riser tower

The hybrid riser concept is not very sensitive to the water depth as increasing the length of
the steel bundle and the wall thickness of the lower part are the main required operations to
increase the range of use of an hybrid riser tower in terms of depth.
The hybrid riser tower, as it is not rigidly linked with the FPS, can be used with a floater that
has a relatively large dynamic response, such as an FPSO. The compliance of the riser
bundle combined with the flexibility of the jumpers allows to withstand its motions.
Moreover, the concept allows to decrease (with reference to a classic catenary configuration)
the loads (vertical and horizontal) applied to the FPS as only the jumpers weight is supported
by the floater. This becomes important as the water depth and the riser number increase.
Another advantage of this riser concept is to avoid any fatigue problem on the main part of
the riser: the steel bundle provides a relative stability along its length. The critical points are
mainly the jumpers, their interface with the steel bundle, the subsea buoy, the flex-joint
connection, and finally the lower part of the riser anchoring, which require accurate
engineering studies.
However, extensive engineering, qualification program and model test are being performed to
gain confidence in its deepwater application (i.e. Girassol Deepwater Development).

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The advantages and disadvantages of several different configurations relevant to flexible and
steel risers including hybrid risers are summarized in the following table 13:
Configuration Advantages Disadvantages

Free hanging catenary - Simple configuration - Liable to rapid wear at seabed
(for flexible and rigid - Very simple installation touch down point
pipe) - Unsuitable for shallow water (rigid
- Simple pipeline connection at
seabed pipe)
- High static load at top end
connection
- Wear at seabed can be
exacerbated by fluctuations in oil
density or slugging causing
repeated lift-off and set-down
- Resistance to dynamics
associated with vessel heave
- Cyclic fatigue due to vessel
motion combined with current and
hydrodynamic loads
Lazy S - Simple pipeline connection - Potential wear at seabed if buoy
- Mid-water support is relatively tension is insufficient
stable - Need to control bending at end
- Good possibilities for multiple line terminations and at mid-water
applications buoy
- High mid-water velocities may be - Mid water buoy must be
counteracted by a large mid-water configured so that it does not
buoy with high tension and lateral move adversely in high mid-water
stiffness velocities
- Lower seabed wear than a free- - Wear at seabed can be
hanging catenary exacerbated by fluctuations in oil
repeated lift-off and set-down.

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Steep S - Wear at seabed eliminated - More complex connection at
seabed
- Good possibilities for multi-line
applications - Possible yaw instability of mid-
water buoy
- Seabed unit must resist upward

forces
Lazy Wave - Less complex seabed connection - Potential for rapid wear at seabed
touchdown (greater than for lazy S
- Mid-water support stable but may be less than for free
hanging catenary
- Simple installation and pipeline
connection - Wear at seabed can be
exacerbated by fluctuations in oil
repeated lift-off and set-down.
- Susceptible to large motions in

cross currents
- Not well suited to slug flow in riser
- Not well suited for closely spaced,

multi-line applications due to
possible interference
Steep wave - Wear at seabed eliminated - More complex connection at
seabed
- Mid-water support stable
- Susceptible to high transverse
- Possibility for multi-line application current velocities
when used with spacer frames
- Seabed unit must resist upward
forces

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Pliant wave - Movement restricted and hence - Seabed unit must resist forces
potential for wear at seabed from riser
reduced
- Restraint attachment to riser adds
- Seabed approach may be complexity
specifically designed to resist
wear
- Mid-water support stable
- Restraint against movements due

to current
Hybrid riser - Combines advantages of rigid and - Overall complexity and cost may
flexible risers to improve limit applications to deepwater
performance under vessel motion systems
and environmental loading
- Potential of flow induced vibrations
- Lower rigid section relatively particularly for multi-line
stable and requiring minimum applications
maintenance
- May require more facilities for
- Compliance assists connection to installation and work-over of upper
a floating unit with a wide motion and lower units
envelop (FPSO or semi-
submersible)
- Upper flexible lines individually

retrievable
- Upper flexible section isolates

lower section from extreme
dynamic effects at sea surface
- Well adapted for riser system

where flow assurance is critical
- Well adapted for congested area
- Reduced deck space and payload

on floating unit
- Top riser including sub-buoy is

accessible by divers for
installation and maintenance

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A - Top tensioned riser - Long lengths are achieved by - Top tensioning system limits
tower assembling shorter, identical number of risers particularly on
(semi-submersible) lengths semi-submersible
- If one element is damaged or - Complex and heavy subsea

suffers wear, it can be changed manifolding in case of multiple
out wells and import/export lines
regrouped on the same riser
- Ease of intervention access for
traditional drilling and well work- - Difficult option in case
over equipment disconnection is required in
severe weather
- No requirement for installation
vessel during all field life - Integral bundle riser has to be
retrieved as a complete unit for
servicing any riser in it
B - Top tensioned riser - Riser system constrained to move - Top tensioning system is simpler
(TLP) approximately on the same arc as due to small stroke requirement
the floating unit particularly for
Spar and TLP - Multiple risers are practical
- Long lengths are achieved by - Cannot be disconnected in severe

assembling shorter, identical weather
lengths
- If one element is damaged or

suffers wear, it can be changed
out
- Ease of access for traditional

drilling and well work-over
equipment

vessel during all field life
- Ease of maintenance in case tree

located on platform
- Any riser can be retrieved or

installed without affecting the
operation of the other risers

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C - Top tensioned riser - Riser system constrained to move - Top tensioning system replaced by
(Spar) approximately on the same arc as buoyancy cans (passive)
the floating unit
- Cannot be disconnected in severe
- Long lengths are achieved by weather
assembling shorter, identical
lengths
- If one element is damaged or

suffers wear, it can be changed
out
- Ease of access for traditional

drilling and well work-over
equipment

vessel during all field life
- Ease of maintenance in case tree

located on platform
- Any riser can be retrieved or

installed without affecting the
operation of the other risers
Table 13: Advantages & Disadvantages of different riser configurations

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The advantages and disadvantages of riser tie-off at deck level and pontoon are also
presented in table 14:

Deck level tie-off - Longer catenary therefore greater - Full wave forces and motions
compliance must be resisted through the
splash zone
- Access for installation, inspection
and maintenance are simpler - Difficulty in releasing coupling in
severe weather when the floater is
- No requirement for underwater displaced from its central location
connection
- FPS stability and payload reduced
- Potential for easier FPS
conversion
Pontoon tie-off - Reduced wave loading on riser - May require diving for riser
installation and spool connection
- Better FPS stability
- Access for inspection and
maintenance activities is: not
simple, limited to calm sea
conditions and may require diving
- Damage to attachment points may

go unnoticed
Table 14: Advantages & Disadvantages of top riser tie-off point

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REFERENCE BOOK
UMBILICALS
Rev. 0 Page 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 4
1.1 SCOPE ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 REGULATIONS, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS............................................... 5
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... 5
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 6
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT........................................................................................ 7
2.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 FLOATING PRODUCTION SYSTEM ................................................................................. 7
2.2.1 I//J tube and pulling winch ............................................................................................ 7
2.2.2 I/J Tube seal ................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.3 Topside hang-off assembly .......................................................................................... 9
2.3 INTERMEDIATE CONNECTION ....................................................................................... 9
2.4 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEM .................................................................................. 10
2.5 CAPS ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.6 LAYING VESSEL AND EQUIPMENT ............................................................................... 13
3 UMBILICAL TECHNOLOGY & MANUFACTURERS REVIEW .................................... 16
3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 THERMOPLASTIC HOSE UMBILICAL ............................................................................. 21
3.3 STEEL TUBE UMBILICAL ............................................................................................. 23
3.4 POWER AND CONTROL UMBILICAL .............................................................................. 27
3.5 INTEGRATED SERVICE UMBILICAL ............................................................................... 29
3.6 SUBSEA TERMINATION INTERFACE ............................................................................. 33
3.7 SUBSEA BEND RESTRICTOR ....................................................................................... 35
3.8 TOPSIDE BEND STIFFENER ........................................................................................ 36
3.9 TOPSIDE TERMINATION SYSTEM ................................................................................. 37
3.10 EXTERNAL CORROSION PROTECTION ......................................................................... 37
4. TEST REQUIREMENT ................................................................................................. 39
4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 39
4.2 MATERIAL QUALIFICATION TESTING ............................................................................ 39
4.3 UMBILICAL DESIGN QUALIFICATION TESTING ............................................................... 40
4.4 ACCEPTANCE TESTING .............................................................................................. 40
4.5 EXTENT OF FLUSHING, PRESSURE TESTING, CLEANING & PRESERVATION..................... 42
Rev. 0 UMBILICALS Page 2

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5. INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES ................................................................................... 43

5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 43
5.2 LAYING EQUIPMENT .................................................................................................. 45
5.3 LAYING METHODS AND PROCEDURES ......................................................................... 46
5.3.1. General ....................................................................................................................... 46
5.3.2. Installation procedures ............................................................................................... 47
6. APPLICATIONS & LIMITATIONS................................................................................ 53
6.1 THERMOPLASTIC HOSE UMBILICAL ............................................................................. 53
6.2.1. Carbon steel: .............................................................................................................. 60
6.2.2. Duplex and Super Duplex Stainless Steel ................................................................. 61
6.2.3. Titanium alloy ............................................................................................................. 61
6.2.4. Summary .................................................................................................................... 61
7. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES ......................................................................... 62
7.1 THERMOPLASTIC UMBILICALS .................................................................................... 62
7.3 INTEGRATED SERVICE UMBILICAL .............................................................................. 63
ANNEX 1 : MANUFACTURER ADDRESS.......................................................................... 64

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
The current trend among oil companies is a move towards extensive use of subsea
production systems to develop new deepwater fields. These production systems are typically
remotely operated from an adjacent manned installation via umbilicals which provide the
following functions:
- Hydraulic power for the operation of actuators

- Electrical power for the power supply of control pods, electrical pumps, etc.
- Electrical signal for the operation of control valves
- Data transmission for the subsea manifold and well monitoring
- Fluid transmission for well services (e.g. methanol, corrosion inhibitor, etc.)
Umbilicals are structures that contain two or more functional elements, i.e. thermoplastic
hoses and/or metal tubes, electrical cables and optical fibres. These are typically assembled
together with a helical technique, to form a circular bundle, which is then encased in an
extruded thermoplastic sheath, reinforced with two contra-helically applied layers of steel
wires and finished with a second extruded thermoplastic sheath.
Many offshore projects require the consideration of greater depths, longer umbilicals and
more control functions than those common in the past. Further, most oil companies are
striving to reduce the time required to complete such developments, i.e. fast track projects.
As a result, the selection of umbilicals has become more critical as many factors such as
performance, fluid compatibility, impact on interfaces, ease of deployment, etc. must be
considered during the selection process.
This document aims at providing valuable information to help the design engineer in the
selection of the most suitable umbilical, knowing that a detailed analysis during the
engineering phase is essential to ensure that all of a specific project’s unique features and
needs are fully addressed.
Since umbilical performance is a function of material, size, length and other parameters,
chapters 2 and 3 give an overview of available umbilical technology and the associated
topside and subsea interface requirements.
As electro-hydraulic control systems are widely used in deepwater applications and require a
high level of umbilical reliability and tube cleanliness, the test requirements from the
reception of core components in the manufacturing facility to the umbilical installation in the
field are presented in chapter 4.
Chapter 5 is dedicated to the description of some typical umbilical configurations found in
deep waters including installation methods / sequences and laying equipment.
Virtually all production control system applications are based on the use of either
thermoplastic hose or metal tube. The limitations of these fluid lines are described in
chapter 6.
The presentation of advantages and disadvantages of different types of umbilical in chapter7
will conclude this document.

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Specification for subsea production umbilicals API 17 E
Subsea umbilicals ISO 13628-5

(This standard is in draft form only and will ultimately replace API 17 E)
National Aerospace Standard NAS 1638

Hydraulic oil cleanliness requirements
Galvanised steel wire for armouring cables BS 1441
International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 228

Conductors of insulated cables
Extruded solid dielectric insulated power cables for rated IEC 502
voltage from 1kV up to 30 kV
Rules for submarine pipeline systems DNV 81

(Amended as needed by DNV 96)
British standard code of practice - pipelines BS 8010
Standard specification for seamless and welded ASTM A789/789M-90

ferritic/austenitic stainless steel tubing for general service
Chemical plant and petroleum refinery piping ANSI/ASME B13.3
Standard specification for polymer properties ASTM (see section 6.1, table 03)
The determination of particulate contamination in liquid by the ARP (SAE) 598A

particle count method
Remark: Mechanical Engineering Centre of European Gas Turbines Ltd. (previously ERC committee) is
working on the generation of an API steel tube umbilical specification. Current steel tube wall thickness
determination is based on manufacturer rulings.

BOP = Blow-Out Preventer
FAT = Factory Acceptance Test (of umbilical)
FPS = Floating Production System
HDPe = High Density Polyethylene
ISU = Integrated Service Umbilical
LDPe = Low Density Polyethylene
ROV = Remote Operated Vehicle
SAE = Society of Automotive Engineers
SCC = Sulphide Cracking Corrosion
XLPe = Cross linked polyethylene

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1.4 References
1. Offshore technology conference papers from 1969 to 1998
2. In-house technical database
3. In-house experience in selection and installation of thermoplastic, steel and
integrated service umbilicals
4. Manufacturer and subsea contractor product leaflets
5. Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book – “Tie-in Methods”
6. Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book – “Sealines”
7. Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book – “Riser Systems”
8. TOTAL General Specification SP - ELC - 143, Subsea Cables
We wish to thank the manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with courtesy
of technical information and photographs of their products.

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2.1 General
The main interface requirements in the umbilical design are related to:
- Floating production system (or ‘host’ platform)

- Intermediate connection between static and dynamic umbilical
- Subsea production system
- Installation equipment & vessel
The above requirements are described in the following sections.
2.2 Floating production system

Typical standard equipment on the floating production system includes:
- I/J tube and pull-in winch

- Topside hang-off assembly and connection
- I/J seal
- Topside bend stiffener
2.2.1 I//J tube and pulling winch

Flexible or steel umbilicals comprising power, signal and fluid lines are frequently brought
into topsides through steel I/J tubes pre-installed on the pontoon or deck level of the floating
production system. This is performed using a winch located above the J-tube, which draws a
cable attached to the nose/pulling head of the umbilical (see figure 01).
The I/J tubes are designed to protect the umbilical against environmental loads (wave and
current), fires and accidental collisions with vessel. They are often equipped with a bellmouth
system using mechanical dogs to hold the umbilical bending limiter with a conical structure
(see figures 02 and 03).

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Hydraulic power unit
Linear Cable storage winch

pull-in winch
Pull-in
cable
Floater structure
Figure 01 – Pull-in winch general arrangement
2.2.2 I/J Tube seal

The I/J tube seal centralises the umbilical at the I/J tube entry and provides a seal against
sea water, preventing dilution of corrosion inhibitors (see figure 02). The seal can be pre-
installed on the umbilical or diver installed during installation.
Umbilical
Seal plug
I/J tube
Bellmouth
Figure 02 – Seal plug
The I/J tube seal can either be delivered as a moulded or packer-type sealing element.

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2.2.3 Topside hang-off assembly
The topside hang-off assembly provides a structural element to transfer the pull-in loads from
the umbilical during installation, and into the platform J-tube after the installation is completed
(see figure 03).
Topside
umbilical
interface
Surface Termination : Armor Pot

Pull-in head
With Hang-Off Split Plate
Surface Termination During Installation ;

Including : Pull-In Head, Armor Pot, "J"
Tube Collar And Bend Stiffener
Bend stiffener
"J" Tube On Floater
Umbilical
Bend stiffener
Pull-out Clamp (contingency)
Umbilical
Figure 03 – Topside hang-off arrangement
2.3 Intermediate connection

The umbilical riser splice is the connection unit between the dynamic and static part of the
umbilical. The unit comprises suspension points, and connects the tubes with threaded type
fitting or welded splices for both steel tubes and electrical cables. The riser splice also has
oil-filled, pressure-compensated chambers containing electrical penetrators (see figure 04).
This device is mainly used when the static and dynamic cross sections of the umbilical are
different or when the umbilical is too long to be fabricated in one-piece length. The
intermediate connection is mainly performed offshore, onboard the laying vessel.
Non armoured
umbilical cable
Tube separators
Weld type or Armoured umbilical cable
bend stiffener compression fittings (dynamic umbilical)
Anode protectors positioned

Final assembly filled with
between tie bars
'WIRELOCK RESIN'
Static umbilical
El ti bl li
Figure 04 – Typical arrangement of joint box for a steel tube umbilical

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Deepwater subsea umbilical termination system is either a termination head (see figure 05)
or termination unit (see figure 07) depending on the type of umbilical (hydraulic umbilical,
electrical umbilical, electro-hydraulic umbilical, integrated service umbilical etc.) and selected
tie-in method.
The complete subsea termination system comprises the following elements:
- Subsea termination interface

- Bend restrictor/ bend stiffener hang off (bend limiter is also possible)
- Tubing support, including check valves, flanges, etc.
- Electrical penetrators and connectors
The electrical penetrators and connectors are placed inside an oil-filled, pressure-
compensated chamber. With respect to the electrical cables, the philosophy of using a
minimum of two barriers against water ingress is maintained throughout the entire system.
c
Service line
VIEW SHOWING ONLY
HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS
Fluid lines c
Hydraulic tubes Section cc
VIEW SHOWING ONLY

ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS
Penetrators Electrical connections
Marine electrical connectors

ROV grab bar Orientation key
FULL VIEW
Hub (tie-in)
ISU end termination interface
Carrier pipe / orientation sleeve
Figure 05 – ISU termination head general arrangement
The subsea termination system is typically manufactured in mild steel, painted and
cathodically protected.
The design of the subsea termination system is related to the selection of one of the three
following connection methods from the subsea end of the umbilical to the subsea structures:
- Clamp or collet connection: The installation of the umbilical can be based on

either a stab and hinge-over method or direct pull-in method. The chosen
connection method will have an impact on the design of subsea structure and
connection system. For further information on subsea structure interface
requirements, please refer to document "Tie-in Methods" [reference 05] of
Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book. This type of connection

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method is mainly used for the hydraulic umbilical with a high number of lines or
high stiffness of the individual lines, which make the use of jumpers difficult (e.g.
Integrated Service Umbilical) (see figure 06).
Seal plate
Marine electrical
connectors
Tie-in hub
with hydraulic
couplers
Carrier pipe with

orientation sleeve
Clamp connector
(pull-in and
protection) (for each termination head)
Subsea
termination
Figure 06 – Connection system using subsea termination head and clamp assembly to
connect integrated service umbilical to subsea structure
- ROV-installed junction plates: The ROV-operated junction plate assembly

consists of independent junction plates attached to mechanical arms which pivot
on joints that are fixed to subsea structures or mounted on retrievable subsea
control pods. Female coupler junction plates are generally mounted on the
subsea structures such as tree, control pod, umbilical termination system, etc.
Flexible jumpers allowing the subsea connections from subsea umbilical
termination system are fitted at both ends with male coupler junction plates (see
figure 07). The subsea connection is performed using ROV and its dedicated
tooling package in ‘free-flying mode’. It is therefore applicable only for electrical
and/or hydraulic ‘flying leads’. This technique (i.e. ‘free-flying mode’) is not
applicable to the Integrated Service Umbilical due to its central service line
stiffness and termination head weight.

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Umbilical
Termination Unit
Junction
plate
Junction plate
affixed to
Umbilical with
subsea tree
bend stiffener
Flying lead terminated

with junction plate
X-mas tree
Hydraulic coupler
Electrical connector
ROV operated juction plate
Figure 07 – Connection system using subsea umbilical termination unit and ROV
operated junction plates
- Subsea flying lead : Electrohydraulic connections between subsea installations

can be accomplished with an ROV-installed flying leads (see figure 08). A flying
lead is deployed subsea using a compact frame. The ROV pulls one end of the
flying lead from the frame and swims to the receptacle mounted on the subsea
structure. Then the ROV returns to the deployment frame and pulls the other end
of the flying lead and swims and connects it to the subsea umbilical termination
unit or subsea termination assembly. This connection method is well suited for
umbilicals with a limited number of small hydraulic lines or electrical cables.

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ROV handle
Receptacle
Connector
Figure 08 – Wet mateable connection principle applied to electrical cable
2.5 Caps
The umbilical is provided with protection caps and preservation caps installed on the subsea
termination system. The purpose of the protection cap is to provide mechanical protection
and prevent contamination of the connectors and seals faces. The purpose of the
preservation cap is, in addition to mechanical protection, to enable pressurisation of the fluid
lines above the ambient in hydrostatic pressure in order to compensate for pressure
variations in the lines during laying operations and prevent ingress of dirt and moisture.
2.6 Laying vessel and equipment

The equipment required for the umbilical laying from an installation vessel (see figures 09
and 10) is listed below:
- Horizontal powered reel, vertical powered reel or carousel for the storage of
umbilical (Integrated service umbilical and steel tube umbilical will be mainly
stored in horizontal powered reel).
- Straightener / spooler to assist in loading and unloading the umbilical. The
straightening function is only required for the laying of integrated service
umbilical/steel tube umbilical,
- Tensioner / aligner to align the umbilical with the tensioner central axis and retain
the laying load tension,
- Overboard chute to control the umbilical curvature,
- A & R winch to abandon umbilical on seabed and recover it in case of problem.

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Horizontal powered reel
Overboarding chute
Figure 09 – Umbilical laying vessel – Seaway Condor

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Termination Overboard
head chute
Umbilical
stored on
horizontal
reel
Umbilical
termination
head
Bend
restrictor
Straightener/spooler
Umbilical
Dual two track

tensioners
Figure 10 – Umbilical laying equipment for ISU

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3 UMBILICAL TECHNOLOGY & MANUFACTURERS REVIEW
3.1 General
Umbilicals are a combination of thermoplastic hoses, electrical cables, fibre optics and/or
steel tubes which are assembled together to form a circular cross section. In order to provide
axial tensile strength and abrasion resistance, the product can be supplied armoured with
steel wires prior to extruding an outer thermoplastic sheath or applying a roving layer.
Different types of umbilical are shown in figure 11.
Figure 11 – Sample of different umbilical types
The hydraulic lines can be employed for a variety of duties, typically:
• Power (operation of actuators)

• Signal (operation of pilot control valves)
• Data (pressure monitoring)
• Fluid transmission and chemical injection (well service and platform utilities)
Hydraulic lines may be either reinforced thermoplastic tubing or steel tubing. The former can
be in very long continuous and seamless lengths, whereas the latter are produced from
shorter lengths, which are butt-welded to achieve the final production length. The shorter
lengths may additionally be seam welded as part of the steel tube production process. NDT
and heat treatment shall be carefully supervised as possible source of failure.

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The electrical lines are divided into two categories:
• Power cables for the power supply of offshore platforms and subsea production
equipment (control pod, repeater, pilot control valve, electric pumps, etc.)
• Signal cables for the remote control/monitoring of subsea production equipment
(operation of pilot control valve, readback of wellhead status and operating
parameters, etc.) from host facilities (fixed platform or floating production system)
The arrangement of hydraulic lines and electrical cables in a typical umbilical is shown in the
following figure 12:
(PolyPropylene)
Figure 12 – Typical structure of electro-hydraulic umbilical
The increasing use of subsea production systems for the exploitation of oil and gas has
resulted in increased complexity of such systems. Additionally, as the confidence has
developed in the use of subsea systems there have been considerable increases in the
offset distance from the ‘Host’ platform. This has resulted in a very significant increase in the
quantity of hydraulic lines being employed in many subsea developments and it is not
uncommon to find a single development employing over 300 km of hydraulic lines. Coupled
with the ever-increasing number and complexity of control and well service fluids it is
important that compatibility between the hydraulic lines and these chemical fluids (i.e.
material selection) is carefully addressed if service problems are to be avoided. The same
considerations need to be given to all materials of construction used to contain service fluids
within the overall system, e.g. seals, rigid pipe assemblies, etc.

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Outer sheath
The manufacturing techniques used in the production of umbilicals are similar to those used
for flexible pipes; essentially helical lay-up, extrusion and armouring as shown in figures 13
to 17:
Figure 13 – Helical lay-up machine for steel tube umbilical
Figure 14 – Extruding machine

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Armour wires
Umbilical
Figure 15 – Armouring machine
Umbilical
Steel tubes
Electric cables (on reels)
(on reels)
Umbilical
Figure 16 – Helical lay-up machine for Integrated Service Umbilical

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However, several manufacturing processes are unique to the production of umbilicals:
• Thermoplastic hose braiding reinforcement: In order to reinforce a thermoplastic hose

liner to provide a specific working pressure, large capacity high-speed braiders are
necessary to apply high strength Aramid fibre (see figure 17). Unit lengths varying from a
few metres to more than 20km can be manufactured without joint
Figure 17 – Hose braiding machine
• Umbilical assembly line: The functional components can be assembled using the reverse
helix technique (i.e. clockwise and anti-clockwise alternated layers, method known as SZ)
which provides the umbilical with the required flexibility. The SZ assembling machine is
also used for the manufacture of integrated service umbilical and gas lift umbilical.
The main manufacturers of umbilicals are :
1. DUCO (Dunlop Coflexip Umbilicals Ltd.)

2. ALCATEL
3. NORSK CABLE (ABB)
4. KVAERNER
5. MULTIFLEX (OCEANEERING)
6. NKT
7. PIRELLI
8. JDR CABLE SYSTEMS
Full details (address) are provided in enclosed Annex 1.

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The design of an umbilical mainly features:
• Fulfilment of all the required functions

• Material selection based on (1) fulfilment of their function, (2) compatibility with
the other materials and fluids to be transported
• Internal and external pressure, installation, thermal and dynamic loads shall be
taken into account
• Fatigue life must correspond to the required operating life
• Internal and external corrosion must be addressed
• Stability on seabed
• Optimisation of the section to achieve the best dynamic behaviour, and
eventually to obtain similar dynamic characteristics to adjacent risers (if possible)
The following sections present the technology and manufacturing process used in the
production of different types of umbilical implemented in deepwater applications i.e.
thermoplastic hose umbilicals, steel tube umbilicals, power & control umbilical and integrated
service umbilical.
3.2 Thermoplastic hose umbilical

The construction of a typical thermoplastic hose comprises a seamless thermoplastic
extruded liner, reinforced by one or more layers of braided high strength textile yarn, and an
outer thermoplastic extruded sheath for mechanical protection (see figure 18). The liner
(sometimes referred to as core tube) acts as a seal between the fluid and the external layers
and is the means of containing the transmitted fluids. To achieve the design life for the
umbilical system, it is imperative that a high level of compatibility exists between the liner and
the contained fluids.
Internal
Thermoplastic
Liner
1 Or 2 Fibre
Braid Layers
External
Thermoplastic
Sheath
Figure 18 – Typical flexible hose structure
Thermoplastic hose liners are produced using an extrusion process. Polymer, in granular
form, is melted and forced through a pin and die arrangement to produce a tube, initially
greater in diameter than the finished product. Whilst still molten, the tube is drawn through a
sizing die to reduce it to the required size, immediately followed by rapid cooling to solidify
the product, to facilitate passage through the hauler and spooling onto the storage reel.

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In the extrusion process, forcing material through the breaker plate and die arrangement, can
result in the liner tube exhibiting anisotropic properties (e.g. out of roundness hose).
To allow the hose liner to transmit fluid at high pressures, the liner tube is reinforced with
braided textile yarn. When pressurised, the hose liner is forced against the braided material
resulting in some material flow into the interstices of the braided arrangement. This can result
in varying stress levels around the circumference and along the length of the liner.
Some thermoplastic hose umbilicals are shown in figures 19 and 20.
Filler
Electrical cable
Thermoplastic
hoses
First armour
layers
Second armour
layers
Polyethylene
outer sheath
Figure 19 – Dynamic electro-hydraulic Figure 20 – Static hydraulic

thermoplastic umbilical
thermoplastic umbilical
The fibre braids typically of high strength Aramid fibre provide the mechanical strength to
resist the hoses internal pressure.
Standard end couplings can be attached to the hose in the normal manner, i.e. by one of
several swaging techniques.
In the early days of subsea production, Polyamide 11 was the commonly employed material
construction for the hose liner and there were relatively few fluids to be conveyed. These
were typically water based controlled fluids and methanol. With the introduction of
electrohydraulic control systems demanding high levels of system cleanliness and thus ultra
clean hydraulic lines, an alternative, Thermoplastic Polyester (with lower permeation rate),
was employed to satisfy this aspect.
The hoses used have to transport many different chemical fluids and also transmit hydraulic
power. The problem with chemical fluids (e.g. methanol, glycol) used for hydrate formation
prevention, is that it permeates through the current industry standard hose lining materials.
This permeated fluid, which is retained by the umbilical inner or outer thermoplastic sheath,
due to the thicker section and different material used, builds up within the umbilical structure
and egresses from the umbilical at its ends. With fluids, such as methanol, disposal of
significant quantities can present problems (environmental, cost).

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The introduction of XLPe (cross linked polyethylene) hose lining material has greatly reduced
permeation rate, almost zero at seabed temperature, and is also resistant to a wide range of
commonly used injection and hydraulic fluids.
XLPe proprietary lining material was developed using a specific grade of HDPe, which is
cross-linked using an original and patented (Duco), cross linking process.
The action of cross-linking HDPe slightly improves its mechanical characteristics, but
moreover it drastically improves its blistering resistance and its chemical resistance to liquid
or gaseous hydrocarbons.
3.3 Steel tube umbilical

Umbilicals in general are vital parts of the underwater production technology. But their
reliability has been questioned, as many problems have occurred during laying and
operation. Therefore improvements have to be performed in order to increase the reliability of
the product. It is also relevant to compare the umbilical reliability with the subsea
communication cable reliability. The latter product group has a remarkable good track record,
and "mature" umbilical designs should be expected to have the same kind of reliability.
One of the problem areas was that the inner liner of the thermoplastic hoses showed
compatibility problems with some hydraulic fluids and with methanol in particular. To comply
with these compatibility problems the metal tube umbilical was introduced in the early 90’s,
first for static applications then for dynamic applications (see figures 21 and 22).
Metallic umbilicals, in which the traditional kevlar reinforced thermoplastic hoses were
replaced by steel tubes, has several advantages over the traditional thermoplastic hose
umbilicals with respect to permeation, fluid compatibility, hydraulic and mechanical properties
(e.g. collapse resistant).
Metal tubes offer potential technical, cost and reliability advantages, especially in deep
waters. Metal tubes can be in carbon steel, zinc coated carbon steel (coiled tubing), duplex
or super duplex stainless steel, titanium grade 12 or composite material. Since carbon steel
tubes can be formed in continuous lengths, steel tube umbilical would not require girth welds.
Using steel in dynamic applications opens up challenges, which must be overcome. The
major challenge with respect to dynamic steel tube umbilicals is fatigue, and details of the
general arrangement and configuration of the related products can be decisive on whether
the required life is met or not.
Super duplex steel tube has up to now been the steel material used in dynamic umbilicals
due to high corrosion resistance. New type of coiled tubing made of zinc coated carbon steel
has entered the market. This material has already been used in a number of static umbilical
projects. A testing program carried out for Deepstar phase 3 showed that the fatigue
properties of zinc coated carbon steel tube make it suitable also for use in dynamic
umbilicals.

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In selecting the design parameters for a metal tube umbilical, the following topics must be
considered:
• a simple cross section formed solely of helically wound metal tubes is a viable
and potentially economical design (versus thermoplastic hose)
• if included, the electrical conductors require protection from crushing loads and
allowing the electrical conductors to move axially may improve the fatigue life
and reduce likelihood of damage during installation. This is performed by means
of PVC sheath.
• proper selection of materials plays an important role in determining the lowest
cost solution. Fluid compatibility and corrosion protection will also influence the
selection
• design details, such as splices, spooling, terminations and installation
procedures, are important in successfully placing an umbilical into service
without defects or damages
• armouring and other layers that are candidates for incorporation in the umbilical
cross section should each be considered carefully on their merits, that is,
whether they actually increase reliability or serve a vital function.
The requirements for well service and length of the umbilical usually determine the number
and internal diameters of tubes, and if included the size and number of electrical conductors.
In making choices about the umbilical configuration, the designer must be aware and take
into account all the facets of the umbilical application. This includes manufacturing process
and equipment available for manufacture, installation method and procedure, static and
dynamic loading, mechanical handling, storage, stability on seafloor, termination at the well
and platform, cathodic protection testing, internal cleanliness, and repair. All of these aspects
may be important in the installation and successful operation of an umbilical.
Typical manufacturing process of metallic umbilical is as follows :
1. Seamless tube joints (in approximately 20m lengths) are welded together and put on
small reels to bring the length up to required length. Butt welds in the tubes are carried
out using orbital welding techniques (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding system) on a dedicated
welding line, and are then passed through a real time radiography unit for validation.
Radiographic results are stored electronically, initially on video tape and are then digitally
stored on compact disc; this system enables rapid retrieval if historical examination
should be required,
2. These reels are then loaded directly onto a vertical lay-up machine, and the tubes are
helically bundled, tape-wrapped, and placed temporarily on a turntable storage carousel
with diameters of 22 to 26 meters and weight capacity of about 600 Te approximately.
3. From this carousel, the umbilical is passed through an armoured machine or a

polyethylene / polyurethane extrusion machine (or both) for armouring and sheathing.
The completed umbilical is then taken up and stored by reel or carousel ready for
termination head installation, factory acceptance test and dispatch.

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Polyethylene Electrical
Steel tubes Binding tape
sheathed cables
tubes
Armour
layers
Figure 21 – Typical hydraulic steel tube Figure 22 – Dynamic electro-hydraulic

umbilical (for both static and dynamic steel tube umbilical
applications)

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Conventional steel tube umbilical is composed of a static umbilical laid on the seabed and a
dynamic umbilical suspended to the fixed or floating production system. Some samples are
shown in the following figure 23:
Electrical cables
Steel tubes
Binding tape
Polyethylene inner sheath
Armour layers
Polyethylene outer sheath
Figure 23 – Dynamic electro- hydraulic steel tube umbilical
Electrical cable
Steel tubes
Binding tape
Filler
Polyethylene outer sheath
Figure 24 – Static electro- hydraulic steel tube umbilical

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3.4 Power and control umbilical

The supply of electrical power from shore to platforms, between platforms or from platform to
subsea installations is performed by means of submarine power cables (see figure 25).
Supplying power to offshore installations from energy sources onshore makes for smaller
and lighter offshore structures, lower manning requirements, and lower CO2 emission levels.
With this solution any number of installations can be linked and provided with power from a
common onshore power source. The power supply cable system can be expanded to form a
network between offshore fields, providing flexible and safe power utilisation for the oil and
gas industry. Two types of submarine power cables are to be distinguished “dry” design or
“wet” design, the former being more reliable but at higher cost.
The remote control of unmanned installations is another application for submarine composite
cables. Most subsea power cables installed offshore have a fibre-optic element containing 8-
32 optical fibres for signal transmission. The advantages of combining signal and power
capabilities in one cable are:
• communication will not be influenced by weather or surface traffic

• greater bandwidth compared to radio frequencies
• higher data transmission rate with optical fibres
Power cable
Fiber optic cable
Outer sheath Armour layers Filler
Figure 25 – Typical power supply umbilical including fibre optic cores

for control system
Advanced umbilicals for the transmission of power, signals and fluids have been produced
for the management and control of subsea wells.
Electrical power and signal cables are designed and manufactured to suit the final bundle
make-up, each component being sized to ensure a balanced and circular construction.
Insulation and sheath materials are carefully selected to meet the requirements of the
application (for subsea applications, polyethylene and polyurethane are the standard
choices).

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Electrical conductors comprise multi-strand copper, either tinned or plain. Strand size is
determined according to specification (see section 1.2) and/or duty. Multi-strand construction
ensures good flexibility for dynamic duties.
Insulation materials are usually thermoplastic compounds, including polyethylene, cross-
linked polyethylene, polypropylene and PVC.
Data and signal transmission line options include twisted pair, triads or quads (screened if
required) and coaxes of various specifications, all optimised for particular attenuation,
capacitance, cross-talk, resistance and other required electrical parameters.
To avoid electro-magnetic interferences, power cables are screened using either copper
braid or aluminium/polyester film. Components are screened individually or in appropriate
groupings, taking account of heat build-up and storage/handling requirement (i.e. Minimum-
bending radius).
Fibre optic cables, where required are selected from standard basic units and then further
processed as necessary (no limitation considering total length). Fibre optic is being used
more widely for data transmission because of their large bandwidth capability and without
interference problems.
Multi- and single-mode fibres are available in a variety of buffering systems. Loose buffered
systems utilise fibres in plastic or steel tubes, while tight buffered systems typically include a
steel armour or Aramid reinforcement (see figure 26).
The process of power cable or service umbilical manufacturing is as follows:
• Lay up: To achieve the best dynamic performance and to prevent stress build-up
in the components during bending, all components are helically laid-up in a full
360 degree cabled construction. This promotes flexibility and helps to prevent
transmission of stress to the component during dynamic applications
• Armouring: Lightweight wire, or heavy duty contrahelical wire armour, can be
provided for umbilicals, where required. Such armouring gives damage-protection
from ship's anchors or from rock dumping or provides high tensile strength
dependent on design. Armoured cables are torque balanced and can have either
a single or double wire armouring to ensure maximum strength and protection
according to application
• Strength members: Aramid fibre braided strength members may be applied to
provide high tensile strength, flexibility and low weight. Alternatively, central wire
rope strength members can be used, if required
• Sheathing: Extruded sheathing of most thermoplastic materials (polyurethane,
polyethylene, nylon 11, polyester elastomer, polypropylene impregnated with
bitumen are commonly used) is available for maximum mechanical protection
and service life. Materials are selected for their resistance to a seawater
environment, durability under handling and cost.

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Power cables
Fibre optic cables
Polyethylene
outer sheath
Armour layers
Figure 26 – Dynamic power and control umbilical
3.5 Integrated service umbilical

The typical integrated service umbilical is a combination of one or more of the hereunder-
listed elements:
• Service lines
• Hydraulic lines
• Chemical lines
• Fibre-optic cores for data transmission
• Electrical cables for power supply
• Electrical cables for signal transmission
• Production line
The cross-section structure of the umbilical is designed to handle the various characteristics
of the individual elements. The concept offers full control of mechanical stresses and strains,
combined with maximum flexibility.
All elements in the cross-section are bundled together in a continuous helix. The outer
sheathing is of extruded polyethylene or polyurethane.
It offers the following main features:
• Resistance to aggressive fluids

• Suitability for small and large diameter tubes
• Subject to extremely high pressure over long distances
• Continuous umbilicals for long offsets
• Combination of service/production lines within the same umbilical
• Increased lifetime of the umbilicals (due to high tensile strength and stiffness of
steel tubes)
• Steel tubes eliminates the need for additional armouring (e.g. dynamic
application)

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The market of integrated service umbilicals is dominated by four major manufacturers:

DUCO, KVAERNER, ALCATEL AND MULTIFLEX.
Only Kvaerner integrated service umbilical technology differs from general umbilical design
philosophies. The Kvaerner umbilical technology is based on design principles of subsea
bundle technology.
In the Kvaerner integrated service umbilical, hydraulic lines are combined with electrical
cables and/ or fibre optic cables in a composite cross-section, the elements are separated by
unique PVC profiles. These conduit profiles ensure that the cables and steel tubes are free to
move relative to other elements and not be exposed to lateral loads as elements are not
adjacent (see figure 28). In conventional ISU umbilicals, the elements are kept together by
rubber or plastic material which lock the elements in their position in the cross section (see
figure 27).
Service line
Electrical cables
Fiber braid filler
Steel tubes
Polyethylene
outer sheath
Figure 27 – Conventional integrated service umbilical
Outer sheath
Electrical cable
Chemical injection
Or hydraulic lines
Service line
PVC profiles
Figure 28 – Kvaerner integrated service umbilical

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The lay length of the Kvaerner ISU is relatively long compared to conventional umbilical
technology. The Kvaerner ISU is torque balanced as the manufacturing process ensures a
controlled back twist of the hydraulic tubes. Umbilical loops during installation have never
been experienced for any Kvaerner umbilical (e.g. Norsk Hydro TROLL, NJORD, VISUND).
The Kvaerner umbilical concept allows individual design to suit a range of applications
capable of transferring hydraulic fluids, electrical signals, power and fibre-optic signals.
Service lines (typically 1,5" – 4") can easily be included and are placed in the centre, with the
electrical signal and power cables, fibre optic cores and hydraulic tubing placed
circumferentially around inside PVC conduit elements. The circumferentially placed members
follow a helix trajectory. Each element is designed to sustain hydrostatic pressure.
The axial strength in the Kvaerner umbilical design is provided mainly by the central metal
tubing. Separate armouring layers to take axial loads and stresses are therefore not
necessary.
Where a thermoplastic or steel tube umbilical always has the electrical cables in the centre
(see figures 29 and 30), the cable position within the Kvaerner umbilical is not critical.
Covered by the PVC profiles, the electrical and fibre optic cables will bend around their own
centre axis and not around the centre of the cross section (see figure 31). The electric cables
in the Kvaerner umbilical are not subject to excessive strains. In addition, the conduit
elements give protection against external loads. Electric and fibre optic elements can thus be
placed in any position within the Kvaerner integrated service umbilical.
Electrical cable
Figure 29 – Electrical cables position in a thermoplastic umbilical

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Electrical placed
In the center line
and surrounded by
steel tubes
Steel tubes
Armour layers
Outer sheath
Figure 30 – Electrical cables position in a typical steel tube position
Steel tubes
Electrical
cable placed
in the outer
layer
Service line
PVC profiles
Figure 31 – Electrical cables position in a Kvaerner integrated service umbilical

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The manufacturing of integrated service umbilical is based on either an horizontal (Kvaerner

technology) or vertical (Duco technology) axis machine capable to support fifteen bobbins,
each of which is capable of holding fifteen metric tons of tubing or electric cable.
These unique manufacturing capabilities allow the production of integrated service umbilical
with up to six-inch service line in the center, with the control functions placed around the
circumference.
The steel tube umbilical is designed for virtually any service application. Operating conditions
will determine if the tubing material will be carbon steel, zinc coated carbon steel (coiled
tubing), 316L duplex or super duplex stainless steel or titanium grade 12.
The manufacturing process of Integrated Service Umbilical is as follows:
Seamless tubes in length up to 23m are butt welded and progressively spooled into
reels. The length of any reeled tubing depends on the tube size. The tube string
welding is run on line composed of programmable orbital TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas)
welding stations, real time X-ray inspection and CD recording. The Non Destructive
Examination (NDE) system of inspection provides a 100% traceability ensuring that
individual tubes and welds throughout the production are identifiable to their location
within the completed umbilical and mapped to achieve a complete manufacturing
history traceable to the original material certification,
Completed tube strings are hydrostatically pressure tested prior to release for the
umbilical lay up,
Tested tube strings are loaded into the umbilical lay up machine,
Seamless central service line (from 1.5” up to 6” OD and in approximately 20m lengths)
are welded together and stored on the carousel. Welding, NDE and pressure test are
performed as for the above seamless tubes,
The hydraulic/chemical tubing strings and electrical cables together with the PVC
profilers are helically laid up around the central service line,
The circular bundle is 100% tape wrapped then directed to a temporary storage
carousel. During the lay up operation tube to tube weld joints and electrical splices are
performed in order to produce the required length,
The umbilical is then passed through an extrusion line for the application of the
polyethylene outer sheath and routed to a large storage turntable, ready for factory
acceptance test, loading and transportation to the offshore site.
3.6 Subsea termination interface

As part of the umbilical technology, there is a wide range of umbilical termination equipment.
The subsea termination interface provides a standardised interface towards the subsea
termination assembly.
The steel or flexible lines are capped and terminated with end fitting, while the electrical
cables are prepared for termination and water-blocked using heat shrink adhesive caps, prior
to factory termination with electric cable subsea connectors (see figure 32). The subsea
termination interface comprises the following main elements:
- Bend restrictor / bend stiffener radius control

- Attachment to the umbilical and the subsea termination assembly (e.g. flanges,
connectors)
- Tubing support (e.g. tube separator, clamp, resin)

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Interface flange
Female
Tube retaining collars connector
Umbilical
Resin filled
Tube
with flanged
interface
Articulated bend
limiter
Tube separator
Typical 5m
Tube bundle clamp Electrical cables
Figure 32– Subsea termination interface arrangement
The outer steel or plastic tubes are separated from the centre tube by the insertion of a
tapered cone over the centre tube and this “sprayed” tube configuration is resin encapsulated
within a tubular compartment. To prevent the tubes from pulling out of the resin, collars are
fillets welded to the tubes (see figure 32) in order to provide a bearing surface against which
the resin is poured during assembly. In this way the compressive modulus of the resin rather
than the bond strength of the resin to the tube limit the load (or tension) capability.
The efforts applied to the umbilical are mainly taken by the interface flange, which
recuperates the tension forces through the tube retaining collars and the moments through
the bend limiters.

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3.7 Subsea bend restrictor

When an umbilical is unsupported over a large free span there exists the possibility of
damaging the umbilical structure due to over-bending.
Typical locations at which this problem may occur could be at the subsea connection points
and J-tube exits.
Fitting a device known as bending restrictor prevents over-stressing of the umbilical. A
restrictor consists of a number of interlocking half rings, which are fastened together around
the umbilical (see figures 33 and 34). The restrictor does not hinder the movement of the
pipe until a pre-determined minimum bending radius is reached, at which point the restrictor
elements lock.
Entry Clamp / ring fasteners
funnel fastener
Rigid shell
Umbilical
termination
head
The minimum bending

radius is determined by the
Bend clearance within the clamp
restrictor
Figure 33 – Integrated service umbilical Figure 34 – Bend restrictor schematic

equipped with steel bend restrictor
The restrictor and not the umbilical subsequently carry additional external bending loads.
The subsea bend restrictors can be either based on cathodically protected steel elements or
conventional moulded elements. In the latter, the bend restrictor elements, or rings, are
manufactured from a specific grade of polyurethane elastomer. The material is tough, semi-
rigid and creeps resistant.
The steel material is preferable to the plastic elastomer, with respect to preventing over-
bending of steel tube umbilicals. The steel bend restrictor also provides better definition of
mechanical characteristics or improved strength. The subsea steel bend restrictor is
purposely designed for each individual application and is provided with cathodic protection.
The restrictor ring fasteners are not connected to a cathodic protection system and so they
are supplied in highly corrosion resistant materials.
Bending restrictors could be installed either onshore or (if reeling problems are expected)
offshore prior to the laying operation.

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3.8 Topside bend stiffener

Dynamic umbilical may be secured to rigid structures such as fixed flanges mounted on top
of I/J tube at the hang off platform, with or without emergency release connectors. The
presence of environmental loads will subsequently cause the pipe to bend near this hang-off
point. With respect to dynamic steel tube umbilicals, the greatest challenge to overcome is
fatigue. And the most critical area with respect to fatigue is usually this interface area
between umbilical and floating production system.
The bending in combination with large axial loads may cause damage to the umbilical
structure due to overbending.
To prevent structure damage due to overbending the umbilical termination may be supplied
with a dynamic bend stiffener, which protects the umbilical from the wave, currents and
vessel motion induced bending in the interface area, and ensures the umbilical’s required
design life.
The bend stiffener has a single section of graduated profile non reinforced moulded
polyurethane elastomer. This material is extremely tough yet flexible and suitable for
extended service in a subsea or an above water marine environment.
The topside bend limiter for dynamic steel tube umbilicals is a purpose built device. The bend
limiter design is based on non-linear finite element calculations and given vessel motions /
sea states. The typical parameters needed for the design of bend stiffener are: minimum and
maximum axial top tension, maximum top deflection angle, umbilical bending stiffness and
minimum bend radius requirement.
Bending stiffener
Figure 35 – Topside bend stiffener

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3.9 Topside termination system

Riser sections are terminated using a split flange hang off collar. Termination of the
mechanical components is achieved by welding of the armour wires to a stepped collar,
below the hang off point. The topside termination is mechanically terminated in the same
manner as the subsea termination (see figure 36).
View X - X
Sput hang-off flange & bolting
Protective covers securing screws

Tube bundle clamp
Female connectors
Retaining collar
Tube with
Armour wires welded flanged interface
X
to collar
Pull-in head
X
Ø324 Water blocking caps on
Umbilical electric cables
Heat shrink tape Resin filled Tube separator Tube retaining collars
Piping connections
Figure 36 – Topside termination of steel tube termination
3.10 External corrosion protection

The armour wire is protected by the galvanisation applied during manufacturing of the wire.
No additional cathodic protection is proposed.
Joints, terminations and hardware fabricated in carbon steel and permanently installed
subsea, or permanently exposed to the splash zone are protected by zinc plating to BS 1706,
Grade Fe Zn 10C/1A, hot dip galvanised or painted to subsea paint specification.
Stainless steel are possible for optimum corrosion resistance.
Carbon steel tube external corrosion control includes the traditional use of cathodic
protection in conjunction with organic coatings and the use of metallic coatings which could
provide both the cathodic protection and barrier coating corrosion control functions.
Traditional cathodic protection techniques include (1) bracelet type anodes spaced at
discrete distances along the steel tube elements, (2) large anodes installed on the seabed
and connected to the umbilical at longer discrete distances, and (3) continuous ribbon type
anode material installed within the umbilical during fabrication. The first two methods would
not allow for proper current distribution to the steel tubes through and underneath the
umbilical jacket roving. Although the ribbon anode material was designed for this concern,
attenuation analyses indicated that the anode material would require an unrealistic number of
electrical attachment points.

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Metallic coatings have been utilised for providing corrosion control in seawater immersion in
the North Sea, and more recently in the Gulf of Mexico. Thermal sprayed aluminium meets
all mechanical and corrosion requirements for steel tube. However, there is a concern
around the ability to sustain a high rate of tubing production and economics. An extrusion
process would be a more effective method to apply a metallic coating to the tubing with zinc
as the coating material. This solution was used for zinc coated wires in complex mooring
cables for Tension Leg Platforms. This design uses bitumen type blocking agent.
The barrier coating and cathodic protection functions of a zinc alloy are a function of the
alloy’s chemical composition. Zinc alloys typically used for cathodic protection in seawater
are quite active and have poor barrier coating properties. Conversely alloys, which exhibit
better barrier coating properties, have limited cathodic protection capabilities. A combination
of these properties is required for long term corrosion control of steel umbilical elements.

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4. TEST REQUIREMENT
4.1 General
To demonstrate that the functional core components and umbilical system will meet the
performance requirements, a qualification/factory acceptance test program should be
undertaken. This will cover material testing of each umbilical component through to umbilical
performance verification.
4.2 Material qualification testing

The following typical test regime is performed on samples for qualification of functional core
components to verify its performance according to the design specifications:
♦ Steel tube material Criteria, purposes
- Mechanical tests (Yield, Tensile, Elongation) Tension loads, strains,

- Hardness test Fatigues, cracks,
- Pitting corrosion test Corrosion, life cycle,
- Flattening test Loading, crushing,
- Flaring test Fire resistant,
- Ultrasonic testing Tension loads, fatigues,
- Eddy current test Fatigues, cracks,
- Burst test safety limit to tensile stress,
- Proof pressure test safety limit to yield stress,
♦ Electric cables
- DC conductor resistance line integrity,

- Insulation resistance depth pressure, water-proof,
- High voltage DC Function capabilities
♦ Data transmissions
- Check of data transmission performances which are typically:

⇒ between 1200 and 4800 bits per second (depending on total length) for
a conventional copper wire signal, associated with a bit error of less
than 1 in 105 bits.
⇒ about 55Mb.s-1 for optical cables and bit error rates of better than 10-9.

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4.3 Umbilical design qualification testing

Sample lengths of prototype umbilical manufactured and tested prior to the manufacture of
the final umbilical will prove mechanical performance of the umbilical design. The following
tests are performed on dynamic umbilical prototype samples in the manufacturing facility:
- Tensile breaking strength

- Torsional stability
- Flex fatigue of umbilical and topside hang-off arrangement
- Crush resistance test (installation parameters – see chapter 5)
The steel umbilical prototype samples will include butt welded tube sections in order to verify
the integrity of the welds under flex fatigue conditions.
The performance criteria and cycles performed will be mutually agreed between umbilical
manufacturer and operator.
4.4 Acceptance testing

Extensive testing is carried out by the umbilical manufacturer at all stages of manufacture to
ensure the finished products meet the required acceptance criteria and are fit for purpose.
The following tests are undertaken:
♦ Steel tubes and thermoplastic hoses (full production lengths)
- Visual inspection
- Dimensional checks
- Burst pressure test (samples only)
- Proof pressure test (1.5 * design pressure)
♦ Electric cables
- Hydrostatic testing @ 35 bar.g of insulated conductors

- DC conductor resistance: consists in measuring electrical cable conductor
resistance. The conductor resistance measurements shall be corrected for
temperature and referred to 20°C. The accuracy of the conductor
resistance measurements shall be in milliohm. Temperature correction and
accepted criteria shall be in accordance with IEC publication 228
- Insulation resistance consists in measuring insulation resistance between
conductors and to earth. Test voltage shall be minimum 500 volt DC and
minimum acceptable insulation resistance shall be e.g. 1000 Mohms/km.
- High voltage DC to verify the electric cable function performance
- Time domain reflectometry: this test is carried out to establish the cable
signature and shall be used for detection of possible changes in this
signature due to stress, damages, etc. during the fabrication and
installation phases.

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♦ Umbilical
The following tests will be carried out on the finished umbilical before load out and those
marked *, shall be repeated (as required) after loading onto the shipping/installation reel,
during the installation phase and the subsea pre-commissioning phase. Results should be
comparable to the previously performed tests (i.e. before load-out).
- Electrical cables
DC conductor resistance* (minimum one loop during installation)

Insulation resistance *
High voltage DC
Time domain reflectometry *
- Hydraulic tests
Proof pressure test * and decay test (hoses)

Proof pressure test * (steel tubes)
Flow rate test in turbulent conditions (steel tubes and hoses)
Dimensional and visual (steel tubes and hoses)
Hydraulic fluid cleanliness (steel tubes and hoses) *
- Data transmissions
Check of data transmission performances
Notes:
♦ The umbilical hydraulic lines will be pressure tested using filtered fresh water or final
fluids as required, flushed and cleaned to meet or exceed the requirements of NAS 1638,
Class 6 (Hydraulic Control), Class 8 (Scale) and class 12 (Chemical/inhibitor). The
umbilical hydraulic lines will be delivered fluid filled, prior to load-out.
♦ Procedures for maintenance of the stored umbilical, including the frequency of fluid
replenishment, pressure monitoring, etc. should be generated.
♦ The pressure test is as follows:
FAT: 1.5 times design pressure

After load out: 1.25 times design pressure
After laying: 1 time design pressure
(Design Pressure = maximum allowable internal pressure)
♦ After installation and as part of the pre-commissioning phase, all test pressures refer to
the pressure at seabed, which shall equal the design pressure. Therefore test pressures
at surface (vessels or FPSO) must be defined according to the hydrostatic head relevant
to the water depth.

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4.5 Extent of flushing, pressure testing, cleaning & preservation

The requirements for flushing, pressure testing, cleaning and preservation for specific
umbilical fluid lines are listed in table 01:
Line Type Flushing Pressure test Pickling * Hot oil Flow Cleanliness Preservation
&Cleaning flushing test
Prefab Prefab FAT Load Prefab FAT FAT FAT Load FAT Load
out out out
Chemical /
service X X X X X X X
lines
Hydraulic
lines X X X X X X X X X X X
* see Table 02, section 6.1, thermoplastic hose

Table 01 – Test requirements summary table
After incoming inspection and dimensional control a foam pig is driven through the steel
tubes by dry filtered air, to verify cleanliness and remove any contamination before welding.
During welding (& reeling onto storage carousel) the tubing shall be equipped with special
end fittings for flushing and hydraulic pressure testing. After pressure testing the tubing shall
be thoroughly drained and dried by means of a wiper pig driven through the system by dry
filtered air. The operation shall be repeated until the system is clean and dry (e.g. NAS
1638).
Immediately after drying, blind caps shall be mounted on the end fittings for protection during
storage and transportation.
After assembly and welding into complete umbilical, another hydraulic pressure testing will
be required for all lines.
When the pressure testing has been accepted and recorded, chemical cleaning (pickling)
shall follow for the hydraulic lines. The chemical cleaning will be executed in three steps: acid
cleaning, flushing and drying.
In addition the hydraulic lines shall be flushed with hot oil. During this operation a cleanliness
verification and water content examination shall be executed by particle counting of the fluid
in accordance with NAS 1638 Class 6.

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5. INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
5.1 General
Deepwater field development uses subsea drilled and completed wells tied back to fixed
structures in shallower water or floating production systems in deep waters. The tie back
connections may be performed directly or through a subsea manifold.
These subsea trees are monitored and controlled via umbilicals suspended in a catenary
shape and protected at the splash zones by I/J tubes fixed to the structures as illustrated in
figure 37.
Floating Production System

1. Umbilical connecting FPS to subsea structure
Hang off platform

Sea level
Bend Stiffener
Deep water
Subsea termination assembly
Riser Splice (if any)

Umbilical Subsea Structure
Seabed
Laydown target area
Production Platform
2. Umbilical connecting ‘host’ platform to subsea structure
Attachment point
Sea level
J tube
Shallow water
Bellmouth
Seabed
Deep water
Subsea termination assembly
Umbilical Subsea Structure
Laydown target area
Figure 37 – Different umbilical configurations in deepwater field development
Umbilicals are installed from an umbilical/flexible pipe installation vessel and can be
deployed from two distinct umbilical laying spreads, depending on the line structure limitation
and the lay tensions :
♦ in-line two-tracks tensioners
♦ or directly from the storage reel

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For deepwater applications, steel tube umbilicals can have a large size of over 100mm OD
(i.e. 110 mm – 180 mm) and high lay tensions varying between 30 tons and up to 100 tons at
2000m water depth.
Based on the umbilical crush resistance test (see section 4.3) and a typical usage factor of
0.67 (or safety factor, refer to API 17 J), an allowable compression load is defined.
Both, umbilical lay tension and allowable compression load will determine the required (dual-
track) tensioner contact length or the number of tensioners to provide the equivalent contact
length.
When the required contact length is higher than 10 m – 12 m, there is a clear advantage to
lay the umbilical directly from the storage reel, which must be rated for the lay tensions.
As for rigid pipe, the steel tube umbilical must be laid as per the rules for submarine pipeline
systems, and more specifically in accordance with the following criteria:
♦ Maximum 2% cumulative strains (reeling, unreeling, straightening, etc)

♦ Large radius overboarding chutes (e.g. 14 m) to keep the ‘as laid’ umbilical steel tubes
within the elastic domain (or less than 1% residual strain), with typical 3°-5° departure
angle
Static umbilical can also be integrated in a flowline bundle and installed by the towing
method.
With regard to the repair topic, the only known method is to recover to surface the
termination heads or the umbilical for repair; there is no underwater repair technique
alternative.
The following sections will cover the current umbilical installation method using DP vessel
equipped with suitable equipment for the work and related laying technique and procedures.

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5.2 Laying equipment

Umbilicals can be laid directly from a storage reel or via a tensioner system and associated
carousel basket (see figure 39) installed on main deck or inside the installation vessel.
The umbilical is deployed and over-boarded from a stern laying wheel, similar in shape and
dimensions to the flexible one (i.e. CSO Sunrise 2000 in figure 38), or from an over-boarding
chute located at the stern or on the side of the vessel as illustrated in figure 39.
Laying
wheel
In-line
tensioners
Figure 38 – CSO Sunrise 2000m flexible & umbilical lay vessel
Overboarding chute (e.g. 14 m radius) Straightener/spooler
Umbilical line Horizontal powered reel
Dual tensioner Second end

termination
Aligner
Work platform
First end Carousel

termination Spooling arm Carousel
Figure 39 – Umbilical laying spread general arrangement

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The umbilical lines are stored in a rotating basket in one or several segments and are routed
towards the tensioning system via a spooling and deflector system. A straightening function
will be added to the spooling system in case of integrated service umbilical deployment.
When umbilicals are laid directly from the storage reel rated to hold the full catenary tension,
the line is spooled out from the top of the reel with a spooling device.
The umbilical tensioning spread consists of individual in line tensioners over the working
deck.
Both the umbilical laying reel with associated spooling system and the umbilical tensioning
spread are controlled from the operation control room, in synchronization with deployment of
the flowlines in case of a dual lay. The storage basket and the associated spooling system is
operated generally from an individual control cabin.
The umbilical abandonment is performed with a winch fitted with adequate cable length and
size related to water depth and laying tension.
Abandonment of the umbilical line on the seabed is achieved using a ROV remotely
controlled disconnector or an acoustic release hydraulic shackle.
A deck crane (or A-frame) provides a direct access over the outside of the umbilical laying
wheel or overboarding chute. The proper outreach of the crane facilitates the overboarding of
umbilical connection or large termination unit.
5.3 Laying methods and procedures
5.3.1. General
Umbilicals are laid using one of the following typical methods:
1. Umbilical is initiated at the manifold with a stab and hinge over connection or a
pull-in/connection method and terminated near the subsea well with a second
end lay down sled (i.e. infield umbilical connection from manifold to satellite well).
The connection between the umbilical and the subsea well is later made using a
combination of the following tie-in methods: (1) rigid or a flexible jumper, (2)
junction plates and (3) flying leads (see figure 40).
2. Umbilical is initiated at the manifold with a stab and hinge over connection or a
pull-in/connection method. It is laid in the direction to the fixed or floating
production system and pulled through an I/J tube or cross hauled from the laying
vessel to the floating production vessel (see figure 41).
3. Umbilical can also be initiated at the fixed or floating production system and
terminated near the subsea structure with a second end umbilical termination
assembly (i.e. termination head, lay down sled, umbilical termination unit, etc.). A
pull-in and connection tool operated by ROV may be used to connect the
umbilical to the subsea structure (see figure 42).
For further information on connection technique please refer to Document “Tie-in Methods”
[reference 05] in Deepwater Field Development Reference Book.
The fabricated umbilical length must be accurately determined for installation purpose based
on:
♦ On site route survey (seabed bathymetry, pockmarks, seabed debris and obstruction, etc)
♦ Overlength (typically 2% - 5%) to mitigate for measurement accuracies of baselines (e.g.
DGPS, acoustic) and electronic equipments.

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For steel tube umbilical and for deepwater installation, the internal fluid temperature drop
from surface (up to 40°C in West Africa) to seafloor at 4°C will induce fluid volume reduction.
In which case, potential tube collapse, under hydrostatic pressure at seabed must be
addressed, or fluid volume compensation must be provided during the installation
sequences.
The installation sequences associated with the above umbilical laying methods are further
described in the following section.
5.3.2. Installation procedures
5.3.2.1 Umbilical installation between subsea manifold and X-tree

Method 1 Ö The installation sequence would consist of the following phases (see figure 40):
1. The first end of the umbilical is initiated with a stab & hinge-over connector at the
subsea manifold equipped with a stab & hinge-over receiver.
2. When the stab & hinge-over connector is fully engaged and locked in its receiver,
the installation vessel moves ahead slowly to perform the hinge-over operation.
3. During the hinge-over operation, the correct rotation of the connector and landing
of umbilical on seabed is monitored by ROV.
4. On completion of hinge-over phase, normal umbilical laying continues until
lowering of second end termination unit or sled on seabed.
5. Once the sled is laid down in the target area, its position is confirmed by ROV
and acoustic metrology.
6. When the sled abandonment and disconnection of A&R winch cable are
completed, the connection of the umbilical to the subsea structure is performed
by ROV using flying leads terminated with junction plates.
Note : As part of above step 4, when approaching the target area from a distance of 2 – 3 times the water
depth, the remaining umbilical length (in surface) is to be cross checked with the remaining lay distance (by
means of acoustic baseline). This will allow the umbilical over length to be stored in curves on the seafloor,
prior to the lay-down of the sled/umbilical termination unit in the target area.

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Lay vessel Umbilical laying

spread
Umbilical terminated
with stab&hingeover
connector
Subsea tree Subsea manifold
Receiver
1 UMBILICAL LOWERING 2 CONNECTOR STAB IN
Umbilical
termination unit
Target
area
3 CONNECTOR HINGE OVER 4 UMBILICAL LAY AWAY
Flying lead
Weak link
Junction plate
Umbilical
termination
unit
Subsea tree
Umbilical
5 SLED LAY DOWN 6 UMBILICAL CONNECTION
Figure 40 – Umbilical installation from subsea manifold to subsea tree

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5.3.2.2 Umbilical installation with first end initiation at subsea structure

Method 2 Ö The installation procedure would consist of the following phases (see figure 41):
1. Lowering of the umbilical with its stab & hinge-over connector using the umbilical
laying spread located at the stern of installation vessel.
2. Stab and lock the connector in the receiver mounted on the subsea structure.
3. Move the vessel in the laying direction while paying out on umbilical to perform
the hinge-over operation.
4. On completion of hinge-over operation, ROV will check the correct landing of the
umbilical on seabed before resuming the normal umbilical laying operation.
Umbilical is paid out until the vessel takes position for the transfer of umbilical to
the floater.
5. When the transfer cable is recovered from the floater, connect the pull-in line to
the pull-in head mounted on the umbilical and start the transfer of the umbilical to
the floater.
6. Once load transfer is completed, recover A&R winch cable, resume pulling the
umbilical through I/J tube and secure the umbilical to the hang off platform.
Note: The same note for umbilical over-length (see 5.3.2.1) is applicable during above step 4.

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Lay vessel
Umbilical terminated
with stab&hingeover
connector
Subsea structure
Receiver
1 UMBILICAL LOWERING 2 CONNECTOR STAB IN
Lay direction
3 CONNECTOR HINGE OVER 4 UMBILICAL LAY AWAY
hang off platform

Pull-in
winch
J tube
Floating Bend stiffener

production
system
Umbilical termination
head
Transfer cable Umbilical
5 UMBILICAL CROSS HAUL 6 UMBILICAL HANG-OFF ON FLOATER
Figure 41 – Umbilical installation with first end initiation at subsea structure

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5.3.2.3 Umbilical installation with first end initiation at floater

Method 3 Ö The installation sequence would consist of the following phases (see figure 42) :
1. A transfer cable is passed from the floating production system to the installation
vessel by means of ROV.
2. The first end umbilical termination is transferred to the floater with the dynamic
part of the umbilical by pulling it through the I/J tube attached to the floater
structure.
3. The first end termination is secured to the hang off platform while paying out of
the umbilical continues.
4. Normal umbilical laying operation continues until the lowering of the second end
umbilical termination on seabed.
5. On completion of second end umbilical termination lay down in target area, ROV
will confirm its position before removing the A&R winch cable.
6. If the umbilical is terminated with a termination head, the tie-in method will consist
in first performing the pull –in of the termination head in the subsea structure then
its connection to the structure by means of ROV operated tools or running tools
to be deployed from the surface vessel.
If the umbilical is terminated with a termination unit/lay down sled, the tie-in method is
performed by ROV using jumpers and flying leads.
Note: The same note for umbilical over-length (see 5.3.2.1) is applicable during above step 4.

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Floating production
system
Lay vessel Umbilical
Sea level
Transfer
Transfer cable
cable ROV
First end termination
Seabed
1 TRANSFER CABLE RECOVERY 2 UMBILICAL CROSS HAUL
Attachment point
Lay away
direction
Second end
Umbilical termination
Subsea
structure
Target area
3 UMBILICAL ATTACHMENT & LAY AWAY 4 SECOND END TERMINATION LOWERING
ROV operated
connection tool
Termination Pull in
head winch
5 UMBILICAL TERMINATION HEAD LAY DOWN 6 UMBILICAL PULL IN & CONNECTION
Figure 42 – Umbilical installation with first end initiation at floater

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6. APPLICATIONS & LIMITATIONS
6.1 Thermoplastic hose umbilical

Most of the umbilicals fabricated to date have used thermoplastic tubes as fluid carriers.
Frequently, the electrical conductors are installed separately, but they have been included in
some designs, usually termed "electrohydraulic umbilicals". Separate control and chemical
umbilicals were often chosen because of the possible incompatibility between one of the
injected chemicals and the hose liner. Such an incompatibility could then result in a chemical
attack of the critical element i.e. hydraulic hoses and electric cable insulation with the
subsequent loss of control and a total field shutdown. Although chemical compatibility testing
was carried out to verify the suitability of the hose liner for transporting the specific chemicals
(and alternatives) there was always the risk that an incompatible chemical could be
introduced over the field life leading to failure. In addition, the accelerated ageing tests in
which the hose liner material is tested with the chemicals at elevated temperatures, although
satisfactory, cannot be considered as a fully guaranteed guide to long term deterioration.
They are useful in that they will identify most incompatibility problems in a reasonable time.
In the umbilical design, there is a tendency to request duplication of the electrical
components, both power and signal. In addition, there is often a requirement to design the
umbilical to minimize the cross-sectional area. This may be because of limitations in the I/J
tube diameter or handling capacity limitations of transportation or lay vessel reel/carousel.
Power conductors, signal pairs and hydraulic hoses of different diameters and with different
elasticity properties are then bundled together using either a planetary machine resulting in a
helical lay-up or an alternate clockwise-anticlockwise method known as S-Z. This latter
method has a distinct advantage in that it can lay-up longer lengths without joints because of
the size limitations of cable drums which can be accommodated on planetary machines.
In addition to the components having different elasticity, the back tensions of each
component as they are transferred from the reels or drums to the lay-up machine may be
unequal. This residual tension combined with the effects of dynamic forces due to installation
vessel motions, the compressive forces due to hydrostatic pressure and potential
compression due to the near position in free hanging configuration, may lead to the breaking
of electrical cables.
Electro-hydraulic umbilical riser should be designed to withstand dynamic loads induced by
FPS. Such umbilical would have a very high degree of radial symmetry and the lay-up angles
for all conductor cables and hoses would be high to give the necessary flexibility. They would
therefore have a larger diameter and would occupy much more machine time in manufacture
than the equivalent static product. As a result, they would be typically 50% more expensive
than an umbilical designed for static use.
During the early period of subsea production system implementation (e.g. 80’s), compatibility
was not considered to be a major problem, particularly with Polyamide 11, because of its
outstanding chemical resistance. Where compatibility evaluations were undertaken, these
were performed using dumbbell samples of liner material immersed in the test fluid at
elevated temperature (usually 70°C or 100°C). The dumbbell was manufactured nominally
2 mm thick from a sheet of material produced by means of an injection moulding process.
Life prediction was generally based on the half-life principle, whereby the time for the
elongation at break to reduce to the 50% level was determined. This prediction that the rate
of a chemical reaction doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature, was used to extrapolate
the minimum service life at operating temperature.

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For example, if a series of tests performed on liner material immersed in a fluid at 70°C
shows that it takes 7 months for the elongation at break to reduce to half its original value,
the predicted life at 20°C would be extrapolated as shown in table 02:
Temperature °C Life (Years/Months)
70 0y 7m
60 1y 2m
50 2y 4m
40 4y 8m
30 9y 4m
20 18y 8m
Table 02 – Prediction life of liner material (50% life improvement for every 10°C reduction)
The increasing use of subsea production systems and increasing offset distances and the
need to inject well service chemicals, has resulted in a wider range of control fluids and a
proliferation of well service fluids. These fluids tend to be mixtures of chemicals contained
within a solvent base. At this time it had been observed that one of the hose liner materials
exhibited considerable anisotropic features and, it was felt, that perhaps the dumbbell test
method may not necessarily be a realistic test for such materials, particularly, with fluids of a
"cocktail" nature.
Whilst recognising the simplicity and low cost features of the dumbbell test, a more elaborate
yet simple low cost test was employed to address the anisotropic aspects. Instead of
immersing dumbbells in the fluid at ambient pressure, samples of extruded tube were
immersed and instead of measuring the elongation at break as a function of time, the burst
pressure of the tube was monitored with time.
In order to compare the sample immersion testing with pressurised hose testing, the
pressure cycling compatibility test method was developed and consists in filling the hoses
with control fluids, which would be subject to pressure cycling at elevated temperatures.
The qualification programme for a standard hydrostatic hose test in accordance with SAE
J343d rules for hoses up to 10,000 psi rated working pressure is as follows:
• Impulse (200,000 cycles at 135% of rated working pressure at 93°C)

• Leakage (70% of minimum burst pressure for 5 minutes)
• Burst (minimum 4 times the rated working pressure)
• Change in length (±2% at rated working pressure)
Stability of the service fluid is an important consideration and any instability could give rise to
localised incompatibility with a hydraulic line. Stability testing of the service fluid should be
undertaken to qualify a fluid and to highlight any potential problem areas. It is understood
that draft API 17F specification, "Subsea Control Systems", will include such tests. The same
consideration needs to be given to well service chemicals where separations of products are
not uncommon. Where hydraulic lines are installed in a vertical shape, e.g. J-tube, Floating
Production System, the potential for separation is greatly increased. The impact of any fluid

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modifications, however minor, should be fully evaluated before being introduced into a
hydraulic line.
Regardless of the materials of construction of a hydraulic line (polymeric, elastomeric or
metallic), compatibility testing should be performed with the actual line design to be used in
service, in order to minimise the risk of problems arising after manufacture of the umbilical
system.
With thermoplastic polyester, the small volumes of additives (lubricant, biocide, etc.) in the
control fluid can have a significant effect on the rate of chemical reaction between the fluids
and the polymer.
For polymeric hose liners, the rate of increase in chemical reaction is more severe when
compared with the historical methods based on dumbbell and tube samples, accelerated
without stress.
For polyamide 11, the material would be expected to withstand chemical compatibility and
stress ageing. It has been demonstrated that a service life in excess of 20 years for
temperature up to 40°C is possible; there are examples of at least 16 years extended service
life experience for typical North Sea operational temperatures.

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Polymer mechanical properties are shown in under table 03:
PROPERTIES UNITS ASTM HDPe XLPe Polyamide Thermoplastic

11 Polyester
Specific gravity Kg/dm3 D 792 0.946 O.95 1.05 1.22
Tensile strength at break MPa D 638 30 30 50 41
Elongation at break % D 638 >350 250 350 420
Modulus of elasticity MPa D 790 700 800 300 300
Shore hardness Shore d 64 55 63 63
Thermal conductivity W/m.K C 177 0.32 0.32 0.33 0.22
Melting point °C D 3222 126 N.A. 180 184
Volume resistivity Ohm/cm D 257 1014 1014 1011 1013
Electric strength KV/mm D 1491 - - 23 16
Resistance gain 23-C-24h % D 570 <0.01 <0.01 0.2 0.2
Resistance to sunlight Good Good Good Good
Resistance to weak acids D 543 Very good Very good Very good Very good
Resistance to strong acids D 543 Accord. to Accord. to Poor Poor

acids acids
Resistance to strong bases D 543 Very good Very good Good Fair
Resistance to solvents D 543 Good Good Attacked by Attacked by

phenols phenols
Resistance to crude oil Up to 60°C Up to 90°C Up to 100°C Good

without water
Resistance to water Up to 60°C Up to 90°C Up to 70°C Poor
Resistance to methanol Up to 60°C Very Good Up to 50°C Poor
Table 03: Polymer mechanical properties

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For methanol, the following table 04 shows the permeation rates which have been measured
for Polyamide 11 and Thermoplastic Polyester at atmospheric pressure:
2
Temperature Permeation rate (g.m /mm/day)
(°C) Polyamide 11 Thermoplastic Polyester
50 190 150
40 115 100
23 40 22
4 13.5 5
Table 04 – Permeation rate of methanol in Polyamide 11 and Thermoplastic Polyester (69 bar)
The permeation rate of methanol in XLPe lining material for internal pressures of 344 bar and
69 bar are presented in the following table 05:
2
Temperature Permeation rate (g.m /mm/day)
(°C) 69 bar (1000 psi) 344 bar (5000 psi)
60 1.35 1.81
20 0.078 1.11
4 0.018 0.079
Table 05 – Permeation rate of methanol in XLPe
Remarks : Comparing the permeation at 4°C and 69 bar, of the XLPe to the Polyamide 11, it can be seen
that the permeation rate through the XLPe is 750 times less than that of the Polyamide.

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Subsea requirements have changed considerably over the past 15 years. Deeper waters,
longer offsets, higher reservoir pressures and temperatures - combined with an increased
use of chemicals for paraffin, hydrate and corrosion control - are too demanding for
traditional thermoplastic umbilicals and have resulted to the development of steel tube
umbilicals.
Thermoplastic umbilicals cannot sustain operating pressure and temperatures beyond a
certain level (e.g. 5000psi, 60°C). Response time is slow due to volumetric expansion. There
are also problems relating to fluid contamination and chemical permeation, along with the
fact that some umbilicals are difficult to clean and keep clean due to the ligamers leeching
into the conveyed fluid. Additionally, end fittings are swaged onto plastic hose and are not
reliable at high pressure or under the abrasiveness of well control chemicals.
A viable alternative to thermoplastic umbilicals is steel tube umbilicals, which offer many
advantages over plastic materials. Response times increase dramatically. Much higher
internal pressures at large diameters (1” at 15,000psi, for example) are achievable. Fluid
contamination and chemical permeation are drastically reduced.
Steel tube umbilicals are also easily cleaned and they remain clean. The tubing end fittings
are welded, ensuring their integrity under pressure and the corrosiveness of well control
chemicals.
Water depths of current interest, limit the use of thermoplastic tubes, since they tend to
collapse. Metal tubes can be sized for collapse and will not meet a limit until well beyond
10,000 feet (3000 m) for the range of diameter considered for umbilical applications. Metal
tube umbilicals of reasonable size should not be limited by collapse.
The steel tube umbilical design allows the steel tubes to carry the axial and compressive
loads, which eliminates the need for a costly and cumbersome armour wire package that can
unravel or "birdcage". The steel tube umbilicals are also lighter and have a smaller outside
diameter than the equivalent thermoplastic umbilicals while maintaining favorable minimum
bend radii and displaying better on bottom stability.
Yet, for all the benefits over conventional thermoplastic systems, the steel tube umbilical is
dealing with proven technology, and not a "new" product. Steel tube umbilicals evolved from
readily familiar pipeline, piping and pressure vessel and flowline bundle-type systems. The
end fitting hardware, the J-tube hang-off assembly, bullnose, subsea termination, bend
restrictors, bend limiters – all are conventional, field proven equipment systems.
Metal tubes offer advantages including: (1) impermeability to methanol, (2) the abilities to
withstand high internal and external pressure, (3) robustness of the tubes without armoring,
(4) potential reduction in umbilical cross section complexity and, in some cases, (5) better
compatibility with the working fluids. However, there are still engineering considerations that
must be addressed regarding metal tube umbilicals, such as internal and external corrosion
and, in the case of dynamic applications, fatigue performance of tubulars and end
terminations and plastic straining during umbilical fabrication and handling.
Furthermore, although fabrication can be accomplished using techniques similar to those for
thermoplastic umbilicals, the equipment needed are different, in some cases requiring
extensive modifications or completely new machinery and thus involving high steel tube
umbilical procurement cost.

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The following considerations should be addressed in the design of dynamic umbilical:
• Fatigue life of material

• Attachment to the FPS, including design and performance of a bend stiffener
• Fatigue and strength of electrical conductors, if used
• Wear and abrasion between tubular elements
Note: Allowing the electrical conductors to move axially, usually by providing lubricants and selecting proper
insulation material, is the key to increase their fatigue life.
For dynamic applications the dynamic behaviour and fatigue life of the umbilical are two of
the most important characteristics of the design. There are two critical locations that may be
deficient in fatigue life and must be examined carefully: the region near the point where the
umbilical contacts the seafloor (the “touchdown point or sag-bend radius”) and the hang-off
level at FPS. The analysis that is required to assess fatigue life is both complex and time-
consuming.
There are two conditions that create fatigue loading: (1) vortex induced vibrations due to
current and (2) FPS motions due to wind, wave and current conditions.
One critical element in the design of a dynamic umbilical is the bend stiffener. This device is
an integral part of the top support and serves to limit extreme stresses, due to static offset of
the floating production system or strong currents, and reduce the cyclic stresses which
contribute to fatigue.
As part of the material selection, the key requirement is maintaining pressure integrity and
internal cleanliness for the expected life of the project. Along with the mechanical
requirements, the material must resist external corrosion in seawater and mud as well as
internal corrosion due to water-based hydraulic fluids and chemical (e.g. methanol).
The tubes within an umbilical are surrounded by seawater. The key parameters of seawater
are temperature, oxygen concentration and pH. Another aspect of exterior environment is
cathodic protection. Even though it may not be required for the umbilical material, cathodic
protection may be required on other parts of the system. It is difficult to isolate these
components from the umbilical. In some cases, cathodic protection not properly designed,
can lead to hydrogen embrittlement, the degradation of material properties caused when
hydrogen is absorbed.
Besides resisting corrosion on the inside, the umbilical material must not significantly change
the hydraulic fluid characteristics and in particular the cleanliness of the hydraulic fluid, which
must remain near NAS Class 6, since material particle can foul or plug the control valves in
the subsea control system.
To meet these conditions, three alternative tube materials were considered:
1. low-alloy carbon-steel
2. super-duplex stainless steel
3. titanium alloy

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6.2.1. Carbon steel:
Carbon steel offer significant cost savings in comparison with other materials but it rusts in
seawater. This corrosion can be controlled with coating and/or cathodic protection (CP). Four
options are possible: (1) traditional coating and sacrificial anodes, (2) a thermally sprayed
aluminium (TSA) coating, (3) aluminium sheathing and (4) Zinc coating. Traditional cathodic
protection with sacrificial anodes is not a good option for two reasons. First, it is difficult to
make reliable anode connections to the umbilical. Second, attaching sacrificial anodes
significantly increases the laying time, and hence the laying cost.
TSA acts both as a barrier coating, as well as a sacrificial anode. These coating have been
used in the past, for example as a tendon coating on Conoco's Hutton TLP. There is a
significant difference between spraying large diameter pipe and small diameter umbilical
tubes. Small diameters decrease the efficiency of the spray process: (most of the sprayed
metal does not coat the target and is lost). In addition, it is more difficult to achieve a uniform
coating thickness.
The concept of aluminium sheathing is to create an outer aluminium tube around an inner
carbon steel tube with a crevice between the two. There would be no metallurgical bond
between the aluminium and the steel. To evaluate the aluminium corrosion resistance in
seawater, one test specimen had holes drilled through the aluminium sheath, exposing the
crevice between the steel and aluminium to seawater. Rapid corrosion of steel tube caused
this alternative to be rejected as a means of protecting carbon steel from corrosion in
seawater.
The Zinc cladding process was used for the Shell Mensa project (carbon steel tube
umbilicals) in which the zinc is metallurgically bonded to the substrate. Similarly to TSA, Zinc
coating acts as both a barrier coating and a cathodic protection. This option was selected for
Mensa as a reasonably economic solution due to the large size and quantity of steel tubes.
Internal corrosion may occur in carbon steel tubes containing either hydraulic fluid or
methanol.
Pure, de-oxygenated hydraulic fluid is not corrosive to carbon steel; however, above a small
concentration of seawater, pitting can be significant. The pitting of typical steel (e.g. AISI
4140) is a function of the seawater concentration in a typical water-based hydraulic fluid.
Successful use of carbon steel requires that the concentration of seawater be kept below
5%. Although seawater may enter the line through negligence, it is more common for
seawater to be ingested during coupling. Some have suggested that as much as 1 cm3 of
seawater enter each line during coupling.
De-aerated methanol does not promote corrosion in steel. Without oxygen, corrosion rates in
pure methanol and other corrosive agents are extremely low, about 0.02 mpy (millimeter per
year). At standard temperature and pressure, methanol may contain up to 45ppm dissolved
oxygen, whereas water can contain only 5-6 ppm. Consequently, the corrosion rate is greater
in aerated methanol. Some tests have reported corrosion rates on the order of 0.1 mpy in
90% methanol 10% water solution saturated with oxygen.

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6.2.2. Duplex and Super Duplex Stainless Steel
Duplex and super duplex tubing has been used for umbilicals in the North Sea. Duplex steels
are composed of two phases, austenite and ferrite, in a roughly 50/50 ratio. In super-
duplexes, the key elements providing corrosion resistance are chromium, molybdenum,
nitrogen and tungsten (not all super-duplexes contain tungsten).
Two issues are to be considered when evaluating the performance of duplex and super-
duplex tubes in seawater: pitting, and hydrogen embrittlement due to cathodic protection.
Although duplex and super duplex materials perform well on standard pitting tests, these
materials are susceptible to pitting in natural seawater. Local corrosion rates can be
observed after exposing different samples to natural seawater for periods from several
months to several years. The benefit of additional molybdenum, nitrogen and tungsten in
super-duplex is demonstrated by a decrease in the pitting rate from 22 Cr duplex to 25 Cr
duplex. Increased alloying on super-duplex increases the risk of forming σ-phase, a third
phase with very poor mechanical properties. Care must be taken to prevent the formation of
σ-phase when welding and heat treating these alloys. Good inspection procedures are also
required.
The use of proper welding and inspection procedures overcomes the problem of hydrogen
embrittlement of the super-duplex welds.
The good experience with these alloys in the North sea demonstrated their internal corrosion
resistance to water based hydraulic fluids, and to methanol.
6.2.3. Titanium alloy

With decreased demand for titanium in military applications, a decrease in titanium prices
was anticipated. Consequently, the use of titanium grade 12 tubing can also be considered.
Grade 12 titanium is a duplex alloy, consisting of α and β phases. There are two key issues:
(1) stress corrosion cracking in methanol (SCC), and (2) resistance to cathodic protection.
Titanium alloys can be susceptible to methanol-induced SCC. The addition of water to
methanol can inhibit or prevent this from happening. Based on fracture mechanics tests, the
minimum quantity of water required to prevent methanol-SCC in titanium grade 12 is 2%.
Titanium grade 12 tubing in seawater does not require cathodic protection. However,
hydrogen embrittlement had been observed in the α phase, such as grade 9. Titanium alloys
are susceptible to embrittlement when exposed to cathodic protection, and to use this
material, successful mitigation strategies must be adopted.
6.2.4. Summary
Material Key issues
Carbon steel Corrosion
Duplex and super duplex • Pitting

• Hydrogen embrittlement of the welds
Titanium • Stress Corrosion Cracking in methanol
• Resistance to cathodic protection
Table 06 – Material key issues

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7. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
7.1 Thermoplastic umbilicals

The main advantages of thermoplastic hoses compared to steel tubes are as follows:
• Less expensive solution (typical manufacturing equipment, etc.)

• Ease of handling, storage and installation due to low minimum bending radius
The disadvantages of the thermoplastic umbilicals with reference to the steel tube umbilicals
and ISU are further explained in the following sections.

The following summarises what are considered to be the main advantages of metal tubes as
service and hydraulic lines compared to thermoplastic hoses:
1. Fluid (methanol) permeation has been eliminated

2. Fluid compatibility problems have been reduced
3. Collapse resistance is drastically increased
4. Favourable response characteristics, especially for long length umbilicals
5. No mechanical effect on other umbilical elements when pressurising
6. Higher weight/diameter ratio gives improved dynamic and seabed stability
7. Maximum umbilical manufacturing length without factory jointing is increased, as tube
strings are jointed by welding in the laying up process
8. Cost effective solution (life of field) for better dynamic umbilicals for ultra deepwater field
developments
The main disadvantages of steel tube umbilicals are:
1. Increased minimum bending radius, limitation in storage lengths, and limit the
dynamic application to certain configurations
2. Limitation in recovery cycle (e.g. for repair) as this will involve plastic strains.
3. Limit to super-duplex tube length, resulting in many butt welds and associated
radiography/corrosion testing
4. Attack by sulphide reducing bacteria on super duplex butt welded joints (e.g. BP
ETAP, Shell ETAP, BP Troika)
5. Possible carbon steel longitudinal seam failure (e.g. Shell Mensa)
6. Risks of cathodic delamination of sheathing from carbon steel tubes leading to
localised corrosion cells
7. More onerous flushing requirements (steel tubes are difficult to clean). Loosen
particles or welding scale (e.g. by bending during installation) are potential risks
for control valves.
8. Increased weight during deep water installation
9. Super duplex corrodes in seawater above 55°C, limiting use for hot water
flushing and gas lift
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Three metal materials are thought to be candidates for umbilical applications: carbon steel,
stainless steel and titanium. Each of these has advantages and disadvantages. Carbon steel
is the least expensive material, but corrosion and fluid compatibility must be addressed to
assure adequate service life. Carbon steel can be made in continuous lengths, which tends
to lower fabrication costs. Stainless steel, usually "duplex" or "super duplex" alloys, are more
expensive, are not currently made in continuous lengths, but have better corrosion
properties. Titanium is compatible with most fluids, can be made in continuous lengths, but is
also expensive. Further, some titanium alloys must be used with care since they are affected
adversely by anhydrous methanol and form brittle titanium hybrids under certain conditions of
cathodic protection.
7.3 Integrated Service Umbilical

Compared to thermoplastic umbilicals, an integrated service umbilical has several
advantages. The most important of these are:
• Improved chemical fluid compatibility. Super duplex steel is compatible with all
commonly used injection fluids
• No limit with respect to internal/external pressure. The tubing is individually
dimensioned for each specification
• The tubular expansion is limited and will not change over the years. The hydraulic
response time will not alter over the years
• No permeability of fluids through the steel tube walls
• No migration of injection fluids
• Improved internal tube cleanliness
• Increased and predictable design lifetime
• Not exposed to ageing/degrading
• Improved regularity
• Improved crush-resistance
• Very well fitted for large water depths
• Can be delivered in very long continuous lengths without factory splices. The
world longest continuous umbilical of 35 km length has been supplied by
Kvaerner to BP for their ETAP development (also with no splices in the electric
cables)
• No or limited use of fittings. If used, welded steel tube fittings are more reliable
than those for hoses (swaging)
• No separate armouring layers in case of bundle based umbilical configuration
(avoids bird-caging, corrosion of armouring wires etc.)
• Separate weight members may be designed into the cross-section to adjust
installation parameters or stability
• Standard installation vessels and equipment can be used.
The main disadvantages of ISU are similar to those described in the previous section 7.2.
Steel Tube Umbilical.

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ANNEX 01
MANUFACTURER ADDRESS

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ABB NORSK KABEL AS

Postboks 369, Kjerraten 16
N-3001 Drammen, Norway
Tel : 47 32 80 90 00
Fax : 47 32 89 34 08
ALCATEL KABEL NORGE AS

P.O. Box 130 Økern
N-0509 Oslo, Norway
Tel : 47 22 63 88 20
Fax : 47 22 63 73 09
DUNLOP COFLEXIP UMBILICALS LTD

Walker Riverside, Nelson Rd, Walker, Newcastle upon Tyne
Tyne and Wear NE6 3PL, UK
Tel : 44 191 295 0303
Fax : 44 191 295 0842
COFLEXIP & SERVICES INC.

7660 Woodway, suite 390
HOUSTON, TEXAS 77063, U.S.A.
Tel : (1 – 713) 789 85 40
Fax : (1 - 713) 789 73 67
KVAERNER OILFIELD PRODUCTS AS

Enebakkveien 71 B
P.O. Box 9357 Gønland
N-0135 Oslo, Norway
Tel : 47 22 66 69 00
Fax : 47 22 66 64 00

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NKT CABLES
NKT Allé 1
DK-2605 Brøndby, Denmark
Tel : 45 43 48 20 30
Fax : 45 43 43 38 65
OCEANEERING MULTIFLEX
38553 FM 1774 South New Line Magnoia, Texas
77355 P.O. Box 49, USA
Tel : 1 281 356 8790
Fax : 1 281 356 8459

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REFERENCE BOOK
SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEMS
Rev. 0 Page 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 9
2 GLOSSARY OF TERMS .............................................................................................. 10
3 CODES, STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS ............................................................. 12
4 CONTROL SYSTEM TYPES........................................................................................ 14
4.1 DIRECT HYDRAULIC .................................................................................................. 14
4.2 PILOTED HYDRAULIC ................................................................................................ 16
4.3 (PILOTED) SEQUENCED HYDRAULIC .......................................................................... 17
4.3.1 Electro-Hydraulic.........................................................................................................18
4.3.2 Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed .....................................................................................19
5 RELIABILITY AND REDUNDANCY............................................................................. 21
5.1 RELIABILITY ............................................................................................................. 21
5.2 REDUNDANCY .......................................................................................................... 23
6 OPEN/CLOSED HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS.................................................................... 24
7 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE.......................................................................................... 26
7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 26
7.2 SUBSEA ................................................................................................................... 26
7.3 HYDRAULIC/ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION ..................................................................... 26
7.4 NUMBER OF SCM FUNCTIONS .................................................................................. 27
7.5 HYDRAULIC DISTRIBUTION ........................................................................................ 27
7.6 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION ....................................................................................... 27
7.7 EARTHING ................................................................................................................ 28
8 SYSTEM OUTLINE ...................................................................................................... 29
8.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 29
8.2 TOPSIDES ................................................................................................................ 29
8.3 UMBILICAL ............................................................................................................... 29
8.4 SUBSEA ................................................................................................................... 29
9 MASTER CONTROL STATION (MCS) ........................................................................ 32
9.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 32
9.2 COMPONENTS .......................................................................................................... 32
9.2.1 Computer ....................................................................................................................32
9.2.2 Cabinet........................................................................................................................33
9.2.3 Displays & Controls.....................................................................................................33
9.2.4 Printer..........................................................................................................................34
9.3 INTERFACES............................................................................................................. 35
9.3.1 Subsea Communication..............................................................................................35
9.3.2 Supervisory Control System Interface ........................................................................39
Rev. 0 SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEMS Page 2

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9.4 EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN .......................................................................................... 40

9.4.1 General .......................................................................................................................40
9.4.2 Well ESD.....................................................................................................................40
9.4.3 Production/Water-Injection ESD.................................................................................40
9.4.4 Field ESD ....................................................................................................................40
9.4.5 Hydraulic Shutdown ....................................................................................................41
9.4.6 HIPPS .........................................................................................................................41
9.4.7 Workover ESD Radio Link ..........................................................................................41
9.4.8 HPU Interface .............................................................................................................42
9.4.9 EPU Interface..............................................................................................................43
9.5 SOFTWARE/OPERATING SYSTEM/DISPLAYS ............................................................... 43
9.5.1 Operating System .......................................................................................................43
9.5.2 Displays.......................................................................................................................44
9.5.3 Operator ......................................................................................................................44
9.5.4 Supervisor...................................................................................................................46
9.6 MAINTENANCE ......................................................................................................... 47
9.7 SYSTEM FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................. 47
9.7.1 Tree Valve Control ......................................................................................................47
9.7.2 Choke Control .............................................................................................................48
9.7.3 Subsea Sensor Monitoring/Fast Scan ........................................................................49
9.7.4 Interlocks.....................................................................................................................49
9.7.5 Alarm Annunciation.....................................................................................................50
9.7.6 Workover.....................................................................................................................50
9.7.7 ESD.............................................................................................................................50
9.7.8 Well Test Management...............................................................................................51
9.7.9 Hydrate Region Warning ............................................................................................52
9.7.10 Reports........................................................................................................................52
9.7.11 Trends/Historical Data reporting & Data Logging.......................................................52
9.7.12 Tag Numbering ...........................................................................................................53
9.7.13 Operator-Specific Requirements ................................................................................53
10 ELECTRICAL POWER UNIT (EPU)............................................................................. 54
10.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 54
10.1.1 System Operation .......................................................................................................54
10.1.2 Physical Description....................................................................................................55
10.1.3 Power System Specification .......................................................................................55
10.2 COMPONENTS .......................................................................................................... 56
10.2.1 General .......................................................................................................................56
10.2.2 Main Circuit Breaker ...................................................................................................56
10.2.3 Power Transformer/Power Stage & Isolation .............................................................57
10.2.4 Output Circuit Breakers & Current Limiters ................................................................57
10.2.5 Line Insulation Monitor................................................................................................57
10.2.6 Controls & Displays.....................................................................................................57

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10.3 TESTING .................................................................................................................. 58

10.4 MAINTAINABILITY ...................................................................................................... 58
11 UN-INTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)........................................................... 59
11.1 DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................... 59
11.1.1 General .......................................................................................................................59
11.1.2 System Operation .......................................................................................................59
11.2 COMPONENTS .......................................................................................................... 59
11.3 TESTING .................................................................................................................. 60
12 HYDRAULIC POWER UNIT (HPU) .............................................................................. 61
12.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 61
12.2 HYDRAULIC SCHEMATIC ............................................................................................ 63
12.3 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................ 64
12.3.1 Supply Tank ................................................................................................................64
12.3.2 Return Tank ................................................................................................................64
12.3.3 Low Pressure System.................................................................................................64
12.3.4 High Pressure System ................................................................................................65
12.3.5 Circulation/Transfer Pump System.............................................................................66
12.3.6 Bulk Fluid Storage.......................................................................................................66
12.3.7 Controls & Instrumentation .........................................................................................66
13 TOPSIDES UMBILICAL TERMINATION UNIT (TUTU) ............................................... 67
13.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 67
13.2 DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................... 67
13.3 TERMINATION OF CHEMICAL HOSES .......................................................................... 68
14 UMBILICAL.................................................................................................................. 69
15 SUBSEA UMBILICAL TERMINATION UNIT (SUTU) .................................................. 69
15.1 DESCRIPTION & COMPONENTS.................................................................................. 69
16 WEAK LINK ................................................................................................................. 70
16.1 DESCRIPTION & COMPONENTS.................................................................................. 70
17 SUBSEA DISTRIBUTION UNIT (SDU) ........................................................................ 72
17.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 72
17.2 CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................... 72
17.3 INTERFACE WITH UMBILICAL ...................................................................................... 72
17.4 INTERFACE WITH SCM.............................................................................................. 72
17.5 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION ....................................................................................... 72
17.6 HYDRAULIC AND CHEMICAL DISTRIBUTION ................................................................. 73
17.7 ROV CONNECTION................................................................................................... 74
18 SUBSEA ACCUMULATOR MODULE (SAM) .............................................................. 75
18.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 75
18.2 DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................... 75
18.3 COMPONENTS .......................................................................................................... 76

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19 INTERCONNECTIONS ................................................................................................ 78
19.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 78
19.2 FIXED STAB PLATE ................................................................................................... 78
19.3 ROV STAB PLATE .................................................................................................... 79
19.4 CLAMP HUBS ........................................................................................................... 79
19.5 ELECTRICAL JUMPERS .............................................................................................. 79
19.6 HYDRAULIC COUPLERS ............................................................................................. 81
19.7 FIBRE OPTIC JUMPERS ............................................................................................. 82
19.8 JUMPER DEPLOYMENT .............................................................................................. 83
19.9 JUMPER RETRIEVAL.................................................................................................. 84
20 SUBSEA CONTROL MODULE MOUNTING BASE (SCMMB) .................................... 85
20.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 85
20.2 CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................... 85
20.3 INTERFACE WITH SCM.............................................................................................. 85
20.4 WORKOVER SYSTEM INTERFACE ............................................................................... 85
20.5 INTERFACE WITH TREE VALVES & SENSORS .............................................................. 86
20.6 DOCKING ALIGNMENT ............................................................................................... 86
20.7 LATCHING MECHANISM .............................................................................................. 86
21 SUBSEA CONTROL MODULE (SCM) ........................................................................ 87
21.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 87
21.2 HOUSING ................................................................................................................. 87
21.3 MOUNTING BASE ...................................................................................................... 88
21.4 INTERFACES............................................................................................................. 88
21.5 CONNECTIONS ......................................................................................................... 88
21.6 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 88
21.7 SYSTEM DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 89
21.8 ELECTRONICS .......................................................................................................... 90
21.9 CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................... 90
21.10 CORROSION PROTECTION ......................................................................................... 90
21.11 PRESSURE COMPENSATION ...................................................................................... 91
21.12 RETURN LINE COMPENSATION .................................................................................. 91

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22 SUBSEA TRANSDUCERS/SENSORS ........................................................................ 92

22.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 92
22.2 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 92
22.3 CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................... 92
22.4 INTERFACE WITH DISPLAY/MONITORING SYSTEM ......................................................... 92
22.4.1 SCM ............................................................................................................................92
22.4.2 4-20mA system ...........................................................................................................93
22.4.3 Subsea connections....................................................................................................94
22.4.4 Electrical isolation .......................................................................................................95
22.4.5 RFI ..............................................................................................................................95
22.4.6 Calibration ...................................................................................................................95
22.5 TYPES OF SENSOR ................................................................................................... 95
22.5.1 Pressure (PT)..............................................................................................................96
22.5.2 Temperature (TT)........................................................................................................96
22.5.3 Combined Pressure/Temperature (PTT)....................................................................97
22.5.4 Choke Position (ZT)....................................................................................................97
22.5.5 Differential Pressure (DP)...........................................................................................98
22.5.6 Downhole Pressure/Temperature (DHPTT) ...............................................................98
22.5.7 Sand Detector .............................................................................................................99
22.5.8 Pig Detector ..............................................................................................................101
23 MATERIALS ...............................................................................................................102
23.1 MATERIALS USED ....................................................................................................102
23.2 COATING ................................................................................................................103
23.3 CATHODIC PROTECTION ..........................................................................................103
23.4 GALVANIC ACTION ...................................................................................................104
24 MARKINGS.................................................................................................................105
24.1 EQUIPMENT MARKING ..............................................................................................105
24.2 SUBSEA MARKING GENERAL ....................................................................................106
24.3 MARKING METHODS ................................................................................................107
25 QUALITY ....................................................................................................................108
25.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................108
25.2 QUALITY PLANNING .................................................................................................108
25.2.1 Project Quality Plan (Project Management Plan).....................................................108
25.2.2 Design Plan...............................................................................................................108
25.2.3 Inspection and Test Plan ..........................................................................................109
25.3 MANUFACTURE .......................................................................................................109
25.4 TESTING .................................................................................................................109
25.5 INSPECTION ............................................................................................................109
25.6 CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................109

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26 RUNNING TOOLS ......................................................................................................110

26.1 REQUIREMENT ........................................................................................................110
26.2 MINIMUM FIT RUNNING TOOL (MFRT) ......................................................................110
26.3 MULTI MODE RUNNING TOOL (MMRT) .....................................................................110
26.4 SINGLE W IRE DEPLOYMENT. ....................................................................................111
26.5 DRILL STRING DEPLOYMENT ....................................................................................111
27 FACTORY ACCEPTANCE TESTING (FAT) ...............................................................112
27.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................112
27.2 TEST REQUIREMENTS ..............................................................................................112
27.3 DOCUMENTATION ....................................................................................................113
27.4 TEST PARAMETERS .................................................................................................113
27.4.1 Master Control Station ..............................................................................................113
27.4.2 Electric Power Unit....................................................................................................114
27.4.3 Uninterruptible Power Supply ...................................................................................114
27.4.4 Hydraulic Power Unit ................................................................................................115
27.4.5 Subsea Control Module and Mounting Base............................................................115
27.4.6 Subsea Accumulator Module....................................................................................115
27.4.7 Subsea Distribution Unit ...........................................................................................115
27.4.8 Subsea Umbilical Termination Unit ..........................................................................116
27.4.9 Topsides Umbilical Termination Unit ........................................................................116
27.4.10 Transducers ..............................................................................................................116
27.4.11 Weak Link .................................................................................................................117
28 SYSTEM INTEGRATION TESTING (SIT) ...................................................................118
28.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................118
28.2 TEST REQUIREMENTS ..............................................................................................119
28.3 DOCUMENTATION ....................................................................................................119
28.4 TEST PARAMETERS .................................................................................................120
28.5 POST-SIT CHECKS ..................................................................................................121
29 ALTERNATIVE CONTROL SYSTEMS .......................................................................122
29.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................122
29.2 BUOY BASED CONTROL SYSTEMS ............................................................................122
29.3 AUTONOMOUS SUBSEA SYSTEMS .............................................................................123
29.3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................123
29.3.2 Power Generation .....................................................................................................124
29.3.3 Subsea Control System ............................................................................................124
29.3.4 Hydro-Acoustic Telemetry System ...........................................................................125
29.3.5 HAPAC......................................................................................................................126
29.4 ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY ....................................................................................127
29.4.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................127
29.4.2 Fibre Optics...............................................................................................................127

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30 HIGH-INTEGRITY PRESSURE PROTECTION SYSTEMS (HIPPS) ...........................130

30.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................130
30.1.1 Requirements............................................................................................................131
30.1.2 Typical system ..........................................................................................................133
30.1.3 Pressure Transmitters ..............................................................................................133
30.1.4 Control Hardware......................................................................................................134
30.1.5 Barrier valves ............................................................................................................135
30.1.6 Surface Equipment ...................................................................................................135
30.2 SYSTEM TESTING ....................................................................................................136
30.3 OTHER CONCERNS ..................................................................................................136
30.4 SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................137
31 APPENDIX A - AUTHORS & VENDOR CONTACT DETAILS ....................................138
32 APPENDIX B - TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM DRAWINGS......................................140

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1 INTRODUCTION
A subsea well requires a Xmas tree at the wellhead, housing valves that control the flow of
fluids from the well and chemical injection fluids to the well. These valves are operated by
actuators, which themselves require a source of hydraulic pressure to operate.
The primary objective of a subsea control system is to operate these hydraulic actuators
which are attached to gate valves on a subsea Xmas tree. In its simplest form, such as for
single wells, the actuator is connected directly via an umbilical hose core to a source of
hydraulic fluid from the Topsides facility and is operated by supplying fluid to, or venting fluid
from the actuator (see section 4.1)
When a field development requires two or more wells, there may be a requirement for more
complex control, such as subsea choking of wells, commingling into a flowline, and a more
sophisticated control system type may be required. The various types of Control System are
described in section 4.
The surface location of the subsea wells and the number of wells often dictates the system
architecture, and conversely if the control system architecture is studied at the conceptual
phase in a development, the well location may be influenced by the control system capability.
The time taken for a subsea valve to respond to a control signal from the Topsides facility
("valve response time") may not be important for a single low energy well, or conversely can
be a safety critical item in emergency shutdown system applications (ESD systems), or a
potential environmental hazard if a High Integrity Pipeline Protection System (HIPPS) is used
to protect a pipeline which is not fully rated to the shut in pressure of a well.
Data may also be required. This can be for reservoir management, well monitoring, flow
assurance, or diagnostics. The means for provision of data may also dictate the control
system type.
As field development complexity increases and technology advances, the capability of control
systems has had to improve from the original basic on/off control requirement. Depending on
the development, there may be the need for such items as controlling subsea booster pumps
or submersible lift pumps, subsea separator control, or multi-phase metering. Due to the
changing technology, this list of possibilities is not exhaustive.
This chapter is an introduction to the types of subsea control systems, their architecture, and
some of the basic pointers for the selection of each type of system. The actual selection can
only be made with knowledge of the full field architecture, the economics of the control
system and umbilicals, and with consideration for all other costs such as platform or vessel
access, and installation and hook up costs.
All systems require a hydraulic supply for the actuation of hydraulic valves. A typical hydraulic
power unit and its functions are described later in the text.
A subsea control system consists of many component parts and therefore has many
interfaces. A key component and critical interface is the umbilical itself, which is usually from
a different supplier than the subsea control system. This section should be read in
conjunction with the umbilical chapter.
Offshore vessel time either during installation, hook-up and final commissioning, or later for
field intervention is at a premium cost especially in remote locations where suitable vessels
are not readily available. It is important therefore to focus on system detail and reliability
including physical interfaces and material compatibility.

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2 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
TITLE DESCRIPTION
DHSV Downhole Safety Valve
EDB Electrical Distribution Box
E-H MUX Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed
EPU Electrical Power Unit
ESD Emergency Shutdown System
FAT Factory Acceptance Test
FSK Frequency-Shift Keying
HCR High Collapse Resistant (Hose)
HDS Historical Data System
HIPPS High Integrity Pipeline Protection System
HPU Hydraulic Power Unit
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer
MCS Master Control Station
MFRT Minimum Fit Running Tool
MIL-HDBK- USA –Department of Defence Military Handbook on the Reliability
217(F) Prediction of Electronic Equipment
MMRT Multimode Running Tool
Modem Modulator/Demodulator
Multiplex “of many parts” Data from many sources carried via a single
communications link
NAS National Aerospace Standard
Offset Distance Distance of the control facility from the production well
P&ID Process & Instrumentation Diagram
PETE Portable Electrical Test Equipment
PETU Portable Electrical Test Unit
POD Subsea Control Module
RVDT Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
ROV Remote Operated Vehicle
SAM Subsea Accumulator Module
SAMMB Subsea Accumulator Module Mounting Base
SCM Subsea Control Module
SCMMB Subsea Control Module Mounting Base
SCP Subsea Control Panel
SCSSV Surface-Controlled Sub Surface Safety Valve
SDB Subsea Distribution Box
SDU Subsea Distribution Unit
SEM Subsea Electronics Module
SIT Site Integration Test
Subsea The subsea equipment usually on the seabed, or mounted on equipment
at the seabed

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TITLE DESCRIPTION
DHSV Downhole Safety Valve
EDB Electrical Distribution Box
SUTU Subsea Umbilical Termination Unit
TDU Tool Deployment Unit (ROV)
Topsides The surface mounted equipment, either on a platform, floating
production facility such as an FPSO, or onshore land based
TUTU Topsides Umbilical Termination Unit
UPS Un-interruptible Power Supply
UTA Umbilical Termination Assembly
HIPS High Integrity Pressure Protection System
OPPS Over Pressure Protection System (See HIPPS)

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3 CODES, STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS
Reference Title
AODC 035 Code of Practice for safe use of electricity underwater
API RP 17F / Recommended Practice for the Design and Operation of Subsea
ISO-WD-13628-6 Production Systems Part 6 “Design and Operation of Production
Controls” - DRAFT
API 17H / Design and Operation of ROV Interfaces with Subsea Production
ISO-WD-13628-8 Control Systems – DRAFT
API RP 14C Recommended Practice for Analysis, Design, Installation and
Testing of Basic Safety Systems on Offshore Production Platforms
API RP 17A Recommended Practice for the Design and Operation of Subsea
Production Systems Part 1 “General Requirements and
Recommendations”
BS 3939 Graphic Symbols for Electrical Power, Telecommunications, and
Electronic Diagrams
BS 2917 / Graphical symbols used on diagrams for fluid power systems and
ISO 1219 components.
BS EN 55014 Radio Interference limits & Measurements for electrical appliances,
portable tools & similar electrical apparatus.
IEC 60079-11 Electrical Apparatus for potentially Explosive Atmospheres
BS 6231 Specification for PVC Insulated Cables for Switchgear and Control
Gear Wiring
BS 6360 Specification for Conductors in Insulated Cables and Cords
BS 6370 Code of Practice for Instrumentation in Process Control Systems:
Installation, Design and Practice
BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations, IEE Wiring Regulations
16th Edition
BS EN 60 068-2- Environmental Testing Procedures Test, Test “Ea” and Guidance –
27 Shock
BS EN 60 068-2- Environmental Testing Procedures Test, Test “Ed” – Free Fall
32
BS EN 60 529 Specification of Degrees of Protection provided by enclosure (IP
Code)
ISO 9000-3 Guidelines for the Application of ISO 9001 to the Development,
Supply and Maintenance of Software
BS EN ISO 9001/ Quality Systems
9002 / 9003

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EN 50081-1 Generic Emission Standards For:-

EN 55022 Class A Conducted RF emissions
EN 55022 Class A Radiated RF emissions
EN 50082-1 Generic Immunity Standards for:-
IEC 801-2 Electrostatic Discharge
IEC 801-3 Radiated RF Immunity
IEC 801-4 Fast Transients common modes
Reference Title
EN 50082-2 EMC Generic Immunity Standard for Industrial Environments
NAS 1638 National Aerospace Standard for hydraulic fluid cleanliness
DIN 50049.3.1(b) Material Traceability Requirements

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4 CONTROL SYSTEM TYPES

There are five basic control system types:
• Direct Hydraulic
• Piloted Hydraulic
• (Piloted) Sequenced Hydraulic
• Electro-Hydraulic
• Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed
All of these may be either open- or closed-loop in operation (see section 6)
4.1 Direct Hydraulic

A direct hydraulic system is the simplest type of subsea control system. The basic component
for the control circuit for a direct hydraulic actuation of a subsea valve is a three-way hand-
valve mounted on a topside panel.
The valve inlet is connected to the hydraulic supply. The return is connected to the reservoir,
and the outlet connects to a hose in the control umbilical. The hose acts as a conduit that
directs the hydraulic fluid to the subsea actuator. A pressure gauge on the topside panel at
the three-way valve outlet gives an indication that the hand valve has been operated and
hydraulic pressure is being supplied to the umbilical.
PI PI
Hydraulic Umbilical Hose

Supply
3 Way
Hand
Valve
Subsea
Control Panel
Tree
Valve
Figure 4.2 - Direct Hydraulic Control System
There are two main limitations of this system, firstly response time and hence offset distance,
and secondly lack of data for well monitoring or diagnostics.
When the three-way valve is actuated, hydraulic fluid from the HPU will flow through the valve
into the hose in the umbilical. The hose is full of hydraulic fluid at atmospheric pressure. To
open the subsea valve it is necessary to fully pressurise the thermoplastic hose over its entire
length which will expand by a nominal 10%, and to flow through the hose the total volume of
the valve actuator.
Opening the valve requires sufficient force to overcome the valve friction, the pressure in the
valve bore, and to compress the return spring. Once the valve is open, it will remain open
with very little hydraulic force.
The hose expansion can be minimised by decreasing its bore size. However there is a trade-
off here in that the hose still has to flow the volume of the subsea actuator. With a small bore

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hose and a long offset, the internal friction in the hose makes flowing of hydraulic fluid very
difficult to do, so larger bore hoses are necessary.
As the offset distance increases, the valve response time increases. The acceptable
response time depends on several factors:
• The energy of the well and hence its flow through the closing valve, and
• The position of any safety valves downstream of the closing valve.
An acceptable response time must be determined by hazard (HAZOP) and safety analysis.
As an indication of the distances that can be controlled by direct hydraulic control using
thermo-plastic hose, 4 km is probably the furthest that should be considered.
For deep-water applications, the umbilical length from the surface to the seabed has to be
included into the 4 km nominal length and therefore limitations of direct hydraulic systems
become apparent.
The expansion characteristics and the external crushing caused by the static head of
seawater can be eliminated by using steel tube in the umbilical. There is one field in the Gulf
of Mexico where an 11 km offset has been achieved using a steel tube umbilical in a direct-
hydraulic system.
Figure 4.3 - Direct Hydraulic Control Panel
The closure of a subsea valve is the reverse of opening. By operating the three way valve
into the closed position, the umbilical core vents to atmospheric pressure in the hydraulic
reservoir. The volume of the actuator and the expansion of the hose core have to be returned
to the hydraulic reservoir in order for the valve to return to the closed position using the force
of the return spring.
In order to achieve the simplicity of the direct hydraulic system, there is one hose conduit for
each hydraulic function, and there are no cables in the umbilical for data monitoring.
It is possible to include twisted and screened signal pairs into an umbilical to access data
from transducers using 4-20mA loops. This capability is dependent on the power drivers for
the loops and the size of the conductors, and the offset distance. There needs to be a twisted
and screened signal pair for each transducer.
Another consideration in deep-water applications is that gate valve actuators may require
larger springs to compensate for the pressure caused by the static head of seawater. The
size of the spring usually requires a larger spring cartridge housing, and hence the valve
actuator volume also increases, having detrimental effects on valve opening and closure
response times.

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Control fluid pressures may be increased allowing the use of smaller actuators. Also,
balanced stem actuators may be employed to reduce the resistance to motion from the
hydrostatic pressure.
4.2 Piloted Hydraulic

The piloted hydraulic system is a variation to the direct hydraulic system, with slightly more
complexity to overcome the limitations of the direct hydraulic system.
The piloted system requires two hoses in order to function, and a piloted control valve subsea
adjacent to the valve actuator. The objective of the system is that instead of the compromise
choice of umbilical hose size for optimum performance using a direct hydraulic system, the
piloted system uses a small bore hose for the pilot line and a larger bore hose for the supply
line.
PI PI
Hydraulic
Umbilical Pilot Hose 1/4"
Supply
3 Way P
Hand
Valve Umbilical Supply Hose 1/2"
Control Panel
Subsea
Tree
Valve
Figure 4.4 - Piloted Hydraulic Control System
The objective is that the (preferably) large bore hose that is required to flow the volume of the
actuator is continually pressurised from the hydraulic power unit. Therefore on valve actuation
there is no delay whilst this hose is pressurised.
The small pilot hose is operated using a three way panel mounted valve supplied from the
hydraulic power unit in a similar manner to the direct hydraulic system. The difference
between the systems is that although the hose will expand under pressurisation, the smaller
hose requires less expansion. Secondly, the hydraulic pilot volume to actuate the pilot valve
is very small and hence there is very little volume flow required to energise the pilot valve and
to open the subsea valve. The result is that the valve actuation time is improved.
The valve closure is the reverse procedure. When the three way valve in the control panel is
moved into the closed position, the pilot line starts to depressurise into the hydraulic
reservoir. The volume in the pilot hose is small, and the pilot return spring can be designed to
snap action closed at a higher pressure than is possible from the valve actuator in the direct
hydraulic system.
The snap action closed of the pilot valve connects the subsea valve actuator to sea, and the
return closed action of the subsea valve spring pushes the actuator volume to sea. As the
subsea valve actuator volume does not have to flow along the length of the umbilical, valve
closure time is also significantly reduced.
For multiple subsea valve applications such as on a Xmas tree, there is a requirement for a
pilot hose for each valve, but the larger supply hose can be used as a common supply feeder
to all of the pilot functions.

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4.3 (Piloted) Sequenced Hydraulic

As its name suggests this system opens valves in a pre-determined sequence, depending on
the magnitude of the pilot signal pressure from the Topsides control panel. Instead of a three
way manual valve in the topsides control panel, there is a hydraulic regulating valve
connected between the hydraulic supply and the umbilical hose to the subsea actuators, and
the third port is a relief or vent back to the hydraulic reservoir.
One of the benefits of this system is that it only requires one hydraulic (pilot) line. There is
added complexity subsea in that each of the pilot valves for the subsea valves has a different
spring rating.
The system works by adjusting the regulator up to the opening pilot pressure of the first valve
to open it. The response time to open the valve is similar to a direct hydraulic actuation.
However for each subsequent valve actuation there is a small incremental adjustment (say,
500 psi) of the hydraulic pressure at the regulator and thus no noticeable further hose
expansion.
Hydraulic Supply 1500 PSI
Vent
PI PI
P
Regulated Pilot Supply 2000 PSI

HYDRAULIC
SUPPLY
Regulator
Subsea
P
Xmas
Tree
2500 PSI Valves
Control Panel
3000 PSI
Sequenced Pilot Control Pod
Figure 4.5 - Sequenced Hydraulic Control System
A typical system is shown in the diagram, with the first valve in the sequence opening at
1,500 psi (103.5 bar) and each subsequent valve opening at 500 psi (34.5 bar) pressure
increments. In order to keep sufficient differential between valve actuations to prevent
spurious opening, and to keep the system hydraulic working pressure within normal system
design working pressures, the number of valve actuations in a sequence is limited.
Closure of the valves is by reverse sequence where the valves close in sequence by
reversing the system hydraulic pressure using the regulator.
The two main advantages of this type of system are the improvement in response time and
that theoretically, only one hose is required in the umbilical. A disadvantage is that a pressure
regulator is required to operate the valves and these can be unreliable when operating
against a closed system with no flow. A further disadvantage is that the valves can only be
opened and closed in the same sequence. This may be acceptable for well opening and

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closing for production requirements, but does not allow any flexibility for procedures such as
well servicing or chemical injection batching.
Also the basic system format is without remote sensing for data and diagnostics.
A variation of this system exists in which an additional single supply line is used to supply the
fluid that operates all the actuators, and the pilot line merely controls the sequence as
described above. With this system, the pilot line can be of smaller diameter and the pressure
variations due to the opening of the actuators no longer affect the pilot system.
4.3.1 Electro-Hydraulic
The electro-hydraulic principle is similar to the piloted hydraulic system. The difference is that
the pilot valve adjacent to the Xmas tree valve is replaced by a solenoid valve.
The following figure shows the electro-hydraulic principle with an electrical switch in the
topsides panel being made to energise the solenoid coil, which then energises the valve
shuttle and connects the hydraulic supply through the umbilical to the valve actuator to open
the valve. Closing is the reverse, by de-energising the solenoid the shuttle moves to the
closed position by spring pressure and the supply is blocked and the actuator is connected to
the vent for closure.
Twisted Pair Cable

24v DC
Solenoid
Valve
S
Hydraulic
Umbilical Hose 1/2"
Supply
Subsea
Tree
Valve
Figure 4.6 - Electro-Hydraulic Control System
With the system as shown above, a cable pair has been introduced into the umbilical for one
function only. Therefore for each additional function using this system another cable would be
required in the umbilical. A standard solenoid has to be continually energised to stay open
and to hold the subsea valve open. The solenoids may have a low power requirement, but
voltage drops in the cable over long offset distances dictates a reasonable size cable
conductor will be required.
Also if further signal pairs are added to the configuration, the umbilical will grow in diameter
adding to the cost and also making it more difficult to handle during manufacture and during
load out and installation.

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4.3.2 Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed

The electro-hydraulic multiplexed system requires a step change in technology over the other
systems. A single signal pair in the umbilical is used as a data highway for all of the valve
commands and data requirements. To achieve this there is a requirement for a Subsea
Electronics Module (SEM).
The SEM is a vessel able to withstand external pressure and inside is a one atmosphere
sealed nitrogen purged housing.
Inside the SEM are the power supplies, step down transformers, ac to dc converters,
modems, analogue boards to interface with internal and hydraulic remote sensors, driver
boards for the solenoid valves, and some signal processing.
The added complexity provides a great deal of flexibility and allows for monitoring of some of
the circuitry to provide a health check on the system by providing data for housekeeping. As
most modern systems contain microprocessors, there is scope for 'intelligent' handling of data
and/or response to events such as high/low pressure alarms.
As the system requires power, there is a requirement for a power supply through the
umbilical. This can be provided by a separate power pair within the umbilical, or by what is
termed "signal on power", where the signal is pulsed on the power pair which eliminates the
requirement for the extra cable pair within the umbilical.
The step-down transformer within the SEM allows the power within the umbilical to be
transmitted at the optimum voltage for efficiency, which can then be stepped down within the
SEM transformer to the voltages required for powering the electronics and energising the
solenoid valve coils.
Sometimes due to design reliability requirements, dual-redundant SEMs are specified.
The solenoid valves are packaged into a housing along with the SEMs and integrated into
what is called the Subsea Control Module (SCM).
In order to communicate with the subsea control module, a modem is required topsides at the
surface end of the communication pair. The interface between the Operator and the ESD
system, etc is by a computer system commonly known as the Master Control Station (MCS)
(described further in chapter 9).
Signal PT
TT Transducers
Power S FT
PT
Hydraulic
Supply
PT
Vent
S
Production Subsea Xmas
PT Wing Valve Tree Valves
S
Production
PT Master Valve
Annulus
Control Pod
Master Valve
Figure 4.7 - Electro - Hydraulic Multiplex Control System

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The subsea power is provided via the Electrical Power Unit (EPU: described in chapter 10),
and the hydraulic supply is from the Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU; see chapter 12), the same
as for the other control system types.
For deep-water applications where flow assurance and reservoir management are required,
the electro-hydraulic control system provides benefits that the other systems cannot.

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5 RELIABILITY AND REDUNDANCY
5.1 Reliability
The remote location and the lack of (or expense of) access to any subsea equipment is a
major consideration in system design. There are many components and interfaces on a
subsea control system that can fail.
There are many reasons for failure. The list below is indicative rather than all encompassing:
Direct Failures: Corrosion, joint failure, splice failure, sensor failure, solenoid valve
failure, water creep, SEM failure (power supply, modem, solenoid driver,
microprocessor, etc), hydraulic coupling leak, hose failure, weld failure,
dynamic umbilical fatigue, electrical connection failure.
Indirect Failures: Dropped object, umbilical dragged by anchor chain or trawl board, wax or
hydrate blocking sensor port,
Reliability can be improved by proper burn-in of electronics, and testing, such as shock and
vibration. Minor details such as hydraulic coupling seal compatibility should not be
overlooked. Electronic components sourced by manufacturers can vary from full 'military'
specification, through 'industrial' high or low grade to 'commercial' (household quality) with
little visibility or control by the purchaser.
The reliability of any single component that could fail and shut in a field should be questioned.
If the component cannot be replaced with a better component, then there should be an
alternative redundant path designed into the control system in case of component failure.
Reliability analysis can be a complex task and setting specific reliability targets is often
misleading and difficult to verify, requiring clear definition of the sub-systems and the failure
modes to be included in the analysis, and the resulting reliability models. A reliability analysis
is a statistic analysis of the probability of survival of the system, but it is important to
recognise the mathematical basis to this analysis and the meaning of the terms employed,
which are sometimes misconstrued to be some form of guarantee that the equipment will
survive. For example, the probability of survival Ps of a system over a time it is defined as
Ps(t) = e -Ȝt
where Ȝ = failure rate

t = time
Ps(t) = Probability of survival i.e. reliability
As a corollary of the above:
Pf(t) = 1 - e-Ȝt
Where the parameter MTBF can be defined (for the exponential distribution) as that time at
which 36.79% of a given population can be expected to survive, or, alternatively, an individual
component has a 36.79% probability of surviving until that time.

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MTBF can be calculated as the reciprocal of failure rate (Ȝ)
MTBF = 1/Ȝ
Analysing the models requires the use of established databases, such as MIL-HDBK-217 to
obtain the failure rate (Ȝ); these databases, however, are comprehensive for electronic
components, but less useful for mechanical and hydraulic components, making a complete
analysis difficult to quantify. Setting specific 'minimum component MTTFs ' is therefore
impractical.
A more realistic approach is to ensure all components used are to a suitably high
specification, for example, electronic components used should be to at least 'industrial' grade,
rather than 'commercial'. This latter grade, as well as assuring a higher QA level during
manufacture, also sets the ambient temperature over which the device operates and a
'commercial' level component may well not be suitable for the temperatures experienced in a
system, particularly during land-testing or even when operating inside an enclosure. In
addition, the likely physical failure mode of a component or sub-system should be considered
(if possible), to ensure the overall system fails in a 'safe' manner.
A more useful figure is that of 'Availability' of the system, which is defined as:
MTBF
MTBF+MTTR
where MTBF = Mean time between failure

MTTR = Mean time to repair
It can be seen from this equation that the shorter the MTTR, the better the overall availability
of the system, and it is this parameter which is a far better target of attention during the
system design (the value of MTBF is thus not quite so relevant, for example if MTBF is 1000
hours, a 1-hour MTTR gives an availability of 99.9% and an MTBF of 100 hours with the
same MTTR gives 99.01%, whereas a 10-hour MTTR gives 99.00% and 90.9% respectively).
It can be improved by arranging for a modular design, adequate tooling to facilitate retrieval
and replacement, maintaining a reserve of spare modules etc.
A mathematical (statistical) analysis can be employed to calculate the number of spares of
any particular sub-element of the system , but in practice this is more influenced by
commercial and contractual issues than an analysis, and it is more usual to choose a
'practical' level of spares or instigate a "TVM" (Total Vendor Management) style support
contract (to avoid purchasing a large number of spares that may never be utilised).

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5.2 Redundancy
The usual method employed to improve the reliability figure is to duplicate those parts of the
system considered to be at high risk - i.e. by adding 'redundancy'.
Redundancy has to be considered in terms of complexity and cost. The implementation of
dual systems improves the (mathematical) reliability but it should be noted that all systems
must eventually be consolidated at some single physical point (e.g. at the Tree Valve
actuator, or at a solenoid pilot valve in an SCM) and the failure mode of this consolidation
point can sometimes degrades the overall integrity of the system, as in practice a failure at
this point might prevent both dual-redundant paths from operating. (A reliability analysis often
assumes this single mode has a zero failure rate).
For example, a shuttle valve required for a dual hydraulic system can be stationary at one of
its two positions and when called to activate due to a hose failure, the shuttle can jam in
position or its o-ring seals can have set in their deformed position and moving the shuttle
causes seal failure.
The normal level of a dual redundant control system is as follows:
• Dual MCS with cross-over

• Dual Channel EPU
• HPU with duty and standby pumps for LP and HP hydraulic systems
• Dual LP Hydraulic paths in the umbilical to the SCM
• Dual HP Hydraulic paths in the umbilical to the SCM
• Dual Signal Paths in the umbilical to the SCM
• Dual Power Paths in the umbilical to the SCM
Within the SCM:
• Dual Power Supplies

• Dual Modems
Some manufacturers supply dual electronics as standard to justify the standard of electronic
components used.
Some Operators require higher levels of redundancy. Items such as Dual SEMs are specified
for deepwater, and Dual umbilicals are sometimes specified.
The provision of total dual system redundancy, also brings corresponding system complexity
and increased cost. However system consolidation must end in a single point somewhere, for
example at a Xmas tree actuator.
For multi-well systems single point failures in control systems should be eliminated,
particularly for 'key' valves that can influence Production, such as Manifold Valves. Whilst the
failure of one Well in a multi-well system could be acceptable in terms of loss of production,
the inability to operate a Manifold Valve could prevent the whole field from producing.
Such critical application valves are often operated by two separate Subsea Control Modules.
Even adopting such a philosophy, the consolidation method must be examined to avoid
common-mode failures. Diverse redundancy has been used in the past, for example an
electro-hydraulic system with sequenced hydraulic backup, but these are much less common
now that the use of subsea electronics has proven itself over the years.

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6 OPEN/CLOSED HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

The terminology "open/closed hydraulic system" defines whether the used control fluid is
dumped to sea locally or returned to the surface after valve actuation.
A simple system such as a direct hydraulic system can be defined as a "closed" system,
because after actuating the hand valve in the control panel, the control fluid flows along the
umbilical hose into the subsea valve actuator to open it. On closure the reverse happens as
when the actuating hand valve in the control panel is put into the closed position, the open
actuator volume is forced by the valve return spring back along the supply umbilical hose to
the HPU reservoir.
The sequenced hydraulic system behaves in a similar manner to the direct hydraulic system,
and is therefore also a "closed system".
For a piloted hydraulic system the pilot line behaves in a similar manner to the direct
hydraulic system on operating the pilot of the three way pilot valve. which in turn provides
hydraulic fluid to the subsea valve actuator.
However the benefit of the piloted hydraulic system is that the hydraulic supply hose to the
umbilical is continually pressurised to avoid the delay in pressurising and venting the hose on
valve actuation. When the pilot command is executed open, the pilot valve switches the
hydraulic supply into the subsea valve actuator to open the subsea valve.
When the pilot valve is actuated closed the pilot valve spindle blocks the hydraulic supply port
and connects the actuator to sea. The subsea valve then forces the actuator volume to sea
as it closes under the return spring energy. The venting of the actuator volume improves the
valve response time by not having to return the actuator volume of fluid back up the umbilical.
This dumping of fluid to sea local to the subsea valve actuator is what is defined as an "open
hydraulic system" (or "open-loop").
An electro-hydraulic multiplexed system has its actuation solenoids in the SCM local to the
subsea valves to be actuated. However uniquely, the electro-hydraulic multiplexed control
system can be used either in an open or closed hydraulic system.
Generally mineral oil based E-H Mux hydraulic systems return the spent fluid back along a
return line in the umbilical to the tank, as it is not environmentally friendly to dump mineral oil
to sea. This type of system is called a "closed" hydraulic system.
"Water-Based" (water + additives) Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed hydraulic systems which use
totally biodegradable hydraulic fluid can dump the hydraulic fluid to sea locally at the SCM in
the open hydraulic system mode. However water based hydraulic fluid is also used for closed
hydraulic systems.
The selection of an open or closed hydraulic system can be a user preference or an
economic decision. The economics is a trade-off based on the volume of fluid to be used for
valve actuation over the field life cycle, against the incremental umbilical cost due to the
addition of a suitably sized return line in the umbilical.
There is also an increasing tendency to minimise environmental pollution in seawater, albeit
by using a fully biodegradable hydraulic fluid. Current legislation permits the use of these
fluids (which contain biocides and lubricants) up to a certain tonnage per year (many fluids
are graded Class E, allowing up to 1000 tonnes per year according to UK legislation "UK
Notification Scheme for the Selection of Chemicals for Use Offshore, OCNS"), although future
legislation changes may possibly further restrict their use.
The density of control fluid is a consideration, particularly for deep water applications. Water-
based fluid has a specific gravity of > 1 whereas mineral oil has an SG of <1.

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Selection of the control fluid depends on a number of factors:
• System type (open or closed loop)

• Suitability for the required operating temperature & pressures.
• Adequate (low) viscosity at lowest expected ambient temperatures.
• Provides an acceptable level of protection against biological/fungal growth (may require
initial system cleansing using proprietary sterilisation fluid.).
• Provides acceptable lubrication.
• Available at the required cleanliness level (typically NAS1638 Class 6)
• Fully compatible with the control system equipment and umbilicals (depends on selected
equipment Suppliers having tested their equipment with it).
• Acceptable toxicity level and/or permitted discharge quantities at Country of use.
• Available at the required geographical location within acceptable delivery times and
volumes.
• Cost
A particular factor in the selection of fluid is that of the downhole temperature. Care must be
taken to select a fluid suitable for the expected temperature. "Ordinary" water-based fluids
have an upper temperature of typically 85 degree Centigrade and alternative formulations are
available for higher temperatures to about 150 degrees.

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7 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
7.1 General
There are many considerations as to the selection of a control system type and of the system
architecture. The options and ultimate choice and the recommendation of the system type
can be a fundamental decision to an engineer with system experience, or a difficult task to an
engineer with little or no system design, installation and commissioning experience.
The actual surface location at the mud-line of the wells is the principle factor in determining
the field architecture and hence the subsea control system architecture.
• Wells may be pre-drilled and suspended for later tie back, or a well may be drilled
vertically as a satellite well for tie back at a long offset to an existing platform.
• There may be a requirement for a long term production flowing test or extended
well test requiring down-hole well data. If the well test was to prove additional
reserves there could be the requirement to build in the flexibility to tie in a second
well at some time in the future.
• Another option is to drill a number of highly deviated wells in a cluster at the
surface for tie back to a surface facility such as an FPSO.
• A well could be drilled and completed in shallow water at a remote location requiring a
simple control system design that can be maintained with low technical skills.
• A well could be drilled and completed in deepwater requiring installation and hook
up of the subsea control system by ROV, and with the requirement to control a
smart completion.
• The Topsides location may be a manned or unmanned Platform, or Floating
Production, Storage & Offtake vessel (FPSO) or semi-sub.
The above are just a few of the scenarios for a subsea control system field development
study. Each option requires a different solution.
7.2 Subsea
The subsea control equipment can be located on the Xmas Tree or other subsea structure
that can be a manifold or template. For deepwater applications it is common for the SCM to
be located on the Xmas tree for running and retrieval with the Xmas tree, or for running and
retrieving on its own.
7.3 Hydraulic/Electrical Distribution

The common distribution method is via a single umbilical to a subsea distribution unit (SDU).
From the SDU, the cable and hose jumpers distribute out to the SCMs. Where there are wells
daisy-chained along a pipeline route, the feasibility is determined by the voltage drops
between the modules and the range of input voltage that the SCM can work over. This can be
overcome by including individual power cores within the umbilical for each SCM offset.
This may also be a consideration for signal on power systems where the signal loss due to
noise filters limits the number of modules on the power pair. For systems with discreet signal
pairs the theoretical limitation to the number of SCMs on a signal pair is limited by the number
of unique communications addresses in the system manufacturer capability. In practice it is
limited by the system offset, noise on the signal line, and signal bounce or echo (cable
impedance matching).

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7.4 Number of SCM Functions

Most SCMs, in an effort to achieve standardisation, are designed with sufficient functions to
control two wells. Where the SCM is located on the Xmas tree this is not really a
consideration. However if modules are controlling template wells it is feasible. If modules are
controlling off-manifold wells then the feasibility depends on the complexity of the system and
the offset distance of the wells from the manifold.
7.5 Hydraulic Distribution

The hydraulic distribution depends on the number of valve functions, the actuator sizes, and
the frequency of valve operation whilst operating the system. Stored hydraulic energy subsea
in accumulator bottles (Subsea Accumulator Modules, SAM) is required to allow fast
sequential opening of subsea valves without affecting the operation of other valves in the
system. The accumulators are charged up by the hydraulic supply in the umbilical.
In deepwater applications, the external static head of seawater necessitates that there is an
increase over the pre-charge nitrogen pressure in lesser depths making the use of
accumulator bottles in deepwater not very efficient.
Hydraulic Intensifiers can be used to eliminate the use of a high pressure hose line in the
umbilical. The intensifier is connected to the low-pressure (LP) hydraulic supply, which it
boosts up to the higher hydraulic pressure, required for the SCSSV operation.
7.6 Electrical Distribution

For power distribution, electrical pin connectors are used to provide the best electrical
efficiency over the distribution system. These can be two-pin connectors for a power pair, or
four-pin for two power pairs. A four-pin connector may also be used for a power pair and
signal pair configuration for redundancy purposes. In services such as terminating signal
pairs, multi-pin connectors can be used.
Where screened cables are used, it is common to use 3-pin connectors, the third pin being
for the connection of the screen (it is important to maintain a correct screening philosophy
throughout the system, to ensure adequate screening against electrical noise and to prevent
the inadvertent formation of 'earth-loops', which generate more electrical noise. Similarly, a
correct earthing philosophy for the electrical/electronic system must be maintained).
The telemetry systems used by the various Control Systems Suppliers communications
systems are currently unique to each vendor, and may, or may not, be constructed according
to an international specification. Therefore with the increasing requirement to communicate
and control down-hole monitoring equipment, down-hole pumps, smart wells, multi-phase
meters, etc, it is essential that system architecture in terms of communications requirements,
power requirements and interface requirements is properly considered at the appropriate
time.
System architecture in terms of reliability, power signal and hydraulic efficiency needs careful
consideration. It is also important to consider the system hook up by ROV. In deepwater
applications the deployment costs and the ROV time to hook up are principal considerations
in the optimisation of subsea control system field architecture. Similarly, the connection
systems themselves must be properly designed and tested for the application concerned.

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7.7 Earthing
Earthing continuity is an important consideration in ensuring that all metal component parts
are bonded to the rest of the adjacent structure to ensure adequate 'cathodic protection'.
For example, stabplate-mounted connectors and couplings should be strapped to the
stabplate themselves and the SCM Mounting Base should be strapped to the Xmas Tree.
Couplings on jumper hoses may require earth straps if there is any risk that they might be at
some disconnected from their (cathodically protected) connection points.

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8 SYSTEM OUTLINE
8.1 General
A subsea control system can be divided into three main sections:
• The permanently installed topsides equipment

• The umbilical and its terminations
• The permanently installed subsea equipment
8.2 Topsides
The topsides equipment has a Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU) for all systems. The electro-
hydraulic control system also has a Master Control Station (MCS), and an Electrical Power
Unit (EPU).
8.3 Umbilical
The control umbilical interfaces with the topsides umbilical termination via the Topsides
Umbilical Termination Unit (TUTU) and the Subsea Umbilical Termination Unit (SUTU) at the
subsea termination.
The various types of Umbilical required are discussed in the Umbilical Chapter of the
Reference Book.
8.4 Subsea
The Subsea Distribution Unit (SDU) can also be directly attached to the umbilical, but is often
a separate unit especially where an umbilical weak link is required.
The SDU distributes the hydraulic supplies and electrical power and signals to each of the
locations where there is a requirement for a subsea control module (SCM)
Electrical and Hydraulic Jumpers connect the SUTU to the SDU (possibly via a weak-link),
and the SDU to the Subsea Control Module Mounting Base (SCMMB). These can be diver or
ROV installable.
The Subsea Control Module Mounting Base (SCMMB), which is usually mounted onto the
Xmas tree of the subsea well, is the interface with the subsea control module. The SCMMB
connects the outputs from the SDU into the SCM, and the Xmas tree hydraulic functions and
monitoring sensors into the SCM.
For a diverless (deepwater) system, the SCMMB usually has upward facing hydraulic and
electrical connections to mate with the downward connection of the SCM during installation.
In a diver-assisted system, the SCMMB may merely act as a 'parking' position for diver-
installed stabplates and connectors.
The Xmas tree valve actuators are usually connected to the SCMMB using stainless steel
tubing. The sensors are usually flange mounted (via double block & bleed valves to allow
removal) and secured to the Xmas tree by stud bolts and nuts. The sensors are connected to
the SCMMB by jumper cables.
Sensors may, however, be flush-mounted to limit hydrate blockage, in which case they
cannot be mounted using double block and bleed valves; they therefore cannot be removed
without depressurisation of the pipework on which they are mounted, and this will have

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important consequences for repair/replacement, such as the need to stop production to

change a faulty sensor.
Excessive demand for hydraulic fluid whilst opening Xmas tree valves in a sequence can
momentarily reduce the local system pressure and hence cause valves that are already open
to fail closed. During hydraulic analysis if this is considered a problem a Subsea Accumulator
module (SAM) will be installed on the hydraulic lines into the Subsea Control Module to
prevent this occurrence

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TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE
TOPSIDES
VDU
INTERFACE Modems Master
CONTROL/ESD Control
WEAK LINK ASSEMBLY
Computer Station
A (MCS)
I/0 Watchdog SCMMB SCMMB SCMMB

RACK SCM 1 SCM 2 SCM 3
Computer
B
TUTU
VDU
Umbilical SDB
UTA
UPS EPU
TOPSIDES
POWER
SUPPLIES
HPU JUMPERS SCM 4 SCM 5 SCM 6
SCMMB SCMMB SCMMB
TOPSIDES
AIR SUPPLIES
Chemical
XMAS TREE
Injection Skid
FUNCTIONS
Figure 8.1 - Electro - Hydraulic Multiplex System Schematic
Rev. 0 SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEMS

SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEMSPage 31 Page 31
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9 MASTER CONTROL STATION (MCS)
9.1 Introduction
Any electro-hydraulic multiplexed subsea control system requires a topsides unit to provide
the necessary interface between the Operator and the subsea equipment. As the system
operates using electronic messages between the surface and Subsea Control Modules (see
also SCM Chapter 21), some form of communications sub-system is required to perform this
function. In addition, an interface with the Topsides Operator and/or Topsides Supervisory
Control System and ESD system will also be required.
The Master Control Station is the generic name usually given to the suite of equipment that
performs this function. It will usually comprise of one or more racks of computer and interface
equipment, (located in an Equipment Room), and an Operator Console located in the Central
Control Room.
Power to the subsea system is provided by a separate unit, the Electrical Power Unit (EPU),
which is described in its own section, chapter 10, but is sometimes incorporated within the
MCS suite of cabinets.
9.2 Components
9.2.1 Computer
The heart of the MCS is inevitably a computer, or more often two computers operating in a
master-slave configuration in order to provide a high availability.
The computers used were originally often a proprietary unit manufactured by the Supplier,
however in recent years commercially available machines have been used as confidence in
their reliability has improved. Nevertheless, the use of commercial PC-based computers is
still mostly restricted to test equipment, or to proprietary industrialised-PC equipment. The
advantage of using such equipment is evidently the availability of support software and
corresponding economy of cost.
The importance of regular data from the subsea system and the need for high availability of
Emergency Shutdown capabilities, tends to dictate at least a dual-redundant system. With
this, two computers are operated simultaneously, continually exchanging data such that, if
one fails, the other can immediately take over without significant loss of data or (more
importantly) without causing an unwanted interruption of production or inadvertent
shutdowns.
A ‘watchdog’ circuit monitors the correct operation of each computer and switches to the
other if one fails; this is usually a sub-system using signals from both the hardware (power
supplies, temperature sensors etc) and software (signals issued once per software loop) and
can therefore be quite sophisticated. It must also allow manual selection of each computer for
maintenance purposes but should also prevent a faulty MCS from gaining control of the
system. Usually, a three-position keyswitch is provided with Computer ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘auto’
positions.

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9.2.2 Cabinet
The MCS computer and associated input/output circuitry and hardware are usually housed in
a 2 or 3-bay standard rack. At least one of these bays is taken up with the input/output
terminals (typically ‘KlipponTM’ terminals), which may incorporate zener∗-diode safety barriers
where signals are connected to higher risk areas. The cabinets may also include a small VDU
and keyboard, for maintenance purposes (which may also double as a standby control
console). Fan assemblies provide localised forced-air cooling. The racks also contain the
Watchdog circuit (for a dual-computer system) plus local controls.
Some Suppliers also incorporate the subsea power supply (EPU) in these racks, particularly
where their modular design allows stacking, and where only a small number is required for
the size of Field concerned.
It is usual to allow for a degree of expansion in the system, as the MCS computer and
telecommunications system can usually operate a large number of wells, (albeit with a
reduced field scan time).
It is usually only necessary to add additional Power Supplies and modem units to expand the
field (as far as the MCS is concerned, although there may be far greater impact elsewhere in
the form of additional umbilicals, subsea jumpers etc), so the racking hardware usually has
some spare slots available, concealed by blank panels.
The design of the rack is also influenced by its installation location – if it must be mounted
against a wall, then rear-access is not available and the racks must be designed for front
access, usually involving swing-out card-frames, which makes the racks larger than otherwise
required. Similarly, the method of access for all the cabling must be taken into account, as
top-entry and bottom-entry cabinets affect the layout of the internal components.
9.2.3 Displays & Controls

Display hardware at one time was restricted to mosaic type Mimic Panels with dedicated
switches controlling each operation.
Inevitably, with the advent and acceptance of computers, this has now become the ubiquitous
VDU, usually mounted within a dedicated console framework as part of the Central Control
Room suite.
The keyboard may be a proprietary device dedicated to the type of computer and operating
system used, but is, again, now more typically a standard PC keyboard and
mouse/trackerball.
As with the Computers themselves, dual-VDUs may be employed to improve availability. If
Central Control Room space is limited, they may be reduced to one display only,
automatically switching from primary to backup computer in the event of failure of the former,
but in this case there is often a second smaller VDU doubling as a 'maintenance' VDU
housed within the MCS cabinets themselves. This will usually give access to all the main
Operator interfaces as well as any lower-level maintenance functions
∗ A semiconductor device that limits the energy that can be transferred from a Safe Area to a Hazardous
Area even under fault conditions; a zener barrier does not itself make a circuit intrinsically safe, it merely
protects the integrity of an Intrinsically Safe circuit in the event of a fault.
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Figure 9.1 - Master Control Station
Figure 9.2 - Dual MCS
A single VDU is also acceptable if there is also a data link to other Topsides computers, such
as to the main SCADA/DCS, allowing subsea data to be displayed elsewhere and (often)
control of the subsea system itself.
A separate 'Status Panel' is sometimes incorporated into the Console or the MCS Rack itself,
to provide hardware control of the Master/Slave Computers and house indicator lamps
showing the status of the MCS (online/offline etc.). Hardware ESD buttons may also be
incorporated.
9.2.4 Printer
An MCS is usually provided with an Events/Reports Printer, usually a standard dot-matrix or
Laser printer, which prints events, alarms, control actions etc in real-time, thus providing a
hard copy of all actions and readings.
The same printer can also double as a report printer; the format of the reports being as
selected during the design stage but typically comprise a summary of alarms and events over
the previous 24 hours.
Care must be taken during system design to ensure this Printer does not print unnecessary
fine detail, as there is a large amount of data within a typical system and the printouts can
very soon become very copious, to the extent that they become ignored, or the paper runs
out, or it becomes difficult to find the event which actually triggered other events. Defining the
type of event to be printed, or ensuring that finer detail can be recalled if necessary, also
requires careful system design.
All data should be stored within a buffer in memory so that it is available for later printing if the
printer is unavailable due to lack of paper, off-line etc. Other management utilities should be
available to select the data required, clear a full buffer, stop un-required printouts etc.

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9.3 Interfaces
9.3.1 Subsea Communication

9.3.1.1 General
The Subsea Control Modules communicate with the surface via electronic means. The
method of communication must be considered as two parts: the carrier system and the
protocol used.
There are two ways to convey information from one place to another:
• analogue
• digital
9.3.1.2 Analogue
'Analogue' means to convey information such that the voltage or current is in direct proportion
to the value of the signal - this is the method most frequently used to obtain information from,
say, a sensor, typically using a "4 to 20mA" loop in which the value of the current varies
between 4mA and 20mA according to 0% to 100% of the full-scale reading. However, one
pair of wires is required per sensor. This is adequate where only one sensor is involved but
for a complete subsea control system comprising perhaps 5 sensors per SCM and 20 SCMs,
this is clearly impractical.
In an analogue system, the carrier is the voltage or current in the wire and the value of that
voltage or current conveys the information.
9.3.1.3 Digital
A "Digital" system converts these analogue signals into digital form, i.e. a sequence of binary
'data bits' where, say, 0000 (0 in decimal) represents zero and 1111 (15 in decimal)
represents full scale, so a 1-bit change would represent 100/16 = 6.25% of full-scale (say,
312.5 psi for a 5000 psi sensor). In practice, a better resolution is obtained using more bits
(typically 12 to 16). In order to achieve even greater resolution from Downhole Pressure
Gauges, often 20+ bits are used, but for the majority of ‘normal’ sensors 12 bits (range of
4096) suffices, as there is little point in obtaining a fine resolution if the accuracy of the gauge
itself does not match.
In addition, a digital interface allows instructions to be sent between the topsides and subsea
systems, as well as data. A suitable 'protocol' must therefore be selected such that each unit
'knows' when the binary information is meant to be 'data' or 'instructions'. A very simple uplink
protocol (SEM to MCS) could be:
START BITS ADDRESS SENSOR 1 SENSOR 2 SENSOR 3 CHECKSUM

0000 0001 0010 1100 1010 11001
In this protocol, the receiver sees the first 4 '0's and recognises it as the start of a message.
The next 4 bits are an 'address' and if the receiver has the same address, it will continue to
expect data for itself. The next three sets of information are readings from sensors 1, 2 and 3.
The final bits are a 'checksum', which are calculated by the Transmitter and appended to the
message.
The Receiver also calculates what it expects the Checksum to be and if they agree, accepts
the whole message. Once the Receiver has recognised a command intended for it, it will
reply with the data requested, or with a message confirming the requested action. This latter

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method is termed ‘check-before-operate’ and is used as a double-check that the SEM does
not select and activate the wrong valve when commanded to open or close a valve (see SCM
section 8 for more details of ‘check-before-operate’)
So a typical downlink command (from MCS to SEM) and uplink response (SEM to MCS)
might be as follows, where the shaded cells represent a long digital message, typically
comprising:
MCS COMMAND (Shaded block in 'MCS Command' table below)

START BITS ADDRESS COMMAND STOP BITS CHECKSUM
0000 0001 0010 11 11001
SEM REPLY (Shaded block in 'SEM Reply' table below)

START BITS ADDRESS COMMAND STOP BITS CHECKSUM
ACKNOWLEDGE
0000 0001 0010 11 11001
MCS Command (shaded block = digital message as above)

Request Operate Operate
Status Valve Valve
(Check) (Operate)
SEM Reply (shaded block = digital message as in second above)

Status Echo Valve Confirm
Address Operate
This is a very simple example and in practice, longer and more complex message strings are
used, but the principle remains the same. The protocols are sometimes also designed to
match the particular Subsea Control Module hardware design, and may allow further error-
checking, redundancy and sometimes error-correction.
These protocols were developed over the years by each Supplier to suit its particular system
or to meet a specified requirement.

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A typical message cycle for a whole field (of 3 SCMs in this example) might then be:
MCS Command
Request Request Request
Status Status Status
SCM 1 SCM 2 SCM 3
SEM Reply
Status Status Status
SCM 1 SCM 2 SCM 3
In practice, this ‘scanning’ for the parameters of a complete system can take a certain amount
of time, as only one SEM can be addressed (and can reply) at a time. A typical scan of a 10-
well subsea system can take about two minutes, but this is very dependent on the Supplier’s
telemetry system, protocol, number of SCMs involved etc, so this can only be a ‘rule of
thumb’
This type of message exchange system is termed ‘half-duplex’, as an SEM only replies when
it receives a message intended for it, and the MCS waits to receive a reply from subsea once
it has sent a command, thus there is traffic on the telecommunications link in one direction
only at any time.
With modern telecommunications methods, full-duplex (i.e. traffic in both directions
simultaneously) is perfectly possible but is not usual in subsea systems, as a typical subsea
system is never required to operate at such a high speed, or do many things simultaneously.
In practice, the Operator will perhaps operate one valve only, then wait for pressures and
temperatures to stabilise before proceeding to perform the next valve operation.
Similarly, high speed datalinks are also not usual for the same reason, and the above
protocols typically operate at 1200 - 9600 bits per second, which is very slow by modern
standards (a typical PC modem to the Internet can now operate at 56,000 bits per second, by
way of comparison).
Faster datalinks require more sophisticated circuitry and careful attention to cable technology,
shielding, impedance matching etc, so are not really necessary unless the system is required
to handle fast control loops or video data. In the former case, for, say, subsea pump control
logic, it is not necessary (or desirable) to include the MCS in the control loop when the SEM
itself is already a microprocessor and can therefore handle local subsea control.
9.3.1.4 Carrier for Digital Signals

In a 'digital' system, therefore, the information is conveyed by binary data, a sequence of '1s'
and '0s' that can be transported by a variety of electrical methods:
The carrier is the electrical method used to convey the data. There are a number of ways of
electrically conveying information, some of which are listed below:
a) Direct current (dc)

The digital information is carried as a voltage or current whose value varies from one fixed
level to another depending on whether it is a '1' or a '0'. It is a 'baseband' system in which a
single electrical pulse represents the '1' (and zero volts a '0') and is therefore fast but requires
accurate transmission and reception electronics.

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This method is used in some systems, but consideration must be made for the length of the
umbilical between the Transmitter and Receiver, as dc signals are easily attenuated by the
cable, and 'cross-talk' between different cores in the same umbilical can cause reception
problems. The shape of the digital pulses becomes altered by these umbilical characteristics,
(as a square pulse actually requires a very wide bandwidth to be accurately transmitted) and
there is then a limitation to the frequency (bit-rate) that can be achieved.
It is often tempting to use this type of carrier when large diameter copper cores are already
being used in the umbilical for other purposes (such as downhole pumps), but again, such
equipment can cause severe interference (voltage spikes) on the cores and hence impair
reception.
b) Alternating Current (ac) systems.

Alternating current systems are more prevalent, as various methods are available to carry the
information to reduce the effects of noise. The most widely used method for subsea systems
is 'Frequency Shift Keying' (FSK) in which the frequency of the carrier is altered between two
different values to indicate a '1' or a '0'.
This is not a baseband system as a number of cycles are required to transmit a '1' or a '0' but
the detection and transmission equipment do not require such accurate operation. The
information is transmitted using only two frequencies, chosen such that they are within the
known passband of the umbilical and are therefore not attenuated too much (or at least the
attenuation can be calculated).
A further advantage of such an ac system was originally that it could be used in conjunction
with 'Inductive Couplers', which would otherwise block dc signals.
Other methods of encoding exist, such as Phase-Shift Keying, Quadrature-Amplitude-
Modulation, etc., but the goal is to transmit the digital stream of information between the MCS
and SCM and vice-versa.
The device which converts the digital signals into the form suitable for transmission along the
umbilical wires is the Modem (Modulator-Demodulator) - such modems are used nowadays in
PCs to connect across ordinary telephone lines to the Internet, or in Fax machines to send
and receive faxes; the principle is the same.
Some Suppliers of Subsea Systems do use commercially available modems/protocols,
thereby reducing the costs. Modems are very sophisticated devices nowadays, with built-in
error detection and correction, data-compression etc and their performance is reliable.
However, being third-party devices, their operation is proprietary and suitable Test Equipment
may not be available, or be expensive. The early subsea systems used “in-house” developed
protocols, which were specifically designed to match the particular SEM hardware and to
implement redundancy and error-checking.
9.3.1.5 System Design

The communications sub-system and the design of the SCM itself are interdependent, the
protocol being dictated by the system requirements of the SCM. It is not usually possible,
therefore, to use, say, an MCS built by one supplier with an SCM supplied by another. At the
very least, a 'Protocol Converter' would be required, but there are other consequences such
as system timing, interpretation of data, built-in commands, sequences, SCM-initiation
(software reloading) sequences etc which have to be included within the MCS software which
make this virtually impossible to consider. A 'Standard' interface and system operation for
MCS/SCM does not yet exist.

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9.3.1.6 Operator Interface

The primary interface with the Operator is via a dedicated VDU (or shared VDU, if the MCS
provides an interface to other Topsides Control/Monitoring equipment, such as SCADA or
DCS).
Information is usually presented graphically to the Operator in the form of 'pages' of mimic-
panel-like displays, similar to the original design P&IDs. These pages are described in more
detail in Para 9.5.3.
An associated keyboard and/or controlling device such as mouse or Trackerball allows
commands to be entered into the system. The MCS then processes the commands and
issues instructions to the subsea system and/or receives subsea data as appropriate.
9.3.2 Supervisory Control System Interface

The MCS will often incorporate an interface with other Topsides Computer equipment,
typically a Supervisory Control and Data-Acquisition System (SCADA). The latter is usually a
large and complex system, allowing control and monitoring of many Topsides functions from
a variety of control points, including sometimes a shore-based location.
There is evidently a strong inclination to eliminate the dedicated MCS from a system design
and replace it by the SCADA itself, thus economising on the cost of the MCS equipment and
software. In this case, the topside component of the Subsea Control System is reduced to the
communications sub-system described above. However, this places a heavy responsibility on
the SCADA Supplier to duplicate all the functions and displays of the MCS and of the Client's
Procurement Engineer to obtain the necessary interface information from the Subsea
Controls Supplier and also to ensure that the SCADA supplier understands and correctly
incorporates all the necessary requirements.
This is in practice, a very difficult task, as current SCADA suppliers are NOT suppliers of
subsea systems. Moreover, differences in contract schedules means that the SCADA may
not be available in time to perform FATs on the subsea system or even commissioning, and
so the first time one unit meets the other is often offshore, a very undesirable situation.
Similarly, the MCS itself may be an integral part of the functioning of a sub-unit, such as the
HPU, and its absence during FAT of the HPU poses a serious problem.
A preferable approach is to specify a digital interface between the MCS and SCADA. This
can be a 'standard' interface, such as ModBus TM, which can be adapted to receive all subsea
display parameters and (with some reservation) to issue subsea commands via the MCS.
With this interface, the two contracts can be kept separate, and the subsea system proved to
operate before connection to the SCADA. Moreover, the MCS still provides a control point for
the subsea system in case of unavailability of the SCADA. The electrical interface itself is
then a simple RS232 or RS422 type serial interface, which allows a bi-directional exchange of
commands and data over a short distance, adequate for on-Platform distances.

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9.4 Emergency Shutdown
9.4.1 General
A Subsea System requires a carefully designed Emergency Shutdown System (ESD). The
telemetry sub-system described above can only 'talk' with one SCM at a time. Moreover, the
SCM itself can only operate one valve at a time (see chapter on SCM, chapter 21). Therefore,
in order to close all the Tree and Manifold Valves in a subsea system, a string of commands
is required to be sent to each SCM in turn in a particular sequence.
In addition, the performance of the particular subsea system itself and of the valves
themselves, must be taken into account, such that any shutdown sequence operates in the
fastest but safest manner possible, that failure of valves to close does not prevent the rest of
the system from shutting down, and that any such failures are noted and taken care of by
alternative means.
It is not usual for SCMs to have ESD sequences 'built-in' to their hardware or software, as this
would be relatively inflexible if changes were required. This would also be a separate 'area' in
their system design which would not often be activated, and so would remain untested for
long periods, with the attendant concern that they might not work when required. It is more
usual that the MCS simply issues a sequence of commands as would be done individually for
normal valve operations, hence the circuitry used is the same and no special test functions
are required over and above those normally provided for normal operation (see SCM
section 21).
9.4.2 Well ESD

The VDU display pertaining to a particular Well will usually have an 'ESD' "button" (or ‘soft
key’, or sequence of keyboard commands) associated with it. Operating this key/command
will cause the MCS to send a sequence of 'close' commands to the particular SCM for that
Well, which will in turn close each Tree Valve as instructed.
Usually an option is presented to the Operator as to whether the system should close the
Choke or not, as this can be a time-consuming operation.
9.4.3 Production/Water-Injection ESD

Other types of ESD may also be specified, such as 'Production' ESD, in which only those
Wells feeding into the Production Flowlines are closed, leaving others alone. Similarly,
another ESD may only close all Water-Injection Wells.
9.4.4 Field ESD

A single button (flap-protected if in hardware) will cause the MCS to issue close commands to
all SCMs in the system. As there could be many of these in a Manifold/Template type of
system, it is usual for the sequence to be chosen such that, say, all Production Wing Valves
are commanded closed first, and once flow has stopped, all other valves can be closed in
groups following a pre-determined sequence. However, a time-delay is sometimes built-in to
allow the Operator to override the rest of the sequence, in case the Shutdown is no longer
required.
Evidently, some concern may be felt at the thought of interrupting a Field Shutdown. The ESD
system design must be carefully constructed to optimise Production Requirements without
compromising Safety. Usually, the highest level of Shutdown also vents the hydraulic supplies to
the subsea system (see HPU section, chapter 30) so that a complete subsea shutdown is
inevitable. An electronic sequence is often initiated in parallel with such a 'hydraulic' shutdown, so
that the (e.g.) Tree Wing Valves are closed first, before all controlling pressure is lost.

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9.4.5 Hydraulic Shutdown

The HPU itself can usually perform a hydraulic shutdown of the subsea system, as mentioned
above. The MCS ESD design also should include a means to route (at least) a Field ESD
signal directly to the HPU in case of failure or unavailability of the MCS. This is usually
performed via hardware relay logic and is thus independent of software.
9.4.6 HIPPS
A subsea control system MCS is not usually designed as a HIPPS system (High-Integrity
Pressure-Protection System) as such a system must be:
a) highly available,
b) highly reliable, and be
c) fast-acting.
With suitable careful design of the subsea system and MCS software, an emulation of a HIPPS
system can possibly be achieved, but the correct implementation of such a system is via
dedicated equipment and/or dedicated software or hardware facilities within the SCM itself. The
subsea valves themselves must also be quick-acting and reliable. See HIPPS Chapter 30.
9.4.7 Workover ESD Radio Link

For the larger subsea fields, it is highly likely that Workover will be occurring on one of the
wells around a manifold or template at any time, or at least fairly frequently. In this event, an
ancillary system is sometime procured along with the subsea control system to provide a
radio link between the Workover vessel and MCS. In the event an ESD button on the
Workover Rig is pressed (say, if a large object is dropped overboard), a radio signal to the
MCS initiates a shutdown of all the Wells in that area.
The radio system itself can be fairly standard in nature, and usually incorporates voice links
as well as datalinks, so as to provide extra communication between the CCR and the
Workover Rig without tying up the use of one of the UHF channels (usually in short supply,
particularly during commissioning) or the ‘Sailor’ VHF sets.
A description of this equipment is outside the scope of this chapter, but the interface with the
MCS itself is usually fairly simple, and comprises several digital signals:
MCS to Rig
• ‘Enable’ Workover ESD capability
• ESD Acknowledge
Rig to MCS
• ESD signal
On the Rig, the interface with the Operator is usually several robust hand-held units that can
be positioned at the drill floor, Supervisor’s Office, Bridge etc and contain a shrouded
pushbutton. Provided the system is ‘enabled’ by the MCS (requires prior arrangement with
the Platform OIM/MCS Supervisor), an indicator lamp indicates the system is ‘available’ (i.e.
enabled and with radio telemetry operating) and if the button is pressed, a radio signal
causes the MCS to shutdown the Field (or local Wells, as per the system design).

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The MCS then responds with an ‘acknowledge’ signal, which illuminates another lamp on the
Rig handsets. A ‘Test’ mode is usually available whereby the whole link is tested as if in
normal operation except that the MCS does not perform the shutdown.
PLATFORM MASTER TELEMETRY UNIT EQUIPMENT MODU REMOTE TELEMETRY UNIT EQUIPMENT
TELEMETRY TELEMETRY
UNIT UNIT
CH. "A" CH. "B" CH. "A" CH. "B"
INTERFACE RELAY +
Control Panel & IS BARRIERS
Signal Inhibit
UPS
PSU PSU
"A" "B" BATTERIES
MODU POWER
HPU MODU CONTROL SYSTEM
SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEM HPU ESD PANEL (x1)
SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEM HAZ. AREA ESD PANEL (x2)
ESD Radio Link From Production Facility To MODU
Figure 9.3 - ESD Radio Link Block Diagram
9.4.8 HPU Interface

The MCS will also be connected to the other units of the subsea control system, in this case
the HPU, which is always located remotely from the CCR, often on the Cellar Deck or other
remote location. It will monitor all aspects of the HPU operation and display the status of the
unit in mimic form on the VDU.
In most cases, the MCS has some limited control of the HPU itself, to stop pumps (but not
necessarily to start them), to switch between redundant channels and to perform an ESD by
venting all subsea pressure.
In some systems, the HPU will be controlled and monitored through the Platform DCS and
ESD systems, and there is then no interface with the MCS.
The interface in earlier systems is usually ‘discrete’ i.e. each sensor in the HPU is directly
connected to a 4-20mA interface in the MCS. Modern systems use a telemetry system that
reduces the number of cables required at the expense of added complexity (bearing in mind
the usual need for Zone 0 or Zone 1 operation of the HPU).
The HPU itself is a complex unit, and is often operated by a microprocessor system in
modern units, although this is not essential (see HPU section, chapter 12). Some designs of
system use the MCS in the control loop (i.e. when correct subsea pressure is reached, stop
the pump) but this requires the MCS to devote a high priority to the HPU subsystem and also
means the HPU is no longer a self-contained unit.
Digital messages between the MCS and HPU usually conform to Industry Standard
ModBusTM protocols.

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9.4.9 EPU Interface

As the EPU (see chapter 10) is also a sub-assembly of the subsea control system, and is
located remotely from the CCR (though usually in a nearby Equipment Room), the MCS
usually has an interface with it to enable displays of key parameters and a degree of control
over its operation.
Monitored parameters usually include:
• Input Voltage & Current (sometimes ‘frequency’)

• Output Voltage and Current (each channel)
• Line Insulation Monitoring and/or
• Group Alarm
Control capability usually includes:
• Remote on/off control

• Trip Reset (except Line Insulation Monitor)
The signals between EPU and MCS are usually discrete; it is not usual for a digital telemetry
interface to be used.
9.5 Software/Operating System/Displays
9.5.1 Operating System

The Operating System of the MCS is to some extent independent of the Client's functional
specification. It will need to be one suitable for the particular computer concerned; typical
operating systems are Unix, DOS, or Windows (NT). The choice is usually that of the Supplier's,
as it will have built up expertise using a particular Operating System over the years.
The Application Software that runs under the operating System and which controls how the
MCS performs and 'looks', is either a proprietary one designed by the Supplier or a
commercially-available third-party Process Control programme, such as 'In-Touch TM. The
benefit of using the Supplier's proprietary design is that he has complete control over how it
operates and can easily and quickly adjust, tailor, or correct errors. Errors in a third-party
programme are virtually impossible to have corrected until a new version is issued by the
manufacturer; however, such software can present a sophisticated interface to the Operator
and has the benefit of (usually) being widely used in Industry and the Operator can usually
tailor it (or at least the display) to its own requirements.
A typical display has a mimic diagram, valve status information, controls and data. It can be
customised to meet the Client’s requirements and to match designs used elsewhere on the
Platform, to ensure commonality of operation. Modern displays can be animated and use
‘hypertext’-style links to lead to further in-depth information about the system.
In order to avoid the need to mobilise a Supplier representative for small, straightforward changes,
the client should ensure at least several areas are available to him for his own use or modification:
a) The Displays
b) 'Help' systems
c) ESD sequences
d) Trends/Historical Data Reporting

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9.5.2 Displays
A well-designed display system will allow simple and rapid access to the main operating
displays.
Access to more specialised 'maintenance' functions is often also available via the main
Operator VDU, but protected by a 'password' system to prevent unauthorised access. These
will usually be at several levels of access:
• Operator
• Supervisor
• Maintenance
9.5.3 Operator
A variety of displays are available to operate the system, and may typically comprise:
• Overview of Subsea System

• Manifold Page
• Individual Well pages
• HPU and EPU control and display
• ESD summary/control
• SCM Monitoring/configuration
• Trends/History
• Well Test Control
However, the displays provided are system-specific and are usually carefully specified by the
Customer to match its existing CCR displays, colour-conventions, method of operating valves
etc.
A display 'page' on the VDU will typically be segregated into specific areas, which remain in
the same position on every page so that the Operator rapidly becomes familiar with the
layout. Modern computer-graphics now allow considerable sophistication in the way
information is presented and are often 'Windows TM - based' and considerable care must
therefore be taken to avoid overloading the Operator with information or complexity of
operation.

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The following information is typically included on each page:
Alarms/Events
31 December 1999
Page 1 NAME OF THE SUBSEA FIELD
23:59:59
Mimic of Well (Tree, Manifold, Field)
System messages
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9
Help O/view Template Wells ESD HPU EPU Well Alarms
Test
• Current items in alarm (latest few values only)

• Page Number
• Date/Time
• Identification of the Field and Page on Display
• A Mimic of the item selected, e.g. Well, or Field, Manifold, HPU, EPU etc
• System messages e.g. ESD in progress, Valve PM-1234 opening etc
• 'Soft key' quick access to other pages

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A typical ‘In-Touch' Individual Well page is as follows:
A typical Overview might be as follows:
and a manifold control page as follows:
9.5.4 Supervisor
An Operator with Supervisor-level access rights will, in addition to the above functions, be
allowed access to the following functions:
• Changing Hi/Lo Alarm limits
• Cancelling or Pausing an ESD sequence
• Placing a Well into ‘Workover’ mode (see 9.7.6)

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9.6 Maintenance
An Operator with ‘Maintenance’ level access rights will, in addition to the above, have access
to all aspects of the system software. This level of access requires detailed knowledge of the
system and is normally only given to maintenance engineers and the Supplier’s
representatives.
Typical items that are available under this access level are:
• Allocation of Subsea Electronic Module Addresses to individual Wells

• Modification of ESD sequences
• Altering ‘events’ i.e. conditions which trigger other actions, such as ESD.
• Editing of displays/addition of new ones
• Modification of ‘Help’ files
• Modification of control loops for other related equipment (e.g. HPU control loops)
• Direct maintenance of application software programmes and data files
• Test utilities, such as disk de-fragmentation, system diagnostics, reloading of SEM
software,
9.7 System Functions

This section describes some of the typical operating modes of the MCS in more detail.
9.7.1 Tree Valve Control

In order to operate a subsea valve, it is usual for the system to operate in a ‘check-before-
operate’ mode, in which several exchanges of messages take place between the MCS and
SEM to ensure that the correct solenoid driver is selected before power is applied to it, thus
ensuring the correct valve is actuated. This operation has to be transparent to the Operator,
but is usually implemented thus:
On selecting a valve to be operated (via the Tree Mimic or by typing the Tag Number), the
MCS will send the ‘check’ subsea command and on satisfactory response will flash the
selected valve display. The Operator then has a short time in which to confirm the operation
by typing ‘Yes’ or pressing the appropriate button, upon which the ‘operate’ command will be
sent.
Whilst the subsea valve is in transit (opening or closing) the display continues to flash
(usually in an appropriate colour combination) and on completion of its movement
(say, 30 seconds later) will change to steady red (or green as appropriate). It should be noted
here that the actual method of confirming the status of a subsea valve depends on the
subsea hardware available. There may not be any Valve Position sensors on the valve itself
and so the position of the valve can only be ‘inferred’ by virtue of the fact that the SCM has
applied pressure to the valve actuator.
During the 30 seconds or so of a valve’s movement, the MCS will usually continue to scan for
subsea parameters relating to that valve, as some systems also infer valve status by
monitoring the pressure-pulse applied to the actuator and integrate the curve to attempt to
determine that the correct volume of fluid has flowed, thus improving the confidence that the
valve has not simply stuck. Scanning of other parameters is therefore slowed down during
valve operations, although a slower scan rate may still be achieved by interlacing requests for
other key parameters or data from other SCMs.

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9.7.2 Choke Control

The method of operating a choke depends on its mechanical nature and the nature of its
position sensor (see ‘Transducers’ section 22)
The most usual type of choke is the ‘stepper’ type, which requires a pulse of pressure to an
‘open’ or ‘close’ piston, which in turn operates a ratchet & pawl to move the choke trim. In this
case, the SCM design to operate it is similar to that for other tree valves. This method of
operation is very precise, as one ‘step’ moves the choke trim by a fixed amount; usually some
70-120 steps are required to move from fully closed to fully open.
Other types of choke mechanism do exist, notably the hydraulic motor type which require a
continuous supply of hydraulic fluid to operate a hydraulic motor, and precise position control
is less easy as there is always a time delay between reaching the desired position and
shutting of the supply of fluid.
A choke position sensor is ‘optional’ for the former mechanism but essential for the latter.
These are usually Potentiometers, LVDTs or magnetically-coupled devices on the choke
actuator, but as far as the MCS is concerned, it receives a digital value from the SEM
indicating position.
The Operator inputs a desired position of the choke (say, 60% open, or ‘bean-size’ in 1/64ths)
and the MCS then computes the number of pulses required to reach that position and
instructs the SEM accordingly. Often, a ‘single-step’ command is also available, for fine
control.
The choke control algorithm must be designed to accommodate a number of situations, such
as failure of the choke to move (to avoid delaying the rest of the MCS software) or inaccuracy
in the computed or measured choke position. It is preferable that the computed position and
the measured position are not coupled (closed-loop operation), to avoid ‘hunting’ for an
unreachable position, particularly when the choke sensor has an inherent hysteresis in
excess of +/- ½ step, which is often the case. An ‘open-loop’ algorithm simply moves the
choke the required number of pulses (steps) then stops, leaving the Operator to compare the
displayed computed and measured positions.
The algorithm also has to take into account the physical nature of the choke itself, in which
the trim remains closed until after a number of ‘open’ pulses and also becomes ‘fully-open’
before the physical final stop is encountered, i.e.:
Number of Steps from ‘fully-closed’ to ‘fully-open’

0 15 16 96 120
0% Choke Open 100%
It can be seen from the above that allowing a ‘closed-loop’ operation whereby the MCS
continues pulsing the choke until the measured position corresponds with the desired position
could lead to uncertain operation at the extremes of choke travel. Similarly, if the choke
sensor fails, operation of the choke is then impossible and the system still then has to resort
to ‘open-loop’ if any form of control is to be achieved.
Sometimes the MCS is required to display ‘Flowrate’, as calculated from the differential
pressure across the choke and the choke position. This is a reasonably straightforward
calculation for fluids such as water, but gas flow is more complicated. In any event, the
software requires calibrations coefficients for the particular choke concerned, in order to apply
the necessary polynomial equations. The MCS must therefore store the coefficients for each
choke, as supplied by the manufacturer, for use in the equations. Access to these is via
‘Maintenance’ level.

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9.7.3 Subsea Sensor Monitoring/Fast Scan

The majority of subsea sensors in a typical subsea system are Pressure and Temperature, as
measured by external subsea sensors, which are then connected to the SCM. Other types of
sensor include Sand Detectors, Pig Detectors, Choke Position and Downhole Pressure &
Temperature. Other sensors within the SCM itself measure the status of the subsea control
system hydraulic supplies and status of the electrical systems. In all cases, these result in
digital data being made available to the MCS in the uplink datastream.
As stated previously, each sensor is accessed via a ‘status’ request command from the MCS,
and therefore it can take some time to access all the sensors in the system. Usually, this is
not a problem as a field can usually be ‘scanned’ in 2-3 minutes, which is adequate for
normal operations.
Sometimes, however, faster data rates are required, such as during valve movements when
attempting to plot the pressure/time curve of the hydraulic supply to the valve, or for Well Test
operations (see Para 9.7.8) where the Reservoir Engineer is interested in pressure transients
just after closing or opening a valve.
If the telemetry system exhibits the scan times mentioned above, it is usually necessary to
implement a special ‘fast-scan’ mode for particular sensors, to ensure their data is accessed
more frequently, say, once per second (sometimes faster). A special mode is usually
available for this where one or more sensors can be put into ‘fast-scan’ mode, which ensures
they are accessed more frequently, interposed with normal system scanning requirements.
If the subsea system design cannot offer this, then sometimes the SEM is designed to store a
block of ‘fast-scan’ data in memory, for later transmission to the MCS. Careful system design
must ensure that this does not prevent normal operation of the system, or overuse of
available memory, disk space etc.
9.7.4 Interlocks
In principle, the Operator is allowed to operate any valve he wishes. However, many Clients
ask for a degree of protection against inadvertent operations, by implementing various
‘interlocks’ within the MCS software.
Providing a certain condition can be uniquely and precisely defined, the software can then
check to ensure no other action is allowed whilst that condition persists, or can only allow an
action if a precise set of conditions is met.
For example, an interlock may be set up to prevent an Annulus Crossover valve being
opened if the Annulus Master is open. The interlock may merely take the form of an
interrogatory question, such as “Annulus Master is open – Continue Yes/No?” to which the
Operator can answer ‘Yes’ if required and the action will then be allowed.
The interlock may be a higher level one, whereby only the Supervisor can bypass it, such as
opening the Downhole Safety Valve when other Production Valves are open, risking wear on
the DHSV.
In an ESD sequence, the Operator is often given the choice whether to close the choke(s) or
not (as these are usually closed at the end of the sequence, when all other valves are shut
therefore there is no production flow; shutting the choke merely ‘tidies up’ the system in
preparation for restarting the wells later, but this operation usually takes a long time and can
therefore be avoided if desired).

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9.7.5 Alarm Annunciation

All MCS designs offer the expected alarm treatment of sensor readings, viz. HiHi, Hi, Lo,
LoLo alarms, each of which limits can be individually set by the Supervisor.
Usually, a reading in alarm will cause a flashing symbol on the VDU, plus an audible or Group
alarm, a printout on the system printer and a record in the Historical Data Log within the MCS
(see Para 9.7.11). The Operator can always cancel the audible alarm, which stops the
symbol flashing, but the alarm remains displayed until the alarm condition clears.
Usually, the latest alarms are shown in a fixed screen area on every page. A detailed table of
current alarms is available on a dedicated display page, showing current
accepted/unaccepted alarms and indicating whether they are Hi/Lo etc by use of colour or the
appropriate symbol (H, L etc). Once an alarm is accepted and subsequently returns to
normal, it is removed from this dedicated page, but a record of its occurrence will be available
on the Printer printout and within the Historical Data system.
9.7.6 Workover
The hardware design of the subsea equipment usually allows access by a Workover system,
which can take direct hydraulic control of an individual Well from the Workover Vessel.
This is usually by disconnecting the hydraulic outputs of the SCM from where they connect to
the Tree. This means that the SCM can still operate a hydraulic output, but it will have no
effect, and as Tree Valve status is usually ‘inferred’ (see 9.7.1), the MCS cannot inherently
know that the valve has not operated.
For this reason, Workover operations must always involve the Platform Operators, who, upon
receiving advice that a well is to be put on Workover, will input this into the MCS after closing
all the Tree valves, which in turn will usually ‘grey out’ the Tree valves for that Well and also
prevent the Operator from trying to operate that Well. In practice, the Tree valves will be shut
when Workover operations have finished, so the display will revert to ‘all closed’ on removing
the ‘Workover’ mode. Closing the valves before Workover operations start ensures their
status is known, and also that the SCM does not keep pressure on the individual control lines,
which would cause the valves to open when the SCM output is reconnected to the Tree.
9.7.7 ESD
The ESD system of a subsea field can be quite complex, due to the number of different
modes of shutdown required, such as:
• Platform Shutdown
• Field Shutdown
• Manifold Shutdown
• Individual Well Shutdowns
• Workover Rig ESD Transceiver Shutdown
The operation of each of these will be defined in an ‘ESD Cause and Effects’ Chart at the
design phase and available in the system operating manual.
Certain ESDs will be activated by incoming contacts from the Platform’s ESD system; others
will be initiated by the MCS itself, either via an Operator command or in response to out-of-
limit parameters.

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Each requires subsea commands to be sent to the subsea Tree Valves in a particular
sequence (to ensure the correct cessation of flow in the most timely and system-friendly
manner).
The sequences themselves can sometimes involve time delays, or allow operator-intervention
at particular points (and proceeding if none received within a certain time). Many sequences
allow the Operator to choose whether to close the Choke or not (as this is usually a time
consuming operation).
A well-designed MCS system will allow access via ergonomic editor software such that the
sequences can be modified if necessary or time-delays changed, etc.
A typical simple shutdown sequence could be:
• Close all Production Wing Valves (this will stop production flow)
• Close all Production Master Valves
• Close all Annulus Valves
• Close Downhole Safety Valves (Operator choice)
• Close all Chokes (Operator choice)
The software also must take into account the desired action, should any of the issued
commands fail to operate (usually, this will be to initiate a hydraulic shutdown via the HPU)
and must also take into account a system in which not all the Wells are yet installed. Different
sequences will be required for Water-Injection Wells, and for Production Wells that must have
Chemical Injection before fully closing them down.
9.7.8 Well Test Management

Reservoir management usually requires various forms of Well test procedures to be carried
out, usually routing product into a Test Separator, and monitoring subsea pressures
immediately after closing or opening Production valves (well shut-in, well start up tests) from
which Reservoir Engineers can deduce the characteristics of the reservoir.
To achieve this, a sequence of valve operations plus associated ‘fast-scanning’ of various
pressures and temperatures is usually required. This can be a manual operation performed
by the Operators, or if the sequences or necessary control actions are too complex, can be
automated, such that the operator merely has to select, say, “Well Shut-in test, Well 1”, and
all the necessary valve commands and fast-scan actions are carried out automatically
Usually, the resulting data will be made available to third-party analysis software, by means of
downloading the data onto floppy-disc or data-cassette, in an established/agreed format.
In some systems, a separate Test Flowline exists and by operating the required valves, flow
can be routed from one particular well into the Test Separator. Again, this action can be made
automatic if required, although Operators usually prefer to perform the operations
themselves.
The software can be made to ‘detect' if a well is placed on test, and a warning indication set
on the relevant VDU screen(s). In this case, an incoming “Test Separator ESD” signal is then
‘routed’ such that only the particular well on test is shutdown, rather than all other producing
wells.

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9.7.9 Hydrate Region Warning

Certain Fields contain the type of crude which has a tendency to form hydrates at particular
temperatures & pressures, and the Operators must always be vigilant that these are avoided,
or are at least prepared for the eventuality by previously injecting chemicals.
The MCS can be programmed to continually monitor the pressure and temperature of the
crude, and activate an alarm if the values fall within the hydrate envelope.
In principle, the MCS could also be programmed to perform valve operations on activation of
this alarm, such as to inject chemicals or to alter choke positions to bring the pressure out of
the hydrate region, but it is more usual that these actions are left to the Operators to perform.
9.7.10 Reports
An MCS is usually equipped with a variety of pre-defined Reports, which can be selected by
the Operator as required, or can be made to print automatically, say, every 24 hours.
Ideally, the MCS should be equipped with Operator-definable Reports, in which the Operator
can select the parameters to be printed, perform operators on them (such as ‘total’) and
design the format, but this does require quite a sophisticated editing program.
Alternatively, selected data can usually be output from the Historical Data System
(see 9.7.11) onto a floppy disc or similar, for later processing via third-party software. Usually
the regular ‘Daily Reports’ are produced by the higher-level Platform SCADA system, which
has access to topsides production and export data, so Reports from an MCS are not used
very often.
9.7.11 Trends/Historical Data reporting & Data Logging

Being a computerised system, an MCS is able to store all the data received from subsea,
plus any ‘events’ (such as alarms or Operator commands) on its hard disk drive.
Most MCS software, whether third-party or in-house design, provide some form of graphical
data-retrieval system that enables the operator to view previous data, usually in the form of a
chart-display over the period selected.
Display space limitations usually restrict the number of parameters that can be viewed at the
same time to around 3-6. Selecting more parameters for display can often occupy the MCS
processor and disc system to excessive tasking and can slow other operations.
A typical graphical display of historical information is as follows:
The Operator can select the start and stop date and time for the selected parameter – the
MCS will then retrieve the data from its hard disc and display it graphically, or a tabular
display is often available.

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There are physical limitations to the amount of data that can be stored by any system, and
certain compromises may have to be accepted at the design phase in order to optimise the
system design between a practicable system capacity and the Clients’ requirements for data
storage.
In practice, an Operator is likely to need very detailed information stored for a short time (e.g.
when performing Well Tests) but less detailed information for long-term storage. It is also very
useful to be able to refer back over several months of data to find out, say, when a sensor
failed (and try to relate it to some other event such as Workover at the time), or what caused
a pressure to rise etc, in which case all ‘relevant’ events, such as Operator actions, need to
be retained, but ‘irrelevant’ event, such as those inevitably resulting from major event, are
candidates for being removed from the database (e.g. hundreds of alarms can result from the
one major event of switching off the EPU).
It is not particularly easy to adequately define such an ‘alarm hierarchy’ and the storage
limitations of the MCS mean that printouts or data-storage of the database must be
performed sooner rather than later when an event needs to be analysed.
The same system may be used to display the value of selected parameters in ‘real-time’, thus
providing ‘Trend’ information.
9.7.12 Tag Numbering

Any subsea development will use a system of Tag Numbering, developed by the Client or its
major contractor, which is used throughout the Platform and subsea system as a standard
nomenclature for defining valves and sensors.
Very often, a contract is placed for the subsea control system before this standard
Nomenclature system is in place, and the system begins design using the Supplier’s own
nomenclature, or internal computer reference numbers for each data point.
The Tag Numbers then have to be retrospectively modified by the controls Supplier, which is
not always a simple task, as it may involve a complete rebuild of the MCS database, and the
Supplier will usually claim a Variation for this work.
A preferable solution is the ability of the MCS to use client-definable/re-definable Tag
Numbers via a relational database lookup system, such that arbitrary numbers can be used to
begin with, then easily replaced with the final versions, the MCS ensuring that all occurrences
of that Tag Number being automatically updated to reflect, display, and respond to, the new
value.
9.7.13 Operator-Specific Requirements

The MCS is sometimes configured to provide for operator-specific requirements, such as
downhole data-logging and pseudo-leak detection.
Downhole data-logging
Reservoir engineers may wish to analyse downhole pressure and temperature data,
particularly during shutdowns. Data logging to disk may be initiated manually or automatically,
sampling rates may also be set manually or automatically to suit the particular application.
Pseudo-leak detection
Pressure-sensors can be selected from which rate of change of pressure derivatives can be
set to initiate shut-in of wells when a set-point is exceeded.

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10 ELECTRICAL POWER UNIT (EPU)
10.1 General
Any electro-hydraulic multiplexed subsea control system requires a topsides unit to control
and provide the necessary power to the subsea equipment. (see section 9.1)
The Electric Power Unit (EPU) is the generic name usually given to the suite of equipment
that performs this function. It will usually comprise of one or more racks of equipment, located
in an Equipment Room.
The EPU is sometimes incorporated within the MCS suite of cabinets (see MCS section 9)
10.1.1 System Operation

A subsea system will usually require power in a form different to that normally available on
the Platform/FPSO. This is because of several reasons:
• Early systems used ‘inductive couplers’ which require high(er) frequency power for
efficient power transfer, typically 400Hz (being typically based on aviation technology).
• Even after conductive connectors began to be more widely used, Suppliers still
kept their existing designs of power supplies.
• Even where a normal 50/60Hz supply is required, the supply voltage may require
stepping-up to a higher level in order to supply the distant subsea field, to reduce
the I2R losses in the umbilical cable.
• Some supplier’s systems use direct current (dc) for power transmission, again at
high voltages to reduce cable losses.
• Most subsea systems require dual-channel power for redundancy reasons.
• Some systems communicate subsea by superimposing signals onto the power supply.
In addition to conditioning the available topsides power into the form required for transmission
subsea, certain other control and monitoring is required, such as:
• Overall on/off control of the power to the EPU and to the subsea system itself.
• Individual control of each power channel.
• Protection for over-current and over-voltage.
• Monitoring of the supply voltage, current and frequency.
• Monitoring of the quality of the insulation of the subsea umbilicals.
• Replication of the measured parameters back to the Master Control Station (MCS).
• Adjustment of the output voltages when more Subsea Control Modules (SCM) are
added to the system.
• A degree of regulation (stabilising, smoothing) of the incoming supply may be
required.
All of these requirements usually mean that an EPU becomes a self-contained unit, and is of
an appreciable size, weight and complexity.
It should be noted that, regardless of the type of power required by the subsea system, a
reliable supply is always required. This means that the system should ideally be supplied
from the Topsides Uninterruptible Power Supply system. In the absence of this, or where the
existing supply is inadequate, a separate UPS is often required. This is described separately
in section 17, as it does not usually form part of the EPU, due to its specialised nature and
size.
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10.1.2 Physical Description

Modularisation of the unit by the Supplier may mean that one or more EPUs are required to
power a large field, and the racking system usually contains space for such expansion.
Sometimes the EPU requirements are small enough to allow the EPU to be mounted in the
same Rack as the MCS. In general, an EPU will be designed to fit in a standard 19" rack and
be protected against dust and water ingress to at least IP55.
An EPU will often contain large and heavy transformers, so although the control and
monitoring circuitry is relatively small, an EPU is usually fairly large and heavy.
The EPU will often generate an appreciable amount of heat, and this should be taken into
account when siting the unit and/or designing the local HVAC system.
The racking system will be equipped with Certified lifting pad-eyes, gland plates (provided on
the top or bottom of the unit) to accept glanded incoming and outgoing cables and "Klippon"
SAK-type connectors, or similar, as terminations for all incoming and outgoing cabling.
The enclosure should have two non-ferrous earth studs for bonding to the earth system. All
enclosure metal parts should be securely connected back to the earth studs by bonding
straps. An earth-bonding strap is required. The enclosure shall be suitably coated and
painted in accordance with a suitable specification.
Figure 10.1 - Typical EPU
10.1.3 Power System Specification

In order to specify the EPU requirements, each subsea system must be analysed for its
current and future power requirements.
The power distribution system can be quite complex, particularly for 'multi-drop' systems, i.e.
those having many Subsea Control Modules operating from a single (dual-channel) umbilical
and with, in some cases, further umbilicals operating in a daisy-chain to another field or
collection of Subsea Control Modules. The system may require subsea Transformers, usually
located in the Subsea Distribution Units (SDU; see chapter 17) to transform the voltage back
down again to a level suitable for the SCMs or for local distribution on a template. An SCM
will contain its own Power Supply system to obtain the (typically) 24 volts to operate sensors
and solenoids, and 5 or 12-volt logic circuits.
The system must be designed to accommodate the various levels of power required by the
system in all its operating modes. An SCM in its normal operating (scanning) mode may only
consume some tens of watts, but when a solenoid is activated this will rise by about the same
amount. Some system designs incorporate 'held-on' solenoids in the SCM, and this increases

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the total power requirements, as does each additional external sensor. Systems employing
major power-consumers such as downhole pumps obviously have very particular
requirements. The EPU is usually required to be able to adjust the subsea supply voltage to
cater for the addition or removal of SCMs.
The system must also accommodate any expected fluctuations from the Platform Supply;
therefore the subsea system is usually fed from the Topsides UPS, or has its own. Transient
protection and phase-angle correction may be required.
Any over-current protection devices in the system must be co-ordinated, to ensure that only
the fuses/devices for a faulty SCM operate and do not trip the main supply for the rest of the
system.
10.2 Components
10.2.1 General
A typical EPU comprises the following components:
a) Main input circuit breaker.

b) Power Transformer & Isolation.
c) Output circuit breakers and current limiters.
d) Line Insulation Monitor.
e) Controls and displays
Figure 10.2 - EPU Module
10.2.2 Main Circuit Breaker

The incoming Topsides supply is routed via a main input circuit breaker, which should be
lockable for use during topsides or subsea maintenance. The isolator is often interlocked with
the EPU access door in order to ensure supply is isolated before the door can be opened.
Warning labels should advise the consequences of opening the door. The contact breakers
may be equipped with over-current and over/under-voltage trips to protect the unit.

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10.2.3 Power Transformer/Power Stage & Isolation

An isolation transformer converts the incoming supply voltage to the level required for subsea
transmission. If the incoming supply is of the wrong frequency or requires other treatment,
then a power conversion stage may be employed, such as a switched-mode regulator or
other power-supply technology. With these devices, care must be taken to ensure unwanted
harmonics are not transmitted subsea (could interfere with the communication channel via
cross-talk) or are reflected back to the Topsides supply.
10.2.4 Output Circuit Breakers & Current Limiters

Outputs are usually fed via circuit breakers with thermal and magnetic trips and/or fuses rated
according to the subsea control system requirements. The circuit breakers should be lockable
in the off position, for maintenance purposes. The circuit breakers are often provided with
auxiliary contacts for remote indication to the MCS.
In some system designs where subsea held-on solenoids form part of the ESD system, a
relay connected to an incoming ESD signal may trip the output supplies, in which case a
manual 'reset' button is included to avoid un-wanted restoration of power after the ESD
condition is removed.
10.2.5 Line Insulation Monitor

The insulation between line and earth on both power outputs should be monitored by a Line
Insulation Monitor (LIM). The LIM should have two levels of operation:
• Level 1 - At a pre-set level should indicate only "Pre-trip warning".

• Level 2 - At a pre-set level should trip the output circuit.
The LIM should be rated and / or compensated for use with subsea umbilicals of the
construction and length required for the application.
10.2.6 Controls & Displays

Each of the dual output supplies should have the following indicators mounted on the front
panel:
• Voltmeter (if the output supplies use 3 phase, the voltmeter should measure line to
line and be switchable between phases).
• Ammeter (for 3 phase, the ammeter should measure line current and be switchable).
• Frequency meter.
• Line insulation fault lamp.
• Output-on lamp.
• Output-tripped lamp.
• Line insulation resistance.

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10.3 Testing
The EPU should be subjected to a witnessed Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) procedure. The
acceptance testing should include, but not be limited to:
• Heat soak tests / Burn in period.

• Visual checks on workmanship, cable marking etc.
• Insulation testing cores to ground and each other.
• Continuity testing.
• Earth continuity tests.
• Circuit breaker tests.
• Line Insulation monitoring tests (particularly as regards usage with subsea
umbilicals and long-term Testing).
• Operational tests over the full range of input / output voltage, frequency and loads,
and start-up surges.
10.4 Maintainability
EPUs are usually modular in design, allowing for access to all components for maintenance
or repair, and for isolation of individual power supplies.
Interlocks are often implemented on the access doors, such that internal power is switched
off when the doors are opened (over-rides are often available should it be necessary to
maintain subsea power).

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11 UN-INTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
11.1 Description
11.1.1 General
As referred to in the section on the Electric Power Unit (EPU section 10), any electro-
hydraulic multiplexed subsea control system requires a secure, reliable supply of electrical
power.
The Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is a unit which is often provided in the absence of a
suitable existing supply on the Platform / FPSO. It will usually comprise of one or more racks
of equipment, located in an Equipment Room.
11.1.2 System Operation

The UPS will take incoming Platform power, and filter, condition and store it in associated
batteries, such that an output supply is always available in the event of failure of the Platform
supply itself.
The UPS is usually sized to provide 30 minutes minimum and up to one hour full operation
from the batteries depending on the operational requirements.
Figure 11.1 - UPS & Battery Rack
11.2 Components
A UPS typically operates by rectifying and smoothing the incoming supply, converting it to
direct current (dc), which can then be used to charge associated batteries. The output from
the batteries is then converted back to alternating current (ac) ready for use to power the
subsea system. In case of failure of the main incoming supply, the output from the batteries is
quickly switched to power the dc to ac converter, thus ensuring a constant supply.
The technology behind modern UPS devices is varied and sophisticated, all aiming to
improving the electrical efficiency of the conversion from ac to dc and back again, and for
controlling the switchover from main power to standby power.

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Constant-voltage battery chargers usually use thyristor* technology to ensure a high level of
reliability and switchmode rectifiers offer very high power to volume ratios. Designs are
usually modular to allow for expansion and redundancy with ‘hot swap’ capability, including
microprocessor control and remote power management with full system and battery
monitoring.
Usually the UPS is purchased from a specialist manufacture of such devices and is not built
by a subsea control system supplier. The UPS is often procured as part of the overall
Platform/FPSO supply and therefore not by those responsible for the control system.
The size of unit required depends on the existing and future field requirements and it is
important to agree at the FEED stage the required maximum output required, especially if
planning for future expansion. The field power requirement is never easy to predict and will
vary with the different control system suppliers. It should be noted that space on a Platform or
FPSO for such units is often at a premium, and adding a second unit later or additional
batteries often causes design and implementation problems.
The equipment must eliminate mains borne electrical noise, sags, surges and transient spike
and offer extremely reliable and economic computer grade power, else the specification of
the subsequent EPU will need to deal with these problems. The unit will also provide isolation
from the rest of the platform systems and should not contravene any EMC regulations nor
reflect electrical noise back into the Platform supply.
Modern units provide interfaces to the Platform SCADA system, and it is not usual for the
UPS to be controlled or monitored by the MCS in any way.
Models are available for single or three-phase outputs.
11.3 Testing
A UPS should be tested at all extremes of input and output power, temperature, and with
injected mains-borne electrical noise to simulate a real Platform environment. It is desirable to
test it with the EPU and remaining subsea system as part of an SIT if possible, although, as
mentioned above, it is often procured separately to the Control System and is therefore rarely
available until commissioned offshore.
* Thyristors are semiconductor components whose fast-acting switching characteristics allow the
construction of high-efficiency direct- to alternating-current converters, which are at the heart of UPS
designs, whereby the d.c. output of batteries is converted back to an alternating supply for the equipment
connected to it, as detailed in 11.2. Being either 'on' or 'off', there is (theoretically) no power dissipation
within the thyristor device itself.
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12 HYDRAULIC POWER UNIT (HPU)
12.1 Introduction
The Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU) is a skid mounted unit designed to supply water based bio-
degradable or mineral oil hydraulic fluid to control the subsea facilities that control the subsea
valves.
A typical HPU has a supply reservoir and return reservoir, pumps for each pressure system
and a circulation pump for filling and flushing.
The reservoirs, tubing, and wetted parts of all components including hydraulic pumps, hand
valves and control valves will be of 316 stainless steel to prevent corrosion and contamination
in the hydraulic system.
The two hydraulic system pressures are low pressure (LP) for the Xmas tree valves and high
pressure (HP) for the sub-surface safety valve (SCSSV). Each system usually has duty and
standby pump systems for back up and maintenance purposes, although for some systems a
common back up pump is used.
For redundancy, dual systems usually have an electrical driven pump and an air driven pump
for each pressure system in a lead/lag configuration.
A bank of accumulator bottles with an internal bladder or piston and Nitrogen pre-charged
stores the energy from the pump discharge to prevent frequent cycling of the pumps.
The pressure pumps are gravity fed from the supply reservoir. Each pump pressure system
discharges through a dual filtration unit, charges a bank of accumulator bottles, and outlets
the skid into the umbilical system. There are hand valves for manual isolation and solenoid
valves for safety shutdown of the umbilical system.
The system can be an open hydraulic system where fully biodegradable spent hydraulic fluid
is dumped to sea, or a closed system where spent hydraulic fluid flows along the return line in
the umbilical to the return reservoir.
The return reservoir has multiple service duties. It receives the return hydraulic fluid from the
umbilical of a closed hydraulic system. It receives fluid from the manual or automatic vent of
the skid or accumulators, or from the system relief valves. It is also used for filling the system.
For closed systems with no leakage, there should be no requirement to refill the reservoir, but
open systems will require topping up from time to time. The frequency of topping up is
dependent on the frequency of operation of the subsea valves.
The final service of the return reservoir is for flushing and cleaning the hydraulic fluid to the
required system cleanliness before transferring to the supply reservoir.
A high flow multi-purpose circulation and transfer pump with filters is provided for flushing the
return reservoir, transferring of hydraulic fluid between reservoirs, and for filling from external
sources. The pump can also be used for flushing the supply reservoir if necessary.
The control of the system for the HPU can be local control with a remote warning alarm, or
can be operated remotely via the Platform DCS or the subsea system MCS, although this
latter method means that the HPU is then not a self-contained unit.

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The HPU has a local control panel for indication of hydraulic system pressures, hand/off/auto
selectors for the pumps, and duty/standby selection for the pumps, and emergency stop
controls. The panel will also have a common alarm lamp, and an audible alarm horn. The
common alarm can also be provided at the Master Control Station or DCS.
Figure 12.1 - Hydraulic Power Unit

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12.2 Hydraulic Schematic
Return Supply
Tank Tank
LP Accumulator Bottles
Relief
Valve
Hand LP ESD
Selector Valve
Valve S
LP Hydraulic Supply to Umbilical
LP Pump 1
HP
Hand Accumulator
Selector Filter Bottles
Valve
Flushing & LP Pump 2
Fluid Fill HP ESD
Fill Pump

Valve
Figure 12.2 - HPU Schematic

S
HP Hydraulic Supply to Umbilical
HP Pump 1
Filter
HP Pump 2
Page 63
12.3 Equipment Description
12.3.1 Supply Tank

The supply reservoir is fabricated from stainless steel. Its size is determined by hydraulic
analysis depending on the number of wells and an agreed philosophy for the number of
subsea operations allowed before refilling the tank is required. The reservoir is atmospheric,
and is fitted with a micronic breather element and flame arrestor to prevent contamination of
the fluid by airborne particles and risk should subsea gas permeate into the system.
The reservoir is fitted with an external level gauge for fluid level indication. The reservoir has
level switches for high and low alarms and for low-low pump trip.
The tank has valved connections for filling, draining, and for fluid sampling. There is also a
connection from a selector valve on the circulation pump circuit.
It is normal also to have remote indication of the fluid level in the supply reservoir.
12.3.2 Return Tank

The return reservoir is fabricated from stainless steel. Its size is determined by hydraulic
analysis depending on the volume required to supply the system, and the return volume of
hydraulic fluid from the subsea system on a total shutdown. The reservoir is atmospheric, and
is fitted with a micronic breather element and flame arrestor to prevent contamination of the
fluid by airborne particles and risk should subsea gas permeate into the system.
The reservoir is fitted with an external level gauge for fluid level indication. The reservoir has
level switches for high and low alarms and a high alarm to warn against over filling the
reservoir. The tank has valved connections for filling, draining, and for fluid sampling. There is
also a connection from a selector valve on the circulation pump circuit.
It is normal also to have remote indication of the fluid level in the supply reservoir.
A return filter may be fitted to the return lines to reservoir to prevent contamination entering
the return reservoir. However should this filter get blocked, it could prevent the safe hydraulic
vent-down of the system on a total ESD. The return filter may be omitted from the system for
this reason.
A system drain is provided to remove excess fluid from the skid for vent ESD shutdown
requirements.
12.3.3 Low Pressure System

The LP hydraulic pressure system usually has an electrically driven and an air driven pump.
Each pump has a strainer on its suction in case of the unlikely event of debris becoming
dislodged somewhere in the system. Each pump has flexible hoses on the supply and
discharge to eliminate vibration stresses on the fixed tubing. Each pump has a hydraulic
isolation valve on its supply and discharge for maintenance purposes.
The system is designed so that the pumps run on demand in a lead/lag configuration with one
pump being the duty service and the second pump being the back up pump. There is no set
rule as to whether the electrical pump or the air pump provides lead or lag duty.
It should be noted that electrical driven pumps generally have higher flow rates than air
pumps, which gives a benefit in high demand situations. However, in low demand situations
an air pump may be more suitable, as it is certainly undesirable to frequently start and stop
electrical motors. The electrical motor can be set to deliver the bulk of the fluid requirements
when pressurising the system, with the air pump providing the last 50 bar or so. This
minimises the time required to start up following an ESD.

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The pumps have a common discharge into the LP header. The LP discharge header is fitted
with a 3-micron absolute dual filtration system duty/standby as a 'last chance' filter to prevent
contamination entering the umbilical.
Each filter housing has a pop-up indicator warning of filter clogging and a differential pressure
switch to provide a high differential pressure alarm either locally or remotely.
Each filter also has a bypass in case of total blockage. Downstream of each filter is a valve
for bleeding off fluid pressure during filter element changing, and for taking fluid samples for
hydraulic cleanliness checking.
The pumps are controlled either by pressure switches or a pressure controller. Control can
either be by local starter or alternatively local panel control using motor control relays or
PLCs. Remote control is also an option using the Master Control Station, or the process
control Distributed Control System (DCS), although this results in the HPU not being an
entirely self-contained unit and imposes its requirements onto the remote process control
system.
The pump discharge is connected to a bank of nitrogen pre-charged accumulator bottles. The
interface between the gas and the hydraulic oil can be either a synthetic rubber bladder or a
piston with seal rings. The number of bottles, the volume, and the nitrogen pre-charge volume
is determined by hydraulic analysis.
The accumulator discharge is based on the standard gas laws. The hydraulic analysis for the
accumulator sizing must also consider the hydraulic pump discharge volume and the
umbilical core sizing. The resistance to hydraulic flow over long offset distances even with
smooth bore hose liners can be considerable.
The objective of the accumulator is to store the hydraulic energy from the pump discharge by
compressing the nitrogen. When the pump reaches its high set point, it will stop. As the
umbilical hose pressure decays, the compressed nitrogen in the accumulator will expand and
force the hydraulic fluid at the flow rated allowed by the umbilical.
Panel mounted local pressure gauges will display the pump discharge pressures, and the
accumulator header pressure. Pressure transducers will also output a 4-20mA signal to
enable these pressures to be displayed on the Master Control Station or DCS VDU. These
signals may also be used to provide low pressure alarms.
The ESD cause/effect charts will usually determine that a total fail-safe vent hydraulic facility
is provided in the HPU which will enable the subsea facilities to fail safe closed if there is a
loss of subsea communications (i.e. failure to perform a 'commanded' ESD sequence) and/or
a hazardous situation. This is achieved by fitting one or two solenoid valves in the LP
Hydraulic discharge header from the HPU. The solenoid valves are three-way spring-return
fail-closed ESD solenoid pilot valves. The umbilical volume from the solenoid vent port flows
back to the return tank.
Following an ESD (where power has been removed from these solenoids), it is usually
necessary to manually reset these pilot valves from within the HPU. This prevents inadvertent
start up of the hydraulic subsea system when platform power is reapplied.
12.3.4 High Pressure System

The high-pressure pump system is similar to the LP system. The operating pressure is
dictated by the force required to overcome the shut in well pressure and open the SCSSV.
The volume requirements are lower and the pump flow rates will be less. The hydraulic
analysis will also dictate that the accumulator volumes will also be smaller. The operating and
test pressure requirements for HP systems often border on the design operating limits of
conventional seamless stainless steel tubing and compression fittings necessitating the use
of high strength tube and high pressure fittings. Again, use of an electric pump can greatly
speed the system re-pressurisation following an ESD.

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12.3.5 Circulation/Transfer Pump System

For Reliability of the subsea system, it is very important that the hydraulic fluid already in the
tank system, and when filling the tanks is clean to the required standard. The standard is
NAS 1638 Class 6.
The circulation / transfer pump is dual purpose. It can be configured to flush the supply tank
to the required cleanliness, or alternatively configured to fill the return tank from an external
source. The pump motor is manually controlled.
The circulation / transfer pump is a high flow rate transfer pump and not a pressure pump.
The pump must be sized to provide adequate flow rate achieving a Reynolds number greater
than 3,000 to ensure turbulent flow conditions and effective flushing is achieved. To drive a
high flow rate pump, an electrical motor is required.
A hand valve on the pump suction is used to manually-select the pump suction source. The
sources are the bottom of the supply or return reservoirs, or the return tank filling source. It is
imperative that one of these valves is open before starting the pump. This valve is usually left
in the 'circulate' position for normal operation.
The pump discharges through a check valve into the 3-micron absolute high-capacity dual-
filtration unit provided for flushing the hydraulic fluid. Each filter has a pop up indicator on its
housing to indicate if the filter is blocked. A sample point is provided on the filter outlet for
sampling of the hydraulic fluid to verify its cleanliness.
The filter unit is configured in a duty/standby configuration for continuous operation during
filter changeout.
The discharge from the filter can be routed either to the supply tank or to the return tank.
Selection is by a hand selector valve adjacent to the filters on the discharge side.
In normal operation, the fluid is transferred from the supply drums into the return tank. The
fluid is then flushed in the return tank, and sampled until it is verified clean to the required
standard. Only when this standard has been achieved should the fluid be transferred from the
return tank to the supply tank.
12.3.6 Bulk Fluid Storage

Under 'normal' use, where the subsea valves are not being frequently operated, the fluid in an
HPU can last a considerable time. However, at some point re-filling is required - with the
system described above barrels of pre-mixed fluid must be brought to the HPU location and
transferred to the reservoirs.
It can sometimes be advantageous to maintain a separate 'bulk' storage reservoir located in a
more accessible area. These are usually available from the fluid suppliers and can be
exchanged in their entirety for fresh units.
12.3.7 Controls & Instrumentation

As previously mentioned, local controls and gauges are provided to enable local control &
monitoring. These are available from the exterior of the unit, protected by glass-fronted doors
or a protective panel. Where electrical flowmeters are provided, there is usually a local
display and reset button. An 'emergency stop' button and protected 'subsea system ESD'
button are usually provided.
Inside the unit itself, most instruments and major devices such as pumps have block/bypass
valves to allow replacement during maintenance, and local interior and panel lighting is
provided. Anti-condensation heaters are also provided where required.
Sampling points for fluid quality checks are provided.

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13 TOPSIDES UMBILICAL TERMINATION UNIT (TUTU)
13.1 Introduction
This Chapter describes the Topsides Umbilical Termination Unit (TUTU), being the topsides
unit that routes hydraulic fluid from the HPU to the subsea umbilical.
13.2 Description
The umbilical carrying hydraulic fluid electrical power/signal, and chemicals, to the subsea
system is usually located on the cellar deck of a Platform, or at the edge of an anchored static
FPSO or the turret of a turret moored FPSO. This is usually a considerable distance from the
HPU/EPU. The umbilical itself must be terminated close to its hang-off point, so some form of
termination bulkhead and electrical junction box is required.
This usually takes the form of a Topsides Umbilical Termination Unit or TUTU.
The TUTU provides hose coupling points and an electrical junction box, but in addition
houses block and bleed valves for each hydraulic function.
The hydraulic supplies from the HPU are usually carried by Platform pipework to the TUTU.
The bleed valves allow this pipework to be filled, flushed and bled after construction.
Similarly, they also allow the umbilical to be bled down if required. The bleed valve outputs
are usually routed back to the HPU to avoid local spillage of fluid.
The block valves allow a definite isolation point for the subsea umbilical. The block valves can
be locked shut to prevent inadvertent pressurisation of the umbilical. This also allows the
HPU outputs to be tested without having any subsea effect. Naturally, these valves must be
open for normal operation and access to the TUTU is restricted by a lockable cabinet door. A
drain port ensures that any build-up of pressure inside the unit caused by leakage cannot
pressurise the unit.
The TUTU is usually constructed of stainless steel and is either safe area equipment or
certified for operation in a Zone 1 or Zone 2 hazardous area as dictated by the specified
hazardous area location.
The connections to the umbilical are usually arranged on the side of the unit, at an elevation
that allows a generous radius for connection of the umbilical pigtails. This often requires that
the TUTU itself be mounted at about 1 metre from deck level, so the unit may have a plinth.
If bottom entry is required, then a transition box is required to allow pull-in of the umbilical for
hang-off and to then terminate the hoses in the bottom of the box.
Figure 13.1 - TUTU Umbilical Termination

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Provision is usually made for enclosing the pigtails from the umbilical hang-off inside a length of
protective conduit. Depending on the umbilical termination design, this may require one or two
such conduits to house both the hydraulic hoses and electric cables, and the TUTU mechanical
design must consider this. The electrical junction box is not usually located within the hydraulics
enclosure and should preferably be kept isolated. It is usually mounted on the side of the unit.
Typical
TUTU
One
Hydraulic
output
Shown Only
Figure 13.2 - TUTU Block Diagram
13.3 Termination of Chemical Hoses

A similar item of equipment may also be provided for connection of the chemical hoses,
although this is usually kept separate from the control system hoses and cables to avoid
contamination. This "Chemical Umbilical Termination Unit" is placed adjacent to the TUTU by
the umbilical hang-off point.
Again, precautions must be taken to avoid pressurisation of the box due to chemical leakage
(particularly with the known phenomenon of migration of methanol through thermoplastic
hoses, which can then travel to either extremity of the umbilical). It is usual for the termination
box design to include a Methanol catcher when Thermoplastic hoses are used.
Figure 13.3 - Internals of a typical TUTU

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14 UMBILICAL
This section included for completeness, as part of Figure 8.1 page 30.
Umbilicals are detailed in the Deepwater Field Development Reference Book - Umbilicals.
15 SUBSEA UMBILICAL TERMINATION UNIT (SUTU)
15.1 Description & Components

The Subsea Umbilical Termination Unit (SUTU), is the termination that mates with the
umbilical flange for installation and pull-in of the umbilical to the required subsea structure.
This unit is sometimes known as an Umbilical Termination Assembly (UTA) or Unit (UTU).
The SUTU terminates all of the elements (hoses, cables or tubes) of the umbilical and
provides outputs for the jumpers which connect the SUTU to the SDU enabling the subsea
distribution.
The SUTU is fabricated from carbon steel coated in accordance with a suitable subsea paint
specification. The SUTU has a mounting flange for the umbilical armour flange termination,
and mounting plates for the hydraulic, chemical and electrical connectors.
The hydraulic and chemical connections are mechanical connections to the back of male
hydraulic connectors, and the electrical cables terminate in subsea mateable electrical
connectors (which contain pressure balanced and oil filled housings for the connections
themselves, with cable boot seals onto the outer sheath of the cable conductors).
The SUTU can be designed to be pulled into a subsea structure. To deploy this design needs
special rigging and reaction with the ROV to pull into the subsea structure. This can be a slow
task in deepwater. Alternatively, the SUTU can be designed to be deployed vertically into a
stab assembly on a structure. The stab has a hinge device, and when the SUTU is locked
into the stab, the lay vessel starts to layaway and the hinge device will rotate to orientate the
umbilical into the horizontal plane, and the umbilical can be laid away by the lay vessel.
With the umbilical in the horizontal plane, the SUTU connector plate is also in the horizontal
plane. This allows the ROV access to make up the jumpers to the SDU.
A SUTU design that plugs directly into the SDU is feasible, although this restricts the order in
which the units must be deployed and prevents the retrieval of the SDU without first removing
the SUTU/umbilical.
One other scenario is that the umbilical SUTU and the SDU are combined into one unit with a
flange for termination of the umbilical and terminations for the hydraulic, chemical and
electrical connections. This unit would retain the name of an SDU. The overall size and
weight of such a unit, however, makes it difficult to store on an installation reel, forcing a first-
end installation, or making a carousel necessary and is difficult to deploy in deepwater. The
advantage is that the connection between the umbilical and SUTU is made (usually) at the
factory and the whole can be tested as an assembly.
Neither of these allows the use of a protective weak-link device unless one is specially
designed as part of the overall interface between the two items. In both this and the above
cases, the units and their mounting structures must be designed to accommodate the
maximum expected umbilical loads, making them considerably larger/heavier.

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16 WEAK LINK
16.1 Description & Components

A weak link is a device used to protect equipment that is permanently installed on a manifold
or template, so that in the event of an umbilical being snagged, the umbilical will break away,
activating the link and shearing jumpers connecting to the fixed subsea equipment.
A weak link may not be required, especially in deepwater applications. The need for the weak
link depends on the subsea system architecture, and the risk analysis of snagging by
anchors, etc.
A weak link is usually a guillotine device that has one part fixed to the template/manifold or to
the SUTU itself. The other part assembled using slide guides is attached to the umbilical
termination (SUTU). The weak link is generally made from 316 stainless steel and is
unpainted. Load calculations must be performed to ensure that whichever structure it is
attached to can take the loads imparted before the device shears the umbilical.
Subsea jumper hoses and cables pass through guide holes in both parts of the guillotine. The
jumpers attach to the SDU at one end termination, and to the SUTU at the other end
termination.
When the weak link is being handled or the SUTU attached, an installation bolt is used to
ensure that the weak link is not activated. After the installation is complete, the installation
bolt is removed and the two guillotine parts of the weak link are then held together by a shear
pin.
The shear pins are batch made and type tested to verify that the shear force is within the
design tolerance.
The shear force is specified to accommodate the snagging load requirements. As the shear
load has to be activated in a straight line, guide funnels are required on the subsea structure
to ensure correct operation of the weak link mechanism.
The holes for the jumper hoses and cables are staggered to provide an offset for cutting of
the elements. Otherwise with hoses constructed with elements such as Kevlar braiding, the
weak link can jam and not activate properly.
The jumper hoses and cables, which are neutrally buoyant in seawater, are not secured
through the weak link device. Therefore, in applications where there are strong seawater
currents that cause movement of the jumpers, guide sleeves are used to protect the hoses
and cables from chafing against the weak link edges. The sleeves also protect the cutting
edges of the guillotine from inadvertent damage during handling.
Alternative designs of weak-link exist whereby the hydraulic & electrical sections disconnect
using couplers/connectors, effectively acting as a large 'plug and socket'.
These 'non-destructive' designs in theory allow a disconnected umbilical to be simply re-
connected.

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However, the mechanical installation requirements for a deepwater application render the
design more complex, and in any event the disconnection forces still have to be made to act
in a straight line.
Figure 16.1 - Weak Link

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17 SUBSEA DISTRIBUTION UNIT (SDU)
17.1 General
The Subsea Distribution Unit (SDU) is sometimes also known as the Subsea Distribution Box
(SDB). The SDU connects to the subsea umbilical through the Subsea Umbilical Termination
Unit (SUTU), and distributes hydraulic supplies, electrical power supplies, signals, and
injection chemicals to the subsea facilities. The facilities can be a subsea template, a satellite
well cluster, or a distribution to satellite wells.
17.2 Construction
The SDU frame is fabricated from carbon steel coated in accordance with a subsea paint
specification. The frame is designed for lifting and lowering onto a location on a subsea
production structure. Alternatively, the SDU can be located on a mudmat, simple protective
frame, or a mono-pile.
17.3 Interface with Umbilical

The SUTU can connect to the SDU with a vertical stab and hinge-over connection, or
alternatively connect via electrical and hydraulic jumpers at seabed level pull-in location, or
manifold structure pull-in location using ROV or diver* -mateable connectors. If the field
layout demands, the jumpers can route through a weak link breakaway connector.
17.4 Interface with SCM

The jumpers from the SDU to the SCMMB connect using ROV or diver- mateable connectors.
Refer to Section 16 for Jumpers.
17.5 Electrical Distribution

The electrical distribution is usually contained in an oil-filled pressure-balanced fabricated and
coated carbon steel housing called an Electrical Distribution Box (EDB) or Unit (EDU). (Non
pressure-balanced resin-filled junction boxes are sometimes used, but these do not allow
future maintenance and require the encapsulated components to be suitable for use at depth;
designs requiring current-limiting devices may be housed in a one-atmosphere enclosure).
Entry and Exit of the EDU is by flange mounted electrical controlled environment type
connectors.
The connectors are configured so that any connections that may be accidentally
disconnected live, have the live conductors protected from the seawater.
Cable tails from the back of the electrical connectors within the oil-filled housing are
connected for distribution as required by the control system architecture and the system
redundancy capability. The cable connections are usually spliced by crimping and have the
insulation reconstituted by moulding.
The requirement for fault protection is dependent on the system design and the number of
wells that could potentially be disabled by a subsea cable fault. There are three types of
electrical protection used - fuses, circuit breakers, thermal re-setting trip devices.
* Here 'diver' implies the use of a suitable deepwater diving suit such as 'JIM' or NEWT-suit.
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Fuses are not effective, as slow blow fuses are necessary in order to cater for the inrush
current whilst charging up the umbilical. This makes fuses ineffective in isolating a fault in the
distribution system without over-loading the remainder of distribution outlets, and generally, a
fuse would not blow before the line insulation fault trip in the EPU is activated.
Circuit breakers have been used subsea in EDUs, but are not commonly used as the circuit
breaker reset mechanism has to penetrate through the EDU housing using O-rings which
introduces a potential fault path.
Figure 17.1 - Electrical Distribution Unit
The thermal re-setting devices are semiconductor devices and due to the technology
required, they are not available from all suppliers.
17.6 Hydraulic and Chemical Distribution

The hydraulic distribution is by tubing from the incoming interface connection routed around
the structure to the distribution outlets. The stab connections and the tubing are generally of
316 stainless steel. The tubing terminations are all welded for integrity. The tubing, which is
usually installed at a fabrication site, has to be flushed and cleaned to the integrity required
by the subsea control system.
Chemical injection systems generally require larger volume flows during normal operation,
and are also subject to increased viscosity at lower seabed temperatures. Therefore, larger
bore tubing or piping is generally used, again welded to maintain integrity.
Multi stab plate hydraulic connections must have some movement in order to allow for
alignment during make-up. Also tubing is often installed on structures using clamps with
plastic inserts. This can leave the tubing and end connections floating without cathodic
protection. It is essential that these items be electrically bonded to the main structure cathodic
protection system to avoid rapid corrosion of the system.

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Other material that may be considered for the distribution piping or tubing is carbon steel for
the chemical injection system, or more exotic materials such as Duplex or Super Duplex
stainless steel.
Figure 17.2 - Hydraulic Distribution Unit
To ensure correct mating of the respective parts, guide pins are used on stab plates, and
single connections may have different size quick-connect couplings or may be keyed.
17.7 ROV Connection

The size of an ROV means that design consideration regarding access to the SDU has to be
carefully considered. It is not always necessary to have a docking station for ROV make up,
but docking may make certain tasks easier. If the field survey shows strong currents at the
seabed and changeable directions, then ROV docking is necessary.
With multi-well applications where the ROV must remove connectors from parking positions
and hook up at positions on the SDU, it is essential that the ROV does not get entangled in
any of the other jumpers. This can cause damage to the jumpers or may entangle the ROV
where it would need to cut jumpers in order to free itself.
Clear marking of the connection point is essential in order that the ROV pilot may orientate
the ROV at the desired location and to ensure the correct hook up in low visibility subsea.
See markings in Section 24.

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18 SUBSEA ACCUMULATOR MODULE (SAM)
18.1 Introduction
This Chapter describes the Subsea Accumulator Module (SAM), being the subsea unit that
stores hydraulic fluid such that adequate pressure is always available to the Subsea system
even when other valves are being operated.
18.2 Description
When a subsea system is required to operate a number of trees located along distance away
from the host Platform/FPSO, the hydraulic fluid from the Topsides HPU will take a
considerable time to reach the subsea equipment, particularly where small hoses are used in
the umbilical. This can result in a drop in pressure at the subsea tree when a valve is opened,
as the pressure cannot then be restored immediately via the umbilical.
If the pressure drops, other open tree valves may begin to close, before the pressure can be
restored.
If the pressure drops too much, the pilot valves in the Subsea Control Module will 'drop out'
i.e. close, causing one or more tree valves to close irrespective of whether pressure is then
restored via the umbilical.
In order to maintain an adequate level of pressure at the subsea location, some degree of
local accumulation may be required. This can be provided by individual accumulators on the
SCM itself, but more usually, a self-contained skid containing several Accumulator bottles is
often provided, this being termed a 'Subsea Accumulator Module' or SAM.
The SAM will house sufficient LP Accumulation to maintain pressure during valve operations.
In addition, it is also sized to hold sufficient fluid to perform a number of subsea control
operations, even if the supply from the surface no longer functions, thus giving a degree of
reserve power. A trade-off must be made against the size of skid required and the amount of
accumulation, and this is done via a Hydraulic Analysis performed by the Supplier against the
Client's Specifications. Sometimes the analysis will demonstrate that HP accumulation is also
required.
The requirement for an increased Nitrogen pre-charge pressure in deep water applications
will decrease the efficiency of subsea accumulation, which will increase the number of
accumulator bottles required.

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18.3 Components
A SAM is a simple skid, primarily housing Accumulators. Nevertheless, it must be designed,
manufactured and tested as part of the overall system, and designed to be retrievable for
maintenance, as the accumulator pre-charges may periodically need replenishing.
The design may also incorporate a filter and block/bleed valves to allow flushing and testing.
Typical SAM
(LP only)
Figure 18.1 - Subsea Accumulator Module Block Diagram
The SAM is usually a stand-alone skid, connected via a mounting base, which is connected
to the SDU or the hydraulic tubing supplying the subsea control modules. The SAM is run and
retrieved in a similar manner to the subsea control module. In order to allow the SAM to be
retrieved for maintenance, ROV operable block, vent, and bypass valves are sometimes
incorporated into the Manifold/Template tubing (where the hydraulic distribution is hard
piped). This valve will allow production to continue whilst the unit is replaced, but tree valves
should not be operated whilst the bypass is in operation, due to the risk of pressure-drop as
outlined above.

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Figure 18.2 - Subsea Accumulator Module
When block and vent valves are not used, the SAM can be retrieved by pulling off its
mounting base and relying on the self sealing quick connect hydraulic couplings sealing to
maintain the pressure in the hydraulic system.
Installation of the SAM is more difficult, as there is a large force required to mate the SAM
and SAMMB against the closed force exerted behind the closed hydraulic poppets. It is
essential that the hydraulic quick-connect couplings used in this application are fully
pressure-balanced to counteract the coupling mating forces, particularly in deepwater
applications.
A running tool is required to run and set the SAM onto the SAMMB in deepwater applications.

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19 INTERCONNECTIONS
19.1 Introduction
Jumpers are required to connect between the fixed items and installed items in the subsea
system. The jumpers can be hydraulic, chemical, or electrical, or a combination of all three.
The jumpers connect between the umbilical SUTU and the SDU, the SDU and the SCMMBs
etc. A jumper can consist of a single hose or cable with ROV connection or can consist of a
stab plate assembly for multiple installation and hook up.
Stab plates can be guided and screwed into position or alternatively can be guided into
position and secured with a clamp hub arrangement.
Jumpers for hydraulic systems are constructed from hose with hydraulic sealing terminations.
For deepwater applications high collapse resistance hose (HCR) is required to prevent hose
collapse. Alternatively steel tube may be used for jumpers, which also provides resistance to
chemicals and eliminates chemical compatibility issues.
Electrical jumpers usually consist of a reinforced hose conduit outer sheath terminated to an
electrical connector at both ends. Inside the sheath, single insulated copper cores are
terminated to the conductor pins on the back of the connector water block and the conduit is
filled with a dielectric fluid for integrity and also to provide a pressure balanced system for
deepwater applications.
Jumpers can be hoses, steel tubes, steel tubes oversheathed, and cables bundled together,
or alternatively a jumper can be laid up and oversheathed in a similar manner to the outer
sheath of an umbilical.
19.2 Fixed Stab Plate

A fixed stab plate is required on the SDU, SCMMB or manifold structure to terminate the fixed
hoses and cables and to interface with the flying ROV stabplate of the jumper assembly. The
stabplate is usually mounted in a vertical plane, and electrically bonded to the cathodic
protection system of the mounting structure.
The stab plate has to be in a suitable location so that the ROV pilot can correctly identify it
and fly in the ROV with the stabplate attached for installation and hook up.
Figure 19.1 - SDU Fixed Stabplate
The stabplate is populated with male hydraulic couplings and also electrical connectors if
required. There is a central receptacle for the entry of the lead screw arrangement for the
male stab. Also there will be a guide sleeve for the male guide pin insertion, which provides
the fine alignment of the plates prior to the mating of the couplers.

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19.3 ROV Stab plate

The ROV free stab plate comprises a flat plate populated with female hydraulic couplers. It
can also include electrical connector receptacles.
Mounted to the centre of the plate is the drive screw assembly. The screw shaft nose
provides the initial engagement with the fixed stab plate, and the lead screw provides the
means of engaging the free and fixed plates together. The lead screw is made of dissimilar
material to the threads in the fixed stab plate to prevent galling.
Mounted towards the top of the stab plate is a grabber / guide pin assembly. The guide pin
provides additional guidance as the two plates come together and ensures the plates are
aligned for coupler and connector engagement. The grabber shaft proves the means for the
ROV to support the weight of the stab plate.
The torque tool and grabber interfaces are usually designed and manufactured in accordance
with API 17H and allow the stab plate to be deployed using an ROV Tool Deployment Unit
(TDU).
A jumper termination bracket at the bottom of the stab plate provides a clamp for the jumper
bundle for retention and strain relief for the hose terminations, and a location eye may be
provided for a strain relief member.
Where steel tubes are used in a stab plate termination, there has to be consideration for the
weight of the tubes due to ROV capacity and the bending radius of the tubes with respect to
the location of the fixed stab plate.
Figure 19.2 ROV Stabplate with lift handle, ROV Bucket & Locking Screw
19.4 Clamp Hubs

An alternative method of connection to the vertical mounted fixed stab plate described above
is that the two end terminations to be connected face upwards. A U – Jumper with downward
facing terminations is then lowered and guided onto the upward facing connections. Split
clamp hubs with horizontal lead screws are then used by the ROV to finally mate the two
sealing faces.
19.5 Electrical Jumpers

Electrical jumpers can be a single assembly with a single conductor pair or multi conductor
pairs terminated into controlled environment connectors. The free connector has an ROV
grabber handle and the ROV pushes into the guide for the fixed connector. The guide has an
orientation key and when the orientation is correct, the connector halves mate guided by a
fine alignment guide.

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Figure 19.3 - ROV Installed Electrical Jumper Termination
The female conductor pins are enclosed in a pressure balanced dielectric oil filled controlled
environment. During make up the male connector pins pass through a wiper seal and through
dual redundant compensated barriers to ensure that final make up is within a totally oil filled
environment. After the connector is fully mated the ROV releases the grabber handle.
Removal is the reverse procedure.
It may be necessary to provide a jumper to connect several transducers into a multi-pin
connector at the bottom of a subsea control module mounting base. The illustration below
shows a jumper with a flange mounted termination with connections for three single
connectors which locates on a vertical face of a SCMMB, which has a cable conduit exit at
the rear, and the other jumper end terminates in a multi-core connector in the module
mounting base.
Figure 19.4 - Single Electrical Jumper with three outlets

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19.6 Hydraulic Couplers

The hydraulic couplers for deepwater applications need a strong enough spring to seal
against the external pressure head in order to prevent the seawater contaminating the
hydraulic fluid, but also to be of a design where only a low pressure force is required for make up.
There are couplings available that require a low force only for make up, and these are
available with dual redundant resilient seals, and with a combination of resilient and metal
seals.
Figure 19.5 - Low Force Coupler
For deepwater applications a fully pressure balanced coupling is preferable. These are fairly
new concepts, but are available in single coupler pair design, and also the four coupler
hydraulic circuit HydraQuad™ design. The single pair is a resilient seal design with a porting
design that allows an inherent pressure balancing across the poppets, which provides a
pressure assistance to the spring closure force when the coupling is disconnected. The
HydraQuad™ design uses a combined metal and resilient seal arrangement acting in a shear
seal arrangement as the coupler mates and disconnects.
Both designs use the principle that the flow path is radial and hence produces no resultant
separation force.
Figure 19.6 - Pressure Balanced Hydraulic Coupler Concept
It is important that there are adequate flow paths through hydraulic couplers to ensure that
adequate hydraulic response times are achievable. Also that the poppets are balanced to
prevent the poppets being driven hydraulically from the central open position and sealing
against one of the seal faces.
The female couplers are usually assembled into a hydraulic jumper stab plate in order that
they may be retrieved and the seals replaced if necessary. The female couplers are
assembled so that they are floating on the plate to allow for any manufacturing tolerances.
The back of the connectors have to be terminated to screw on hose termination couplers or
by screw seal or welded assemblies for the termination of steel tubing.

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JIC hose terminations which swage inside the central core tube of a standard thermo-plastic
hose can only be used when the hose can be maintained full of fluid of a specific gravity
equal to or similar to the specific gravity of seawater. This is to prevent collapse of the hose in
deepwater applications.
Alternatively high collapse resistance hose (HCR) with a spiral flexible metal former under the
core tube must be used. The flexible inner core is designed to withstand the external
seawater pressure and to prevent the hose core from collapsing. The HCR hose requires a
different type of coupling which has a welded construction. The metal former inside the
coupler slides inside the spiral hose support and seals by swaging onto the outside of
thermo-plastic liner.
Figure 19.7 - HCR Hose & Termination Cross Section
When stab plates are densely populated, it can be difficult to turn and orientate all of the
hoses through ninety degrees and into the hose/cable restraint. Right angled connectors are
used to orientate the hoses into the clamp. It may also be necessary to have these
connectors of stepped heights in order to allow hose make up and to avoid tight bends or
kinking of the hoses.
19.7 Fibre Optic Jumpers

Fibre optics are not commonly used in subsea control systems, but are increasingly being
used in downhole applications where high pressure and temperature measurement is
required. However fibre optic technology is well proven in the telecommunications industry
and the subsea fibre optic has been proven and is in use in seismic applications at greater
depths than currently required in the oil industry.
The fibres themselves are manufactured into a steel tube conduit. The fibres are terminated
into the back of the connector where the fibre is ferruled and polished and as the termination
assembly is a precision fit the fibre is routed in a low stretch flexible conduit in the same
manner as an electrical jumper but requires jointing. The joint box size or fibre management
system is adequate to accommodate the bending radius of the fibre in order that any excess
fibre can be coiled. The joint is made using a low loss fusion splice that is protected by re-
coating the fibre or by using a heat shrink splice protector. The compensation oil used for
fibre optic jumpers is silicone oil that is known not to degrade fibre optic properties.
The connector design is such that the fibre ends are protected in the compensating oil
environment and not exposed for make up until the two connector outer shells are made up.
The two fibre halves are aligned using a sleeve which guides the outer ferrules to align the
fibres, and when the fibres touch one is spring compensated to allow for any over length
tolerance.
Hybrid connectors exist capable of packaging a combination of electrical conductors and
single fibres in an 8 way shell.

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There are also fibre optic connectors available with penetrator feed thru’s for connecting to
down hole gauge cables.
Figure 19.8 - Fibre Optic Connector
19.8 Jumper Deployment

As jumpers are not usually armoured and rely on their own inherent strength a deployment
tool or device is used to assist the ROV. This can be a pallet where the jumpers are laid onto
the pallet in a figure of 8 arrangement. The pallet is laid on the seabed in mid position and the
ROV firstly picks up one end for installation and hook up, and then takes the second end for
installation and hook up.
An alternative to the above is when the jumper is installed on the subsea structure in a figure
of 8 configuration hanging vertically, and the ROV pulls off the loops from the hanging device
as the termination is being carried for installation at the second connection.
It is essential that jumpers are designed in terms of size and weight around the planned
installation method. It is necessary to understand the size and capability of a work class ROV
in order to correctly specify jumpers and their terminations.
Figure 19.9 - Jumper Deployment Frame

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19.9 Jumper Retrieval

Both single connectors and stab plate jumpers are precision assemblies with tight
manufacturing tolerances for ease of assembly and good fit when new. If a failed jumper has
to be retrieved for replacement, it is essential that the jumper also comes apart.
When connectors have been in service for some time they can be covered in marine growth
and also subject to calcareous growth on outer surfaces. This can make them hard to
disassemble.
Connectors and hydraulic couplings must be designed taking retrieval into consideration.
Some electrical connects have a collet latch with shear pins which allows the latch
mechanism to breakaway if excessive retrieval loads are required. The latches are easy and
cheap to replace.

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20 SUBSEA CONTROL MODULE MOUNTING BASE (SCMMB)
20.1 General
The SCMMB is the interface between the control module and the Xmas tree or
manifold/template functions that it is controlling and the remote sensors.
20.2 Construction
The SCMMB is a welded construction, fabricated from carbon steel and painted to provide
corrosion protection. It is bolted and earth bonded to the protective structure.
20.3 Interface with SCM

The mating interface with the SCM is a horizontal stainless steel plate with the connections
vertically upwards.
For an ROV installation, there are vertical tubes with an ROV locking interface as per API
17H. The ROV docks, lands, and deploys and latches the SCM into place.
A vertical face on the side of the SCMMB is used for incoming connection interfaces with the
incoming electrical connectors for the power and signal cables, and incoming LP and HP
hydraulic supplies.
Figure 20.1 - Typical SCMMBs
20.4 Workover System Interface

The vertical face of the SCMMB may also be used as an interface with the Workover control
system via a stab-plate connection. Removal of a crossover plate disconnects the hydraulic
functions from the SCM, and connection of the work-over stab plate enables connection
directly to the Xmas tree production valves, and also connection of the additional work-over
valve and test functions.

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20.5 Interface with Tree Valves & Sensors

The permanent connections from the SCMMB to the Xmas tree are by connections on the
underside of the stainless steel interface plate. The connections from the hydraulic couplings
are by tubing to the Xmas tree valve actuator functions.
The electrical connections are by cable assemblies pre-made to electrical connectors at both
ends and tested, which are assembled to the mounting base through upward looking
electrical connectors flange mounted which are fixed to the mounting base horizontal
stainless steel mounting plate.
20.6 Docking Alignment

The SCMMB will have course alignment and fine alignment for locating the SCM. For fine
location by guide pin, the SCM will not land if the orientation is incorrect. For self-aligning
SCMs, a central helix will automatically rotate the SCM to the correct orientation before it is
able to land.
Due to the number of electrical and hydraulic connectors in the mounting plate, there has to
be an allowance for installation tolerances during make up. Therefore all of the connectors
are secured through the mounting plate and not directly secured to it, allowing movement as
the SCM docks and locates in position. Care must be taken to ensure electrical continuity for
corrosion protection reasons.
20.7 Latching mechanism

The final latching of the SCM to the mounting base is done in several ways. The central
mandrel in the SCM can be pushed down operating an over centre mechanism which then
exerts an upward force onto the underside of the SCMMB interface plate, and release of the
SCM is the opposite by pulling vertically upwards on the mandrel.
The SCM can be secured to the SCMMB by leadscrews. The leadscrews can be vertically
mounted and mate the SCM to the SCMMB by screwing into the mating screw mechanism on
the SCMMB. Alternatively for a cylindrical SCM installed guideline-less, the leadscrews can
be horizontal, driving two halves of a clamp mechanism that mate the SCM to its SCMMB.
Figure 20.2 - Typical Latch Mechanism

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21 SUBSEA CONTROL MODULE (SCM)
21.1 General
The SCM is an electro-hydraulic device that responds to electronic commands from the MCS
(via the umbilical) and provides hydraulic control function outputs to the valve actuators on all
of the subsea valves.
The SCM will usually also interface with sensors and sometimes meters, located both on the
Xmas Tree and downhole. SCMs are often located on Manifolds/Templates for controlling
and monitoring manifold/template functions.
All vendors have standardised their designs for SCMs. Some vendors have more than one
standard design and other vendors have engineered a universal design in which the build
specification dictates the actual equipping of the module in terms of control and monitoring.
The design is suitable for use both on the production Xmas trees or water injection Xmas
trees, or to control template/manifold valve functions.
The SCM design is usually suitable for diver or ROV installation and retrieval using tools for
running and latching. The SCM can also be installed using guidelines, or alternatively
guideline-less, again requiring tools for latching.
Figure 21.1 - Subsea Control Modules
21.2 Housing
The SCM housing is a fully fabricated welded construction in painted carbon steel. A lift
mandrel penetrates from the upper housing for lifting and installation purposes. A purpose
built running tool is required for installation as current SCMs are too large and heavy for an
ROV to free swim and install without added buoyancy.

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21.3 Mounting Base

An SCM is usually designed to fit onto a dedicated Mounting Base (SCMMB). This is
described further in section 20. The SCM is designed so that it will only fit on the mounting
base in the correct orientation. The orientation can be achieved with guide pins that prevent
incorrect mating, or with a centre helical guide-pin, that will orientate the SCM on landing.
The SCM incorporates a mechanism for locking down onto the module mounting base after
installation. This can be ROV activated by a special tool which pushes the SCM down onto
the mounting base and locks it in position using an over centre mechanism that pushes up
onto the lower face of the module mounting base, or alternatively it can be a twin screw lock
device.
21.4 Interfaces
There is a substantial force to overcome the mating force of self sealing hydraulic couplings
in deepwater, and pressure balanced couplings are used for this requirement.
The SCM will have 4-20mA driver circuits for monitoring external sensors for pressure,
temperature, and choke position on the Xmas trees.
Optional circuits provide inputs for downhole pressure / temperature gauge monitoring, by
installing the gauge in a mandrel in the production tubing string.
21.5 Connections
Additional monitoring functions can be provided for items such as Sand Monitors, Flow
Meters, or for functions such as Smart Well Completions.
The SCM baseplate is penetrated externally to its lower face by the electrical and hydraulic
connectors, and the guidance and locking mechanism.
The base plate can be a sandwich plate containing hydraulic galleries or it can be a passive
block for through connection to manifold blocks.
21.6 Hydraulic system

Although the SCM hydraulic system is designed to fail safe closed on loss of hydraulic
supply, with long offsets and in deepwater applications, the extended time for valve closure
may be determined by hydraulic and safety analysis to be unacceptable. This necessitates
the inclusion in the SCM of high flowrate quick-dump valves for faster shutdown.
Incoming dual LP and HP hydraulic supplies feed into the SCM. Pressure transducers
(4-20mA) monitor the hydraulic supply pressures and provide remote indication of supply
hydraulic pressures at the MCS.
Filters with 3-micron elements on the supply manifolds prevent contamination in the hydraulic
fluid entering the hydraulic system.
A selector valve on the LP supplies module dictates which LP supply is in service LP1 or LP2.
This can be a control valve for remote actuation from the surface MCS or it can be a shuttle
valve actuated by loss of pressure in one of the hydraulic lines. There is a similar facility for
the HP service.
The LP and HP supply manifolds are of a modularised design capable of being fitted with the
correct number of Directional Control Valves (DCVs). The remaining ports either are fitted
with blanking seal plates or are not drilled in order to eliminate dead legs in the system and
improve integrity.

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The ports of the DCVs are switched using a metal slide, which has metal to metal seals to the
valve body. The metal slide has a spring to fail safe closed. To open the valve the open
solenoid valve coil is energised and its hydraulic pilot directs fluid on the opening end of the
slider. The slide moves and compresses the return spring, and in the fully open position
connects the SCM incoming hydraulic supply to the subsea valve actuator causing the valve
to open. The output from the DCV has a self-latching circuit so that the valve will remain open
with the open coil de-energised.
Figure 21.2 - Directional Control Valve
The DCV will fail closed on loss of the hydraulic supply, or fail closed on energisation of the
close solenoid coil. Energising the close solenoid directs a pilot hydraulic supply into the
return spring cavity, and onto the closing end of the slider.
The commanded output functions from the Directional Control Valves exit via hydraulic
couplers. The surface commands energise the respective solenoid valve coils to open and
close the valves. Pressure transducers (4-20mA) mounted on the Directional Control Valves
detect pressure and confirm actuation back to the MCS.
21.7 System Design

For deepwater applications dual redundant Subsea Electronics Modules (Dual SEMs) are
invariably used. A SEM consists of a one-atmosphere nitrogen filled pressure vessel housing
containing the control and monitoring electronics. The SEM is designed to stand external
pressure and to keep the electronic components in a dry one-atmosphere environment that
they were designed to work in.
A cover with barrel-seal O-rings seals the housing, and a cable penetrator or multi-pin
electrical connector is used for the cable entry.

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21.8 Electronics
Inside the SEM has circuit boards for the power supplies and conditioners, modems for
communications, analogue drivers, solenoid valve drivers, and a ‘house-keeping’ monitoring
capability to ensure that the electronics is working properly and alarm to the surface if a
problem is detected.
If additional electronics is required for equipment such as downhole pressure and
temperature monitoring, this can be included in the SEM if there is sufficient space available,
or alternatively in a separate SEM housing.
Figure 21.3 - Subsea Electronics Module
21.9 Construction
The SCM is built up from the baseplate with the manifolds, DCVs, filters. The SEMs are
installed above on cradles, and wired to the incoming power and signal connectors and wired
to the internal transducers. The fabricated top cover bolts into place over the SEMs and seals
with the SCM baseplate, and the housing is then oil filled using dielectric oil. The housing is
pressure balanced for pressure compensation using compensation bladders.
21.10 Corrosion protection

The SCM does not usually have any cathodic protection (CP) of its own. It is electrically
bonded to the SCMMB using spare pins in the mating electrical connectors. The SCM is
protected by the CP of the Xmas tree or manifold where it is located.

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21.11 Pressure Compensation

The oil filled pressure balance SCM housing requires a compensation system to cater for the
change in volume of the dielectric oil fill within the SCM for shipping and handling after FAT,
through to installation. Compensation bladders are used for this purpose.
The calculations need consider not just the change in volume due to depth, but also the
change in volume due to temperature difference from ambient to the seabed, and also the
effect of any trapped air in the compensation system.
The correct sizing will ensure that the bladders are not over extended, which can cause
rupture.
The oil/seawater interface should be at the bottom of the SCM, and in the event of bladder
rupture the seawater should maintain the oil within the SCM housing preventing seawater
ingress.
21.12 Return Line Compensation

During SCM deployment subsea and hook up in deepwater, there is a possibility of seawater
ingress into the SCM hydraulic system via the hydraulic couplings. If this occurs there is the
possibility of subsequent valve corrosion if the SCMs cannot be flushed immediately after
installation.
To prevent this, a return line pressure compensator is required within the SCM. The pressure
compensator, which is externally pre-chargeable, maintains a positive pressure within the
SCM internal hydraulic system during SCM deployment and hook-up, thus preventing any
seawater ingress.
DCVs are available in seawater tolerant materials, however materials selected for seawater
tolerance may not provide the best technical solution in terms of long term reliability.
For solenoid valves in particular, the electrical performance due to the coil and Faraday cage,
and the mechanical performance in terms of the valve seat, ball, and plunger need careful
consideration.

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22 SUBSEA TRANSDUCERS/SENSORS
22.1 Introduction
This Chapter describes the various subsea transducers/sensors available for measurement of
typical parameters.
22.2 General
Subsea sensors are specialised versions of surface-located devices and must evidently be
constructed to withstand the ambient pressure underwater. This results in particular aspects
of the sensors design, construction and interface as outlined in this section. Certain aspects
of their operation which personnel are familiar with for topsides operation are not available for
subsea devices, which means that their application and mode of operation require particular
attention during the design phase.
22.3 Construction
All subsea sensors have to be constructed from corrosion resistant materials - Stainless Steel
316L or Duplex being typically used, particularly for the interface flange. The devices need to
conform to relevant standards, such as API performance requirements and should be suitable
for the specified class of service.
The devices will typically be constructed using electron-beam and T.I.G weld construction to
ensure maintenance-free operation, all welds being helium leak tested during manufacture.
Parts of the unit in contact with process fluids should be constructed of materials to match the
conditions, such as Inconel 625. It is usual for at least double-barriers to exist between the
process fluid and the environment; this can be achieved in the construction of the device
itself, with secondary containment chambers being provided to withstand full process
pressure in the event of rupture of the measuring element. SI 289 defines requirements for
equipment installed on subsea manifolds and 'tertiary' pressure containment systems are
incorporated.
Interface flanges need to be standard designs, such as API 2 1/16" - 10,000 psi type 6BX
(API Spec 6A) and can be forged from Super Duplex stainless steel with the BX152 ring
groove.
22.4 Interface with display/monitoring system
22.4.1 SCM
All subsea sensors must be powered from, and relay their information to the Subsea Control
Module. It is not cost-effective to provide individual connections from each sensor back to the
surface and in any event, the SCM is a multiplexed telemetry system and is provided for this
very purpose.
The SCM provides a source of power for the sensors, typically 24 volts for a 4-20mA interface
and reads the signal from the sensor, digitises it via an analogue-to-digital converter, then
relays it to the surface via the telemetry system, usually in response to a request from the
MCS for data from that sensor.
Many SCM designs have the ability to switch off any particular sensor circuit. This safeguards
the rest of the system in case of a faulty sensor or damaged interface cable, which might
otherwise short-circuit the supply voltage. The drive electronics therefore also has to be
protected against short circuits, and individual supplies are preferable, so that the other
sensors are not affected if one fails.
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It is not usual to use this facility to switch off a sensor between readings. Whilst most modern
sensors have little or no warm-up time, they may still require 1-2 seconds to stabilise and if
the SCM had to wait for this period when reading each sensor, the overall system scan time
would be slowed down.
Furthermore, repeatedly switching an electronic component on and off reduces its reliability.
A formal reliability analysis does not consider this. An SCM typically reads all subsea sensors
as fast as the telemetry system allows, nominally every 2-3 minutes, and so there is little to
be gained by de-powering the sensors.
Similarly, the circuitry also should provide for clearing any digital readback value in case of
failure of the sensor. If this is not provided locally within the SCM itself, then the MCS will
usually change the displayed colour of a sensor reading to indicate fault, as well as displaying
any detected under or over range alarm.
22.4.2 4-20mA system

22.4.2.1 Principle
Most subsea sensors operate using a standard two-wire 4-20mA interface.
That is, the equipment to which they are connected supplies an operating voltage, typically
between 12 – 24 volts, and the resulting current varies between 4 and 20mA according to the
value of the parameter being measured.
Using a current instead of a voltage overcomes the effect of the impedance of the intervening
wiring, as the current remains the same whatever the impedance. It also improves the ability
of the system to withstand electrical noise. Spurious signals are superimposed on the signal
being measured by varying magnetic fields (such as by AC power cables) which induce
currents in the conductors. If the conductors are small and close together, these fields
generate equal and opposite currents in the two conductors which cancel. In practice, a
twisted pair of conductors is used to carry the signals.
Loop
Powered 24V
Transmitter Power
Supply
Sensing + +
Element -
-
-
Internal
Load Resistor
+
Measuring
Instrument
Figure 22.1 - Typical 4-20mA Sensor Loop

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A current of less than 4 mA indicates an under-range reading, usually due to a fault in the
sensor. A current greater than 20mA indicates an over-range reading, again usually due to a
fault in the sensor.
22.4.2.2 Distance
This type of sensor can therefore operate over a distance, depending on the cable size
employed, which can assure the minimum operating voltage (typically down to 12 volts)
across the sensor at the maximum current required.
22.4.2.3 SCM circuitry

Whilst there may be problems using a fixed supply voltage with topsides devices that have to
operate via zener safety barriers* for intrinsic safety reasons, this does not apply for subsea
sensors, and the SCM circuitry to operate the sensors is relatively simple. The 4-20mA signal
is applied to a precision resistor, from which the resulting voltage is digitised using the SCM’s
analogue-to-digital converter (usually to a resolution of 12 or 16 bits) and sent to the surface
via the telemetry system as required.
22.4.2.4 4-wire device

Where the sensor requires more than 4 mA in order to operate, a 4-wire interface can be
employed, two being the supply and the remaining two wires being the measurement current.
22.4.3 Subsea connections

Most subsea sensors now use this interface, particularly after the acceptance of subsea
conductive connectors, which allow dc connections to be made, and allow 2 or 4-wire
operation.
The connection of the cable harness to the sensor itself is a potential leak path and must be
tested during manufacture; they are sometimes not mated to each other until after delivery of
the sensor itself from the manufacturer, and should then be hyperbarically tested by the
Subsea System Supplier.
An alternative is an integral connector in the sensor itself, which can then be tested during
manufacture by the Sensor Supplier. In any event, the 'final' joint of the various sub-
assemblies must be tested under hyperbaric conditions.
Where there are a large number of sensors to be connected to an SCM, a Supplier will
sometimes provide a subsea junction box, which enables a single high-density connector to
be 'broken-out' to many individual sensors.
* A zener barrier is a semiconductor device that limits the energy that can be transferred from a Safe Area to
a Hazardous Area even under fault conditions. A zener barrier does not itself make a circuit intrinsically safe,
it merely protects the integrity of an Intrinsically Safe circuit in the event of a fault by limiting the current flow
to a safe level.
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22.4.4 Electrical isolation

Care should be taken to verify if a proposed sensor is, or is not, isolated from the SCM
circuitry; if not, earth loops could arise once the sensor is installed onto a
Manifold/Template/Tree and could affect the overall SCM operation as well as the corrosion
protection system. Sometimes the manufacturing process of the sensor itself leaves the
sensing element in contact with the metal body, so isolation is not always achieved. Other
methods encapsulate the sensing element within a sheath and avoid the problem.
22.4.5 RFI
Some sensors can be prone to Radio-Frequency Interference in that the sensing element and its
wires can pick up induced voltages from nearby radio sources such as walkie-talkies. Obviously
this is not a problem once installed subsea but it is preferable to take precautions in the SCM
design to avoid unsuspected problems during onshore (or offshore on-deck) commissioning,
22.4.6 Calibration
Once subsea, a sensor is not expected to have to be calibrated, and it is actually in a
reasonably benign environment as regards extremes of pressure/temperature/shock etc.
There is no easy way of detecting any drift in calibration and the manufacturer's specifications
for drift are the only practicable guide to this parameter. However, it is usual to test (again) all
sensors once they have been installed onto a Tree/Manifold/Template, as there is a high risk
that they have received severe physical shock/vibration or mishandling during this process
and sometime, over-pressurising during Manifold proof-pressure tests.
22.5 Types of Sensor

The following types of sensor are available for most normal subsea measurement
requirements, and will be described in more detail below.
• Pressure (PT)
• Temperature (TT)
• Combined Pressure/Temperature (PTT)
• Choke Position (ZT)
• Differential Pressure (DP)
• Downhole Pressure/Temperature (DHPTT)
• Sand Detector
• Pig Detector
Figure 22.2 - Typical Sensors

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22.5.1 Pressure (PT)

Subsea pressure gauges typically operate using the force-balance technique, in which the
current required by a coil to resist the movement of the detecting diaphragm gives a measure
of the applied pressure. The diaphragm therefore does not actually deform and therefore
devices can be built to withstand high pressures. Such devices can achieve an accuracy of
+/- 0.15%, although the output current circuitry may reduce this to an overall error-band of
around +/- 0.5% of full-scale.
Other devices operate using a similar technique in which the change in capacitance of a
sensor element with pressure is detected and typically, accuracy of +/- 0.5% can be obtained.
However, it should be noted that further 'errors' are introduced into the overall system via the
digitisation process between the sensor and its eventual display on the MCS. It is
unreasonable to expect (and to specify) better than about +/- 2% for a pressure reading.
As pressure transducers are flange-mounted, they cannot be removed subsea if they fail. It is
possible to specify a transducer with dual gauges in one housing providing a dual redundant
sensor.
Higher accuracy can be obtained using quartz-crystal gauges and these are often used for
high-accuracy Downhole Pressure Transducers (see 22.5.6)
22.5.2 Temperature (TT)

Some temperature sensors operate by measuring the output of a thermocouple, which is a
simple device whose output is proportional to the difference in temperature between a hot
and a cold junction. The hot junction is the one measuring the process and the cold junction
is at the head itself.
To compensate for change in ambient temperature (cold junction) most such transmitters
incorporate a compensating circuit, which needs to be co-located with the cold junction, but
there is still a potential time-lag between the junction and compensation circuit which affects
overall accuracy.
A resistance sensor has an element, which depends only upon the absolute temperature and
therefore has no cold junction compensation. The disadvantages of a resistance element are
its strength, but modern encapsulation techniques can improve this. They are also larger than
the thermocouple probe, which can give it a slower response time. Modern sensors are
typically made by film-deposition onto a ceramic substrate.
Temperature sensors present somewhat of a dilemma as regards their installation. In theory,
the sensing element should be as close to the process fluid as possible. However, if the
sensor were simply fitted into the production bore, there would be no other physical barrier
between the process and the environment, other than the sensor itself. The usual approach
therefore is to install a thermowell, or use a pocket drilled into the Tree Block.
Care must be taken in matching the size of the thermowell and the sensor probe - ideally, the
probe should be just in contact with the wall of the process pipe (but not damaged by
differences in tolerance or expansion etc). Thermally conductive grease can improve this
contact. Some installations do not consider this and therefore the temperature reading will be
subject to the thermal inertia of the system.
The API standard for thermowell lengths is that they should protrude sufficiently into the
process flow path to be within the mainstream turbulent flow. However in pipeline applications
where through pigging is required, the thermowell must not protrude into the pipeline bore.

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22.5.3 Combined Pressure/Temperature (PTT)

A design of sensor is available in which a Pressure and Temperature element are combined
into one package. In this design, the temperature sensor is located in a probe, which is
designed to be flush-mounted into the process pipework. This also helps reduce errors due to
hydrate formation. For sensors upstream of the Production Master Valve Regulations may
however require that there are one or two block valves before the sensor, so, whilst the
pressure measurement is unaffected, the temperature measurement may be subject to
thermal inertia depending on its location.
The two devices are electrically independent, so the connector has to be a four-pin device.
Care should be taken, however, to test that both devices are truly independent of each other
as regards variations in power supplies on each device and temperature effects.
Figure 22.3 - Combined Pressure / Temperature Transducer
22.5.4 Choke Position (ZT)

Most subsea chokes operate on the principle of stepping actuators adjusting the trim via
ratchet and pawl mechanisms. Other types operate via a hydraulic motor. All however,
require the position of the trim to be accurately monitored from the surface.
Positional transducers operate by a variety of mechanisms:
a) Potentiometers
b) Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)
c) Rotary Variable Differential Transformers (RVDT)
d) Magnetic flux gate sensors
The simplest is a potentiometer (voltage measuring device), but this involves contact of a
moving arm with a resistive material (wire, carbon, etc) which is prone to wear, electrical
noise and in the event of a wire-wound potentiometer, discrete steps in the output. Its
apparent output can be affected by the resistance of the wiring in the circuit. Some choke
manufacturers offer this as standard, being very suitable for topsides use, but requiring the
SCM Supplier to provide the necessary interface circuitry, albeit simple.
An LVDT or RVDT measures the change in inductance of a coil when an armature is moved
into it. This has no contacting parts and is very reliable. Proper electrical design can cancel
out the effect of variations in supplied voltage. Again, the SCM supplier must supply the
necessary energising voltage and detect the output variations and a special circuit is
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The SCM or MCS must then compute the choke position from the LVDT signal. A magnetic
fluxgate device is a recent addition to the available techniques. In this, a fixed magnet
connected to the rotating part of the choke actuator via a simple shaft causes electronic
variations in a sensing circuit.
All the electronics are contained within one small can, which can be bolted to the outside of
the choke and retrieved if necessary. The output is available in digital or standard 4-20mA
form, making interfacing with a SCM straightforward; no further computation within the SCM
is required. With all of these sensors, care must be taken to match the available accuracy,
hysteresis and resolution to the overall system requirements.
If the MCS is simply displaying choke position as a readout, then these are less important. If
'flowrate' is being calculated, whose value will depend on the Cv of the choke (i.e. position) as
well as differential pressure across it, then they are of more importance.
If the measured position is being used as part of a choke-position control algorithm, in which
the choke is moved until the measured position matches the desired position, then all of
these are significant (for example, if hysteresis or resolution is too great, the choke might
never actually reach the desired position, even when its direction of motion is reversed to
attempt to approach it from the other direction, so it could continually 'hunt' for the correct
position.
Systems that do suffer from this are obliged to put in an 'error-band', of +/- 1%, within which
the choke can approach the desired band before its movement is stopped. The system then
usually has to provide a means to 'single-step' the choke to allow the Operator to fine-tune its
position.
22.5.5 Differential Pressure (DP)

A Differential Pressure Sensor is similar to a Pressure Sensor except that pressure is applied
on each side of the measuring element; thus, its output is proportional to the difference
between the two pressures. The devices are physically similar, as are their electrical
connections (4 - 20mA).
Care must be taken to match the rating of the device to the expected range to be measured -
sometimes this is difficult to achieve whilst still providing a device that can withstand the full
process pressure across it.
22.5.6 Downhole Pressure/Temperature (DHPTT)

22.5.6.1 General
Sensors designed for use down-hole need to be as small and robust as possible, as they are
required to operate in extremes of pressure and temperature. In addition, their data is usually
required to be very accurate, for use in Well Test calculations.
To accomplish this, specialist suppliers of such devices use such mechanisms as quartz
crystal gauges or capacitance gauges. The devices usually provide both pressure and
temperature information.
The cable to the display device also needs to be as simple and as strong as possible, and is
usually armoured. The space available within the tubing for the cable from the instrument to
the Wellhead is quite small and the cables typically have a single central core and use the
armour as the signal return/earth. At the Wellhead, the cabling is continued to the Subsea
Control Module, where the data is processed and sent to the MCS via the telemetry link.
A single-cored cable presents a number of problems for the interface: any electrical current
returning along the cable armouring could cause problems of corrosion, or to the corrosion
protection system, if it is connected in such a way as to be in contact with any of the
metalwork, or cause a potential difference across any metalwork.

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In addition, as there is more than one parameter to be relayed (as well as the device itself to
be powered), the data must be multiplexed in some manner on the core. One technique was
to operate the pressure and temperature elements in the sensor using alternately reversing
power supply voltage, the current then representing the selected parameter. More recent
techniques use a serial datalink, modulating the data onto the power supply.
Both methods require a special interface circuit within the SCM, together with correct data-
handling protocol in the telemetry system. Most Suppliers have interface cards for the various
makes of downhole sensor, but this is an area, which requires definition at the start of a
Project to avoid later interface problems.
22.5.6.2 Panex "True Differential Pressure" Transducer Specifications

The following is extracted from the data sheet for a typical downhole sensor, as manufactured
by the Panex Corporation:
Sensor Type: True Differential

Full Scale Range 10 psi (277 inches of water)
Over-Range Protection Full static pressure on upstream side
Maximum Static Pressure 15,000 psi
Accuracy +/-0.1% of full scale (+/- 0.01 psi). Includes
linearity, hysteresis and repeatability.
Resolution 0.000036 psi (0.001 inches of water)
Static Pressure Effect +/- 0.2% of full scale
Temperature Effect +/- 0.2% of full scale
Maximum Operating Temperature 177 degrees Centigrade
Data Transmission Frequency Shift. Digital format addressable.
Communications, power and data on a single
conductor line.
Power 17 to 30 volts DC @ 7 mA.
22.5.7 Sand Detector

22.5.7.1 General
Sand monitoring is used during all phases of Oil & Gas production. During the exploration
phase, accurate knowledge of sand (solid particle), production is vital to select the most cost-
effective method for well completion. The sand monitor can help to determine whether there
is a problem with the formation; as perforation density can be evaluated, it is possible to
gauge the need to gravel pack. Sand monitoring during drill stem testing can provide
important background information to enable such decisions to be made.
After drilling is completed, sand monitoring will allow the effectiveness of cementing
completion and the clean-up procedures to be evaluated. This can prevent costly damage to
up-stream filters and other sensitive apparatus. The solids content in production can be
measured to determine if gravel packing is required, and allows the effectiveness to be
measured.
Sand erosion during production can be a significant problem with down-stream equipment,
such as valves and chokes being badly damaged in relatively short periods. Significant
deposits of sand in the production separators can cause production upsets, with liquid carry-
over into other equipment. On-line monitoring can significantly assist in controlling these
problems, preventing damage and build-up of sand, without greatly affecting production rates.
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Detecting sand in the produced fluids can therefore be an important part of a proactive
strategy for:
• managing short term damage of vulnerable equipment (e.g. chokes)

• managing long term damage of pipework
• warning of reservoir collapse
• preventing separator level control problems
Sand detectors work either by ‘listening’ to the noise generated by sand impacts on a solid
surface (e.g. a bend), or by measuring the erosion damage of a target inserted into the flow.
Systems are available from a variety of suppliers, such as (listed in alphabetic order):
• Clamp On
• Cormon
• CorrOcean
• Fluenta
• Milltronics (Stresswave)
• Simrad
Acoustic sand probes are available as subsea instruments. As with downhole gauges, the
processing of their data requires a specialised interface within the SCM and relevant software
treatment.
Their suitability for a given application depends on:
• requirements - qualitative or quantitative

• the flowing conditions
• the accessibility of the line
• calibration requirements
• the availability of an input signal (flowrate)
22.5.7.2 Operation
The simplest sensor comprises a thin-walled tube which gives an alarm signal should the
production of sand cause significant erosion in the system. However, the sensor must be
replaced after it is activated and so is not suitable for subsea use.
Non-intrusive acoustic devices are available packaged for subsea use. The Fluenta SAM 400
SR is based on passive acoustic detection of sound created by particles in process flows.
The SAM 400 SR uses the signals generated when particles such as sand hit the pipe wall
(located downstream of a bend) to detect and quantify particle production. Digital filters and
the data processing unit remove flow-generated noise. An algorithm converts the noise
generated to a measure of the quantity of sand being produced.
A similar device can also be used for Pig Detection (see 22.5.8)

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22.5.7.3 Installation
Installation can be carried out topside before deployment, or by ROV. The device is non-
intrusive, being clamped onto the production pipework in a suitable location.
Power and signals run through an oil-filled hose assembly with ROV connector or similar,
using standard twisted-pair cable. Being clamped-on, this design is suitable for retrofitting,
providing a 4-20mA interface to an SCM is available.
22.5.8 Pig Detector

22.5.8.1 General
Pigging operations such as pipeline cleaning and pipework condition monitoring are
dependent on reliable monitoring of the passage of pigs at various points in the system.
Conventional detection methods involving devices inserted into the pipeline are liable to
cause problems such as pipeline leaks, detector malfunction or pig damage. Pig detection
sensors are available, several techniques are used; both are non-intrusive.
• Magnetic Detector
• Acoustic Detector
22.5.8.2 Magnetic Detectors

Magnetic detectors operate by detecting the passage of a magnet located on the Pig. Reed
switches in the sensor are closed by the magnetic field and thus can be used to send a signal
to the surface.
This type of sensor provides a single signal of presence only, with no further information
available about pig direction, speed, etc, and must be positioned such that the best magnetic
field is obtained from the pig’s magnets.
The signal must be ‘latched’ so that a rapid signal due to a fast moving pig is stored until it
can be read by the MCS, and de-latched afterwards, either via a ‘reset’ signal or after a time
delay. This requires a careful matching of sensitivity vs. latching time vs. system scan cycle
time.
22.5.8.3 Acoustic Detectors

Acoustic detectors operate by detecting the acoustic energy created by the pig itself as it
passes along the pipeline. They are also capable of determining the amount of pipeline debris
being pushed ahead by a cleaning pig. Being acoustic, they can reliably detect foam, gel,
polyurethane, brush, bi-directional, intelligent and spherical pigs travelling at velocities of 0.05
m/sec and above in oil, gas and multiphase flows.

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23 MATERIALS
23.1 Materials Used

The materials used in subsea control systems can vary from basic materials such as carbon
steel, to more exotic materials such as 'super duplex' or Titanium, for various reasons such
as corrosion resistance, strength, or compatibility.
Carbon steel is well understood in terms of material properties, corrosion in seawater,
weldability, and cost. Carbon steel is used for weldments and housings for all major subsea
components:
• Subsea Control Module Housing

• Subsea Control Module Mounting Base Frame
• Umbilical Termination Assembly Housing
• Subsea Distribution Unit Frame and Housing
• Subsea Accumulator Module Frames
The material sections are fabricated into frames and housings for containment installation
and pulling in. Where materials are designed for containment such as electrical distribution
units, they are oil filled and pressure balanced. Therefore, deepwater service does not cause
a problem.
To slow the rate of corrosion, carbon steel is coated (coating section 23.2). There are some
exceptions however, where areas are not coated in small areas where electrical earth
bonding is required for electrical connectors, or where a face seal makes up.
Hydraulic systems and connectors generally use 316 stainless steel as the main component
for its external corrosion resistance, and internal suitability with clean hydraulic systems.
Quick-connect / disconnect couplings are assembled from many components requiring
different materials. Monel is used for screw nuts to prevent galling, and for coupling self-
sealing poppets where a higher strength material is required. Material control is required to
eliminate problems with Hydrogen embrittlement.
Sometimes Nitronic is used for Quick connect couplings in deepwater applications. Nitronic
60 is used for the female couplings and Nitronic 50 for the male couplings. The Nitronic 50
provides a high strength material and the difference in hardness between the 60 and 50
grades provides anti-galling properties.
Springs have to be from a material with permanent spring properties that does not corrode.
Hastelloy is often used for this service, and Elgiloy is now being used.
The O-Ring seals for the female halves of the hydraulic quick connect / disconnect coupling
need to be compatible with the hydraulic or chemical fluid used and with seawater. Seals are
made from materials such as Nitrile, or Viton for hydraulic service, and Chemraz, Fluortrell or
Isolast for severe service such as chemicals. Backup seals to prevent O-Ring extrusion can
be of Teflon or Peek. For metal seal couplings, seal material such as Inconel 750 gold plated
is used.
Piece parts such as the SCMMB interface, the SCM base and mating stab plate assemblies
are all machined from 316 stainless steel.
Electrical Connectors are usually made using 316 stainless-steel bodies (TotalFina standard
is super-duplex e.g. Ferralium SD40 or Zeron 100) with water blocks of Ultem and the
conductive pins of gold plated copper. The pressure compensation diaphragms and the boot
seals for the cables are made from neoprene or synthetic rubber. The pressure containment
fluid is silicon based dielectric oil.

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The directional control valves (DCVs) within the control modules are made from 316 stainless
steel bodies, with internals to seal with metal to metal shear seal action, and also to provide
sufficient wear capabilities. In deepwater applications, seawater has migrated into valves
causing corrosion problems and a new generation of valves with seawater tolerant internals
such as Inconel, MP35N, and ceramics being used.
The electronics assembly within the subsea control module is contained in a one-atmosphere
housing called a SEM housing. The SEM housings were always made of Aluminium for
lightness. For deepwater applications where greater strength is required to prevent the
housing collapsing, high strength steel or aviation strength aluminium is used.
Transducers are made from materials to suit interfaces. Choke position indicators housings
are made from 316 stainless steel, pressure transducers which interface with Xmas tree
flanges, ring grooves and gaskets are generally made from duplex stainless steel.
23.2 Coating
The noble materials such as stainless steel and Monel do not need coating. Neither does
Duplex stainless steel, although it often is coated to reduce the un-coated surface area used
in calculations of the amount of anodes for surface protection.
Carbon Steel is coated with a multi-coat epoxy designed for permanent use underwater. The
coating of carbon steel is time-consuming, taking several days to apply the coatings, but has
the advantage that high-visibility colours, such as white and yellow, can be used.
23.3 Cathodic Protection

Zinc Alloy anodes are used in a sacrificial mode to protect the subsea structures. The number
of anodes required is based on the initial un-coated surface area plus the estimated area that
becomes un-coated during the field life.
Figure 23.1 - Electrical Connectors Earth Bonded to SCMMB
Suppliers providing Cathodic protection for their own equipment in isolation, and lack of
system engineering has led to an over-protection of subsea facilities with its own problems.
This has led to a change in philosophy so that subsea control equipment is protected under
the main structure e.g. an Xmas tree by earth bonding to the main structure Cathodic
protection system.
This provides the benefit during installation in deepwater of equipment such as subsea
control modules. SCMs without sacrificial anodes attached are lighter and do not have
additional protrusions that could prevent easy installation.

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23.4 Galvanic Action

Galvanic Cells between different materials in seawater can cause corrosion and pitting
between materials. In a similar manner to the electrical cell set up allowing the Zinc Alloy
anode to sacrifice by design to protect the more noble Cathode, dissimilar materials in
contact or close proximity can also set up a cell and one material will corrode. It is a very
important design consideration that should not be over-looked, and those materials in close
proximity have similar potential differences in seawater.

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24 MARKINGS
24.1 Equipment Marking

Subsea control system deliverables are delivered as individual items and to different
locations. Each part has a Manufacturer's part number and a serial number. The part number
identifies the assembly through the manufacturing process and for re-ordering, and the serial
number gives unique traceability through the assembly and testing, and for material
traceability.
This provides a formal and acceptable method of tracking part numbers back to the design
documents, and for installation on Xmas trees, manifolds, etc.
In addition to the Manufacturer's own identification system, each unit in the system will also
have an Equipment Number, allocated by the Customer or overall Contractor, which enables
all Platform and Subsea equipment to be identified for overall control of the offshore
installation.
Figure 24.1 - Identification Plates
In addition, all subsea valves and instruments are usually allocated a Tag Number, which
identifies their function and, again, enables them to be identified on an overall offshore -
installation database and on the overall P&ID.
It is important to define Equipment and Tag Numbers at an early stage in the project to
ensure all items and drawings use the same information, to avoid confusion.
Furthermore, hydraulic and electrical signals used throughout the system are usually
identified by the Manufacturer as part of its own overall System Block Diagram, to uniquely
identify each signal throughout the system For example, LPA, LPB, HPA, HPB to identify
low/high pressure dual-redundant channels. Where equipment such as the subsea control
module mounting base (SCMMB) requires hooking up to the Xmas tree actuator tubing by
third-party installation contractors or manufacturers, the hydraulic connections will have
hydraulic interface connections stamped onto the connection plate.

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24.2 Subsea Marking General

When subsea controls equipment is to be hooked up subsea, there is a need for clearly
visible markings, which can be identified by the video camera from the ROV.
Equipment such as subsea control modules (SCMs) need clear identification of the service
(e.g. Production, Water Injection), the module address or module addresses for dual SEMs to
set up the subsea communications, and the front face for orientation purposes, plus details
such as the weight.
Figure 24.2 - Stencil Painted Markers
Module mounting bases need identification of the orientation for installation on the Xmas tree
or manifold structure, and identification of the connection faceplate for hook up by the ROV.
Subsea Distribution Units require identification of the hydraulic and electrical connections for
jumper hook up, as they are routed to a large number of SCMs. Any manual valves also need
to be identified with their service and open and closed directions. Block and bleed valves are
usually identified by colour coding on the handle and/or by the shape of the handle itself.
Jumpers require identification of the jumper service, and the connecting interface. This helps
with planning installation so that the jumpers can be laid out on the installation pallet for
deployment and hook up. Such identification markings need to be located at least at each
end of the jumper and at least once along the length.
Figure 24.3 - Cable Markers

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24.3 Marking Methods

An easy method of identification is to paint fixed items, such as the SCMMB, white and
removable items, such as the SCM, yellow. Xmas tree manufacturers often paint using a
different paint specification and a pale yellow.
By using yellow or white paint to give high visibility subsea of structural items, it is easy to
provide stencilling onto the painted surfaces with the contrasting colour black.
Figure 24.4 - Colour Keyed Identification
These labels will be covered in marine growth in time, that must be brushed or jetted away
when returning to the site for intervention.
There are also subsea markers available with anti foul properties to inhibit marine growth,
although the use of these is sometimes restricted for environmental reasons.
Jumper hoses and cables are marked with cable markers with black lettering on a yellow
background. These are fixed to the jumper at each end with cable ties. To ensure that these
markers do not detach due to snagging during handling a clear heat shrink sleeve is applied
over the marker. They need to be large enough to ensure clear visibility.

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25 QUALITY
25.1 Introduction
Early subsea control systems were born with the concept that Aerospace Quality was
essential for design and build of equipment for subsea applications. Aerospace hydraulic
valves were used for control functions, hydraulic systems were flushed to Aerospace
Standards, and electronic components used were Military (MIL) Specification. Dual Systems
were used to eliminate single point failure.
Components were subjected to Qualification Testing. This requirement was for life cycle
testing of valves for wear, leakage, and failure. Pressure Testing of components and
housings at pressures usually double working depth, burn in and cycling electronics for
temperature, shock and vibration. Testing hydraulic connectors for make up and leakage,
testing of electrical connectors for make up, continuity and Insulation Resistance.
Material compatibility was (and still is) a major issue. This can be due to electrical cells
between different metals in seawater, compatibility of seals in valves or hydraulic connectors,
or compensation bladders with hydraulic oils, dielectric oils, or chemicals.
Hydraulic tube connections were welded for Integrity. Weld Procedures and Welder
Qualifications are necessary for maintaining integrity in systems. Where welds are in
seawater the welds are over alloyed to provide a more noble material in the weld and heat
affected zone.
There was a great step change in policy and thinking from the requirements for the Oil Patch
to the requirements of subsea technology. The change was brought about due to the high
cost of failure for intervention, paralleled to the disastrous results of similar failures in the
aerospace industry. Modern Quality Assurance techniques and procedures have been refined
from the original aerospace applications and are now accepted as standard in the subsea
industry.
25.2 Quality Planning

Planning quality is paramount in aiding the purchaser to achieve the criteria that has been
prescribed within the contract and associated documentation with the ISO 9001 Standard
being the foundation, covering all areas from contract review to delivery of the completed
product or service.
Experience over the years has revealed that quality has to be built into the contract at the
onset, and typically, mandatory documentation deliverables for purchaser approval would be:
25.2.1 Project Quality Plan (Project Management Plan)

To gain assurance that all contract activities will be identified, implemented, and controlled
effectively throughout the contract duration.
25.2.2 Design Plan

To identify and control design input from the purchaser and design output from the supplier.
Taking into account the design basis, qualification and verification activities, and allowing
intervention points within the plan for purchaser / third party / certifying authority activities as
applicable.

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25.2.3 Inspection and Test Plan

The inspection and test plan (ITP) controls all areas such as contract review, purchasing,
sub-suppliers, goods inwards, manufacturing process control, and quality control through to
final inspection. The ITP highlights the procedures to be utilised that define the prescribed
acceptance procedure. The ITP also contains the intervention points for purchaser / third
party / certification.
25.3 Manufacture
Following on from qualification testing, and demonstrating the reliability of system
components (some of them prototypes), there is the requirement to manufacture in
production quantities. Hydraulic components are commonly manufactured in materials that
are usually difficult to machine, to high tolerances. The requirement to miniaturise
components in order to make control modules smaller and easier to handle and install in
deep water has necessitated tighter tolerances and less room for error. Gun Drilling is
necessary for long hydraulic galleries, Cross drilling often leaves burrs at the point of
intersection, which have to be removed by laser de-burring and ultrasonic techniques.
25.4 Testing
Production testing of components, sub-assemblies, assemblies, and the system is necessary
to maintain quality and to ensure that the system will perform after installation to the design
criteria.
Factory Acceptance Testing (FAT) is fully covered in Section 27.
25.5 Inspection
A Supplier's Quality Assurance system (in conjunction with the allocated Project Manager)
will normally provide the control and documentation of all of the above aspects.
However, the Customer is recommended to mobilise its own inspectors to follow all stages of
a subsea control system contract in order to fully assure itself that each component is
correctly manufactured and tested. This also ensures the eventual data books delivered with
the system have already been witnessed by the Customer's representatives and avoids last-
minute delays due to uncertainty about any individual item.
25.6 Conclusion
The manufacture, testing, and long-term reliability of components and subsea systems is
facilitated by the application of the Quality Management System requirements of ISO 9001.
However, these systems are very complex with many components, sub-assemblies and
interfaces. Quality Objectives can only be achieved in practice by effective Project
Management and Control, with the emphasis on Management.
This has been recognised by the standards authority and the Current International Standard
ISO 9001: 1994, is to be revised and expected to be Issued by the end of year 2000. The
salient change will be to incorporate 'The Management of the Project Process’.

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26 RUNNING TOOLS
26.1 Requirement
When running subsea equipment in deepwater, a running tool is required due to the size and
weight of the equipment, the forces required to force the mating parts together, and to latch
the equipment in place.
A major component such as the subsea control module requires such a running tool. This can
be a simple relatively low cost purpose built running tool for one particular application, or a
more complex and expensive tool called a Multi Mode Running Tool (MMRT). An MMRT can
run and retrieve subsea control modules and subsea accumulator modules, and can also be
designed and used for other activities such as running and retrieving subsea chokes, multi-
phase flow meters, etc.
A large work class ROV is required for this activity.
26.2 Minimum Fit Running Tool (MFRT)

The single purpose built minimum fit running tool is not described, as it is project specific.
26.3 Multi Mode Running Tool (MMRT)

The multi mode running tool can be deployed on a lift wire from a surface winch or ROV.
A control system is required which can be a direct hydraulic from the surface or through an
ROV hydraulic and electrical stab system. For more complex applications, control can be
onboard local control with power and data through a discrete electrical umbilical or through
the ROV umbilical.
In lift wire mode and using guide wires, the running tool is lowered using a heave
compensated winch onto the API 17H interface. The running tool will have a soft landing
device to protect the SCM from shock damage. The running tool is heavy in water. The
running tool uncouples the SCM or SAM and retrieves it to the surface. The component is
exchanged at the surface, re-deployed to the subsea interface, and reinstalled.
When deployed by ROV, the MMRT, the ROV, and the component have to be neutrally
buoyant in water. The tool uses transfer weights of equivalent weight to the SCM or SAM to
be recovered, and has buoyancy added to balance the weight requirements.
The ROV deploys to the interface, retrieves the SCM or SAM, and leaves the transfer weights
in the vertical tubes of the interface, and the SCM or SAM is retrieved to the surface. The
component is exchanged at the surface, re-deployed to the subsea interface, and reinstalled.
The transfer weights are recovered before the ROV is retrieved.

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Figure 26.1 - MMRT with ROV
Alternatively, to eliminate a trip to the surface by the ROV, the MMRT can be lowered to the
seabed in a cage that carries the new replacement component and a second set of transfer
weights. The ROV docks onto the MMRT, and guide it onto the interface of the component to
be replaced. The SCM or SAM is retrieved by the tool, and the transfer weights are left at the
interface.
The ROV moves to the cage and deposits the SCM or SAM in bay 1 of the cage, and then
picks up the second set of transfer weights. The ROV then moves to bay 2, picks up the
replacement component and deposits the second set of transfer weights.
The ROV moves back to the job, docks at the interface and installs the replacement
component. The ROV then retrieves the first set of transfer weights back to the cage.
26.4 Single Wire Deployment.

An SCM or SAM can be deployed using a single guide wire. The guide wire needs a winch
with a lift and lock tool, and a high quality heave compensation mechanism to prevent
damage to the SCM on landing.
The SCM or SAM is lowered into a guide funnel as directed by the ROV, an orientation helix
or location spigot(s) may be used to orientate the SCM correctly onto the mounting base.
The deployment wire is uncoupled and the ROV latches the SCM onto the mounting base.
This method of deployment dispenses with the MMRT, but a mechanism is still required to
exert down force and to mate and latch the SCM onto the SCMMB.
26.5 Drill String Deployment

When a drilling rig is on station, it is possible that there could be a preference to run an SCM
using a drill string. This is not a preferred and controlled method from an engineering
viewpoint, but this method has been used in the past.

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27 FACTORY ACCEPTANCE TESTING (FAT)
27.1 General
Every deliverable component of the Subsea Control System should be subjected to a formal
test procedure, before acceptance from the Supplier for shipment to the delivery location.
This type of test is usually termed a ‘Factory Acceptance Test’ or ‘FAT’.
The proposed test procedure should be written and submitted to the Purchaser for review and
approval. No test should be performed until the document has reached an acceptable status;
therefore, the first issue should be submitted to the Purchaser at least 6 weeks before the
test. A signed, approved copy of the test procedure should be used to perform the test and
the test procedure should not then be modified without written permission from the
Purchaser; in any event, a corrected document should be issued.
The Purchaser or its Engineering Representative should witness every FAT. Sole QC is
inadequate for this Engineering function which requires knowledge and understanding of the
system and system components to observe the system test and to note and question any
irregularities.
In order to achieve this, the Supplier must issue a Notice Of Readiness in sufficient time for
the Purchaser to mobilise its Representative, typically, 5 working days is required.
Care should therefore be taken in contractual documentation at the start of a project to
ensure these provisions are included, else the Purchaser will find that the last minute
changes of schedule and lack of readiness will cause considerable disruption to its other
project responsibilities. Similarly, where some tests require the presence of equipment
supplied by others, care should be taken to ensure the schedules coincide.
27.2 Test Requirements

In general, equipment should be tested for:
• Mechanical completion and conformance to drawing dimensions.

• Interfaces with other equipment.
• Functional operation over the complete range of specified parameters.
Of particular concern should be Hyperbaric testing, particularly in deepwater applications

where equipment has not previously been fully qualified for the design working pressure. All
subsea equipment must be tested inside a hyperbaric chamber and be surrounded by the test
medium. This is not always easy to achieve; equipment is sometimes tested at modular level
and later connected together and care should be taken to ensure that there does not remain
an interface that has never been subjected to hyperbaric pressure.
Each item of equipment should be tested using Simulators for inputs and test boxes for
outputs.
It is inadvisable to test one unit using another, deliverable, unit as a source of inputs or
outputs, as this does not then independently verify the correct function of these
inputs/outputs. Testing against other deliverable items is done at a later stage (see "System
Integration Testing" section 28). It is also advisable to perform 'low-level' testing on complex
items, such as the subsea telemetry protocol, using the Supplier's Design Specifications, on
at least the first deliverable unit, to verify that all sub-units are operating correctly and, in
particular, perform correctly with applied 'fault' conditions.
Care should be taken that the Simulators have themselves previously been tested as both
functional and fully-representative of the unit they are simulating.

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Other environmental testing should also be performed on at least one of every design of
deliverable equipment. This should include vibration and shock testing, load tests. This
"Qualification Testing" may form a separate part of the overall QA Plan and Contract; it
should only be granted a 'waiver' if the Supplier can demonstrate similar testing on identical
equipment from an earlier project.
27.3 Documentation
Before commencing the test, ensure that the latest, Customer-approved version of the Test
procedure is to be used.
Verify that the item to be tested has been correctly manufactured in accordance with the
Suppliers normal manufacturing procedures and documentation and is fully complete.
The results of the FAT procedure should be recorded in a Factory Acceptance Test Report
document, usually included as an Appendix to the FAT procedure itself. The Report
document should then be supplied with the Unit and in any event, it should form part of the
final project documentation.
It should be signed and dated by all witnessing parties.
The report should be written as concisely as possible, however, care should be taken that
actual test values are recorded, as well as a statement of PASS/FAIL for each test, so that
the document can be used to check differences between identical units, as evidence of drift in
parameters, or be used as reference values for other future tests.
All tests should be witnessed by the Supplier's QA department and test results 'stamped' as
official records of events.
Ideally, the Supplier should have performed each type of test procedure at least once, before
notifying the Purchaser to attend, so that errors in the procedure are detected at an early stage.
Parameters appearing outside of the specified test limits are cause for rejection of the
complete unit; a re-test should only be held once the problem has been found, corrected, and
a report made to, and accepted by the Purchaser.
This is then an incentive for a 'dry-run' test to be performed by the Supplier before notifying
the Purchaser. If so included in the Contract, a Purchaser may be entitled to reclaim its costs
of attendance following an aborted test, unless due to unforeseen events.
27.4 Test Parameters

The following is a summary of parameters that should be tested as a minimum for each type
of subsea control system component described in this Chapter of the Data Book. It cannot be
exhaustive, as each system will be different, but the Purchaser will find that the more testing
that can be performed at the factory, or onshore before installation, the better the chances of
a trouble-free installation and commissioning.
27.4.1 Master Control Station

• All mechanical Details; all components/serial numbers recorded.
• Operation over power supply range.
• All memory passes functional test.
• Operating software installed onto newly formatted / de-fragmented hard disc.
• Start up (and shutdown) operates smoothly and does not cause fluctuations in digital or
serial outputs.
• All displays match the design specification.

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• Each display to be tested for correct system operation (e.g. EPU display shows all
necessary EPU/HPU parameters, can control all outputs etc, all maintenance displays
operational, 'help' files correctly installed.)
• All ESD inputs cause the correct ESD sequence.
• Interfaces to Platform SCADA system operate correctly.
• Date/time synchronisation with PCS.
• Subsea Telemetry matches its design specification, operates correctly with a 'real' SCM,
can detect all types of fault without loss of data to other operational SCMs. (Test
equipment should simulate a complete field, rather than just one SCM).
• All interlocks and overrides operate correctly and do not cause unexpected actions when
released.
• MCS operates correctly when 'fully-loaded' i.e. with a full subsea system attached,
interface to SCADA operational, ESD inputs activated.
• MCS operates correctly when some of the subsea SCMs are inoperative (faulty or removed).
• Of particular interest in testing an MCS is its ability to handle 'unexpected' events, such as
particular failure modes in the subsea telemetry, error-codes in the various serial
interfaces, unexpected key-presses during other operations, activation of a higher-priority
ESD signal during a lower-priority one etc.
• Where a dual-redundant system is employed, the changeover to the backup unit is
'bumpless' i.e. does not cause any unexpected actions, changes of state of digital
outputs, operation of any subsea valves etc. Similarly, the return to the main unit should
also be 'bumpless'.
• Historical data recording system operates correctly over a wide time period. Verify data
can be downloaded to disc/ other equipment as per specification.
• Operates correctly over full range of ambient temperature. A 'heat-soak' test should be
performed.
27.4.2 Electric Power Unit

• Operation over full range of input voltage, frequency, loads, start up surges.
• Line Insulation monitoring tests (particularly as regards usage with subsea umbilicals and
long-term Testing)
27.4.3 Uninterruptible Power Supply

• Operation over full range of input voltage, frequency, loads, start up surges.

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27.4.4 Hydraulic Power Unit

• Mechanical details correct, including correct identification of all hand valves, gauges etc
per P&ID.
• Certified lift tests performed on pad-eyes.
• Correct pre-charge in accumulators.
• Correct operation of safety valves.
• Correct generation of output pressures.
• ESD solenoid valve operation.
• Adjustment of output pressures (where regulators available).
• All electrical system operational, including all outputs to remote display at MCS (may be a
serial data link), emergency stop circuits, remote/local control of pumps, flowmeters.
27.4.5 Subsea Control Module and Mounting Base

• Correct mechanical details
• Correct interface with stabplates, connectors (correctly polarised and marked), Mounting
Base.
• Telemetry system operating as per design specification; test all electronic commands for
correct operation on at least the first unit.
• Hydraulic outputs operate correctly; maintain output until LP supply lowered to specified
value and then all close.
• No hydraulic leakage to vent port
• No outputs affect other outputs when operated.
• All sensor inputs operate correctly and are calibrated correctly.
• Heat soak test (at high and low temperatures)
• Hyperbaric test on each unit.
27.4.6 Subsea Accumulator Module

• All mechanical details correct as per specification
• Correct pre-charge in accumulators
• All valves operate correctly, marked correctly.
• Pressure and volume test.
27.4.7 Subsea Distribution Unit

• All mechanical details correct as per specification. Markings correct and visible.
• Correct interface with stabplates, connectors (correctly polarised and marked), Mounting
Base, ROV connectors,
• All block/bleed valves operate correctly; no leaks
• All electrical outputs operate correctly and wired correctly.
• Current limit functions operate correctly, where included.
• Hyperbaric test on each unit. This is usually impossible on the whole unit due to its size,
however, where an SDU contains an electrical distribution unit (EDU), this is usually small
enough to be Hyperbarically tested, and this should be insisted upon.

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27.4.8 Subsea Umbilical Termination Unit

• All mechanical details correct as per specification. Markings correct and visible.
• Hyperbaric testing is usually impossible on these units due to their size. However,
pressure testing of field-installable electrical connectors must be performed as a
minimum.
27.4.9 Topsides Umbilical Termination Unit

• All mechanical details correct as per specification.
• Markings correct and visible.
• Pressure & leak test all pipes and valves
• Lift test
27.4.10 Transducers
27.4.10.1 General
• All transducers should be hyperbarically tested, complete with any third-party electrical
cable harness.
• Each transducer should be calibration tested. The serial number should be noted and a
certificate should accompany each unit. Care should be taken to track where each sensor
is eventually installed subsea. Transducers that require the MCS to perform calculations
to obtain the final value will be supplied with calibration coefficients. Again, these must be
tracked with each unit.
• Hysteresis test
• Speed of response test
• Test for correct operation over full range of supply voltage.
• Test for correct operation over full range of temperature.
• Mechanical verification, particularly of interface flange / fittings.
27.4.10.2 Combined Pressure/temperature

In addition to the general test requirements, the following are required:
• Tests should be performed to verify that changes in one channel do not affect the other,
particularly when operating at the minimum supply voltage.
27.4.10.3 Choke Position

• Verify the amount of hysteresis when choke moves in open direction then back to closed
again - this can have significant effect if the subsea system is to operate in a 'closed-loop'
mode where the system moves the choke until the sensor displays the correct value. If the
sensor exhibits significant hysteresis, the system may continuously 'hunt' the correct
position but never achieve it.

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27.4.10.4 Downhole Pressure/temperature

• The devices may be accompanied by the calibration coefficients referred to above.

• Where a device has a serial data link interface to the SCM, this interface should be tested
for correct operation in ALL modes and over the complete supply voltage range and
temperature.
• Care should be taken to verify that the correct earthing philosophy has been followed;
there is a risk of introducing severe corrosion if this has not been followed correctly,
particularly when the device is connected to the SCM; there are several connections
between the downhole device and SCM, any of which could introduce an earth-loop if not
correctly wired.
27.4.10.5 Sand Detector

• Ensure the sand-detection signal operates correctly per design specification, particularly
when later connected to the SCM/MCS.
27.4.10.6 Pig Detector

• Verify correct operation of the device over the specified range of 'pig' velocities.
• Ensure the 'latching' of the 'detect' signal operates correctly per design specification,
particularly when later connected to the SCM.
27.4.11 Weak Link

• Where the device is a destructive, guillotine-type mechanism, ensure it can cleanly cut a
fully populated set of cables/hoses.
• Where the device is a self-contained disconnection device, ensure it cleanly disconnects
without hydraulic leakage. One side of the device may be specified to vent hydraulic fluid,
ensure this operates correctly. Electrical connectors must also operate without causing
line-insulation faults or short-circuits.
• Verification of shear-pin type testing.

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28 SYSTEM INTEGRATION TESTING (SIT)
28.1 General
Every deliverable component of the Subsea Control System should be tested together as a
system with all other deliverable items from the same Supplier, and if possible, with all other
items to which they will be attached when eventually installed subsea.
This type of test is usually termed a ‘System Integration Test’ or ‘SIT’. However, if the test is
restricted to equipment from the one Supplier (Controls) then it is sometimes referred to as a
'Final Factory Acceptance Test' (FFAT) to distinguish it from a later test with the rest of the
subsea equipment.
Effort should be made to ensure the availability in the project Schedule for access to at least
one subsea Xmas tree and the template / manifold, so that the overall operation of the
system can be verified. These are not always available at the correct time for 'acceptance
testing' of the subsea controls equipment.
The controls contract should therefore clearly state the definition of any required system
testing and should clarify at what point the equipment is considered 'accepted' from the
Supplier. Ideally, this should only be when overall operation of the complete system (including
trees, manifold etc) is proven, but this is often difficult to arrange, particularly if the individual
schedules are widely separated. In this event, a financial retention is sometimes made, to
ensure the eventual testing is performed. In any event, a Warranty Period will cover problems
with system operation, but the incentive to correct them in a timely manner must be
maintained.
A Client will sometimes place high importance on testing a Xmas tree with the subsea
system. This is also a form of Integration Test, but it should be noted that this does not test
the full operation of the system, particularly if the system will normally operate more than one
tree and/or a manifold or template. There is only limited value in testing a tree with more than
just the SCM, as there is little difference between this test and an FAT of the SCM, or of the
Tree itself. The SIT is intended to test the system in a 'fully-loaded' condition, where more
than one unit is involved.
The Client or its Representative should witness the SIT. In order to achieve this, the Supplier
must issue a Notice Of Readiness in sufficient time for the Client to mobilise its
Representatives, typically, 10-15 working days is required to mobilise all interested parties for
an SIT.
Care should therefore be taken in contractual documentation at the start of a project to
ensure these provisions are included, else the Client will find that the last minute changes of
schedule and lack of readiness will cause considerable disruption to its other project
responsibilities. Similarly, where some tests require the presence of equipment supplied by
others, care should be taken to ensure the schedules coincide.
The SIT is the only opportunity for a Client, its partners, the eventual system Operators and
the Installation Contractor, to see all the equipment operating as it should, prior to being
installed subsea. Therefore, significant importance should be placed on the event and the
witnessing thereof. Photographs and video records of all aspects of the equipment should be
made. All drawings should be checked and marked-up for 'as-built' at this time, as full and
correct records will be invaluable once installation commences and for the life of the system.
ROV operators in particular should use the opportunity to familiarise their operators with the
equipment.
An SIT is usually performed at the manifold / template fabricator's site, or tree supplier, and
provision must be made in the respective contracts for access by the controls supplier etc to
perform these tests without disruption to the formers' contractual schedule.

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28.2 Test Requirements

At the start of SIT, it is assumed that all equipment has already been subjected to Factory
Acceptance Testing (FAT) (the availability of the Test Records should be verified).
Therefore, each item can be assumed to operate correctly and interface with its immediate
external interfaces. The emphasis of the SIT is therefore to verify that the overall system
operates as expected, in particular with equipment that has never been connected together
as a system before. In particular, that the equipment interfaces correctly with its Installation
aids and can be physically installed into position, retrieved, operated by ROV etc.
In general, equipment should be tested for:
• Mechanical completion and conformance to drawing dimensions.

• Interfaces with other equipment.
• Functional operation over the complete range of specified parameters.
Where equipment is missing from the SIT, Simulators should be employed; care should be
taken that these have themselves previously been tested as both functional and fully
representative of the unit they are simulating.
28.3 Documentation
The proposed test procedure should be written and submitted to the Client for review and
approval. No test should be performed until the document has reached an acceptable status;
therefore, the first issue should be submitted to the Client at least 6 weeks before the test. A
signed, approved copy of the test procedure should be used to perform the test and the test
procedure should not then be modified without written permission from the Client; in any
event, a corrected document should be issued.
Previous FAT Results should be available.
The results of the SIT procedure should be recorded in a System Acceptance Test Report
document, usually included as an Appendix to the SIT procedure itself. The Report document
should then be supplied with the final project documentation.
It should be signed and dated by all witnessing parties.
The report should be written as concisely as possible. However, care should be taken that
actual test values are recorded, as well as a statement of PASS/FAIL for each test, so that
the document can be used to check differences between identical units, as evidence of drift in
parameters, or be used as reference values for other future tests.
All tests should be witnessed by the Supplier's QA department and test results 'stamped' as
official records of events.
Ideally, the Supplier should have performed each test procedure at least once, before
notifying the Client to attend, so that errors in the procedure are detected at an early stage.

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28.4 Test Parameters

The following is a summary of parameters that should be tested as a minimum for a subsea
control system. It cannot be exhaustive, as each system will be different, but the Client will
find that the more testing that can be performed onshore before installation, the better the
chances of a trouble-free installation and commissioning.
• Installation and retrieval of subsea equipment using Running Tools / Installation

Frames etc.
• Operation of controls & valves using ROV / accessibility by Divers.
• System start up from 'cold' i.e. not pressurised, electrical power off
• Time to pressurise the system should be recorded, and volume of fluid.
• No hydraulic leaks throughout the system.
• All manual valves set to correct positions.
• MCS correctly displays status of all sensors, valves, subsidiary equipment (HPU,
EPU).
• Preferably pressurise process pipework to enable operation of all pressure
sensors to be verified - this is particularly important where they have been already
installed for some time on the Manifold / template and subjected to other pipework
testing by third-parties). Check temperature transducers show nominal ambient
readings.
• All SCM internal parameters correct (voltages, pressures, telemetry system)
operational and within expected limits, for all loads from minimum to maximum.
• Interface with SCADA operating correctly.
• System can operate every valve and choke without affecting any other valve.
• Times to open/close valves and chokes should be recorded; volumes of fluid
required.
• No other valves move when a valve is operated.
• Behaviour of system without Subsea Accumulator Module operational.
• System correctly performs ESD sequences.
• Times to perform ESD sequences should be recorded.
• System behaves correctly for wells on 'Workover'.
• Historical Database / Trends operate correctly.
• Behaviour of system on failure of one or more power/signal channels, failure of
one unit in dual-redundant system (MCS, HPU outputs).
• Determine limits of operation of system with reduced power supply voltage,
reduced system pressures.
• Verify operation of deliverable test equipment (particularly telemetry monitoring
devices).
• Verify interchangeability of identical components (SCM - ability to easily change
Module Address without causing unexpected system problems. Sensors - ability to
alter calibration coefficients).

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28.5 Post-SIT checks

On completion of the SIT, particular attention should be paid to leaving the system in the
correct state for installation and / or operation, such as:
• All manual valves set to correct position for installation and/or operation.
• All sensor block valves set to correct position (usually 'open').
• All alarm limits returned to nominal values (for process parameters) or to correct
value for subsea system equipment as specified by the Supplier (HPU, EPU,
SCM).
• Equipment re-packed in offshore transport crates (sealed, protected) if not being
immediately installed.
• No equipment left on manifold / template unless scheduled for installation with it -
if so, all hydraulic & electrical connectors to be fixed on their 'parking' plates or
suitably protected/greased/fixed down.

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29 ALTERNATIVE CONTROL SYSTEMS
29.1 Introduction
The primary factors affecting the control system design are the Field architecture and offset
distances (refer to section 7), and for most cases, an electro-hydraulic multiplexed control
system is suitable.
However, the offset distance from the subsea production equipment to the host facility
platform or the onshore facility may dictate that other solutions are considered. The installed
cost of a long or complex composite electro-hydraulic umbilical carrying power and signal
cables, hoses for low pressure and high pressure hydraulic systems, and the additional
chemical injection hose requirement for services such as corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibitor,
wax inhibitor, or methanol for start up, can significantly reduce the overall field economics.
There are two options for eliminating long length umbilicals in this situation. They are:
• buoy based systems where all of the control requirements are located at the
surface.
• autonomous subsea systems where all of the control requirements are located on
the seabed.
29.2 Buoy Based Control Systems

The buoy concept has been around for many years. The concept is that all of the control
requirements are installed onto a buoy which is moored above the subsea facilities and which
carries all of the control requirements. An umbilical from the buoy to the seabed facilities
transports all of the required functions.
The original concepts for such buoys proposed low-cost flat-bed barge designs, but later
concepts and the buoys that have since been installed have been substantial ‘spar’ type
designs.
The ‘spars’ have a large draft below their surface to provide stability. These are unmanned
facilities but there is a requirement for warning lamps and for radar reflectors for positioning
requirements.
The buoy has to carry the hydraulic power unit (HPU) and Electrical Power Unit (EPU) for the
subsea control system, and chemical injection pumps and reservoirs for the injection
requirements. Control has to be by a dual high-integrity, secure radio link.
Electrical Switchgear is required for motor starters, and for lighting circuits and safety
requirements. There is also a requirement for power generation. A dual system is required for
redundancy and batteries are required for back up.
Storage facilities are required for fluids. Tanks are required for hydraulic fluid, injection
chemicals, and diesel for the power generation. As these are unmanned facilities, the size of
the storage tanks may well become substantial. The designer has to make a case for the
periods between bunkering of fluids. If the storage amounts are minimised, it is essential that
all-year-round supply boat access is available in order to prevent unplanned shutdowns.
One spar buoy design has such a deep draft that elevators are required to transport
personnel and equipment between decks. The fabrication of such buoys is done in such a
way that equipment skids are installed onto the decks during fabrication. It is essential,
however, that major items, such as pumps, can be retrieved and replaced if necessary, so
modular design of equipment is required.
The buoy has to be secured to the seabed using anchors or piles, or a combination of both.
There has to be a means of connecting and disconnecting the control umbilical.
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A major issue is personnel safety. Maintenance personnel need to be able to safely get on
and off the buoy for maintenance and bunkering of utility fluids.
There is a need for air-handling systems, fire-detection systems and fire dampers, emergency
access ways, etc. In addition, there is a need for food and fresh water, and temporary
accommodation in case it is not possible to get off the buoy due to bad weather.
Figure 29.1 – East Spar Buoy
29.3 Autonomous Subsea Systems
29.3.1 Introduction
To dispense with the subsea umbilical there is a requirement for electrical supply, hydraulic
power supplies, solenoid valves, control and monitoring, and acoustic communications – all
subsea. These are the elements of the autonomous control system.
Whilst electricity can be stored in batteries (and some battery storage is always necessary),
there is the requirement for subsea power generation. The batteries need to be sized to
withstand production and planned annual shutdown requirements, and to be able to supply a
peak load for start up requirements. Battery technology is continually improving and an
optimum battery can be selected at the time of use.
The criteria for battery selection are minimum gas production, minimum maintenance, reliable
battery performance, final voltage as high as possible, and capability for partial charge and
discharge.

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29.3.2 Power Generation

A turbo-generator could be used for a dry gas service using a bypass loop from the main
production flowline, or from a gas lift pipeline if used. As with all rotating equipment, there is a
reliability consideration in that the sealed bearings would have to meet the equipment design
life without additional lubrication, and that the electrics would need to be segregated from the
gas source. The rotating speed must be governed to limit the axial thrust on the bearings.
Where produced fluids such as oil, water, and gas condensate are to be considered, the
reliability of the turbo-generator has to be questioned. An alternative is thermo-electric power
generation.
Thermo-electric power generation is based on the ‘Seebeck Effect’. When the junctions of
two dissimilar metals (semi-conductors) are maintained at different temperatures, a potential
difference is created which produces a flow of electrical current in a circuit. (In submarines
the reverse ‘Peltier Effect’ is utilised to develop silent cooling systems).
The design of such a device needs to consider the best interface material between the
thermo-electric elements and the hot and cold plates, and take into account the seawater
conditions. The selection has to be compatible with seawater for long term use and reliability.
The reliability over the turbo-generator is greatly enhanced, as there are no moving parts.
The thermo-electric elements are arranged externally around a pipe spool, and are therefore
non intrusive. The elements must be sized to provide an output to meet the design
specification. The heat flux from the pipe spool source to the cold seawater can be optimised
by using cooling fins on the external plate and increasing the exposed surface area. The
spool can also be installed in a vertical plane to promote convection currents. A copper alloy
cover can be used to enhance the thermal transfer as well as inhibiting marine growth.
29.3.3 Subsea Control System

The control system is packaged into a module to include the Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU),
Power Conditioner System, Motor Control System, Subsea Electronics Module (SEM), and
solenoid control valves.
The HPU provides the hydraulic fluid power to the valve control system. It includes the
reservoir, pumps, motors, accumulators, and filters in a dual configuration. Well control
usually requires Low Pressure and High Pressure systems, but HP can be generated from LP
using intensifiers. As the reservoir cannot be replenished without intervention, closed
hydraulic systems must be used for this application.
The Power Conditioner System provides the interfaces between the generated electrical
power, the electronics, and the batteries. It provides the power to the electronics and
maintains the battery charge at the correct level.
The Motor Control System provides the interface between the hydraulic pump motors and the
power source, and provides the motor control.
The SEM contains the electronics for communicating with the surface, controlling and
monitoring, and data collection. The units need to have some autonomy and to be able to
initiate a shutdown should the acoustics not be communicating correctly. Therefore the SEM
will be microprocessor controlled.
The solenoid control valves are electrically energised directional control valves, contained
within the SCM for functioning the Xmas tree valves.

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29.3.4 Hydro-Acoustic Telemetry System

Temperature, pressure and salinity are all major factors in control of underwater acoustic
propagation. The temperature is the most important in the UK North Sea areas, as seasonal
variations in the temperature/depth profile are considerable, with a corresponding impact on
the sound velocity/depth profile.
The degree of ray bending at any time is determined by the current temperature/depth profile
and has a major impact on the acoustic link between any two fixed locations as the horizontal
separation increases. With seasonal variations this link can exhibit the following
characteristics:
• A direct path
• No direct path, but one or more bounces via the surface to the seabed
• Zero signal transfer
In addition to the variability of the main path, there are multipath signals that arrive with
variable delays, amplitude and phase, causing interference with the main signal.
For a permanent installation between a wellhead and a platform, the link must be capable of
operating in all conditions. This is achieved by having one or more transducers deployed at
different depths on the platform jacket structure.
Data rates are fairly slow and 300 baud is typical, and can be lower in difficult conditions. For
this reason, the control system itself has to have autonomy for emergency shutdown
situations.
Communication distances of 10km are practically achieved using low frequency transmission,
typically in the 15-17 KHz range. Telemetry system designs of between 20 km and 30 km are
claimed.
SURFACE FACILITY
OPERATOR INTERFACE
MODEM
SEAWATER INTERFACE
ACOUSTIC
TRANSPONDER ACOUSTIC
TRANSPONDER
DATA &
HYDRAULIC
CONTROL
POWER SENSORS
MONITORING
UNIT ELECTRONICS
THERMO- ELECTRICAL
VALVE
ELECTRIC POWER ACTUATORS
CONTROL
GENERATOR STORAGE
SUBSEA EQUIPMENT
Figure 29.2 - Autonomous Control System Schematic

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29.3.5 HAPAC
The principles of the autonomous control system have been studied and proto-type tested by
TOTAL in the Hunter Autonomous Power Generation and Acoustic Control Project (HAPAC).
The Thermo-Electric Power Generator (THEG) was built using Bismuth Telluride p-type and
Bismuth Telluride n-type as the two dissimilar semiconducting metals which can operate at up
to 200ºC. Using THEGS with 6 rows in parallel and 56 plates in series, laid in a hexagonal
configuration around the pipe spool, a maximum power output of 130 Watt was achieved with
an internal water temperature of 120ºC and external water temperature of 4ºC.
The subsea control system used had been developed by Kvaerner FSSL for the SPARCS
Project, and was updated for use on HAPAC. The system was modified to be used with
Simrad and Sonardyne acoustic systems. A single pressure 207 barg hydraulic supply was
used for the test.
The target acoustic range for the test was 10km subject to acoustic propagation conditions
and platform noise levels. A high transmission level of 214db (reference to 1 micropascal
pressure) was selected.
An operating frequency of 15-18 kHz was selected to prevent interference with other
commonly used acoustic systems. It was also a good compromise between low attenuation
for operation to 10km or greater and the ability to produce directional transducer arrays that
were not too large.
A three element transducer array was used to provide a ±7.5º vertical beam with a broader
horizontal beam of ±30º to compensate for the easier alignment of the arrays in the vertical
plane relative to the horizontal plane when installed.
The transmitted source level was adjustable in 6db increments from 196db to 214db, and the
data rate from 10 baud to 300 baud to enable optimum performance to be achieved, and to
cope with seasonal variations in the propagation conditions.
An acoustic propagation study was conducted using ray path trace analysis for sound
velocity/depth profile data over a range of 5.2km and in a water depth of 130m. Ray paths
were computed for each month over a 12 month period to establish the seasonal variation.
The results of the analysis are summarised below:
• Over the summer months, there is always a direct path from the platform to the
subsea well site.
• As the summer progresses, a thermocline develops which gets steadily deeper
and thereby prevents acoustic communication at transducer depths shallower than
100m in September.
• In winter there is no direct path but there is always a path with a single bounce
from the surface.
• The optimum depth for the platform transducer was 100m.
The Total Exploration Production HAPAC Final Technical Report was issued in April 1999.

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29.4 Alternative Technology
29.4.1 Introduction
This section discusses the application of recent technology to subsea control systems,
whereby a system may be improved, or made more cheaply, by benefiting from advances in
compatible techniques.
29.4.2 Fibre Optics

Subsea control systems have traditionally used slow but robust telemetry systems for system
communications, operating over copper wire cores in umbilicals. Communications at 1200
baud using half-duplex telemetry was prevalent. This was acceptable for polling of control
modules and the occasional valve command, but it is not acceptable for large amounts of
data. In addition, it can take several minutes to do a total system scan and therefore the data
retrieved is not available in real time.
This may have been adequate in the late ‘70s when a state of the art modem was not much
faster. However, the advance in telecommunications and the Internet has left these telemetry
systems outmoded.
There is a need for real-time telemetry in production systems, and in particular when High
Integrity Pipeline Protection Systems (HIPPS) are required by the design. In addition, the
requirement of additional monitoring for field diagnostics and reservoir data has exhibited the
need for a step change in communication technology for certain applications.
Fibre optic cables are capable of transmitting a large amount of data at a very high rate. The
need for deeper water applications and the move to subsea processing has made the use of
fibre-optic communication systems a serious consideration.
There are two types of Fibres: Multimode and Singlemode, and the advantages and
disadvantages are as follows:
Multimode
Advantages:
• Large core tolerates connector misalignment
• Low cost transmitters - LED technology, short wavelengths
Disadvantages:
• High attenuation – 3dB/km @850nm, 1.5dB/km @1300nm
• ‘Low’ bandwidth – 500MHz.km
Singlemode
Advantages
• High bandwidth >2000MHz.km
• Low attenuation – 0.5dB/km @1310nm, 0.3dB/km @ 1550nm
Disadvantages
• Small core sensitive to connector misalignment
• More expensive transmitters – Laser technology, long wavelengths

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In both Singlemode and Multimode fibre the attenuation is caused by light travelling down the
fibre is scattered out of the fibre and absorbed by the fibre.
50µm
Multimode fibre
125µm
8µm
Singlemode fibre
125µm
The high communications bandwidth on Singlemode fibre supports increased sensing and
control facilities. The bandwidth is limited by the transmission system and not by the fibres
themselves or the connectors. Modems are readily available developed and used in the
telecomms industry and wet-mateable fibre-optic connectors have been in use since around
1997 as a controlled-environment type connector.
The connector brings together two shaped and polished fibre ends with a
misalignment of less than two microns to achieve a connector loss of less than 0.5dB.
The misalignment may be axial, angular or longitudinal causing loss due to light being
reflected by the end of the fibre and scattered as it leaves the fibre. This reduces the
amount of light entering the mating fibre.
The increased bandwidth can be achieved with a reduction in size from a single electrical-
conductor pair, and hence a reduction in umbilical cross-sectional area, and hence umbilical
cost.
The move towards subsea processing will require different types of electrical equipment on
the seabed. For example, for long offsets, there may be a requirement for high voltage
cabling. It would not generally be cost effective or economic to install a separate power and
communications cables, and hence signals running over long distances next to high voltage
power conductors need to be noise tolerant. Optical fibre offers complete immunity from
signal corruption caused by exposure to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Fibre optics can also provide secure and uncorrupted communications. Where a subsea field
might be tied back to another Operator’s host facilities, digitally encrypted signals can be
used to keep data secure.

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This can be of particular interest when using a network such as the FibreWeb™ network in
the Gulf of Mexico, where fibre optic cable routes along the seabed from near Houston to
near New Orleans, routing around several rigs and platforms. The fibre cable is mainly for
voice communications as an alternative to radio or satellite, but the opportunity to tie-back
and control a subsea development or the possibility of 100 sensors in line on any one fibre
provides many opportunities for technology development.
Field acreage may have been previously drilled and reserves proven that may not be
economic to produce as a stand-alone development. These assets may be revisited as the
technology develops and the support infrastructure develops. Fibre optic based systems offer
the ability to communicate over distances of 100-200km with no subsea signal repeaters.
In addition to the above, fibre optics have provided an economic and reliable solution for
monitoring downhole pressure and temperature. Temperatures in excess of 1000ºC can be
measured which exceeds the survivable performance of all electronic gauge systems.
Figure 19.3 - Oil Filled Jumper with Fibre Management System

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30 HIGH-INTEGRITY PRESSURE PROTECTION SYSTEMS (HIPPS)
30.1 Introduction
Flowlines can be an expensive item due to their length and the wall thickness requirement for
pressure containment and an applied corrosion allowance. If the flowline is designed to
withstand the maximum Wellhead shut-in pressure at production start-up, the system will be
over designed as reservoir pressure falls later in field life. In addition, flowing pressures will
be significantly less than the shut-in pressure and hence the system will normally operate at
pressures well below the design.
Project feasibility should consider the economics of reducing the rated working pressure of a
flowline below the maximum Wellhead shut-in pressure of the well(s) feeding it, whilst at the
same time taking precautions to ensure the pressure in the flowline can never rise as high as
the Wellhead Shut-in pressure. A typical field study consideration is a gas field where the
reservoir shut in pressures may be high.
For a flowline to be rated lower than a pressure that could potentially be applied to it requires
considerable means to ensure this over pressure can never occur. If a barrier valve is placed
at the Manifold just before the flowline and is shut whenever the pressure rises, only the Tree
and manifold pipework need then be rated to the full shut in pressure.
To achieve this, a High Integrity Pressure Protection System (HIPPS) is required. The HIPPS
system is a high-availability emergency shutdown system to ensure the wells feeding the
flowline are isolated whenever the pressure in the flowline exceeds an alarm point, by closing
the Barrier Valves.
The consequences of any decision to de-rate the flowline and introduce a HIPPS are
considerable and the overall economics and safety issues including a safety case study must
be carefully evaluated before proceeding along this path. An intermediate approach is to rate
the flowline such that full Wellhead pressure does not cause it to rupture, but 'merely' to
exceed its plastic limit.
When considering the complexity of a HIPPS system and the dual/triple redundant equipment
on the seabed, it may be appropriate to be able to isolate the HIPPS system later in the field
life when the reservoir depletes and the well shut in pressure becomes lower.
There are several different abbreviations that have been used for overpressure protection
systems, such as HIPPS (High Integrity Pressure Protection System), HIPS (High Integrity
Protection Shutdown system) or OPPS (Overpressure Pipeline Protection System).

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Implementation of a HIPPS
30.1.1 Requirements
The requirements are therefore for a system that detects a rising pressure in a flowline and
quickly shuts one or more isolation/barrier valves before the pressure can rise too high.
This requires:
• A very reliable and highly available system.
• A fast-acting system.
The main components of a HIPPS therefore comprise:

• Pressure (and other) transmitters.
• Logic.
• Redundant Barrier Valves.
In its simplest form, a HIPPS barrier valve, installed in the fully rated pipework section of the
Process Manifold/Template, is controlled by local logic monitoring a downstream Pressure
Transmitter. HIPPS control logic monitors the Transmitter and closes the HIPPS barrier valve
in the event that excessive pressure is detected.
Usually the implementation of a HIPPS system subsea gives rise to many other
considerations during detailed design, and hazard and operability studies. This is due to the
amount of dual/triple redundant equipment on the seabed, adequate system isolation, and
consideration of keeping critical instrumentation hydrate free. Thus the ability to isolate the
HIPPS system later in the field life should also be considered during the design phase.

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Rev. 0
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TotalFinaElf
SUBSEA MANIFOLD
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
HIPPS
VOTING
XMAS TREE
PRODUCTION
ZI FIC
STRING
S.P.
PWV
PMV
FCV ZT
ZT
PT PT PT PT PT

FLOWLINE TO
Figure 30.1 - HIPPS Schematic

PRODUCTION
FACILITY
HIPPS HIPPS
BARRIER SDV SDV BARRIER
VALVE 1 VALVE 2
API 5000 2500 ANSI 1500 ANSI
Page 132
The actual HIPPS implementation is more complex in order to assure the reliability,
availability and speed, and to power and test the system. Topsides equipment will need to
supply the necessary electrical and hydraulic power, which will be transmitted to the subsea
equipment via an umbilical. Subsea equipment located adjacent to the Barrier Valves will
provide the actual detection and actuation mechanisms. A second HIPPS barrier valve, is
also monitored either side by Pressure Transmitters, which provides redundancy in case of
failure or leakage of the first valve.
30.1.2 Typical system

The Topsides equipment comprises:
• Master Control Station (MCS)

• Electrical Power Unit (EPU)
• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
• Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU)
The Subsea equipment comprises:
• Umbilical and termination/distribution unit

• HIPPS subsea control module and mounting base
• Subsea Accumulator Module and mounting base
• Hydraulic jumpers
• Process Barrier Valves and Position Indicators
• Maintenance, venting and test valves
Standard subsea hardware can be used for non-critical control functions, but specially
designed equipment will be required for the rest of the system.
These components are described below in more detail.
30.1.3 Pressure Transmitters

The Transmitters used for this application are 'normal' subsea devices. Pressure Transmitters
rather than Pressure switches are used, as failures can be more easily detected and pressure
values are more useful.
To ensure availability and prevent erroneous shutdowns, usually more than one transmitter is
employed in a "2 out of 3" voting (triplicate) configuration, and different makes of sensor can
be used to avoid common fault modes.
Either the transmitters themselves and/or the detection logic will act in such a way that a
failed transmitter is seen as a 'high' pressure and therefore trips the system.
Common-mode failures due to blocked sense lines (ice, hydrates, scale, wax or mechanical
damage) can be a serious problem and the design should ensure this risk is minimised.

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30.1.4 Control Hardware

The control hardware monitors the Transmitters and closes the Barrier Valves when high
pressure is detected. The detection and activation system is inevitably an electronic system
and it should be independent of any other platform or subsea system, although data-feeds to
other systems are usually available.
The implementation of this is usually a dedicated subsea controller, located in a subsea
control module adjacent to the Barrier Valves themselves. The HIPPS control module
monitors the Transmitters and closes the valves in the event excessive pressure is detected.
This operates via a certified fixed-logic electronic system and is not dependent on
microprocessors or links to the surface. Thus each trip is pre-set and cannot be changed
without physical access to the controller. This requires careful attention to hydraulic design to
ensure pulses do not inadvertently trip the system.
A secondary controller is microprocessor based and provides non-safety related and
secondary functions and communicates with the surface controller. When the safety controller
trips the barrier valves, the secondary controller detects this and closes all secondary and
test valves (the links between the systems must be shown to be independent).
The hydraulic control of the Barrier Valve requires the use of high flowrate control valves in
the HIPPS control module; these are not necessarily identical to other subsea control system
valves.
The Barrier valves are controlled using hydraulic power, in a similar manner to a subsea
control system, and so a Hydraulic Power Unit is required. This HPU can be the same unit as
for the subsea control system, although the design must ensure that the reliability and
availability criteria are still met; there may be auxiliary components such as a dedicated
HIPPS Accumulator Unit to assure the integrity of the HIPPS supply.
The control hardware will be operated using a dual-redundant electrical supply and should be
fail-closed on loss of electrical power. A HIPPS system must therefore be continuously
operated via a UPS. Some systems again use the same EPU as for the subsea control
system but this may be undesirable as the shutdown philosophy for the subsea control
system is usually such that the subsea control system does not shutdown on loss of power,
whereas the HIPPS must do so. This could lead to the supplies being inadvertently shut off
for maintenance, causing a HIPPS shutdown.
The control hardware must be fail-safe under all modes of failure. Regulations are such that
designs using computers are not permitted, as software can fail on occasions or perform in a
way not originally foreseen. Required approvals typically include TÜV DIN 19250 Classes 5,6
and 7 safety standard. Standard subsea control systems are not applicable without
modification, as they are usually not constructed to a fail-safe design. A Programmable
Electronic Safety System or Electronic Safety System which is “Stand Alone” must meet IEC
61508 SIL requirements appropriate to the application.
Electronics should NOT be integrated with other control/safety functions to avoid common-
mode failures and influence on the HIPPS from other sources.
The system should perform self-testing operations on a frequent basis, at least once per
second, although again, the extra circuitry involved must be demonstrated not to interfere
with the primary failsafe system.
The whole system must be 'low-maintenance' and not require manual intervention.

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30.1.5 Barrier valves

These can be 'standard' subsea isolation valves, operating in a failsafe-closed mode,
although some designs may not be suitable, as the valve response time needs to be fast
enough to prevent pressure excursions above the permitted limits (say, <2-5 seconds) and so
the valve actuator must be carefully selected for this task. For large valves a spring-activated
system may not be practical and a hydraulic accumulator provides the closure force; in this
case the overall hydraulic system must again be carefully designed to ensure the system is
available when required. In both cases, subsea accumulation is provided to ensure
availability of the system whatever the state of the surface equipment. Pipeline pressure-
assist is another method to accelerate the closing time.
After actuation of the barrier valves, the pressure must still be monitored downstream in case
leakage causes it to continue to rise; secondary (cascade) shutdown of the Tree valves
feeding the pipeline may be required, and the excess pressure may need to be bled off at the
surface or via secondary flowlines or service lines. The accuracy of the position-monitoring
devices may not be sufficient to detect a small degree of opening, which in time would lead to
the increase in pressure.
Re-opening of the barrier valves following a shutdown is via a command from the surface
unit, providing the "2 out of 3" voting system permits. Venting the locked-in high pressure that
originally caused the trip requires suitable additional valves and/or the use of the subsea
control system with the service or test line etc, as the HIPPS itself may not have 'overrides' to
permit reopening the barrier valve(s) whilst high pressure is still present.
The barrier valves can also be shut by command from the surface; this will cause a pressure
build-up and it is therefore advisable to shut the well in first to prevent closure against flow.
This requires a link between the HIPPS and subsea control system surface controllers, or by
manual procedures.
Hydraulic lines from the subsea HIPPS control module are duplicated to ensure that a
trapped hose could not hold a barrier valve open.
Other isolation valves may be required for maintenance, testing, hydrate inhibition and
pressure testing, but are not part of the primary HIPPS and are therefore controlled by the
secondary controller.
30.1.6 Surface Equipment

The UPS/EPU provides dual-redundant electrical power, and the HPU provides hydraulic
power. These services may sometimes be shared with the normal subsea control system,
with the provisos noted above. They are distributed via lines in an umbilical to the HIPPS
system. It may be possible to use the same umbilical as for the subsea control system, thus
economising on cost, but the HIPPS lines themselves must be entirely independent, so there
will still be a certain cost impact. A dedicated HIPPS Accumulator Unit provides hydraulic
reserves for peak demands.
The surface HIPPS units are independent but are also connected to the MCS and other
platform DCS/SCADA as required.

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30.2 System Testing

A common problem is that the Barrier Valves may stick in the open (or closed) position. To
minimise this risk, regular testing is performed in which the valves are completely or (usually)
partially closed. To achieve this, the barrier valves are fitted with an analogue linear valve
position sensor (4-20mA) which is monitored by the HIPPS module. This allows fine control of
the valve position; the valve can be commanded shut until the position is seen to move then
re-opened again, thus avoiding a complete shutdown. This is a common test method for
SSIVs, but it should be noted that deliberately slowing the valve-closure mechanism to permit
such testing contradicts the philosophy of a fast-acting system, and the design must therefore
ensure that the main closure mechanism is not affected by the test-circuit design.
Testing of the HIPPS itself is not easy. It would be necessary to modulate the pressure to the
transmitters to check they are working - this can only be done by decreasing the pressure
otherwise increasing it may set off a shutdown. The readings from each transmitter are
available at the Surface controller and can be compared with readings from other pressure
transmitters in the subsea control system, which gives some degree of assurance that they
are operating and are in calibration; however, this does not prove the system will detect a
high pressure and operate.
Alternatively, the trigger points for the HIPPS could be set to a value below the current
pressure; this would trip the system but by virtue of the Certification (see 30.1.4) such
intervention on an operating system is not permitted, so is not feasible for routine testing.
The only other method is to isolate each transmitter and increase the pressure above its
trigger point via an external means, such as by methanol purging (which can also be a
regular maintenance function). Doing this by remote control from the surface requires a
number of ancillary control valves - a parallel arrangement would allow one leg to be tested
with the other isolated, but the scope for leaving valves in the wrong position, wrong set-
points or common-mode failures etc., are significant.
Clearly, therefore, the complexity of the system increases considerably if such a philosophy is
required, but the only other sure way of testing is by deliberately closing a topsides valve and
causing the pressure to rise, thus activating a genuine HIPPS shutdown. The subsea choke
can be used to restrict the rate of increase to some extent.
30.3 Other concerns

Pigging a flowline could cause the pressure to rise above the trigger point of the HIPPS,
particularly if the pig sticks; thus, it is not advisable to use the wellstream as the driving force.
"Fortified" zones may be required close to the topsides production facility and possibly near
the subsea template to ensure that, even if the flowline does rupture, it does not endanger the
platform (or flowline near the template).
Similarly, flowline 'weak-link' devices may be provided to ensure any rupture occurs in a
defined place.
The HIPPS system can to some extent be supplemented by designing shutdown sequences
into the subsea control system. A subsea control system may have algorithms to detect
temperatures and pressures being within the hydrate-forming region. This system has control
of Tree/manifold Valves and Chokes, and can be designed to detect rising pressure
(particularly relatively slow events such as formation of wax or hydrates) and to close the
Production Wing Valve and/or choke (these being the items usually closed against flow). This
may be sufficient to avoid triggering the HIPPS in many cases, but the main reason why this
is unacceptable as a primary HIPPS being that the subsea control system is not usually
designed or approved for such high-integrity, high-availability, fast-acting purposes.
Similarly, any closure of topsides valves should immediately be conveyed to the subsea
control system to permit it to attempt to reduce the flowline pressure; it is not usually the case
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that all such events are reflected back to the subsea control system (only major ones such as
Platform Shutdowns) so it is feasible that the inadvertent closure of a topsides block valve
could trigger the HIPPS, unless all such events are immediately followed by closure of
Tree/Manifold valves and chokes.
This requires a better integration of the topsides and subsea facilities and in practice can be
difficult to implement, particularly where a topsides system already exists when a new subsea
field is connected to an existing Platform. It is very easy to manually close a topsides riser or
separator valve, without prior subsea action, and the system effects of this, including the
'water-hammer' effect, may well cause the pipeline pressure to be exceeded.
Pressure-testing of a pipeline would also activate the HIPPS, which should therefore be taken
into account when planning such operations - again, only an override would permit such
testing past the Barrier Valve(s) themselves.
30.4 Summary
A HIPPS flowline protection system is readily achievable using existing proven technology,
but there are consequences to the overall subsea and topsides control system designs in
implementing such a system.
The need for overall Project commitment to a HIPPS system is mandatory, as there are far-
reaching consequences in taking this route to all aspects of developing a new field,
particularly when being tied-back to an existing Platform.
The total cost of ownership must be fully accounted for in determining the feasibility of having
a low-pressure rated pipeline, and a number of areas have been highlighted which will, in
practice, add to the development cost and reduce the advantage of lowering the pipeline
design pressure. The effects of adding a HIPPS system depend also on the nature of the
Field Development Project itself, and unless being implemented at the start of a completely
new Development, will have cost implications on existing systems which may be
unacceptable or difficult to implement.
Further precautions can be implemented using technology within existing designs of Subsea
Control System. A dedicated HIPPS module can then be added to the control system, sharing
the power / hydraulics / communications (albeit with certain provisos), to provide overall
protection via a dedicated HIPPS Barrier Valve, should the well control system fail to maintain
pressure in the safe region.
Nevertheless, it is evident that a simple commercial decision to economise on pipeline costs
results in a considerable and complex outlay for a system to adequately and reliably prevent
the pipeline being over pressured.

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31 APPENDIX A - AUTHORS & VENDOR CONTACT DETAILS
Subsea Control Deepwater Reference Book Authored by:
Subsea Control Services Limited Tel: +44 (0)20 7481 8838

4 Gun Wharf Fax: +44 (0)20 7480 7314
Wapping High Street www.subseasystems.co.uk
London E1W 2NH
UK
Engineers and Consultants – Independent Since Formation in 1984
Subsea Control System Manufacturers (Listed in Alphabetical Order)
ABB Offshore Systems Ltd ABB Offshore Systems Inc

2 High Street 8909 Jackrabbit Road
Nailsea Houston
Bristol BS19 1BS, UK Texas 77095, USA
Tel: +44 (0)275 810800 Tel: +1 (0)281 855 0973
Fax: +44 (0)275 851467 Fax: +1 (0)281 855 0973
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Brisco Engineering Ltd

Palmer House
Gapton Hall Industrial Estate
Great Yarmouth
Norfolk NR31 0NN, UK
Tel: +44(0)1493 668811
Fax: +44(0)1493 651137
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
CAC Ltd CAC Inc

Viking Road 22001 North Park Drive
Gapton Hall Industrial Estate Kingwood
Great Yarmouth Houston
Norfolk NR31 0NU, UK Texas 77339-3804, USA
Tel: +44 (0)1493 652611 Tel: +1 (0)281 348 1033
Fax: +44 (0)1493 444598 Fax: +1 (0)281 348 1280
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Cameron Controls Cameron Controls

Cooper Cameron (UK) Ltd Cooper Cameron Inc
Cooper Cameron House 10810 North West Freeway
5 Mondial Way PO Box 1212
Harlington, Hayes Houston
Middlesex UB3 5AR, UK Texas 77251-1212, USA
Tel: +44 (0)20 8990 1800 Tel: +1 (0)713 683 4600
Fax:+44 (0)20 8990 1888 Fax: +1 (0)713 683 4363

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Kongsberg Offshore a.s. FMC Kongsberg Inc

P.O. Box 1012 1777 Gears Road, Box 3091
N-3601 Kongsberg Houston
Norway Texas 77253, USA
Tel: +47 (0)32 73 98 98 Tel: +1 (0)281 448 0211
Fax: +47 (0)32 73 93 78 Fax: +1 (0)281 591 4030
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Kvaerner Oilfield Products Ltd Kvaerner Oilfield Products Inc

Kvaerner House 1255 North Post Oak Road
68 Hammersmith Road Houston
London W14 8YW, UK Texas 77055, USA
Tel: +44 (0)20 7559 6000 Tel: +1 (0)713 685 5700
Fax: +44 (0)20 7559 6100 Fax: +1 (0)713 685 5707

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32 APPENDIX B - TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM DRAWINGS

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Figure 32.1 Total Nuggets Subsea Control System Block Diagram

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Figure 32.2 - Total Nuggets Composite Umbilical Block Diagram

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REFERENCE BOOK
DEEPWATER INSTALLATION VESSELS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 4
1.1 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 REGULATIONS, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS .............................................. 4
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. 5
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 6
2 DEEPWATER INSTALLATION TASKS......................................................................... 7
2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 7
2.2 INSTALLATION TASKS .................................................................................................. 7
2.3 LIFTING REQUIREMENT ............................................................................................... 7
2.4 LAYING REQUIREMENT................................................................................................ 8
3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT........................................................................................ 9
3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 9
3.2 STORAGE AND LAYING OF PRODUCTS .......................................................................... 9
3.2.1 General .........................................................................................................................9
3.2.2 Product Safe Handling..................................................................................................9
3.2.3 Installation and Laying Parameters ............................................................................10
3.2.4 Clamping Pressure .....................................................................................................10
3.2.5 Load Matrix .................................................................................................................11
3.2.6 Laying Accuracy, Monitoring & Control ......................................................................12
3.3 LIFTING & INSTALLATION OF STRUCTURES ................................................................. 13
3.3.1 General .......................................................................................................................13
3.3.2 Subsea Structures Safe Handling ..............................................................................13
3.3.3 Installation Accuracy, Monitoring & Control................................................................14
3.4 REMOTELY OPERATED VEHICLES .............................................................................. 14
4 LAY ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................... 16
4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 16
4.2 PIPELINE BUCKLING DESIGN ..................................................................................... 16
4.3 DEEPWATER PIPELAY METHOD ................................................................................. 17
4.3.1 General .......................................................................................................................17
4.3.2 S-Lay...........................................................................................................................17
4.3.3 Steep S-Lay ................................................................................................................17
4.3.4 J-Lay ...........................................................................................................................18
4.3.5 Reel-Lay......................................................................................................................18
4.4 S-LAY VERSUS J-LAY ............................................................................................... 19
4.5 STEEP S-LAY STRAIN ............................................................................................... 21
4.6 REEL-LAY STRAIN .................................................................................................... 22
4.7 DEEPWATER J-LAY PARAMETERS (RIGID PIPE, FLEXIBLE & UMBILICAL) ....................... 24
4.7.1 Rigid Pipe....................................................................................................................24
4.7.2 Flexible Lines ..............................................................................................................27
4.7.3 Umbilical Lines............................................................................................................28
4.8 INSTALLATION METHOD LIMITATIONS ......................................................................... 29
5 DYNAMIC POSITIONING EQUIPMENT & CLASS ...................................................... 30
5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 30
5.2 DP FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT ................................................................................ 30
5.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................30
5.2.2 Power System.............................................................................................................31
5.2.3 Thruster System..........................................................................................................31
5.2.4 DP References and Control System...........................................................................31
5.3 DP CAPABILITY DEFINITION (& PLOTS) ...................................................................... 33
Rev. 0 DEEPWATER INSTALLATION VESSELS Page 2

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5.4 SAFETY REQUIREMENT ............................................................................................. 34

5.4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................34
5.4.2 DP System FMECA ....................................................................................................34
5.4.3 Hazardous Operation Analysis ...................................................................................34
6 INSTALLATION AND LAYING EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION ..................................... 35
6.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 35
6.2 STORAGE EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................. 36
6.2.1 Basket Storage Carousel............................................................................................36
6.2.2 Horizontal Powered Reel ............................................................................................37
6.2.3 Vertical Powered Reel ................................................................................................39
6.2.4 Dolly Base ...................................................................................................................41
6.3 LAYING EQUIPMENT .................................................................................................. 42
6.3.1 Tensioner ....................................................................................................................42
6.3.2 Overboarding Chute....................................................................................................43
6.3.3 High Departure Angle Stinger (rigid pipe laying)........................................................44
6.3.4 Flexible and Rigid Pipe J-lay Ramp............................................................................45
6.3.5 Flexible and Reeled Pipe J-Lay Ramp .......................................................................47
6.3.6 Rigid Pipe J-Lay Ramp ...............................................................................................48
6.3.7 J-lay Ramp using Hang-Off Collar..............................................................................49
6.3.8 Flexible Vertical Laying System..................................................................................51
6.4 ABANDONMENT AND RECOVERY W INCH..................................................................... 53
6.4.1 General .......................................................................................................................53
6.4.2 Linear Traction Winch.................................................................................................53
6.4.3 Capstan Friction Winch...............................................................................................54
6.4.4 Flexible Pipe Follower.................................................................................................54
6.5 WELDING AND TIE-IN TECHNIQUES ............................................................................ 55
6.5.1 General .......................................................................................................................55
6.5.2 Conventional Welding Technique...............................................................................56
6.5.3 Electron Beam Welding ..............................................................................................60
6.5.4 Flash Butt Welding......................................................................................................61
6.5.5 Radial Friction Welding...............................................................................................64
6.5.6 Mechanical Connectors ..............................................................................................65
6.6 WELD INSPECTION ................................................................................................... 66
6.6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................66
6.6.2 Radiographic Testing..................................................................................................66
6.6.3 Ultrasonic Testing .......................................................................................................68
6.6.4 Remarks......................................................................................................................69
7 DEEPWATER INSTALLATION VESSELS .................................................................. 70
7.1 HEAVY LIFT VESSELS ............................................................................................... 70
7.2 PIPE LAY VESSELS ................................................................................................... 72
7.2.1 J-Ramp Lay Vessels ...................................................................................................72
7.2.2 Vertical Reel Lay Vessels ...........................................................................................74
7.2.3 Horizontal Reel Lay Barges ........................................................................................76
7.2.4 Steep S Pipe Lay Vessels ..........................................................................................78
7.3 FLEXIBLE LAY VESSELS ............................................................................................ 80
7.4 UMBILICAL LAY VESSELS .......................................................................................... 82

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
As offshore oilfields are discovered in increasingly deeper waters, the capabilities of existing
installation and pipelay vessels are being exceeded. The offshore industry is faced with the
need to improve the operating capabilities of existing vessels or undertake the construction of
new vessels specially designed for operation in very deep water.
The scope of this study is to review the existing and the new built or converted deepwater
installation vessels and to cover the key issues such as :
• the typical deepwater installation tasks and related constraints, as further described
in chapter 2
• the recent offshore accidents in the Gulf of Mexico just highlight the importance of
interface engineering that is needed to properly load and install a product (flowlines
or umbilical) or structure with the adequate means (cranes, winches, tensioner, lay
ramp, etc.) as further analysed in chapter 3
• the different lay techniques (Steep S-lay, J-lay, Reel-lay) are further analysed in
chapter 4 with its constraints, limitations, advantages and disadvantages
• because of the water depth and the scattering of FPS mooring lines, wells,
flowlines, umbilical and other subsea structures, deepwater installation vessels
must be equipped and operated in 'dynamically positioned', exclusively by means
of propeller and thruster forces. The dynamic positioning system and DP class type
are further detailed in chapter 5
• the installation means and the laying equipment are further described in chapter 6
• and the subsequent chapter 7 will provide a general description of the existing and
new or converted deepwater installation vessels (i.e. heavy lift vessels, deepwater
pipelay vessels, and deepwater flexible pipes and umbilical lay vessels)
• finally the annexes will provide the detailed technical description of the available
deepwater installation vessels, along with the addresses of the deepwater
installation contractors.

• International Maritime Organization, MSC Circular 645, 113 IMO, Guidelines for
Vessels with Dynamic Positioning Systems
• The International Marine Contractors Association IMCA M 140, Specification for
DP Capability Plots
• DNV 1997, Rules for Classification of Steel Ships
• DNV 1994, Rules for Certification of Lifting Appliances
• DNV 1996, Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems

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Capability plots A theoretical polar plot of the vessel capability for specific conditions of
wind, waves, current from different directions and with different thruster
combinations.
DP vessel Dynamically positioned vessel means a unit, a ship or vessel which
automatically maintains its position and heading with respect to one or
more reference, exclusively by means of thruster force.
DP system It comprises all equipment, sub-systems, control systems and back-up
systems that directly or indirectly effects the position keeping ability of
the vessel; such as power system control, measuring system, thruster
system, reference and measuring system, control system, etc.
DGPS Differential GPS plus a correction supplied by one or more receivers at
fixed location, accurate for Dynamic Positioning
Flowlines The conduit system e.g. steel pipeline, flexible line, bundle, etc., divided
in two parts: static "sealine” section resting on seabed and dynamic
"riser" section from seabed to surface
FPS Floating Production Systems: TLP, SPAR, FPSO, Semi-submersible, etc.
FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading vessel
HAZOP Hazardous Operation Analysis
Sealine "Static" section resting on seabed of a conduct for the flow of liquid
and/or gas
Pipeline The conduit system used to export oil and gas from fixed or floating
production system
Riser "Dynamic" part of flowline connecting sealine to the termination point of
platform
FMECA Failure Modes Effect & Criticality Analysis
GPS Global Positioning System using satellites to position a ship
LARS Launch & Recovery System (e.g. ROV handling system)
PLEM Pipe Line End Manifold
PLIM Pipe Line Intermediate Manifold
Redundancy Ability of a system or component to maintain or restore its function, when
a failure has occurred.
Reliability Ability of a system or a software program to perform its required function
without failure to cause an interruption in DP control in a period of 2000
hrs of DP operation.
ROV Remote Operated Vehicles encompassing : Observation, Survey and
Working ROVs.
SPS Subsea Production System, encompassing all structures & systems, sub-
systems, equipment, components outwit the Umbilical & Flowline
System.
Safe working limits The environmental limits that a vessel follows for DP safe working
position, taking into account certain equipment failures.
TLP Tensioned Leg Platform
Umbilical With the same split between 'static' and 'dynamic' applications as for the
Flowlines.
UTA or UTU Umbilical Termination Assembly or Umbilical Termination Unit.

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1.4 References
1. Offshore technology conference papers from 1969 to 1998
2. In-house technical offshore vessel database
3. In-house experience in deepwater operations and installation vessel management
4. Marine Contractor Vessel leaflets
5. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Tie-in Methods”
6. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Sealines”
7. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Riser Systems”
8. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Umbilicals”
9. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Deepwater ROV & TOOLS”

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2 DEEPWATER INSTALLATION TASKS
2.1 Introduction
Floating Production Systems (FPS) is widely considered as the most practical and
commercially attractive solution for the development of deepwater (1000 m) and ultra
deepwater (2000 - 3000 m) oil and gas reserves.
Depending on the hydrocarbon reservoir characteristics, the X-mas trees can be either in
surface (“dry” configuration) or subsea installed.
In general FPS such as TLP, SPAR and Deep Draft Semi-submersible Structures (DDSS) will
serve the 'dry' configuration alternative, with the remaining systems such as FPSO and Semi-
submersible Structures to remotely control the subsea trees from the floater.
2.2 Installation Tasks

A proven deepwater arrangement is the use of sealines and risers connecting subsea wells to
moored FPS (FPSO, Semi-submersible and DDSS).
Such deepwater development scenarios will typically require the following installation tasks :
• lifting and installation of mooring lines (a combination of chains, steel wires or

synthetic ropes, and anchors or piles)
• lifting and installation of tethers (for TLP or SPAR "Seastar")
• mooring of FPS and offloading buoy
• topside crane heavy lift of process modules onto the FPS (SPAR, TLP, FPSO,
etc)
• lifting and installation of subsea templates, manifolds and production systems

• laying of sealines and risers
• laying of control umbilical
• subsea tie-ins
2.3 Lifting Requirement

Topside process modules are generally designed to be within the existing heavy lift crane
vessel capabilities which can range from 3000 tons (Derrick Barges: DB50) up to 13000 tons
capacity (Semi Submersible Crane Vessels: Saipem 7000, Heerema Thialf) .
For the installation of subsea structures and because of the water depth, the general practice
is to lift the subsea structures (of some 300 tons) on surface with the vessel crane and to
cross-haul it (under water) to a deck winch cable, which will then lower the subsea structures
to the seafloor.
The existing heavy lift vessels (see annex 1) are well adapted and in sufficient number to
address the above needs.

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2.4 Laying Requirement

The development of new deepwater oilfields uses generally small to medium diameter
pipelines (e.g. the 12" Marlim (Gulf of Mexico) pipeline laid by Allseas Lorelay in 1650m of
water).
Export pipelines (mainly gas trunkline) with larger diameters of 20" to 30" and heavy wall to
prevent hydrostatic collapse, will impose laying tension (above 500 tons) which existing lay
vessels cannot cope with.
The new or converted pipelay vessels should have an operating range and ability to lay small
(12-inch) to medium diameter (22-inch) pipelines and perform connection in 2000m water
depth and beyond (i.e. 2500m – 3000m).
There is an immediate need for pipelay vessels capable of installing these pipelines efficiently
in deep waters. The ability to install these flowlines at a low cost is critical because, in many
cases, the full cost of constructing these lines can determine the economic viability of
offshore fields in deep waters.

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3.1 Introduction
The main interface requirements in the deepwater installation of subsea components and/or
structures are related to:
• Storage and safe installation of products (umbilical and flowlines)

• Lifting and installation of subsea structures
• Remote Operated Vehicles
They are further described in the following sections.
3.2 Storage and Laying of Products
3.2.1 General
The storage and subsea installation of products are to be performed in a timely and safe
manner, taking into account all site limitations, typically:
• weather conditions
• seabed soil conditions and visibility
• other site constraints (mooring lines, other subsea structures, etc.).
For this purpose the storage and laying equipment must be designed, built and operated to
suit the conditions in which they are to perform, taking account of the products properties,
installation constraints and emergency situation as defined by the HAZOP/HAZID sessions.
For all offshore activities or tasks, laying and installation detailed procedures must be
provided and weather limitations identified (waves, winds, currents, etc) in relation to vessel
heading.
Reversal of all operations (e.g. laying) must be possible and related procedures should also
be provided.
3.2.2 Product Safe Handling
The products to be laid or installed are typically :
• steel sealines and risers

• flexible flowlines and risers
• control umbilical (electrical, hydraulic, steel tubes, service lines, etc) in 'static' or
dynamic riser applications
• power electric cables
• other types of flowline such as bundle, etc
The products must be handled, stored, seafastened, transported and installed in a safe
manner and according to the specified requirements (e.g. product properties/load capacities)
and procedures.

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For each product, the installation or laying parameters (dynamic mode) and product load
capacities must be calculated and analyzed against the vessel and equipment performance
and capabilities.
A formal FMECA study for the laying and installation equipment (e.g. including all ancillaries
such as abandonment & recovery means) is to be performed.
The objectives being to demonstrate that the product will not be damaged by the installation
or laying equipment during normal operation and back-up procedure exists, in case of
emergency situation arising from environmental condition changes or vessel equipment
failures.
The product bending radius and tension must be accurately controlled (i.e. compression
avoidance through monitoring of tension and product departure angle on lay vessel) during
handling and laying operation; in particular during critical operations such as line initiation,
over boarding of intermediate pipe fittings, lay-down of end termination, cross-hauled and
pull-in operations.
3.2.3 Installation and Laying Parameters

The following installation and laying parameters must be analysed:
• nominal and maximum dynamic lay tensions for empty product in submerged
conditions
• maximum hold-back tension in case of product 'wet buckle' (flooded condition)
• minimum bending radius vs. applied dynamic tension (combined with bending)
• touch down point distance from lay vessel
• sag bend radius
• maximum stress level
• accumulated strain and maximum residual as-laid strain
The above installation and laying parameters must form the basis for the laying & installation
procedures.
As a result of the HAZOP/HAZID sessions, an emergency & contingency procedures must be
provided for all identified hazardous activities.
3.2.4 Clamping Pressure

With respect to lay tensioner clamping pressure, product acceptance criteria uses as basis for
selection of clamping pressure must be provided.
Such clamping pressure shall consider the effects on pressure containing elements, load
bearing elements and electrical cables.
Tensioner track number, length and contact pad type & shape will be selected based on
product size, capacity and constraints as well as established equipment operation
procedures.
The tensioner must be fitted with a safety device that ensures that the caterpillar track cannot
open while the product is under tension.

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3.2.5 Load Matrix

The possible damage scenarios to be evaluated for the installation phase are :
Crushing
Product crushing resistance is to be checked against laying equipment characteristics during
product handling, such as reeling, packing, passes through straightener, tensioner, roller,
gutter, hang-off or hold-back clamps, etc.
Excessive Pull
Actual tension combined with other loads (e.g. bending, torsion) is to be compared against
product axial resistance load.
Excessive Bending
Special care shall be taken to avoid excessive bending during product overboarding with
intermediate connections, PLIM, PLEM, subsea splice, buoyancy modules, clamps, etc.
Tearing
Sharp edges and abrasive surfaces shall be avoided and the clamping force properly
selected.
If the product passes a gutter/chute, it shall be verified that the friction (products vs. gutter)
will not damage the outer sheath.
Excessive Twist
The product allowable twist (angle°/m) must be specified and excessive twist avoided during
the installation phase (e.g. during riser cross-haul to floater or fixed structures).
Collapse/Compression
The laying parameters and procedures must carefully avoid exposure of the products to local
loads superior to the maximum design loads.
To ensure that the installation will be carried out in such a way that the different product
design capacities are not exceeded, all relevant loads (dynamic mode) and their
combinations are to be considered.
A load matrix (load cases and loads) are to be established based on the selected installation
method, vessel & equipment and specified environmental conditions.
The load matrix must be used to verify if all relevant load combinations have been considered
and the product design capacities are not exceeded when being handled by the installation or
laying equipment.

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A typical load matrix is provided as follows in table 1:
Case Position Load Combination Damage Comments

Scenarios
Laying Tensioner Max. tension vs. Crushing, Tearing For laying this includes normal, far and close
clamping pressure at position of vessel to touch-down-point
weather limits
Ramp, Gutter, Max. tension and Crushing, Tearing, As above

Chute, Rollers bending contact at Excessive Bending
roller ramp and and Tension
weather limits
Accumulated strain level
Straightener, Max. tension and Crushing,
Aligner bending contact lateral Excessive Bending Fatigue life limitation on riser application
point loads and Tension,
Tearing
Sag bend & Min. tension at Excessive Bending, Further Product abandonment & recovery is to
touch-down weather limit inducing Twist, Compression be considered
compression at
bending
Pull-in Bellmouth, J-tube Max. tension and Excessive Bending, For cross-haul of Riser, twist angle is to be
bending at contact Crushing, considered
radius and weather Ovalisation and
limits Tearing
Docking Riser structure & Min. radius & Max. Excessive Bending, For laying this include normal, far and close
base tension inducing Tearing, position of vessel to touch-down-point
bending, compression Compression
at weather limits
(induce heave)
Hydrotest All applicable Max. pressure & Crushing, Tearing, Any weather limitation during riser pressure
positions tension, Min. bending Leakage, Burst, test is to be considered
Yield in pipe/tube
Table 1 - Load Matrix
3.2.6 Laying Accuracy, Monitoring & Control

As a minimum, the following parameters must be monitored, recorded and displayed in a
suitable location (e.g. lay control room, DP bridge) during all laying operations :
• Line tension and departure angle

• Touch-down point monitoring, e.g. using ROV
• Line length paid out from vessel
• Vessel position & heading and layback distance
• Laying speed
• Water depth
The tension applied to the line must be continuously controlled and recorded in order to avoid
sudden changes in line tension, and to ensure line routing within the specified laying tolerances.
A protocol & control system between the vessel DP and the laying equipment will allow the
continuous and safe product laying within a pre-determined track with or without turning points.
At completion of installation or laying operations the line end shall be lowered onto the
seabed under controlled conditions and abandoned in its target area within a specified
heading.

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3.3 Lifting & Installation of Structures
3.3.1 General
Lifting and installation of topside process modules, or subsea structures must be performed in
a timely and safe manner, taking into account all site limitations (see section 3.2.1).
For this purpose the dedicated lifting and installation equipment (cranes, winches) must be
designed, built and operated to suit the conditions in which they are to perform. More
specifically taking account of the structures installation criteria and constraints, as specified
by the designer/manufacturers and national codes/certifying authority rules (e.g. Det Norske
Veritas [DnV], American Petroleum Institute [API], Lloyds Register of Shipping [LRS]).
For all offshore activities or tasks, lifting and installation detailed procedures must be provided
and weather limitations identified (waves, winds, currents, etc) in relation to vessel heading.
3.3.2 Subsea Structures Safe Handling

The subsea components and structures to be lifted and installed are typically :
• mooring lines and anchors

• foundation bases (e.g. suction, gravity, pile)
• manifold structure guide & support bases
• manifolds / templates
• X-mas trees
• manifold ancillary components (e.g. pigging loop, module control pods,)
• closing spool pieces
• protective structures
The subsea structures must be handled, stored, sea-fastened, transported, offshore lifted and
installed in a safe manner all in accordance with the specified requirements (e.g. SPS's
manufacturer) and procedures.
For each structure, the lifting and installation parameters (dynamic mode) must be calculated
and analysed against the vessel and equipment performance and capabilities. Reversal of
the installation operations must be possible.
The deck handling system and the lifting devices must be designed to control and prevent the
pendulum movements of the subsea structures between leaving the deck storage area,
passing through the splash zone and safely landing on the seabed.
The landing criteria (speed, energy) must be defined through the SPS manufacturer interface
activities. The following landing criteria are to be considered as typical for deepwater
installation (preliminary data for further evaluation):
• maximum heave amplitude : 1 m

• maximum landing speed : 0,2 m/s (manifold), 0,5 m/s (manifold base structure)
• landing criterion : 1 kJ
A formal FMECA study for the handling, lifting and installation of equipment is to be
performed.
The objectives being to demonstrate that the subsea structures will not be damaged during
normal operation and back-up procedure exists, in case of emergency situation arising from
environmental condition changes or vessel equipment failures.
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3.3.3 Installation Accuracy, Monitoring & Control

The subsea structure installation accuracy must be performed in accordance with the SPS
manufacturer requirement. The following installation tolerances are to be considered as
typical (preliminary data for further evaluation):
• Lateral position within +/- 5 m from it's nominal position

• Heading of structure within +/- 2.5°
• Maximum inclination relative to horizon within +/- 1.5°
As a minimum, the following installation parameters must be monitored, recorded and
displayed in a suitable location (e.g. installation control room, DP bridge) during the lifting and
installation operations:
• Load tension monitoring

• Lift line paid out from vessel
• Vessel position & heading
• Subsea structure depth monitoring
• Water depth
• Touch-down monitoring e.g. using ROV
The tension applied to the line must be continuously controlled in order to avoid sudden
changes in line tension (snatch loads).
3.4 Remotely Operated Vehicles

Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) are required for all subsea operations and assistance
activities, such as:
• route survey, debris removal

• observation & touch down point monitoring during product lay
• observation, monitoring and landing of product intermediate manifold and PLEM, in
pre-determined target area
• subsea structures observation, guiding, monitoring, landing & locking
• spool piece tree jumper metrology and tie-ins
• flying lead tie-ins between PLEMs, manifolds and trees
• operations of valves as primary or override functions
• video monitoring, during tool maneuvering and positioning
• hot stab for hydraulic primary and secondary tool operations
• torque operation on subsea valves/panels/clamp connectors
• water jetting and dredging
• connection of lifting gear
• post survey (as built)
• primary support for tie ins tools
• etc
The ROV system must be depth rated to project max water depth.
For most ROV-dependent tasks, there is no substituted solution. If the ROV fails or is
unavailable when required for such an activity, the vessel-based subsea operations will be
suspended. So ROV reliability and equipment back-up philosophy are critical considerations
to ensure a 24 hrs availability during subsea interventions.

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For deepwater operations, special attention shall be paid to the ROV umbilical and tether
management system in terms of design and operating procedures.
Due to the ROV water depth descent & ascent times and system redundancy requirement,
the following table 2 sets the basic and typical number & type of ROV spreads:
Subsea Tasks Working ROVs Survey ROVs Observation ROVs
Lay Monitoring, A&R activities 1 1
Subsea Structure Installation 2
Pull-in, Cross-haul 1 1
Tie-Ins 2 1
Hydrotest 2
Table 2 – ROV requirements
The proposed ROV number & type for each dedicated vessel shall be analysed and
documented on this basis.
The ROV vehicle will be launched using the over-the-side method or through the moonpool
and will require a dedicated Launch & Recovery System to control the pendulum movements
on deck and through the splash-zone. Such handling system shall be designed, built and
operated to suit the conditions in which they are to perform.
On a DP vessel the position for the safe launching and recovery of ROV vehicles shall be
evaluated, based on vessel motions and thruster positions.
As a minimum, the ROV deck equipment will include :
• electro-hydraulic umbilical winch complete with drum, cables and umbilical

capable of operating in required water depths
• ROV control cabin fully equipped (i.e. monitor recorder with hard copy print out off
the screen), with air conditioned
• direct communication and telephone links between the ROV control cabin and the
laying & installation room and DP control room facilities
• workshop cabin
• all required spare parts for above ROV vehicle, LARS and other deck equipment
Please refer to the document “Deepwater ROV and TOOLS” (Reference 9) of Deepwater
Field Development – Reference Book, for further details on ROV technology, capabilities and
requirements.

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4 LAY ANALYSIS
4.1 General
The physical scale of deepwater pipeline installation possesses the biggest challenge to
offshore contractors in being able to provide bigger and stronger equipment (& vessel) to
handle installation at such depths (2000-3000 m) in an economic manner.
Important parameters in pipeline design are (1) steel material, (2) diameter and (3) wall
thickness.
The pipeline material will be dictated by the produced fluid or gas corrosion properties and
the diameter is chosen to suit particular maximum flow of the wells it is serving.
The wall thickness often needs to be chosen with particular care, as the weight of pipe
suspended directly from the lay vessel will influence the amount of tension required to hold
the pipe during the laying operation. At such depth a few millimetres of additional pipe wall
thickness can make the operation beyond existing vessel lay capabilities. Thicker wall pipe
will also have a costly impact on material cost, transportation and installation, as longer
offshore welding time will be required.
Several pipelay methods from a vessel (barges, ships, semi-submersibles) can be considered :
S-Lay, J-Lay and Reel-Lay.
The following sections will further analyse the above pipe design considerations and the laying
configuration constraints.
4.2 Pipeline Buckling Design

Designing the pipe to resist deepwater hydrostatic pressure is the major factor which will
affect the pipe wall thickness. Consideration must be given to both, (1) local buckling and (2)
propagation buckling.
Local buckling can occur during offshore pipe lay operations when the pipe is under a
combination of loads due to external hydrostatic pressure and bending moments, which can
initiate a local buckle. Alternatively such buckling damages or dents that can occur if the lay
tension is lost during the pipe lay phase or by trawl board damage, etc. In these cases, if the
external pressure is high enough, the dent or local buckle may propagate along the pipeline
in a phenomenon known as 'Propagation Buckling'.
This propagation buckling is driven solely by the water pressure, in which a local buckle in an
offshore pipeline changes its geometry from a transverse dent to a longitudinal buckle and
propagates along the pipeline, collapsing it along its length. Once initiated it will not stop until
it either encounters an obstruction on the line or reaches shallower water where the external
pressure will be less than the propagating pressure.
Since the propagation buckling pressure is much less than the local buckling pressure, the
pipe design based on the propagation criteria will result in thicker wall pipe and the resulting
tension can be very well beyond existing lay vessel capabilities and become an economic
issue.
The alternative is to remain with the optimum wall thickness to resist local buckling collapse
design criteria (to suit existing lay vessel capabilities) and to install buckle arrestors at
suitable intervals. Should a propagation buckle unfortunately occur (i.e. loss of lay tension),
then only a short section of line would require to be replaced.

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4.3 Deepwater Pipelay Method
4.3.1 General
Increasing water depths will exacerbate the problem areas such as :
• top tension necessary to hold and control the pipe catenary

• pipeline initiation method
• abandonment and recovery of the pipelines
• touchdown point monitoring and survey
• economic need for lay speed
4.3.2 S-Lay
Traditionally pipelay is carried out from a purpose built barge or vessel and in an S-lay
configuration. The lay barge allows the pipe to be welded, controlled and coated in a
continuous production system based on different workstations (i.e. 5-7 stations) to form a
'firing line'. This leads to a fast production process even when dealing with large diameter
pipes (e.g. 36”), typical lay rates from 2 km/day and up to 6 km/day (on occasion) can be
achieved.
However, because the pipe is assembled in the horizontal position it needs to be laid off the
back of the vessel in an S-shaped catenary and supported by a stinger to prevent the pipe
from buckling.
Because of the pipe departure angle at the stinger tip (30-40 degree range from horizontal,
depending on water depth and pipe diameter), S-lay intrinsically requires much higher
tensions (than J-lay) to control the pipe curvatures (see next section 4.4). Furthermore the
long lay back distance of pipe touch down point in deepwater with S-lay is also problematic
and restricts its ability to lay around a curve.
The deepest S-lay has been performed by SAIPEM Castoro Sei (20" diameter) at a depth of
615 m in the Strait of Sicily.
4.3.3 Steep S-Lay

To reduce these high tensions the stinger departure angle can be increased to 60°- 80° range
(near vertical angle) in a configuration known as 'Steep S-lay' . This however means a longer
and deeper stinger (e.g. 60m - 100 m) leading to more awkward handling problems and
greater weather sensitivity (see section 6.3.3).
Furthermore the high pipe weight tension combined with the steep radius of curvature will
introduce an elasto-plastic bending and a residual pipe strain in the 0.4% - 1% range (see
section 4.5).
The current deepest 'Steep S-lay' has been performed by Allseas Lorelay (12" diameter) at a
depth of 1650 m on Amoco Marlim (Gulf of Mexico).

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4.3.4 J-Lay
This is the second configuration for laying of pipe, where the pipe departs from the lay vessel
at a near vertical angle (e.g. 85°-87°). There is no over-bend to maintain as in the above
case. The pipe hangs in catenary and curves towards the horizontal as it approaches the
seabed (i.e. sag bend radius).
A smaller tension is necessary to maintain a satisfactory curvature at the sag bend. To
control the stresses and prevent buckling, the major part of the tension requirement is simply
to hold the submerged weight of the pipe.
Residual axial tension on pipe laid by J-lay is significantly less than with the S-lay method
(see next sections 4.4 and 4.7).
Since the pipe is departing from the vessel in the near vertical position, this implies that the
welding should be done in the near vertical as well. Since it is not practical to have a vertical
'firing line' as in the S-lay, the pipe is assembled (welded) by stalk of 2, 4 or 6 joints. A 6 joint
stalk is considered to be the current practical limit for up-righting (i.e. Heerema Balder J-lay
equipment).
The pre-fabricated stalk of joints is up-righted from the horizontal position to the vertical lay
ramp, where it is welded at a single station. This makes the production process much slower
than for S-lay. Typically, 1 km/day to 2 km/day can be achieved depending on the pipe
diameter and wall thickness.
The pipe needs to be held (in the vertical position) while welding of the stalk joint is taking
placed; three alternatives can be adopted : (1) tensioners, (2) pipe collar or (3) hang-off
friction clamp.
The current deepest J-lay has been performed by J.Ray Mc Dermott DB50 (18"diameter) at a
depth of 950 m on Shell Mars (Gulf of Mexico).
Because the pipe lay (in 'J' configuration) is without residual strain, it is the preferred method
for laying steel catenary riser :
• Shell Auger TLP, 2x12" oil & gas export risers in 870 m
• Petrobras Marlim 10" gas-export from P26 to P18 semi-submersibles in 910 m water
depth.
4.3.5 Reel-Lay
The third method for laying deepwater pipelines is by the reel lay ship. This installation
technique can be considered as similar to the J-lay approach, with however a main difference
as the pipe is continually fed down an adjustable lay ramp from a large storage reel mounted
on the ship (see section 4.6).
Prefabricated pipe lengths (e.g. 500 m to 1000 m) are welded together and spooled onto the
ship reel at an onshore fabrication yard (spoolbase), thus minimising the offshore time or field
duration required for pipelay operations. A typical lay speed of some 12 km/day can be
achieved, however the ship limited in pipe carrying capacity would necessitate multiple trips
between the offshore field and the spoolbase to collect more pipe, or to replace the empty
reel with a pre-loaded reel by means of heavy lift crane vessel. In this process the pipeline
needs to be abandoned and recovered for each loading trip.
The pipe is departing from the vessel in the near vertical position (as for the J-lay) and the
pipe load is controlled by both tensioners (mounted on the J-lay ramp) and the storage reel.

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During pipelay, the pipe is unspooled from the reel and guided via an aligner to a straightener
on the lay ramp. The pipe then passes through the straightener, down the ramp, through the
tensioners and overboards the ship (see section 4.6).
The main advantage of the reel lay method are high lay speed (i.e. short offshore operation
time) but requires a near onshore spoolbase. The current reel lay method is limited in
diameter and requires an optimum pipe thickness for reelability (i.e. D/t ratio in the range of
12 to 15). It is believed that reel lay capabilities will be extended as follows:
• 2500 m for a 12" pipe with a wall thickness assumed of 31.8 mm

• 1500 m for a 16" pipe with a wall thickness assumed of 31.8 mm
The spooling and unspooling process will introduce an elasto-plastic bending with maximum
cumulative strain in order of 2 % - 5% ranges. However there should not be any residual
strain (unlike the 'Steep S-lay') as the straightener will exert a reverse bending moment which
would result in a near zero residual curvature (see section 4.6).
4.4 S-Lay versus J-Lay

Table 3 summarises dynamic parameters (i.e. lay tensions, pipe stress and radius of
curvature) obtained for the following conditions:
• Waves: significant wave height Hs: 1.5m

average zero-crossing period Tz: 12s
• Heading: 0°
• Water Depth: 500m
• Lay ship: typical 25000t displacement
• Pipe: 16", 14.3mm thick (Local buckling criteria, DNV 96)
Minimum yield strength SMYS: 450Mpa
• Lay angle 70°
Effective Tension at vessel (kN) Horizontal Tension at vessel (kN)

Mean +/- Mean +/-
S-Lay 1050 200 820 150
J-Lay 310 30 90 20
Max. Equivalent Stress (MPa) Radius of Curvature (m)

At stinger At sag bend At stinger At sag bend
departure departure
S-Lay 350 100 130 1200
J-Lay 20 200 - 250
Table 3 – Dynamic parameters summary table 1

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The maximum equivalent stress (von Mises expression) has been fixed to 350MPa (i.e. about
0.8 x SMYS) for both lay methods. The results bring the following remarks:
• during S-lay, the stinger tip is a "sensible" location where the pipe endures high
stress due to the vessel motions
• higher horizontal tension to be retained by the vessel DP is required during S-lay
to control the pipe departure angle at stinger tip
• S-lay induces higher (than J-lay) tension and stress variations.
The S-lay method is then limited by the vessel DP capabilities (which have to counteract the
pipe horizontal tension) to water depths about 500-600m (depending on the pipe diameter);
the J-lay method is then preferred for the following considerations:
• Minimum horizontal tension to be controlled by the DP system

• Lower pipe stress by avoiding the transition from horizontal firing line to vertical
position of pipeline at mid water depth
• Better control of J-Lay sag-bend radius than S-lay stinger tip

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4.5 Steep S-Lay Strain

The following figure 1 illustrates the moment-curvature (n.b. pipe curvature is the inverse of
the radius of curvature to which the pipe is bent) for elasto-plastic bending on a typical 'steep
S' stinger.
As the pipe enter the stinger, the moment increases and the curvature initially increases
proportionally, indicating an elastic beam bending response (straight line OA). Once the yield
point is passed, the response become non-linear following the path ABC as plastic ovalisation
occurs. As the moment is decreased (i.e. pipe has passed the stinger tip) the pipe recovers
along the path CDEF and the ovalisation decreases. At this point the elastic recovery will
result in a residual curvature (or strain) shown by point G, when the pipe will rest on the
seabed.
To obtain a near zero residual strain, a reverse bend should be applied till point H is reached,
prior to return to point O. However it is unpractical to install a straightener at the stinger tip.
Moment
C
at stinger
B
Residual Curvature
O
G Curvature
D
E
off stinger
H F
Figure 1 - Steep S-Lay moment-curvature relationship

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4.6 Reel-Lay Strain

The following figures 2- 4 illustrates the stresses and strains during a completed reel lay cycle :
• as the pipe is spooled onto the reel beyond the yield stress, the elasto-plastic
strain follow the path OA
• as the stress is decreased during the first unspooled phase between the reel and
the aligner, the pipe recovers along the path AB
• when the pipe passes over the aligner curvature, a new stress-strain elasto-
plastic deformation is experienced along the path BCD
• a new stress relief is obtained when the pipe passes between the aligner and the
straightener, as per the path DE
• finally a reverse bending is applied in the straightener (negative strain) until point
F is reached, after which recovery should result in zero residual strain
As stated previously, the total cumulative strain experienced by the pipe will be in the 2%-5%
range.
Stress Stress
A aligner D
spooling
O O C
Strain Strain
unspooling straightener
B F B, E
Spooling and unspooling Aligning and straightening
Figure 2 - Reel Lay stress-strain relationship

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ALIGNER
PIPE (upper layer)
PIPE (lower layer)

STRAIGHTENER
REEL
Figure 3 - Straightening principle
Straightener
Reel
Tensioner
Aligner
Figure 4 - Reel Lay equipment

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4.7 Deepwater J-Lay Parameters (Rigid pipe, Flexible & Umbilical)

This section summarises the rigid pipe, flexible and umbilical laying parameters for water
depths from 1000m to 3000m.
4.7.1 Rigid Pipe

Pipes ranging from 6" to 16" (see table 4) are designed for the considered water depth range
based on the hydrostatic pressure / local buckling criteria (i.e. buckle arrestors could be
used):
1000m 1500m 2000m 2500m 3000m

Pipe 6" 8,7 9,5 11,0 12,7 14,3
Pipe 8" 11,1 12,7 14,3 15,9 18,3
Pipe 10" 12,7 15,9 18,3 18,3 20,6
Pipe 12" 15,9 17,5 19,1 22,2 23,8
Pipe 14" 15,9 19,1 20,6 23,8 27,0
Pipe 16" 19,1 20,6 23,8 27,0 30,2
Table 4 - API wall thickness (mm)
The following pipe effective tensions, horizontal tensions and pipe sag-bend radii have been
determined for respectively 85° (see figure 5) and 87° (see figure 6) laying angle.

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Effective Tension vs Water Depth dyn. coeff.: 1,2 approx.

lay angle: 85°
Effective Tension 6000
Horizontal Tension 5000

85 °
effective tension (kN)

4000 Pipe 6"
Pipe 8"
3000 Pipe 10"
Pipe 12"
Sagbend Radius
Pipe 14"
2000
Pipe 16"
1000
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Horizontal Tension vs Water Depth dyn. coeff.: 1,2 approx.

lay angle: 85°
500
450
400
horizontal tension (kN )
350
Pipe 6"
300 Pipe 8"
250 Pipe 10"

Pipe 12"
200 Pipe 14"
Pipe 16"
150
100
50
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Sagbend Radius vs Water Depth dyn. coeff.: 1,2 approx.

lay angle: 85°
350
300
sagbend radius (m)
250
Pipe 6"
200 Pipe 8"

Pipe 10"
150 Pipe 12"
Pipe 14"
100
Pipe 16"
50
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Figure 5 - Rigid pipe lay parameters (85° laying angle)

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Effective Tension vs Water Depth

dyn. coeff.: 1,2 approx.
lay angle: 87°
6000
Effective Tension
5000
Horizontal Tension

Pipe 6"
87 ° 4000
Pipe 8"
Pipe 10"
3000
Pipe 12"
Pipe 14"
Sagbend Radius 2000
Pipe 16"
1000
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Horizontal Tension vs Water Depth

lay angle: 87°
300
250
horizontal tension (kN)
Pipe 6"
200
Pipe8"
Pipe 10"
150
Pipe 12"
Pipe 14"
100 Pipe 16"
50
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Sagbend Radius vs Water Depth

lay angle: 87°
250
200
sagbend radius (m)
Pipe 6"
Pipe 8"
150
Pipe 10"
Pipe 12"
100
Pipe 14"
Pipe 16"
50
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Figure 6 - Rigid pipe lay parameters (87° laying angle)
Note: The various laying parameters concerning the 16" rigid pipe are not indicated for water depths lower
than 2000m as the bending moment at sag bend exceeds the allowable value.

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4.7.2 Flexible Lines

Vertical lay parameters have been defined for flexible lines ranging from 4" to 16" ID (see
figure 6).

lay angle: 87°
4000
3500
3000 4" Flexible

6" Flexible
2500
8" Flexible
2000 10" Flexible
12" Flexible
1500 14" Flexible
16" Flexible
1000
500
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)

lay angle: 87°
200
180
160
4" Flexible
140
6" Flexible
120 8" Flexible
100 10" Flexible
80 12" Flexible
14" Flexible
60
16" Flexible
40
20
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Figure 6 - Flexible lay parameters (87° laying angle)
Note : For large diameter flexible, the lay tension are water depth limited due to the flexible product
limitation: 12” (3000m), 14” (2000m) and 16” (1600m).

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4.7.3 Umbilical Lines

Vertical lay parameters have been defined for umbilicals ranging from 114mm to 180mm OD
(see figure 7).

lay angle: 87°
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200 114mm OD Umbilical
138mm OD Umbilical
1000
146mm OD Umbilical
600
400
200
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)

lay angle: 87°
100
90
80
70
138mm OD Umbilical
50
146mm OD Umbilical
30
20
10
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Figure 7 - Umbilical lay parameters (87° laying angle)

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4.8 Installation Method Limitations

The following table 5 will summarize the limitations of each sealine technology versus the
installation techniques:
SEALINES INSTALLATION METHODS AND LIMITATIONS

S-Lay (Steep) J-Lay Reel-Lay
1. Wet Insulated Pipe • Medium size • No known limitation • Medium size
flowline besides the lay rate flowline with D/t
ratio within 16-24
• Residual plastic
for reelability
deformation at
stinger departure • Cumulative strain
deformation
• Water depth
limitation • Water depth
limitation
(e.g. 2000m)
(e.g. 2500m)
2. Flexible pipe • Not applicable • Could be defined • Flexible flowline

as vertical lay can be reeled and
lay with the ramp
• Limitation is
tensioners
related to the
flexible technology • Limitation on
product
technology
3. Clad pipe • Same limitation as • No known • Not recommended

for 1.above (see limitation besides
note) the lay rate
4. Pipe-in-pipe • Same limitation as • Will require • Bulkheads to be

for 1.above bulkheads replaced by
spacers for
• Lay rate
reelability
• Same limitation as
for 1. above
Table 5 – Installation methods and limitations versus sealine technology
Note: At report date, Allseas Solitaire DP Vessel has been awarded the Shell Malampaya pipelay which
includes a 16” diameter carbon steel incoloy 825 clad pipe at 850m WD.

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5 DYNAMIC POSITIONING EQUIPMENT & CLASS
5.1 General
The DP system, encompassing all equipment, sub-systems, control, power, engines, thruster,
etc, that directly or indirectly effects the position keeping ability of the vessel, must be
designed with built-in redundancy and reliability to meet with or exceed the DP System
Class 2 requirement.
All components in a DP system should be designed, constructed and tested in accordance with
international standards recognized by the International Marine Contractor Association (IMCA).
For DP equipment class 2, loss of position shall not occur from a single fault of an active
component or system such as generators, thruster, switchboards, remote controlled valves,
etc, or from a single inadvertent act by any person on board the DP vessel (but may occur
after failure of a static component such as cables, piping, manual valves, etc.).
For DP equipment class 3, loss of position should not occur from any single failure (as for DP
class 2 above) including any static component, and a completely burnt fire sub-division or
flood watertight compartment.
For equipment class 2 and 3, redundancy of all active components is required.
The following sections define the basic and minimum requirements of the DP system.
5.2 DP Functional Requirement
5.2.1 Introduction
A fully operational dynamic positioning system shall reliably keep a vessel in pre-determined
positions or tracks, such that the maximum excursion from vessel motions (e.g. surge, sway,
yaw) and position control system accuracy shall be less than the critical excursion for the
work being performed :
• when working alongside other vessel or nearby structures (fixed or floating)

• during subsea structure installation
• during laying operation while providing a steady tension on product
• during connection of subsea components/structures
• during Remote Operated Vehicle interventions
The DP systems comprise three areas defined as Power, Control and References :
• Power can be sub-divided into power generation, distribution and consumption

• Control refers to an automatic power management system and the position
control system
• References are essentially sensors giving position, environmental and vessel
attitude information (e.g. roll, pitch, heave, heading, etc).
Redundant components and systems must be immediately available and with such capacity
that the DP operation can be continued for such a period that the work in progress can be
terminated safely.
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5.2.2 Power System

The power system must have an adequate response time to power demand changes and be
divisible into two or more systems such that in the event of failure of one system at least one
other system will remain in operation.
The power available for position keeping must be sufficient to maintain the vessel in position
after worst case failure defined according to equipment class (refer also to section 4.4 Safety
Requirement for definition of 'worst case failure').
Utilities supporting power generation systems e.g. cooling water, fuel oil, lubricating oil must
be arranged so that their failure consequences are less critical than failure of the equipment
they support.
Power management is essential on all DP vessels. DP vessels which use substantial
amounts of power for other equipment (than thrusters) such as cranes, lay equipment,
accommodation, pumps, etc., must have the possibility to shed load to maintain power to
thrusters.
The electrical power distribution to thrusters is usually the aspect which determines the worst
case failure mode. The control system must maintain enough power to give time to safely
cease any operation for which position is critically important.
5.2.3 Thruster System

The thruster system should provide adequate thrust in longitudinal and lateral directions, and
provide yawing moment for heading control.
The thruster units should be arranged to give, as far as possible, a balanced configuration
even after the worst case failure.
A fail safe design must avoid a thruster control fault, that results in uncontrolled thrust which
can destabilize the whole system.
5.2.4 DP References and Control System
5.2.4.1 References
The position references have two functions, these are to provide (i) stable position
information and (ii) sufficiently accurate positioning data for the work being carried out.
For DP operations at least two (2) independent references should be on line and of different
types (e.g. DGPS, hydro-acoustic, radio or surface positioning).
When using similar reference sensors, they should be checked for complete redundancy and
without common failure modes.
The position reference systems on-line to the DP control should provide the DP operator with
information to assist with decision making about individual reference system performance and
malfunction.
Typical reference accuracy are summarised as follows:
• DGPS: within +/- 3m

• Hydro-acoustic short baseline: within 2% of water depth with super-short
(SSBL) or ultra-short (USBL) baseline system
• Hydro-acoustic long baseline : better than +/- 5cm over a 50m length (i.e. spoolpiece
metrology)
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5.2.4.2 Control System

The DP control system should provide adequate information to operators such that any
change of status due to weather, equipment malfunction, or operator action shall be clearly
indicated in the DP control room where corrective action is possible.
For product laying, the tension control equipment, must be considered as part of the position
control system, and designed with the same philosophy and level of redundancy to achieve a
balanced vessel design.
To assist the DP operator, the control system should have a continuous analysis function
checking that in terms of thruster and power the vessel can maintain position after the worst
case failure mode.
5.2.4.3 System arrangement

The minimum requirements for of DP Equipment Class 2 system arrangement are
summarised in the following table 6:
Sub-system or Min. Requirement Min. Requirement
Component Class 2 Class 3
Power System Generators and prime movers Redundant Redundant separate

compartments
Main switchboard 1 with bus-tie 2 with normally open

bus ties in separate
compartments
Bus-tie breaker 1 2
Distribution system Redundant system Redundant through

separate compartments
Power management Yes Yes
Thrusters Arrangement of thrusters Redundant system Redundant in separate

compartments
Control Auto control ; Number of computer systems 2 2 + 1 in alternate

control station
Manual control ; joystick with auto heading Yes Yes
Single levers for each thruster Yes Yes
Sensors Position reference systems 3 3 whereof 1 in alternate

control station
External sensors Wind 2 2 Whereof 1

in
alternate
Vertical Reference Sensor 2 2 control
station
Gyro compass 2 3
Other necessary sensors 2 2
Uninterrupted Power Supply 1 1+1 in separate

compartment
Alternate control station Yes Yes
for back-up unit
Table 6 - System arrangement (DnV DYNPOS Class notation)

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5.3 DP Capability Definition (& Plots)

For each dedicated Installation Vessel a ship theoretical capability plots must be produced, all
in accordance with DPVOA document IMCA M 140, Specification for DP capability plots for
the following cases (see figure 8):
• all thrusters operational with 100 % maximum effective thrust

• all thrusters, except the most effective thruster failure
• the maximum number of thrusters that could be operational after the worst case
failure
Figure 8 – DP Footprint
The above should be presented in polar plot form for various current speeds, i.e. 0, 1, 2 and 3
knots, co-incident with wind and associated wave loads from a fully developed sea.
A realistic allowance shall be made for thrust losses from, interaction, tunnel length, control
system response, etc.
The purpose is to provide the DP operators with information so that they can assess whether
safe working limits have been exceeded from intact power and thrust usage.
For product laying operations, the DP capability plots shall be provided after the subtraction
of the mean tension required for the highest pipe tension load combination (of heaviest pipe,
deepest water, etc).

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5.4 Safety Requirement
5.4.1 Introduction
DP safe working limits must be determined for each geographical location and type of task to
be performed.
As a minimum, two types of risk assessment shall be performed :
• Failure Modes Effects & Criticality Analysis, which are equipment specific (e.g.
DP Systems, laying & installation equipment, etc)
• HAZOP/HAZID Analysis, which are more "Job" specific
5.4.2 DP System FMECA

When working closed to a fixed structure (e.g. FPSO) i.e. within the 500 m safety zone, the
environmental limits (i.e. wind, waves, current, respective headings), where the DP vessel
can maintain position after the worst case failure that are known to be possible, must be
defined.
This worst case failure is to be identified from a formal FMECA study, where all possible
failure modes and effects are considered; to ensure that after the worst case failure, the
vessel has sufficient capability to remain on position within safe limits from the FPSO (or
other structures).
5.4.3 Hazardous Operation Analysis

In addition to the above formal DP vessel FMECA study, each location and task require
documentation that further specifies any additional constraints in the form of HAZOP/HAZID
analysis based on pre-established operation procedures (loading, transportation, laying,
lifting, installation, testing, etc).
The principle here is that each task is given individual consideration prior to its being
performed.
For product laying, the DP safe working limits must take into account :
• the consequences of sudden failure of the tension load (e.g. tensioner failure)
• limits of heading capability in beam environmental conditions

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6 INSTALLATION AND LAYING EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
6.1 General
The equipment required on board the installation vessel for the laying of flexible lines,
umbilical cables, rigid or reeled pipe are summarized in the following two tables 7 and 8:
STORAGE FACILITY
Carousel Dolly base Vertical Powered Horizontal Powered Rack

Reel Reel
P Flexible X X X X
R line
O Umbilical X X X X
cable
D
U Reeled X X
Pipe
C
Rigid pipe X
Table 7 – List of product storage facility
INSTALLATION EQUIPMENT
Vertical Lay J-Lay Ramp & J-Lay Ramp & Tensioners & Tensioners
Spread Tensioners Hang-off High & Lay chute
Collar Departure
Stinger
P Flexible X X X
R line
O Umbilical X X X
cable
D
U Reeled X X
Pipe
C
Rigid pipe X X X
Table 8 – List of installation equipment
Typical load capacity and general description of the above equipment are presented in the
following sections.
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With regard to lifting equipment, two cases must be considered:
• Topside lift with heavy lift crane barge

• Subsea lift with adequate cable length and load capacities from a deck winch or
crane
As stated in chapter 2, the offshore topside heavy lift industry is well established and hence
this topic does not require any further comments.
For the subsea lift, holding a subsea structure weighing some 300T plus the lifting cable own
weight of 130T (i.e. cable wire of OD 122mm, with linear weight of 65kg/m at 2000m water
depth) will impose loads that a standard winch cannot cope with.
New handling equipment such as linear winches or capstan winches must be designed with
the use of lighter cable (e.g. synthetic rope) with anti-twist property to fulfil the requirement of
deepwater lifting and lowering of subsea structures. (section 6.4 Abandonment and Recovery
equipment)
6.2 Storage Equipment
6.2.1 Basket Storage Carousel

The basket storage carousel is an horizontal storing system designed to accommodate
flexible line up to 16-inch and umbilical cable (see figure 9).
Spooling arm
Flexible end termination
Carousel
Figure 9 – Carousel on CSO Sunrise 2000
It comprises a structure which will rotate on a vertical axis, and which is supported and run on
typically double circular roller track.
Rotation is achieved by a chain transmission fixed to the outer periphery of the carousel
base. There is also a central king pin for centralization.

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The main components of a basket storage carousel system are listed below:
• carousel structure
• transmission drive
• AC motor drive controller unit
• supporting roller groups & king pin
• spooling arm and chute system
• control equipment
The basket storage carousel is equipped with an articulated spooling arm & chute system to
correctly spool in the pipe during the load-out and extract the pipe from the basket during lay-
down operations.
Typical technical specifications of a 1600T basket carousel system are described below:
• 1600T total product capacity

• 200T - 250T empty carousel weight
• 17m base or outside diameter
• 4m inside diameter
• 7m inside height
• 7m maximum product height
• 0-900m/hr laying speed
6.2.2 Horizontal Powered Reel

The horizontal powered reel is designed as a reel system dedicated to load and lay large
quantities of flexibles, small diameter pipelines or umbilical, in particular integrated services
umbilical (see figure 10).
Spooling system
Horizontal powered reel
Umbilical
Aligner
Figure 10 – Umbilical loading on horizontal powered reel (Seaway Condor)
The horizontal powered reel is also used to lay reeled rigid pipe from a reel lay vessel on
which it is installed temporary or permanently.

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The horizontal powered reel comprises one rotating vertical axis reel around which the
product is stored using laying ramp and straightener/spooler system which is mounted on the
deck for the control of the spooling operation.
During spooling, the pipe string passes up the ramp and then wraps around the reel in a
counter-clockwise direction. Before being wrapped around the reel, the pipe passes over an
alignment shoe that adjusts vertically allowing the pipe to level wind onto the reel. The
process is reversed during installation.
A straightener mounted aft of the aligner is used during installation of rigid lines (reeled pipe,
rigid umbilical, integrated service/production umbilical) to remove any residual pipe curvature
resulting from the reeling process. Note that the aligner is designed to bend the pipeline in the
reverse direction before it enters the straightener. By reversing the pipe curvature, it ensures
that the residual curvature of the pipe entering the straightener is constant and independent
of the amount of pipe remaining on the reel.
Rotation of the reel supported by a base frame with a double circular roller track is achieved
by a chain transmission fixed to the outer periphery of the lower reel flange. The replacement
of the drive chain by a flame cut ring gear and pinion is an alternative solution to increase reel
tension. There is also a central king pin for centralization.
The system consists of the following main components:
• base frame
• horizontal reel structure
• transmission drive
• AC motor drive controller unit
• supporting roller groups & king pin
• straightener/spooler
• control cabin
Typical technical specifications of a 1000T horizontal reel system are described below:
• 1000T total product capacity

• 170T-200T empty powered reel weight
• 12m base or outside diameter
• 5m inside diameter
• 5m inside height
• 6m external height
• 0-1800 m/hr loading speed, 0-900 m/hr laying speed

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6.2.3 Vertical Powered Reel

There are two types of vertical powered reel depending on the product to be laid:
y Flexible and umbilical powered reel

y Rigid pipe powered reel
6.2.3.1 Flexible and Umbilical Powered Reel

The flexible and umbilical powered reel is a portable reel system designed for the purpose of
installation or recovery of flexible pipelines and umbilicals (see figure 10). The powered reel
system has a specific product capacity and is designed to withstand the dynamic forces
resulting from storm conditions while carrying this load.
Vertical reel
Drive tower
Flexible
Level winder
Figure 10 – Flexible unloading from vertical powered reel
The powered reel can be split into two drive towers and the interchangeable drum. The lift
beam is capable of lifting the base and reel together or separately.
It is worth noting that this system can be used for spooling of small pipeline or coil tubing.
The powered reel system is composed of:
• base frame
• winch system
• reel
• AC motor drive controllers box
• control equipment
• level winder.

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A typical 300T powered reel system main characteristics are as following:
• Powered reel system empty weight 70T

• Maximum product capacity: 300T
• Total footprint area (including reel): 13m x 8.7m
• Base frame footprint area: 13m x 5m
• Reel dimensions : 8.7m flange diameter
4.8m hub diameter
5m width
• Torque ratings: 60T.m at 1 rpm
12T.m at 10 rpm
6.2.3.2 Rigid Pipe Powered Reel

The rigid pipe powered reel consists in one large reel of specific product capacity and
permanently installed on board the laying vessel (see figure 11).
Reeled
pipe
Vertical
powered
reel
Lay ramp
Figure 11 – Vertical powered reel for reeled pipe (ETPM Norlift)
The pipe laying tension is entirely controlled by the tensioning system within the J-Lay ramp
where the storage reel only takes the minimum back tension required for correct spooling of
the pipe onto the reel.
When laying pipe, the reel is running in "drag mode", the reel torque is adjusted accordingly
to the required tension.
When spooling on pipe, during loadout operation, the reel is running in traction mode and the
reel torque is adjusted according to the required back tension of the pipe stack.
A 5000T reel storage dimensions are as follows:
• Flanges outside diameter 34m

• Drum outside diameter 18.5m
• Width 8m
• Maximum pipe pay load 5000Te
• Storage volume 5113m3
• Packing density 0.98Te/m3
• Spool in/out speed 30m/mn at any layer
• Spool back tension 50Te
• Drive system Hydraulic drive + rack & pinion
• Reel bearing Shaft bearing
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6.2.4 Dolly Base

The Dolly Base is used for the purpose of unreeling flexible or umbilical lines during laying
operation (see figure 12). In this mode a tensioner is required for maintaining the line tension.
Control container
Rollers
Motorized rollers
Support frame
Figure 12 – Dolly base
The dolly base could be used for spooling the flexible lines onto the reel.
A level winder can be provided to control the fleet angle of the flexible during spooling.
It is composed of a base frame supporting four (4) rollers. The dolly base has a SWL capacity
equal to reel plus product weight and can withstand the dynamic forces due to vessel
motions.
The dolly base system is composed of:
• base framework
• drive system
• AC motor drive controllers box
• control console
• set of seafastening devices
• lifting beam and sling set.
A typical 270T dolly bases features:
• Total design loading (product plus reel) : 270T

• Base frame footprint: 8.4m x 7.3m
• Dolly base total weight: 30T
• Line pull: 3T - 5T with a spooling speed of up to 1800 m/hr

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6.3 Laying Equipment
6.3.1 Tensioner
A typical tensioner, designed to hold back tension induced by weight of heavy products
during installation phase, is composed of three or four track units mounted in a steel frame
and driven by either electrical or hydraulic power system (see figure 13).
Clamping cylinder
Track unit
Pads
Support frame
Figure 13 – 3 tracks tensioner
The track units, able to spread the clamping force over the circumference of the line, provide
an even compression load over the full contact length. The current typical tensioner contact
length is in the range of 1200mm to 3500mm (per track unit). Each of the track unit includes
caterpillar chain and low friction chain rollers, and contains all tensioner functions which are:
• Chain drive
• Clamping function
• Opening function to allow passage of end fittings
• Load cell for tension monitoring
These track units are mounted in a closed frame, which can occasionally be opened to allow
passage of large objects.
The tensioner can be controlled either in speed mode or in tension mode. In the first case the
tensioner maintains a certain speed which is dependent on the tension value. The tensioner
can also be given a tension set-point. In this case the unit maintains a certain amount of
tension independently of the speed.
The typical technical specifications of a 135 Te tensioner are as follows:
• Dimensions 6.2m x 6.2m x 7.6m

• Weight 105Te
• Laying speed 0-15m/min at 125Te
7.5m/min at 135Te

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6.3.2 Overboarding Chute

The minimum radius overboarding chute (i.e. 6m to 12m radius) aims to control the line
curvature and to allow a safe overboarding of umbilicals (steel umbilical or integrated service
umbilical) and flexible flowlines (see figure 14).
Overboarding chute
Figure 14 – 12m radius overboarding chute (Seaway Condor)
When fitted with a low friction chain, it permits safe transfer of lines from the horizontal
position to the vertical position. The overboarding chute frame is fixed on the side or at the
stern of the laying vessel.

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6.3.3 High Departure Angle Stinger (rigid pipe laying)

The physical characteristics of this stinger are significantly different from stinger traditionally
used in shallow to moderate water depths. The deepwater stinger found mainly in steep S lay
method provides (see figure 15):
y A near vertical departure angle for true J-lay with a low horizontal tension
y A fixed truss design rigidly connected to the barge to reduce pipe strains in the
overbend
y 2-piece construction stinger with a removable tip section for vertical pipelay
y Closely spaced supports to limit pipe strains due to local bending on the supports.
Tensioner
Steep S stinger
Horizontal
powered reel
Pipe
Tip Straightener/
section Spooler
Figure 15 – Stinger for Steep S lay method on HERCULES (GLOBAL IND.)
The stinger is rigidly attached to the lay barge with an angle of approximately 45 degrees,
instead of being hinged and free floating like a conventional stinger, because it must support
the large pipe loads produced by the steep departure angle and high pipe tension required in
deep waters. It is not practical to build a floating structure that is capable of supporting these
loads.
The rigidly attached stinger also provides greater control of the pipe curvature in the
overbend. Because its position is fixed relative to the barge, it can use a smaller radius of
curvature and still achieve the same actual maximum pipe strain in the overbend as the
hinged floating stinger with a larger radius and greater length.
The high departure angle stinger is constructed in two pieces. The first, larger section is
approximately 34m in length. At its minimum 42m radius, this section provides a departure
angle of approximately 65 degrees and can be used alone to lay pipelines up to 6-inch in
diameter in water depths from 610m to 915m. A second, removable tip section can be used
to provide a near vertical (90 degree) departure angle for stabbing directly into subsea
connectors.
The stinger has a variable radius with a range of adjustment of approximately 42m to 68m.
This range of radii accomodates pipe diameters up to 12-inch. To minimize the stinger length
and maximize the departure angle, the stinger is designed to use a smaller radius of
curvature and produce higher bending strains in the overbend than the conventional stingers
utilized in shallow water. Its 42m minimum radius corresponds to a nominal bending strain of
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0.2 percent for 6-inch pipe. Pipe strains of this magnitude can be accommodated by the high
yield strength, low D/t ratio pipelines laid in deep waters.
To keep the pipe strains on the stinger as low as possible, the pipe is supported in the
overbend by a series of closely spaced pipe supports which have an average separation
between rollers of less than 1.5m.
6.3.4 Flexible and Rigid Pipe J-lay Ramp

The J-Lay ramp, installed on the lay vessel, is designed for the installation of rigid and flexible
lines in deepwater using the J-Lay method (see figure 16).
Travelling assembly
Travelling assembly
Gutter
Gutter
J Lay tower
Tilting
system Loading arm
Tensioners
Pipe string
Working platform
Hang off clamp

A & R winch
Active roller box
Figure 16 – Flexible and rigid pipe J-lay ramp (SAIBOS FDS)
The main requirements for a typical 2000m water depth J-Lay ramp are listed below:
• Design load 400 tons SWL

• Rigid pipe range 4’’ - 18’’ (external diameter)
• Pipe string range 41,6 - 52m (overall length)
• Flexible pipe range 2’’ - 17’’ (internal diameter)
• Special items (PLEM) 6m x 3m x 3m (maximum dimensions)

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The J-Lay Ramp System includes the following main assemblies and subassemblies :
• J-Lay tower used as a foundation for the equipment required for laying flexible
and rigid lines. The J-Lay tower is connected to the vessel main deck with a
hinged connection at the lower end
• Tilting system served to raise the tower at a particular angle from 45° to 96° in
working conditions and to store the tower in lowest position (e.g. 12°) in survival
conditions
• Travelling assembly, running on a double guides and designed to lower pipe
string handled by a hydraulic elevator upon completion of welding process. This
assembly will also integrate the Internal Line-Up Clamp and X-Ray Tube with its
umbilical winch
• Tensioners (3 off) mounted on sliding ramp will be moved from their storage
position to pipeline lay axis for flexible lay operation
• Retractable gutter, located at mid height of the J-Lay tower and mounted on skid,
will be moved in position for flexible lay operations
• Retractable A&R sheave for abandonment and recovery of lines will be positioned
on the loading arm in such a way that it will be above the PLEM upper position
when the loading arm is upended in the J-Lay tower
• Working platform located at the base of the J-Lay tower to support assembling
station and welding equipment
• Hang off clamp for both flexible and rigid pipe, positioned at the working platform,
to hang the pipeline during welding operation
• Active roller box system composed of upper and lower guiding roller sets to
control pipe departure movements
• Loading arm system to transfer pipe string from horizontal position at the firing
line or storage area to various position of the J-lay tower. In addition the loading
arm includes a line-up device for the performance of pipeline alignment prior to
welding.

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6.3.5 Flexible and Reeled Pipe J-Lay Ramp

The flexible and reeled J-lay ramp is a pipelay system capable of laying both rigid and flexible
pipe including piggyback rigid pipe or umbilicals (see figure 17). The system is also able to
accommodate attachment and deployment of pipeline components such as flanges, anodes
and buoyancy elements.
The pipelay system comprises a 30m ramp, which is elevated from 20° to 90°. The ramp can
traverse 3 meters thereby negating the requirement for a spooling system on reel.
Main and
Welding station
Piggy back
chutes
Tensioner
and
straightener
Exit roller box
Vertical reel
and
monitoring system
Level wind
Figure 17 – Flexible and reeled pipe lay ramp (CSO APACHE)
Situated on the ramp are:
y Main chute
y Piggy back chute
y Main and Piggyback straightener
y 120Te tensioner
y Pipe alignment cylinders
y 200Te hang-off clamp
y A&R sheaves
y Exit roller box
y Exit monitoring system
The ramp pipelay system is controlled and operated from a central control station located in
the Pipe Lay Control Cabin.

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6.3.6 Rigid Pipe J-Lay Ramp

The rigid J-lay ramp equipment comprises 2 main modules: an upending ramp for the pre-
assembled 72m pipe strings; and a variable angle stinger which contains the line-up tools,
welding/inspection/coating station and pipe tensioners. The system is generally mounted over
the stern of the semi-submersible crane vessel (SSCV) (see figure 17).
Upending ramp
Stinger
Line up tool
Tensioners
Welding station
Coating station
Pipe departure
Figure 17 – Rigid pipe J-lay ramp
The major system components are described hereunder:
y Upend ramp: This 110m long ramp upends the 72m long pipe strings from
horizontal to the stinger angle by means of a tackle system located at the top of
the stinger. The upend ramp also supports the line-up tool which is hung down
inside the pipe.
y Stinger: This is hinged over the stern of the vessel and its angle can vary from 20
to 100 degrees. It contains the line-up tools, welding/inspection/coating station,
pipe tensioners and monitors.
y Line-up tool: The external line up tool serves to take over the 72m pipe string
from the pipe ramp after upending, then lower the pipe string to meet with the pipe
line, and provide a provisional line-up between the pipe string and the pipe line.
Final line up is achieved by means of an internal line-up tool.
y Weld station: The weld station is located in the upper section of the stinger. It is
mounted on a tilting platform to accommodate the J-lay range of inclinations. This
platform provides floor space for the crew for line-up, welding and NDT. It also
supports all equipment required for pipe line-up, re-beveling, welding and non-
destructive testing. The station is weather protected.

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y Control cabin: The control cabin is located on the tilting platform.

y Pipe departure angle survey system: For monitoring the stinger inclination and
vessel heading with the direction of pipe departure, four rollers are provided at the
very lower end of the stinger. They follow the pipe movements and provide
information on pipe position.
y Pipe departure support rollers: Series of rollers in a trumpet like arrangement is
provided at the bottom end of the stinger.
6.3.7 J-lay Ramp using Hang-Off Collar

The following is a brief description of the major components of the four pipe strings J-lay
system using hang-off collar (see figure 18) :
Travel block
Strongback
Working
Pipe bin unloading
station
cranes
Tower
Stinger A-frame
Pedestal
Pipe departure
Figure 18 – J-lay ramp using hang-off collar (J-Ray McDermott DB50)
y A-frame and Foundation: This is a single piece module whose function is to

provide support to the other major components of the J-lay system. Composed of
tubular framing supported by three (3) large boxed girders, the A-frame and
foundation extends over the starboard side of the lay vessel approximately 10m
enabling the pipeline centerline to be located outboard of the lay vessel for J-lay
operations.
y Tower support structure: The tower support structure pins to padeyes located
forward and aft of the stern and middle boxed girders in the foundation. Padeyes
located on the tower support structure allow the J-lay system tower and stinger to
be attached above and below the tower support structure respectively. A series of
padeyes arranged vertically on the middle boxed foundation girder allow the tower
support structure, tower and stinger acting as a unit to be adjusted over a range of
70 to 90 degrees relative to the horizontal.

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y Tower: Pinned at its base to the tower support structure, the tower provides the
structural support for the major J-lay system pipe joint handling and pipeline
lowering components. The tower provides guide rails for the raising and lowering
of the strongback and travel block. Located at the base of the tower is the fully
enclosed work area where all welding, NDT and field joint coating operations are
conducted. Located on top of the 61m tower are a set of sheave assemblies
facilitating the routing of the rigging utilized for pipeline abandonment and recovery
operations.
y Stinger: Pinned to the tower support structure, the stinger extends approximately
15m below the water surface and supports three (3) hydraulically operated,
retractable full encirclement roller assemblies designed to support the upper
portion of the pipeline during pipeline welding operations. Video cameras located
adjacent to each stinger roller assembly assist the J-lay system operators to
sequentially open and close each roller assembly in order to facilitate the passage
of the J-lay collars and anodes during pipeline lowering operations. Five additional
underwater video cameras located at the lower elevation of the stinger provide the
means by which engineering personnel can visually observe and measure pipeline
deflections required to maintain pipeline bending strains within allowable limits.
The lower portion of the stinger is also designed to be retracted by extending two
large hydraulic cylinders mounted to the upper (or fixed) portion of the stinger
framing in order to facilitate pipeline abandonment and recovery operations
y Ready rack: The ready rack, located immediately astern of the A-frame and
foundation and centered on the pipeline centerline, provides guide rails for the
strongback that tie-in by means of interchangeable tower angle transition rails to
the strongback guide rails located in the tower. Four retractable horizontal roller
assemblies located on the ready rack support each quadruple joint prior to being
elevated into the tower for welding operations.
y Strongback: Designed to travel along the guide rails located in the ready rack and
tower by means of double roller assemblies located fore and aft, the strongback
provides the means by which each quadruple joint is raised from the ready rack up
into the tower for pipeline alignment and welding operations. Measuring
approximately 51m, the strongback is equipped with four hydraulically operated
multi-purpose pipe handling clamps designed to retrieve each quadruple joint
while in the horizontal position from the ready rack and to assist in welding
alignment operations when supporting quadruple joints in the vertical or near-
vertical position in the tower.
y Strongback lowering cylinders: They support the strongback while the

strongback is in the vertical or near-vertical position and provide the means by
which each quadruple joint is adjusted vertically for welding alignment operations.
y Pedestal: The pedestal is located on two retractable support frames mounted on

the tower support structure immediately below the floor of the work area. The
pedestal of four vertical lugs which engage the underside of the J-lay collar flange,
thereby providing the means by which the pipeline is supported below the field
joint during welding, NDT and field joint coating operations. The pedestal is
designed to be retracted away from the pipeline centerline in order to facilitate
passage of the J-Lay collar and anodes during pipeline lowering operations.

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y Travel block: Designed to travel along the guide rails located in the tower, the
travel block is an open face split block designed to engage the under side of the J-
lay collar flange and is used to lower each quadruple joint onto the pedestal after
welding and NDT operations are completed. The travel block houses two four-inch
thick retractable slide plates which, when closed together under the flange of the
J-lay collar, support the entire weight of the pipeline during lowering operations.
6.3.8 Flexible Vertical Laying System

The flexible vertical laying system is specially designed to install large diameter flexible
pipelines in deep waters (see figure 19). The spread is installed at the stern or over a
moonpool of the lay vessel, and is composed of the following stacked elements:
y A working table, above sea level

y Several modules of tensioner, installed over the table on a foundation structure
y An upper module supporting a pipe deflector (gutter), a 10t service crane and the
load transfer system (A & R Winch)
Transfer crane
A & R winch
Gutter
Tensioner
Flexible
Working platform
Figure 19 – Vertical Laying System (CSO FLEX INSTALLER)
The working table is designed to support the full catenary load and is composed of
hydraulically operated movable parts and can clamp the line fitting and hold the catenary
tension allowing the connection of two line sections or special items such as PLEM in a
vertical configuration.
The system also allows the passage of pre-installed intermediate connections and the
opening of the table for the passage of large pre-installed accessories.
The top module transfer system, permits the holding of the tension of the line and transfer of
the end fitting throughout the tensioners, whilst they are open.

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A safety collar is available for securing the line tension at the working table in the event of a
major tensioner break down.
Several multipurpose tugger winches are available in the working table area.
The vertical laying spread is operated from the deck operation control room.
The technical specifications of a 270T flexible vertical laying system for 2000m water depth
are presented hereunder:
y Maximum pull: 270T

y Maximum brake capacity 375T
y Passage through tensioner 1200mm
y Minimum flexible line diameter 80mm
y Maximum flexible line diameter 600mm
y Laying speed 0 to 16m/min

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6.4 Abandonment and Recovery Winch
6.4.1 General
For deepwater lowering and recovery operations (e.g; beyond 1000 - 1500 msw) the standard
powered winches with steel wire cable are not adapted due to the high load requirement of
some 400 tons capacity.
Three alternative A&R winches are being used with its own advantages and disadvantages :
y linear traction winch with steel wire cable stored on a separated reel
y capstan friction winch with cable stored on a separated reel
y 'flexible pipe follower' using existing flexible pipe tensioner device and stored on
dedicated powered reel
6.4.2 Linear Traction Winch
The adequate length of steel wire are stored on a large powered reel, with the load tension
provided by a linear winch. The linear winch features double jaw devices, one static and one
moveable part activated by hydraulic rams providing a step-by-step displacement of the steel
wire cable at each stroke (see figure 20).
Jacking cylinders
2 half grippers
Support frame
Figure 20 – Linear winch
This technique which can provide very high tension (more than 1000 tons) has a major
drawback related to its very low lowering speed and is therefore used only for installation of
very large subsea templates or foundation structures.

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6.4.3 Capstan Friction Winch

As for the above, the steel wire cable are stored on a separated reel with the load tension
provided by a double-drum capstan friction winch (see figure 21).
Capstan winch Cable storage winch
Figure 21 – Capstan friction winch

This technique will provide sufficient abandonment and recovery speed (e.g. 900 m/h) with
however a major drawback related to the residual torsion induced on the steel wire (passing
through the double drum capstan winch) which would twist the cable as the lifted load is
disconnected from it. Unless the steel wire is prevented from twisting, permanent damage will
be experienced.
Capstan friction winches used in combination with steel wire of some 4"1/5 OD (440 tons
SWL) are currently limited to the water depth of 1000-1500 m.
It is believed that this water depth can be extended with the use of synthetic rope (e.g. high
modulus polyethylene 'Dyneema'), however adequate friction between the synthetic rope and
the capstan steel drums must be ensured.
Synthetic rope has a major advantage in terms of weight, as its density is approximately 1.07,
however there is concern with regards to (1) termination eye spliced, (2) tension fatigue and
(3) tension capacity reduction due to creeping and ageing.
6.4.4 Flexible Pipe Follower

In Brazil for deepwater A&R operations down to 2500 m, Coflexip has promoted a different
technique known as the 'pipe follower' where a 6"OD flexible pipe is used with the existing
tensioner system, to lower or recover a load (see figure 22).
VLS (Vertical
Dolly bases loaded Laying System)
with flexibles
Figure 22 – Laying vessel in “pipe follower” configuration

The main drawback is that this technique can be used only from a dedicated deepwater
flexible lay spread.
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6.5 Welding and Tie-in Techniques
6.5.1 General
The essential feature in offshore pipelaying is that economic pipe string production for a
sufficient pipelay rate can be achieved only by partitioning the welding procedure in a series
of single jobs at multiple welding stations using one or a combination of the following
conventional processes :
y Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

y Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
y Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Since the laying of pipelines in deep and ultra deep waters using the J-lay method requires
single station welding, a long welding time would be needed to perform the entire weld at a
single station using conventional techniques for pipe wall thickness up to 40mm. This
problem has led to the development of a system of fast welding at a single station. Several
welding processes (currently still at R&D stage) are to be considered:
y Electron beam welding

y Flash butt welding
y Radial friction welding
y Laser welding
For small diameters (up to 10" – 12"), the rates obtained with threaded pipes or by a
conventional welding method can be used at a pace that J-curve laying technique is
economically feasible.
However, as regards the joining of heavy walled (1" to 2"), large diameter (12" to 36") pipes,
the problem becomes totally different since the high rate of laying (1 joint every 15minutes)
required for economic reasons can only be reached if the welding operation is carried out in
less than 5 minutes. None of the conventional welding processes can produce this type of
weld in such a short time.

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6.5.2 Conventional Welding Technique

For conventional offshore or onshore pipelaying, manual arc welding by means of cellulose
covered electrodes (SMAW) is fully service-proven (see figure 23).
Figure 23 – Manual welding
Mechanized shielded arc welding methods have been developed which have largely replaced
manual welding with cellulose electrodes in offshore pipelaying because of improved weld
quality and efficiency.
The estimated manual welding times for various pipe diameters are depicted in Table 9 for a
constant D/t ratio of 20:
PIPE OUTSIDE DIAMETER WELD TIME

(inches) (minutes)
8.625 11
10.750 20
12.750 24
14.000 33
16.000 49
20.000 75
24.000 130
Table 9 – Manual welding time
Note: Time estimated excludes inspection and coating and allows for increasing number of welders as
diameter permits.

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As shown, the time required increases rapidly for diameters greater than 16-inches. Material
grade is also a factor in total welding time. Pipe wall thickness up to 1-inch for API 5L X65
(1.25-inch for X60 and 1.375 for X52) are expected to be suitable for welding with normal
weld control procedures. Greater wall thickness will require specialised metallurgy control.
If the necessary pipe metallurgy cannot be achieved and post heat treatment becomes a
requirement, a severe time penalty will be imposed. The heat must be maintained for a length
of time sufficient to allow diffusion of hydrogen and elimination of Martensite. Indicative of
industry practice is one hour of post weld heat treatment per inch of wall thickness.
The estimated mechanised welding times for various pipe diameters are depicted in Table 10
for a constant D/t ratio of 20:
PIPE OUTSIDE DIAMETER WELD TIME

(inches) (minutes)
8.625 6
10.750 6
12.750 9
14.000 5
16.000 6
20.000 8
24.000 10
Table 10 – Mechanized welding time
Note: Time estimated excludes inspection and coating and allows for increasing number of welding heads
as diameter permits.
The mechanized welding system is an automatic orbital welding robot designed to produce
high quality girth welds using either the dual torch welding head or the single torch welding
head combined with the following welding process:
- GMAW: Gas Metal Arc Welding

- PGMAW: Pulsed Gas Metal Arc Welding
- GTAW: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Some types of welding machine are presented hereafter:
y Saturne 8T (from ETPM): This machine consists of 4 arms supporting each a

dual torch welding head, travelling around the pipe, guided by a horseshoe-
shaped ring (see figure 24). With its 8 welding torches, it is capable of high deposit
rate in a narrow gap groove and is well adapted to weld thick and large diameter
pipes (over 20”). The system is well suitable for pipeline in the range from 20” to
42” in diameter, and 16mm to 33mm in wall thickness.

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The system is fully automatic:
- The welding torches are accurately guided on the center line of the
groove,
- The computerized system drives all operations such as torch
positioning, torch start-stop to the selected cycle sequence and other
welding parameters which are pre-set for each pass.
Horseshoe shaped ring
Pipe
Wire
Welding head
Figure 24 – SATURNE 8T
The operator has no influence over the welding operations. He only concentrates
on positioning the machine, watching the molten pool and selecting the automatic
cycle and general safety.

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y SATURNAX (from ETPM): The welding system is composed of a self propelled

carriage guided on a pre set ring around the joint and supporting a dual torch
welding heads, and a fully integrated module with DC power sources and
Electronic Control Units (see figure 25).
Figure 25 – Single welding head SATURNAX
The light weight bugs carrying the welding torches can be handled easily by the
operator.
No need to touch the welding carriage when welding, they are fully automatic
except for the welding torch tracking relative to the joint bevel. This can be
adjusted by remote control if necessary with a trigger on a small handset.
The electronic control units contain welding programs and safety devices.
A SATURNAX system with double dual torch welding heads is also available in
the industry.
• Single torch welding head using GTAW: The welding system is composed of a
self propelled carriage guided on a pre set ring around the joint and supporting a
single torch welding head, and a fully integrated module with DC power sources
and Electronic Control Units (see figure 26).
Wire feeder
Welding torch
Welding head
Pipe
Preset ring
Figure 26 – GTAW welding head

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The welding head is computer controlled and is pre-programmed with the welding
procedures for root, hot, fill and cap passes. The power supply is also a computer
controlled with full control of pulse parameters, including pulse peak currents,
pulse "on-time", pulse "off-time", pulse frequency, back ground current and
average voltage as a function of wire speed.
Note: The welding procedure used for J-Lay is a narrow gap technique depositing an external
root against a copper back-up. The copper back-up is integral to the internal line-up clamp.
The design of the back-up bar is a circumferential row of 1-inch by 2-inch wide copper
segments. Each segment has a spring mounted on each end so that the segment could pivot
and adjust to any high low on the pipe inside diameter.
Mechanized welding procedure uses Ar-CO2 gas mixture as a shielding gas.
6.5.3 Electron Beam Welding

This method has already being applied in the aircraft, nuclear and automobile industries and
had three main advantages:
y Very short welding operations, since welds are made in a single run in the
horizontal position, even for heavy thickness;
y In these conditions it is possible to weld high yield strength steels without a
postweld heat treatment;
y It is possible to fully automate the welding operation, thus increasing its reliability.
The electron beam welding process consists of two guns moving around the pipes to be
welded in a chamber in a primary vacuum (10-2 Torr). The vacuum tightness is ensured on
the inside and on the outside by seals placed directly on the pipes (see figure 27).
Upper pipe
Seal
High power electron gun

External chamber
Weld joint
Lower pipe
Figure 27 – Electron beam welding

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The adoption of this technology applying mobile high power electron guns working in a
primary vacuum does nevertheless require that a certain number of problems are solved:
y Adaptation of the process to the metallurgy of API steels,

y Maintaining of a vacuum around the pipe during welding,
y High reliability of the generators and operation on a barge in a marine
environment.
A wide clearance seal made of reinforced elastomer has made possible the creation of a
vacuum around the pipe in a matter of seconds and then maintained it at 10-2 Torr throughout
the welding operation.
An accurate positioning of the beam on the joint is one of the requirements of electron beam
welding because the very high power density required to produce the weld is obtained by
concentrating a focal spot of 1 mm in diameter onto the joint. Therefore, the tolerances
concerning the positioning of the beam on the joint, as well as the maximum permissible
clearance between edges are below 1 mm. This creates a problem when the pipe strings are
long and large in diameter weighting over 10Te.
The machine containing electron guns is protected against the harmful effect of weathering
and marine environment by a welding chamber divided into two parts: (1) an external
chamber and (2) a pressure lock.
A primary vacuum is constantly maintained in the external chamber, thus limiting
communication with the marine atmosphere to maintenance operations, which is very limited
in number since the guns have long lifetime cathodes.
This external chamber in which a vacuum is always maintained houses the guns and nearly
all mechanisms of the machine, thus protecting them against the harmful effect of the marine
environment.
The pressure lock, however, is brought back to atmospheric pressure at every cycle.
The electron beam welding technique is capable to weld in 3 minutes a 1.25-inch thick, 24-
inch pipe.
6.5.4 Flash Butt Welding

This method has been proven successful in welding land pipelines in the Soviet Union.
Thousands of kilometers of pipelines with diameters up to 24-inch have been laid, and
machines for laying 56-inch are available.
It is composed of a lower and upper frame structure. Supporting columns connects the
frames. The lower chuck jaws are directly connected to the lower frame. The upper chuck
jaws travel on a carriage saddle. A hydraulic press system supported by the upper frame
controls the upper chuck jaws. Between the upper and the lower chuck jaws the inductive
coils are arranged to swing out (see figure 28).

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Figure 28 – Prototype of the flash butt welding machine
The technical data of the machine for welding X 60 pipes of 30" diameter and 40mm wall
thickness is as follows:
y Dimensions 7.1 m x 4.5 m x 4.7 m

y Max welding cross section up to 100,000 mm2
y Connection voltage 380V/50 Hz
y Transformer capacity 3,380 kVA at 50% operating factor
y Welding current max. 360 kA
y Upsetting force max. 5,000 kN
y Normalizing facility 1,600 kW, 150 – 350 Hz
The first phase of the flash butt welding method for pipes involves closing the gap between
the two pipes while impressing high current and low voltage. At the points of contact the
material is fused by the high current density and vaporises generating high pressure. By this
the fused metal is ejected outward and the admission of oxygen to the weld is avoided. After
a certain period of flashing the ends of the pipes are forced or upset together.
The success of a flash butt welding machine depends substantially on obtaining a uniform
heating-up profile (as free of oxides as possible) at the moment of upsetting. This
presupposed that sufficient electrical and mechanical powers are provided. The larger the
cross sections welded together, the more difficult is establishing that condition. To meet these
requirements, first an inductive preheating is connected in series before the flash butt
welding. The pipe ends to be welded together are heated up to 950 °C. Then in the flashing
process sufficient welding temperature can be achieved in a very short period of time
because of preheating.
An even current distribution over the entire pipe radius is also established by proportionate
arrangement of several electrodes at the pipe within small distances from the transformers.
The procedure of the flashing process is computer controlled so that it is reproducible

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concerning all important data: flashing speed, flashing acceleration, welding voltage, flashing
current, etc.
After achieving an optimal heat profile the upsetting process is brought into action, as
determined by the upsetting force, speed and distance.
After the upsetting and the cooling down of the weld there is a coarse-grain structure in the
weld because of flashing with high heat input in the weld area. That structure does not nearly
have the ductility and deformation resistance quality of the unaffected material. Therefore an
inductive normalizing of the weld area is connected after cooling down to temperatures less
than 300 centigrades. By this provision a fine grain structure in the weld is achieved, meeting
the requirements of offshore pipelining.
Having finished the post weld heat treatment, the rough edges inside and outside are
sheared off. Inside a special cutting pig system is used, while outside a rotating milling cutter
is used.
The welding parameters of X52 pipe having dimensions 16-inch OD x 12.7mm wall thickness
are as follows:
y Welding voltage 8.6 V

y Flashing current 17 kA
y Flashing speed 0.4 mm/s
y Flashing distance 10 mm
y Upsetting current 50 kA
y Upsetting force 600 kN
y Upsetting speed 70 mm/s
y Upsetting distance 20 mm
y Preheating and postheating temperature 950 centigrades

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6.5.5 Radial Friction Welding

Radial friction welding is a variant of conventional friction welding developed as a one-shot
joining technique for pipelines.
This process is accomplished by butting together two pipes with beveled ends in axial
alignment which are held by clamps to prevent the pipes from rotating or moving apart (see
figure 29).
Stationary
clamped pipe
Mandrel
Consumable
ring Pipe with end beveled Consumable ring
Figure 29 – Radial friction welding principle (under development by SCS)
A heat resistant mandrel is expanded inside the pipe bore at the weld location. This mandrel
serves to align the abutting pipes and to apply the radial welding pressure. The close fit of the
mandrel prevents flash ingress into the bore leaving a smooth internal profile to the weld.
A solid ring of the same material as the pipe is machined on the inside diameter to a sharper
angle than the angle between the bevelled ends of the abutting pipes. The ring is gripped with
the jaws of the radial compression unit and rotation and compression is started so that the
ring is progressively forced into the V-shaped preparation.
Friction heat sufficient for welding is produced and after a suitable metal displacement,
rotation is ceased and the radial pressure maintained to consolidate the weld (see figure 30).
Pipe weld after

machining
After welding
Figure 30 – Welding sample
Radial friction welding is a solid phase joining process and is therefore suitable for a wide
range of materials including many which are unsuitable for, or cannot be welded economically
by fusion welding.
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Radial friction welding machine covers flowlines in the size range from 6" to 12.75" O.D.
7.5mm to 30mm wall thickness, and is able to weld in cycle times of typically 20 seconds or
less the following material types:
y API 5L X42-X70
y Duplex Stainless Steel
y Martensitic stainless steel
y Titanium alloys
y Internally CRA clad pipe
Radial friction welding is suited to flowline laying due to the following main benefits:
y It is an automated, machine tool based process which is highly repeatable and

does not rely on operator skill
y The welding speed is faster than arc fusion welding making single station
operation economic.
Unlike conventional arc welding which relies heavily on welder skill and post weld non-
destructive examination (NDE) for quality control, radial friction welding is an automated
process which produces a solid phase weld i.e. without fusion of the pipes or consumable
ring. The primary measure in assuring weld quality is therefore the monitoring of machine
parameters during the weld cycle to ensure that settings such as speed, force and
displacement have been kept within predetermined tolerances. The more traditional quality
control checks can then be performed on the finished welds using visual and NDE
techniques.
6.5.6 Mechanical Connectors

Two types of mechanical connectors are being promoted for faster pipeline laying operation:
• Threaded and coupled connectors (e.g. Vallourec, Hydril)

• “Snap and lock” device (e.g. Merlin and Thor connector from Oil States Industries
and Wyman-Gordon respectively)
Subsea pipeline construction by lowering free-flooding 72m long string pipes has already
been used in the North Sea to form the 24” BP Harding pipelines. A seabed hydraulic crawler
connected the strings with «Merlin» snap and lock connectors.
However insufficient field proven records might prevent the mechanical connector technology
to be adopted for pipe-lay operation.

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6.6 Weld Inspection
6.6.1 Introduction
The inspection of butt welds in offshore pipeline production can be performed either by
radiographic testing or ultrasonic testing. These two inspection techniques are described in
the following sections.
6.6.2 Radiographic Testing
Conventional film radiography refers to the inspection process in which a film media is
exposed to X or Gamma radiation, chemically developed to form an image, and then
interpreted to help ascertain weld acceptability (see figure 31).
Film and screens

inside cassette
darkroom facility
Internal mechanical crawler
(houses unexposed
provides x- or gamma ray
sources and developed film,
chemicals, high speed
film dryer, and high
intensity light viewer)
Figure 31 – Conventional film radiography layout
The radiation source is provided by an internal crawler when internal shots are made.
The basic consideration in the use of radiographic testing is the qualification of the image
against a specified standard. Using a given exposure geometry or technique, an image must
be qualified before it is interpreted. Qualified images meet sensitivity and density
requirements; they are also properly identified for purposes of traceability.
Sensitivity of the film is assured with the use of properly placed image quality indicators
(IQI's). Placed next to the weld at specified increments, image quality indicators assure the
inspector that image contrast sensitivity and resolution are adequate to visibly detect
discontinuities in accordance with the governing standard. In the United States, the standard
API 1104 or ASME hole penetrameter is the image quality indicator. "2%-2T" sensitivity is a
common requirement of the film images. The penetrameters are chosen with regard to pipe
wall thickness and weld reinforcement. "2%" refers to the thickness of the penetrameter as
related to the thickness of the steel that the radiation must penetrate. When "2T" is specified,
it is required that the "2T" hole in the penetrameter appears in the radiographic image.
In Europe, wire "DIN" image quality indicators are the standard. The ability to resolve wires of
decreasing diameter on a given specimen relates directly to increasing image sensitivity. A
lesser known image quality indicator is called the CERL IQI. It is composed of three parts; the
first part is a flexible step wedge which is used to measure thickness sensitivity. The second
and third part are metal wires which are closely spaced and dimensionally graded in

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geometric progression. The unsharpness of the image is measured by the least discernable
spacing between two wires.
The density or relative darkness of an image is a second consideration in qualifying a
radiograph. Density is measured on a scale called Hurter-Dreffield (H&D) units. Lighter film
obtains lower valued H&D units while darker film obtains higher values. For film radiography,
the range of acceptable density falls approximately between 1.8 and 4.0.
Most specifications require that identification of weld images appear on the radiograph so that
the image can be traced back to the weld. Improper identification can be cause for rejection
of the radiograph. Currently, lead numbers and flashing are the primary means for identifying
radiographs.
The inspection cycle time is the time commencing with the arrival of the pipe at the inspection
station and ending with the final interpretation decision on weld quality. In conventional film
radiography, the following sequence of events occur during the cycle time:
1. Pipe stops at inspection station.

2. Radiation source is positioned at the weld location.
3. Film is wrapped around the joint.
4. Film exposure is made.
5. Film is transported to the dark room.
6. Film is developed
7. Film is dried.
8. Film is interpreted.
The minimum cycle time for conventional radiography on pipeline operations is four minutes
to read film wet and four and one-half minutes to read film dry. These numbers represent the
physical minimum times using hot chemicals and high speed dryers while not sacrificing
image quality.
Mechanical and human operations are the main parameters which govern the operating
reliability of conventional radiographic systems. Operating personnel control such functions
as exposure time, chemical temperatures, placement of film in cassettes, lead shielding,
record keeping, and interpretation. Exposure time is currently regulated manually and
controlled with a timer. Film development has become almost fully automated and less
subject to human variability. Shielding must sometimes be replaced to avoid scratches
appearing on the radiographic images. Film is interpreted on a high intensity light viewer
screens.
For safety reason, the current total time of radiation exposure is calculated and safety areas
are delimited so that personnel will not be overexposed. The total time for exposure at a
given radiographic station on the laybarge during one day usually will not exceed two hours if
180 joints per day (4 minute cycle time) is assumed. This also assumes a 20 second
exposure. Radiation safety zones are determined by marking off an area outside of which
exposure will be limited to two milliroentgen per hour (2mR).
Note: The inside pipe diameter is a limitation in Radiographic testing using an internal crawler as radiation
source. The minimum inside pipe diameter is 6-inch. For smaller pipe diameter, the radiation source is
positioned on the weld joint in the opposite side from the film.

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6.6.3 Ultrasonic Testing

The orbital ultrasonic testing allows full circular weld coverage inspection in a single pass,
with real time interpretation. The automated ultrasonic system for weld inspection consists of
the following major components (see figure 32):
1. 32-Channel Ultrasonic Flaw Detector

2. Coupling Monitors
3. Data Acquisition Module
4. Temperature Control Module
5. Graphical User Interface
6. Data Storage (Optical Disk)
7. Graphical Output
8. Ultrasonic Scanning Head
9. Tandem or Focused Transducers
Scanning head
Control
station
Weld joint
Control
monitor
Transducers Processing
Umbilical to
system
control station
Preset band
Figure 32 – Automated ultrasonic control system
Every pipe size, wall thickness and welding procedure requires a different ultrasonic
configuration.
Prior to the inspection process, a section of pipe is selected from project material for
construction of the calibration standard, so that the standard has similar metallurgical
properties and the same method of manufacture as the project pipe. The weld profile is
analyzed and segregated into planes based on the geometry of the profile and desired
resolution necessary for the acceptance criteria. A machine drawing is then generated
providing reflectors in positions simulating the weld profile.
For each designated plane, a transducer angle is determined. Focal lengths and beam sizes
are then plotted and optimised to the intended target. For each transducer angle, a velocity
measurement is required to accurately determine wedge angles necessary to produce the
desired refracted angle in the test material.

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Each transducer in the transducer array is then applied to the calibration standard to confirm
theoretical calculations for stand-off positioning. Optimized distance settings were then
recorded and the transducers mounted in the ultrasonic scanner.
Prior to welding, a line is scribed on the pipe surface at a preset distance from the end
preparation. This provided a reference point for application of the scanner band. Each
transducer was then positioned at its operating distance away from the weld centerline on the
calibration standard and adjusted to provide a peak signal from its target reflector in the
transducer inspection zone. The peak response is then adjusted to 80% of full screen height
for each channel. This is the primary reference level. Volumetric zones required additional
gain to detect and characterize indications in their respective zones. A calibration scan is
performed after each weld.
The ultrasonic scanner employs the same drive band used for welding, so that only a minor
change is required for correct scanner positioning. Immediately after welding, a cooling
apparatus was applied around the weld to reduce surface temperature to below 90°C, to
protect against damage to the transducers caused by excessive heat. The scanner is then
latched to band and the zero point set to the weld button. The operator initialized the
inspection interface and proceeded with the one pass weld scan. Repair welds are examined
in a similar fashion.
The ultrasonic system provides a proprietary software interface for correlation and display of
the inspection data. The software is designed with a number of features which provided
assistance to the operator for characterization, sizing and disposition of indications. These
features included variable color spectrum ranges for rapid identification of both amplitude and
transit distance. A data mapping module is included which combined both indication severity
and position in a single display. The Graphical User Interface also included a convenient
method for calculating defect lengths and electronic marking of these areas. Weld
imperfection indications are evaluated by the ultrasonic operator based on the established
acceptance criteria and immediately after scanning and weld disposition, copies of the
ultrasonic inspection process are written to magnetic media along with a graphical print of the
inspection run.
The average cycle time of ultrasonic inspection is 4 minutes for a 14-inch pipeline.
6.6.4 Remarks
Methods of Non Destructive Testing are to be chosen with due regards to the conditions
influencing the sensitivity of the methods. The method's ability to detect imperfections is to be
considered for the material, joint geometry and welding process used.
Since the NDT methods differ in their limitations and/or sensitivities it may be required to
combine two or more methods to ensure optimum probability of detection of harmful defects.
For detection of internal imperfections either ultrasonic and/or radiographic testing is to be
used. Radiographic testing is generally preferred for detection of volume imperfections.
Ultrasonic testing is generally preferred for detection of planar imperfections. Whenever
determination of the imperfection height is necessary, ultrasonic testing is required.

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7 DEEPWATER INSTALLATION VESSELS
7.1 Heavy Lift Vessels
Figure 33 – HEEREMA BALDER
TYPE: PIPELAY CAPABILITY:

SSCV (Semi Submersible Crane Vessel) Type: J-Lay (2 x 6 Field joints)
DIMENSIONS: Ramp angle: 30° - 95°
Length: 154m Range of pipeline: 3" – 30"
Breath: 86m Water depth: 3000m
Depth (Main deck): 42m Lay tension: 500T
Draft: 11 – 27m Max. pipe load: 7000T
DISPLACEMENT: Average lay speed: 1000 – 3000 m/day
Displacement at operating draft: 100,000T DECK AREA/LOADING:
CRANE / LIFT CAPACITIES: Deck space: 6,200T
2 Main cranes: 2,700T/3,600T Deck load: 8,000T
POSITIONING SYSTEM: ACCOMMODATION:
Dynamic positioning: Class 3 402 persons
SPEED:
Transit speed: 6 knots

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OTHER SSCVs:
Figure 34 – SAIPEM 7000
Figure 35 – HEEREMA THIALF
Figure 36 – HEEREMA HERMOD
Figure 37 – J.Ray McDermott DB 101

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7.2 Pipe Lay Vessels
7.2.1 J-Ramp Lay Vessels
Figure 38 – SAIBOS FDS (Field Development Ship)

J –Ramp Pipe Lay Vessel Type: J-Lay (4 Field joints)
Length: 157.5m Range of pipeline: 6" – 18"
Breath: 30m Water depth: 2000m – 2500m
Depth (Main deck): 12.4m Lay tension: 400T
Operating draft: 7m Max. pipe load: 4000T
DISPLACEMENT: Average lay speed: 1000 – 3000 m/day
Displacement at operating draft: 25265T FLEXIBLE LAY CAPABILITY:
POSITIONING SYSTEM: Flexible storage: 4100T
DP: Class 3 (AUTRO) Lay tension: 270T
CRANE / LIFT CAPACITIES: UMBILICAL LAY CAPABILITY:
1 Main cranes: 600T Umbilical storage: 3000T
2 Aux. Cranes: 30T each Lay tension: 140T
SPEED: ACCOMMODATION:
Transit speed: 14 knots 200 persons

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OTHER J-Ramp Lay Vessels:
Figure 39 – J.Ray McDermott DB 50
Figure 40 – SCS SEAWAY FALCON

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7.2.2 Vertical Reel Lay Vessels
Figure 41 – CSO Deepwater Pipelay Vessel

Vertical Reel Lay Vessel Type: two 34m vertical reels
Depth (Main deck): 13.5m Lay tension: 550T
Operating draft: 7.5m Max. pipe load: 5000T (2500 T on each reel)
DISPLACEMENT: Average lay speed: 12000 m/day
Displacement at operating draft: 30000T FLEXIBLE LAY CAPABILITY:
POSITIONING SYSTEM: Flexible storage: 7000T
DP: Class 2 Lay tension: 550T
SPEED: UMBILICAL LAY CAPABILITY:
Transit speed: 14 knots Umbilical storage: 7000T
ACCOMMODATION: Lay tension: 60T - 120T
200 persons (estimated)

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OTHER Vertical Reel Lay Vessels:
Figure 42 – DSND FENNICA
Figure 43 – ETPM NORLIFT
Figure 44 – CSO APACHE

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7.2.3 Horizontal Reel Lay Barges
Figure 45 – GLOBAL INDUSTRIES HERCULES

Horizontal Reel Lay Barge Type: 34m horizontal reel
DIMENSIONS: 100m radius Steep S stinger
Operating draft: 5m Max. pipe load: 7000T
POSITIONING SYSTEM: Average lay speed: 12000 m/day
DP: Class 2 FLEXIBLE LAY CAPABILITY:
CRANE / LIFT CAPACITIES: Flexible storage: 7000T
Main crane: 2000T Lay tension: 555T
DECK SPACE/LOADING: UMBILICAL LAY CAPABILITY:
Deck area: 2137m² Umbilical storage: 3000T
SPEED: Lay tension: 120T
Transit speed: 11 knots ACCOMMODATION:
191 persons

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OTHER Horizontal Reel Lay Barge:
Figure 46 – GLOBAL INDUSTRIES CHICASAW

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7.2.4 Steep S Pipe Lay Vessels
Figure 47 – ALLSEAS SOLITAIRE

Steep S Pipe Lay Vessel Type: Firing line
DIMENSIONS: 110m radius Steep S stinger
Length: 298.5m Range of pipeline: 6" – 18" (up to 60”)
Breath: 40.6m Water depth: 3000m
Operating draft: 8.5m Max. pipe load: 14000T
DISPLACEMENT: Average lay speed: 4000 m/day
Displacement at operating draft: SPEED:
POSITIONING SYSTEM: Transit speed: 14 knots
DP: Class 3 (AUTRO) ACCOMMODATION:
CRANE / LIFT CAPACITIES: 420 persons
2 Cranes: 25T each

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OTHER Steep S Pipe Lay Vessel:
Figure 48 – ALLSEAS LORELAY

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7.3 Flexible Lay Vessels
Figure 49 – CSO SUNRISE 2000
TYPE: FLEXIBLE LAY CAPABILITY:

Flexible Lay Vessel Type: Vertical Laying System (VLS)
DIMENSIONS: Range of flexible: 4" – 16"
Length: 136m Water depth: 2500m
Breath: 30m Lay tension: 270T
Depth (Main deck): 10m Max. flexible load: 3800T
Operating draft: 6m Average lay speed: 15-30m/mn
DISPLACEMENT: UMBILICAL LAY CAPABILITY:
Displacement at operating draft: 18885T Umbilical storage: 3800T
POSITIONING SYSTEM: Lay tension: 38T
DP: Class 2 SPEED:
CRANE / LIFT CAPACITIES: Transit speed: 12 knots
2 Main Cranes: 75T each ACCOMMODATION:
1 Aux. Crane: 30T 72 persons
DECK AREA/LOADING:
Deck area: 3000m²
Deck loading: 5000T

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OTHER Flexible Lay Vessels:
Figure 50 – CSO FLEXINSTALLER
Figure 51 – CSO FLEXSERVICE 1

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7.4 Umbilical Lay Vessels
Figure 52 – SCS SEAWAY CONDOR
TYPE: FLEXIBLE LAY CAPABILITY:

Umbilical Lay Vessel Type: Horizontal reel + 12m radius chute
DIMENSIONS: Range of flexible: 4" – 6"
Length: 101m Water depth: 1650m
Breath: 23m Lay tension: 40T
Depth (Main deck): 11m Max. flexible load: 400-1250T
Operating draft: 6m Average lay speed: 15-30m/mn
POSITIONING SYSTEM: UMBILICAL LAY CAPABILITY:
DP: Class 2 Umbilical storage: 1250T
CRANE / LIFT CAPACITIES: Lay tension: 40T
Crane: 65T SPEED:
DECK AREA/LOADING: Transit speed: 12 knots
Deck area: 1110m² ACCOMMODATION:
Deck loading: 1860T 100 persons

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OTHER Umbilical Lay Vessel:
Figure 53 – SCS SEAWAY EAGLE

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DEEPWATER INSTALLATION VESSELS SUMMARY TABLE

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SSCV Balder Hermod Thialf SaiBos 7000 DB 101

Operating GOM Far East North Sea North Sea GOM
areas North Sea GOM
Operators Heerema Heerema Heerema Saipem JRMcD
Built (converted) 1978-1998 1 978 1 985 1987-1999 1 978
LOA (m) 154 154 201,6 198 146,3
Breadth (m) 86 86 88,4 87 51,9
Operating Draft (m) 25 25 26,6 27,5 23,5
Depth maindeck (m) 42 42 49,5 43,5 36,5
Displacement (t) 100 000 110 000 180 000 172 000 90 000
GRT (t) 48 511 73 887 136 709 117 812 32 509
Deckload (t) 8 000 8 000 12 000 15 000 4 000
Payload (t) 7 000 - - 10 000 2 400
Deckspace (m²) 6 200 6200 (20t/m²) 9290 (15t/m²) 4 000
DP Class 3 anchored 3 3 anchored
Power (KW) 27 000 19 355 27 600 44 800 9 900
Bollard pull (t) 450 140 215 370 0
Headsea (knt) 50 - 40 65 -
Beamsea (knt) 50 - 40 60 -
Bunkers (m3) 5 838 5 850 8 220 7 770 3 248
Consumption (t/d) 40-60 ? 50 60 ?
Speed (knot) 6 6 6 9 12
Pipelay type J-Lay (2x6FJ) no no J-Lay (2x4FJ) no
Ramp angle (°) 30°-95° - - 30°-85° -
Water depth (m) 3 000 - - 2 000 -
Tension (t) 500 - - 525 -
Max pipeload (t) 7 000 - - 7 000 -
Length (km) vs ID 16" 33 - - 33 -
ID 18" 27 - - 27 -
ID 20" - - -
ID 24" 15 - - 15 -
ID 30" - - -
Average lay speed (m/d) 1000-3000 - - 1000-2000 -
WOROV ? ? ? ? ?
Saturation diving ? ? ? 14p ?
Accommodation 402 336 736 800 279
Twin Cranes (t) 2700/3600 3600/4500 6000/6000 7000/7000 3 175
Boom (m) 110 110 110 150 100
Lift (t) at 500 t no no no no
water depth (m) 3000 m - - - -
Lift (t) at 1500 t no no no no
water depth (m) 1500 m - - - -
Table 1 – Semi-Submersible Crane Vessel Summary Table

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DEEPWATER INSTALLATION CONTRACTORS

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ALLSEAS MARINE CONTRACTORS SA COFLEXIF STENA OFFSHORE GROUP

5 route de la Coula 23 avenue de Neuilly
1618 Chatel – St Denis 75116 Paris
Switzerland France
Tel: (21) 948 91 91 Tel: (1) 40 67 60 00
Fax: (21) 948 91 41 Fax: (1) 40 67 60 03
DSND Sondenfjeldske AS ETPM

Radhusgt. 23 P.O. Box 752 Sentrum 32 avenue Pablo Picasso TSA 76001
N-0106 Oslo 92754 Nanterre cedex
Tel: (47) 22 41 21 50 Tel: (1) 40 97 63 00
Fax: (47) 22 41 06 50 Fax: (1) 40 97 63 33
GLOBAL INDUSTRIES, Ltd HEEREMA MARINE CONTRACTORS

900 Halliburton center 16th Floor Portland House
5151 San Felipe Stag Place
Houston, Texas 77056 Victoria
Tel: 713 624 2222 London SW1E 5HH
Tel: (0171) 932 1700
Fax: (0171) 932 1750
J RAY MCDERMOTT SA ROCKWATER Ltd

Albemarle House Stoneywood Park
1 Albemarle Street Dyce
London W1X 3HF Aberdeen AB21 7DZ
Tel: (0171) 629 4411 Tel: (01224) 722877
Fax: (0171) 629 0145 Fax: (01224) 795746
SAIPEM SAIBOS (Services) SAS

Via Martiri di Cefalonia, 67 3 rue Stephenson
20097 S.Donato Milanese Montigny-le-Bretonneux
Italia 78884 Saint-Quentin-Yvelines Cedex
Tel: 39 2 520 34075 France
Fax: 39 2 520 44289 Tel: (1) 30 60 66 60
Fax: (1) 30 60 66 00
STOLT COMEX SEAWAY GROUP STOLT COMEX SEAWAY S.A.

Bucksburn House BP 69
Howes Road 467 Chemin du Littoral
Bucksburn 13321 Marseille Cedex 16
Aberdeen AB21 9RQ France
Tel: (01224) 718200 Tel: (33) 4 91 09 68 01
Fax: (01224) 715129 Fax: (33) 4 91 09 68 00

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TotalFinaElf Table 2 - PIPELAY VESSEL SUMMARY TABLE DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
Ships, Barges FDS Solitaire Lorelay Falcon Apache CSO DPV DB 50 DB 16 Norlift Chicasaw Hercules Fennica
Operating W.Africa North Sea North Sea North Sea North Sea North Sea GOM GOM North Sea GOM GOM North Sea
areas S.Atlantic S. Atlantic S.Atlantic S.Atlantic S.Atlantic S.Atlantic Brazil
Operators SaiBos Allseas Allseas SCS CSO CSO JRMcD JRMcD ETPM Global Global DSND
Built (converted) 2 000 1972-1998 1 986 1 995 1979-1993 2 000 1986-1991 1 996 1992-1995 1 970 1975-1998 1992-1997
LOA (m) 157,5 298,5 182 149 123 195 152 122 98 84 122 116
Breadth (m) 30 40,6 26 21 23,34 30 46 30 25 24 43 26
Operating Draft (m) 7 8,5 7 8 5,6 7,5 6 5 6 2,9-3,7 5 8
Depth maindeck (m) 12,4 24 16 13 8,69 13,5 13 9 7 6 8 13
Displacement (t) 25 265 ? ? 30 000 ? ? ? ? ? ?
GRT (t) ? ? ? 10 385 7 280 ? 29 722 7 684 5 497 ? ? 8 600
DWT (t) 10 500 125 000 ? ? ? ? ? ? 4 604 ? ? 4 870
Deckload (t) 4 000 4000+ 2 000 2 000 7 000 10000+ ? 3 000 3 000 ? 3 000
Payload (t) 5 600 14 600 4 000 5 000 2 500 7 000 10000+ ? 3 000 3 000 ? 3 000
Deckspace (m²) 3000 (10t/m²) ? 2 120 2 400 235 (5t/m²) 800 2935-10t/m² ? 1 200 1 800 2 137 1050-10t/m²
DP Class 3 (AUTRO) 3 3 (AUTRO) 2 2 (AUTR) 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 (AUTRO)
Power (KW) 25 000 48 000 18 240 13 200 9 720 20 000 13 550 8 000 10 000 2 500 20 000 21 000
Bollard pull (t) 100 450 100 ? 85 70 100? 80 ? 80 35 70 200
Headsea (knt) 60 60 ? 60 50 60 ? ? 50 ? ? 60
Beamsea (knt) 35 45 ? 30-35 20-25 30 ? ? 20-25 ? ? 20-25
Bunkers (m3) 2 500 ? 3 000 2 800 900 ? 1 800 ? 1 320 227 2 574 1 580
Consumption (t/d) 20-32 ? 30 20-32 ? 30 ? ? 16-30 ? ? 15-30
Speed (knot) 14 14 13 13 11 14 9 6 10 5 11 13
Pipelay type J-Lay (4FJ) S-Lay S-lay J-lay 25m VReel 2x34m VReel J-Lay (4FJ) 18m VReel 18m Reel 24m HReel 34m HReel Ver.reel
Stinger, Ramp angle (°) 12°-96° 110m radius 60 m radius 21°-90° 18°-70° 16°-90° 30°-87° 30°-87° 30°-87° 30m radius 100m radius 30°-90°
Water depth (m) 2000-2500 3 000 1 650 1 000 1 800 2 500 2 000 1 000 1 000 900-1800 2 440 2000 ?
Pipe Tension (t) 400 400 135 75 160 550 170 125 125 67 555 120
Max pipeload (t) 4000+ 14 000 4000 + 3 000 2 000 5 000 1 250 1 250 1 250 2 268 7 000 1 100
Length (km) vs ID 6" 107 375 107 80 65 140 42 42 42 31 190 40
ID 8" 62 217 62 45 30 80 22 22 22 18 110 20
ID 10" 40 140 40 30 24 60 15 15 15 14 70 15
ID 12" 30 105 30 20 16 45 11 11 11 6 50 10
ID 14" 25 88 25 no 12 37 ? no no no 50 no
ID 16" 20 70 20 no 8 25 ? no no no 40 no
ID 18" 15 53 15 no no 18 ? no no no 30 no
Average lay speed (m/d) 1 500 4 000 2 500 1 500 12 000 12 000 1 500 10 000 12 000 12 000 12 000 12 000
Piggy Back 6"(300t) no no 6" (400t) 8" (320t) 4"(320t) no no no 6" (160t) 8" (320t) 6" (160t)
Flexlay type tensioner no no tensioner reel+tens. reel+tens reel+tens. reel+tens reel+tens. Hor.reel reel+tens reel+tens.
Storage (t) 4 100 3 000 2 470 7 000 1 250 1 250 1 250 2 268 7 000 1 100
Tension (t) 270 135 197 550 170 125 120 67 555 120
Umbilical lay reel+tens. no no tensioner reel+tens. reel+tens reel+tens. reel+tens reel+tens. Hor.reel reel+tens reel+tens.
Storage(t) 4 100 3 000 2 470 7 000 1 250 1 250 1 250 2 268 3 000 1 600
Tension (t) 80 30 30-120 60-120 30-120 30-100 30-80 67 120 30-80
WOROV 2x150 hp ? 2x100hp 2x50hp 2 x 100hp 2 x 100hp 2x100hp 2x100hp ? 2x75hp 2x150hp 2x100hp
OBSROV no ? achille no no ? ? ? no ? ?
Saturation diving option no ? no no no - - 16p no 9p no
Accommodation (p) 200 420 216 105 100 ? 237 147 80 65 191 82
Crane (t) 600t-30m no 300t-14m 30t-10m 27t-10m 30t-20m 4000t 600t-23m 300t-12m 116t-16m 2000t 15t-14,5m
Boom (m) 100 no 37m 30 24m ? 105m 85m 50m 40m 70m 20m
Aux.Crane 2x30t-38m 2x25t-33m no 2x30t-10m no ? ? no no 90t-20m no
Pipe davit (t) no no no no 4x10t no no no no no no A-frame120t
MHS (t) 100t-2000m no no 30t hc no no no no no no no no
Rev. 0 DEEPWATER INSTALLATION VESSELS
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Table 3 - FLEXIBLE AND UMBILICAL LAY VESSEL SUMMARY TABLE
Ship Condor Eagle Installer Flexservice 1 Sunrise Wellservice GSV Lochanar K3000
Operating North Sea Asia North Sea Brazil Brazil North Sea North Sea Brazil Brazil
areas S.Atlantic Pacific W.A. ?
Operators SCS SCS CSO CSO CSO CSO Rockwater DSND DSND
Built (converted) 1 994 1994-1997 1983-1989 1976-1990 1984-1995 1987-1995 1 998 1992-1998 1992-1999
LOA (m) 101 138 102 129,69 136 111 114 120 120
Breadth (m) 23 19,5 20 17,37 30 23 22 20 20
Operating Draft (m) 6 8 5 7 6 7 7 5 5
Depth maindeck (m) 11 11 7 10,21 10 11 10 7 7
Displacement (t) 18 885 ? ?
GRT (t) 6 046 ? 4 603 8 060 10 648 9 158 ? ? ?
DWT (t) ? 8 250 ? ? ? 4 626 6 850 ? ?
Deckload (t) 1 860 2 000 2 500 3 000 5 000 1 140 4 500 3 500 3 500
Payload (t) 2 000 3000-6000 3 000 2 600 5 000 - 3 400 3 000 3 000
Deckspace (m²) 1 110 1 300 1000-10t/m² ? 3000-15t/m² 970 1590-5t/m² ? ?
DP Class 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 (AUTRO) 3 3
Power (KW) 7 740 10 700 10 000 7 000 14 000 13 440 10 720 10 000 10 000
Bollard pull (t) 60 120 80 30 65 100 70 80 80
Headsea (knt) 50 50 40 ? 50 70 60 ? ?
Beamsea (knt) 20-25 30 20-25 ? 20-25 35 35 ? ?
Bunkers (m3) 1 320 1 610 963 895 2 179 2 388 1 400 ? ?
Consumption (t/d) 10-25 10-25 10-25 15-25 16-30 19-30 10-25 15-25 15-25
Speed (knot) 11 13 12 11 12 12 14 14 14
Flexible lay Hor.reel tensioner VLS tensioner VLS VLS FLS tensioner tensioner
Overboarding 12m radius 6m radius verttical 6m radius 6m radius vertical vertical 6m radius 6m radius
Water depth (m) 1 650 1 000 350 1 000 2 500 450 1 500 1 000 1 000
Tension (t) 12 75 125-250 100 270 125 140 100 100
Max storage (t) 400-1250 3 000 4 000 2 600 3 800 1 200 3 400 3 000 3 000
Length (km) vs ID 4" 22 55 84 50 80 24 75 55 55
ID 6" 15 30 42 30 38 12 34 30 30
ID 8" - 22 26 20 24 8 20 22 22
ID 10" - 16 18 15 16 6 15 16 16
ID 12" - 13 16 10 15 5 14 13 13
ID 14" - 10 14 - 10 4 10 10 10
ID 16" - 6 6 - 6 2 6 6 6
Umbilical lay reel tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner
Storage(t) 1 250 3 000 3 000 2 600 3 800 1 200 3 400 3 000 3 000
Tension (t) 40 30 30 25 38 30 30 25 25
WOROV 2x100hp 2x100hp 2x75hp 1x75hp 2x150hp 2x100hp 2x100hp 2x100hp 2x100hp
OBSROV sprint achille yes achille no no no no no
Saturation diving 6p 6p no 6p no 18p no no no
Accommodation 100 98 60 85 72 149 102 90 90
Crane (t) 65t-15m 100t-10m 25t-19m 20t-13m 75t-15m 2x65t-26m 100t-13m ? ?
Boom (m) 24m 25m 20m 20m 30m 30m 30m
Aux.Crane 5t-15m 30t-15m 30t-15m
Pipe davit (t) no no no no 15t-15m no A-frame 150t
MHS (t) 50t hc no no no no no no
Rev. 0
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REFERENCE BOOK
TIE-IN METHODS
Rev. 0 Page 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 4
1.1 SCOPE...................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 REGULATION, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS ................................................. 5
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. 6
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 6
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT....................................................................................... 7
2.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEM ................................................................................... 8
2.3 FLOWLINE OR UMBILICAL TERMINATION ....................................................................... 9
2.4 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES ...................................................................................... 9
2.5 SUBSEA FIELD DEVELOPMENT PLAN .......................................................................... 10
2.6 VESSEL .................................................................................................................. 10
2.7 CONNECTION TOOL ................................................................................................. 10
2.8 ROV ...................................................................................................................... 11
3 CONNECTOR TECHNOLOGY AND MANUFACTURER REVIEW ............................. 12
3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 12
3.2 COLLET CONNECTOR ............................................................................................... 13
3.3 CLAMP CONNECTOR ................................................................................................ 14
3.4 PETROBRAS TRIPLE LINE CONNECTOR ...................................................................... 17
3.5 MERLIN CONNECTOR ............................................................................................... 19
3.6 ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR......................................................................................... 20
4 TIE-IN TOOL TECHNOLOGY REVIEW ...................................................................... 21
4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 21
4.2 REMOTELY OPERATED TOOLS .................................................................................. 22
4.3 ROV-MOUNTED PULL-IN AND CONNECTION SYSTEMS ................................................. 26
4.4 ROV-MOUNTED CONNECTION SYSTEMS .................................................................... 33
4.5 4.5 "MATIS" API FLANGE TIE-IN TOOL...................................................................... 35
5 TIE-IN METHODS ....................................................................................................... 36
5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 36
5.2 LAY-DOWN & PULL-IN .............................................................................................. 37
5.2.1 Description .................................................................................................................37
5.2.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................38
5.2.3 Utilisation and limitations ...........................................................................................39
5.3 DIRECT PULL-IN ....................................................................................................... 40
5.3.1 Description .................................................................................................................40
5.3.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................41
5.4 DEFLECT-TO-CONNECT ............................................................................................ 42
5.4.1 Description .................................................................................................................42
5.4.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................43
5.5 VERTICAL STAB, HINGE-OVER & LAY-AWAY ............................................................... 44
5.5.1 Description .................................................................................................................44
5.5.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................45
5.6 SURFACE TIE-IN, LAY-AWAY & LAY-TO....................................................................... 46
5.6.1 Description .................................................................................................................46
5.6.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................47
Rev. 0 TIE-IN METHODS Page 2

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5.7 VERTICAL CONNECTION AND TRIPLE FLOWLINE LAY-AWAY .......................................... 49

5.7.1 Description .................................................................................................................49
5.7.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................50
5.8 FLEXIBLE JUMPERS .................................................................................................. 52
5.8.1 Description .................................................................................................................52
5.8.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................52
5.9 STEEL JUMPERS ...................................................................................................... 54
5.9.1 Description .................................................................................................................54
5.9.2 5.9.2 Tie-in procedure................................................................................................54
5.10 "RIGI-FLEX" JUMPER................................................................................................ 56
5.11 HYBRID STEEL PIPE & FLEXTAIL ................................................................................ 57
5.11.1 Description .................................................................................................................57
5.11.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................58
6 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES ......................................................................... 59
7 SUBSEA METROLOGY.............................................................................................. 61
7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 61
7.2 ACOUSTIC BASE LINE ............................................................................................... 61
7.3 TAUT WIRE METROLOGY........................................................................................... 62
8 TIME ESTIMATED FOR DEEPWATER TIE-IN OPERATION ..................................... 63
ANNEX 1: MANUFACTURERS AND CONTRACTORS LIST ............................................ 64

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
As the impact of a tie-in operation on the overall installation cost of a project growths with the
water depth, a better understanding of available connection techniques, a judicious choice
and an early integration of the tie-in method in the engineering studies are keys to
successfully control the whole cost of a deepwater installation project.
Performing tie-in in deepwater involves to use diverless and guidelineless methods, with
adapted subsea connectors and remotely operated tools.
With these aims in view, this document reviews the currently available tie-in methods for
deepwater applications. It deals firstly with the interface requirements for a tie-in operation;
knowing that tie-in methods and connector hardware are closely related. The main connector
systems are then described, prior to reviewing deepwater tie-in methods and their installation
performance.
The interface requirements between the different subsea structures/equipment and

installation means are described in hereafter chapter 2. Such interface engineering must
addressed:
• Subsea Production System design

• Flowline end termination (typically of 12" NPS)
• Umbilical end termination (up to 6" OD)
• Operational conditions
• Subsea field development plan and sequences
• Installation vessels
• Connection tools
• and finally the ROV capabilities
In the following chapter 3, the existing connector technologies are reviewed and the main
manufacturers are listed.
With the connector, special tie-in tools are required, either ROV mounted tools or dedicated
tools which are remotely operated from the surface tie-in vessel. These tie-in tool
technologies are further investigated in chapter 4.

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The key topics of tie-in methods are thereafter detailed in chapter 5 in terms of operational
procedures with its application limits and based on the selection of following deepwater
applicable techniques:
• Laydown and pull-in

• Direct pull-in
• Deflect-to-connect
• Vertical stab, hinge-over and lay-away
• Surface tie-in, lay-away and lay-to
• Vertical connection and triple flowline lay-away
• flexible jumpers
• steel jumpers
• "Rigi-flex" jumpers
• Hybrid steel pipe and flextail
In chapter 6, the main advantages and disadvantages for each above tie-in methods are
presented in a tabular form.
The subsea metrology is also an important feature, especially in the case of the rigid steel
jumpers. This subject is further detailed in chapter 7.
Finally, in chapter 8, times estimated for deepwater tie-in operation are discussed.

DNV 81: "Rules for submarine pipeline systems".
DNV 96: "Rules for submarine pipeline systems" (Limit State Design)
ISO/TC67/SC4:
• Part 8: Design and operation of ROV interfaces on subsea production equipment
• Part 9: ROT intervention systems
API 5L & 54C: "Specification for line pipe"
API RP 1111: "Recommended practice for design, construction, operation and
maintenance of offshore hydrocarbon pipelines"
API RP 14E: "Design and installation of offshore production platform piping systems"

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Connector: Connection hardware (clamp, locking mechanism, etc.)
Deepwater: deeper than 1000 msw
DP: Dynamic Positioning vessel
FMECA: Failure Mode Effect and Criticality Analysis
ID: Internal Diameter
LARS: Launching and Recovery System (for ROVs, ROTs)
NPS: Nominal Pipe Size
OD: Outside Diameter
PLEM: Pipeline End Manifold
ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicle
ROT: Remotely Operated Tool
SPS: Subsea Production System (i.e. subsea structures such as X-mas
trees, manifolds, etc.)
Tie-in: Methodology, operation procedure for the subsea connection activity
1.4 References
This study is based on the following sources
• Industry available documentation such as OTC papers

• Vendors / Manufacturer published technical data.
• In house technical data from the subsea contractors.
• In house past experience in subsea tie-in works
Reference is made to the documents "Umbilicals" and "Sealines", part of the deepwater field
development reference book.

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2.1 General
The following chart depicts the main interfaces of a tie-in operation, which are then further
explained in the following subparagraphs. This clearly shows the importance of an early
integration of the tie-in method and connector type in a development project as they interfere
with several items such as the subsea structure or installation vessel choice.
Subsea Field
Development Plan
Subsea Production
Subsea Flowlines
System
TIE-IN METHOD
CONNECTOR
Tie-in Tool(s)
ROV(s)
Tie-in Vessel(s)
Scheme 2.1 - The main interfaces

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A subsea structure has to be designed and equipped with due consideration of the following
additional mechanical aspects:
• space/dimension provision for the selected connector, the tie-in tools and ROV
operations.
• tie-in aid equipment such as guiding devices, latching systems, etc.
• equipped with an inboard hub adapted to the future flowline connector
• connection/reaction loads which vary with the tie-in method
• resist to the in-service load conditions such as temperature, slugging, etc.
GUIDE / REACTION POSTS
INBOARD
HUB
CONNECTOR
Figure 2.2 - Visund field subsea tree to be connected by the RTS

(ROV Tie-in System), by courtesy of Kvaerner

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2.3 Flowline or umbilical termination

The line termination must be designed and equipped with the following considerations:
• equipped with the adequate outboard hub adapted to the future connector.
• the connection method. Eventual pulling devices, guiding structures, tool jig, etc.,
may be included in the line head or PLEM design and manufacturing.
Figure 2.3 - Universal Tie-In System (UTIS) termination heads,

by courtesy of Kongsberg Offshore
2.4 Operational procedures

The operational procedures will depend obviously on the selected tie-in method and must
also consider the following aspects:
• surface environmental conditions (weather downtime, launching system, etc.)
• water depth (hydrostatic pressure, deployment time, diverless and guidelineless
operation)
• seabed environmental conditions (soil stability, current, visibility)
• remote operation type (ROT, ROV based)
• subsea lifting and pull-in requirement
• tie-in support vessel deck space and handling facilities
• risk analysis based on HAZOP studies and FMECA

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2.5 Subsea field development plan

The subsea field development plan has a great influence on the tie-in method performance
as it determines:
• the total number of connections, for the initial and future field development
phases
• the chronological integration of tie-in operations in the whole project
• the interference or not with other surface units (drilling rig, production floater, etc.)
and other subsea structures during the connection.
This has an impact on the tie-in method choice as it determines the available means (tie-in
support vessels, tools, vessel coordination, etc.) and sometimes involves some critical
phases in the operational methodology such as abandonment of lines prior to their recovery
after the arrival of the production floater.
2.6 Vessel
One or several ships of the following types can be involved in a tie-in operation:
• Laying vessel
• Drilling/completion rig
• ROV-support vessel
The vessel and tie-in method choices are intimately related. Some tie-in methods require the
presence of two vessels (e.g. the Lay-away tie-in method, see "5.6. Surface tie-in,
lay-away and lay-to", which requires the simultaneous presence of the laying ship and the
drilling rig), this interface can have a costly repercussion on the project.
Launching and recovery of both the ROVs and the ROTs can also be defined as an interface
item as its performance have a direct impact on the time (hence the cost) of a tie-in
operation.
2.7 Connection Tool

The connection tool choice is based on:
• the type of connector

• the tie-in method
• the ROV operation (ROV intensive or ROV used for back-up function only)
In the early 80's, tie-in methods were based on two remotely operated tools (ROT), one pull-
in tool and one connection tool which were run separately. These tools were later in the 80's
combined in one Pull-In & Connection Tool (PICT) with cable storage drum installed on tie-in
vessel. Recently the industry has introduced the ROV based pull-in and connection tool,
which is mounted below the ROV.
The connection tool design depends on the connector type (which determinates the required
functions: hydraulic supply, torque tool, integrated seal plate handling and replacement tool,
etc.) and varies with each SPS manufacturers.

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2.8 ROV
For the ROT/tie-in method, the ROV is used primarily as a visual control during the ROT
landing and recovery, and to connect the pull-in wire (see "5.2 Lay-down and pull-in"). Its
secondary function is to override some of the ROT main functions in case of an ROT
mechanical failure.
In this case the main interfaces are related to:
• Space/dimension for ROV manoeuvring, docking

• Hydraulic aspects of hot stab operations (override functions)
• Mechanical interface aspects of ROV manipulator and override valve panels
With regard to the ROV mounted pull-in and connection tool, the interface requirements are
much more stringent and could referred to "Interface Engineering" encompassing the full
scheme, such as:
• Pull-in and connection tool

• Subsea structures
• Flowline termination ends
• ROV Launching and Recovery System
Figure 2.4 - DMAC / ROV based Pull-in and connection,

by courtesy of Subsea Offshore Ltd.

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3 CONNECTOR TECHNOLOGY AND MANUFACTURER REVIEW
3.1 General
Deepwater tie-ins imply the use of diverless subsea connectors. Their implementation
requires precise alignment (and orientation in the case of multibore connection) that is
generally performed in two stages: (1) rough alignment during the hub's approach by the pull-
in tool or by means of guiding funnel placed on the subsea structure and (2) precise
alignment, when the two hubs mate, by the connection tool.
This chapter aims to describe the connector technologies available to perform a tie-in
operation and to identify the main manufacturers.
Two main fluid connection systems are currently available on the market:
• Collet connector
• Clamp connector
These systems allow both monobore and multibore connections as only hubs and seal plates
(fitted with guiding pins to perform precise orientation in the case of multibore connector)
have to be adapted; thus they can be used to connect flowlines or umbilicals (chemicals,
hydraulic supply). The running tool can be either an ROV-mounted tool or a Remotely
Operated Tool (ROT) with ROV override functions.
An insulation coating can be added at the latest stage on the connection point if required,
using for example a doghouse (i.e. an insulated box with an open bottom and horseshoe cut-
out front and back to allow its landing on the connection prior to its closing).
The above mechanical connectors are widely used in deepwater field development, with a
large application of collet connectors in the Gulf of Mexico.
Other mechanical connectors are available, however with low utilisation (to nil) in deepwater
application:
• Merlin connector
• API flange with "MATIS" ROT
Concerning the low and high power subsea electrical connectors, the prevailing concept
since the 1980's is the fluid filled connector concept which removes seawater from contact
with the critical components. The electrical connectors can be plugged by ROV and are
currently available rated up to 11kV at 400A (Tronic connector).
The electrical connector cannot accept any mechanical load either during installation or in-
service conditions.

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3.2 Collet connector
LOCKING SPRING ACTUATOR RING
COLLETS
COLLET
STAB HUB
METAL SEAL
METAL SEAL TEST PORT RECEIVER HUB
Figure 3.1 - Collet connector scheme
A collet connector basically consists of two mating hubs: a stab (inboard) hub and a receiver
(outboard) hub which supports the collets, the actuator ring, the locking springs and the
hydraulic cylinders. The metal seal may be retained in either the stab or the receiver hub,
maintained in position by mechanical adjustement.
The functions of each component and operations of the collet connector may be described
as follows:
• The first step of a connection operation is the stabbing: the two hubs are brought
into approximate contact (by a stroking tool). Few degrees misalignment,
depending on the diameter of the line, can be corrected by the collets (e.g. +/-2°
angular misalignment and +/-35mm axial offset satisfy most applications).
• Locking is then performed by the collets. This is done by applying hydraulic
pressure to the cylinders, which transmit a force in the axial direction to the
actuator ring; the actuator ring then moves axially and forces the collets radially
inward.
• The collet connector is maintained closed by the locking springs; this preload
keeps the two hubs and the metal seal in tight contact and determines the
bending strength of the connector. The metal seal integrity can be externally
tested.
Typical size and pressure rating values of collet connectors range from 3" API 10000 to 36",
ANSI 900 class (i.e. 900psi in ambient temperature conditions).
The collet connector is probably the most cost-effective connector and has been extensively
used in the Gulf of Mexico deepwater developments; it is manufactured by:
• Oil States/Hydrotech
• Cameron
• Kongsberg Offshore (FMC)

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Figure 3.2 - Collet connector,

by courtesy of Hydrotech
3.3 Clamp connector
Clamp connector Leak test port
2" service line
Alignment
Hydraulic &
pins
chemical lines
Floating
jaws
Jacking
screw
Multibore seal plate
Figure 3.3 - Multibore clamp connector (clamp and seal plate),

by courtesy of Kvaerner

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This system consists of a clamp assembly, a seal plate and two mating hubs. The clamp
assembly may be a two jacking screw type (and consists of upper and lower clamp halves) or
a single jacking screw type (see the above Kvaerner's clamp connector with a multibore seal
plate, fitted with guiding pins for precise alignment, and the leak test port, passing through
the clamp, which also plays the role of seal plate retainer).
The two hubs are welded to the line extremity sections; their bodies are machined to receive
the yoke assemblies of the connection tool and a male/female tapered entrance profile on
the two hub faces provides the final precise hub alignment in preparation for clamp make up.
The seal plate geometry is adapted to mate the two hubs and eventually equipped with
guiding pins if the connection is a multibore connection in order to perform precise alignment.
Figure 3.4 - Two bolt clamp connector scheme,

by courtesy of Grayloc products

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Figure 3.5 depicted the clamp connector principle; it consists in applying a radial force via the
clamp (by tightening the clamp bolt(s) ) on the two hubs which hence mate (due to the clamp
hub interface shape) and tighten the seal ring.
Performing a connection with a clamp connector mainly consists in:
• mating the hubs and the seal plate with a stroking system. If the connection is
made-up with an ROV-mounted tool system, the clamp assembly is deployed with
the subsea module and the seal plate is inserted by ROV tool; if the connection is
made-up by an ROT, both clamp and seal plate are deployed together with the
connection tool.
• closing the clamp by tightening the screw(s) with a torque tool. Torque force and
number of turns are monitored.
• performing the seal test. A stab provides a pressure test line into the seal
annulus.
Test port
Bolts
Figure 3.5 - Two bolt clamp connector,

by courtesy of Kongsberg Offshore
The clamp connector is the main connector used in all major deepwater oil regions (i.e. North
Sea, Brazil, Gulf of Mexico, West Africa, etc.) due to its robust construction and reliability.
20" rigid pipeline connections have already been performed in the North Sea using clamp
connectors. Clamp connector can be provided for almost any diameter in accordance with
the API 5L specifications and up to 5000psi (if required).
The main manufacturers are:
• Grayloc products (a division of ABB Vetco Gray Inc.)

• Cameron (McPAC clamp and seal plate systems)
• Kvaerner Oil Products
• Kongsberg Offshore (FMC)

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3.4 Petrobras triple line connector

Petrobras (and CBV manufacturer, a subsidiary of FMC) has developed a tie-in method and
the associated hardware (X-mas tree and flowline hub) allowing the simultaneous lay of three
lines (see "5.7 Vertical connection and triple lay").
Running tool
Connection
Service line
Control umbilical
Guide pin
TOP VIEW
Flowline
Torpedo (final guiding)
Chain (preliminary guiding)
SIDE ELEVATION VIEW
Figure 3.6 - Vertical Connection Flowline Hub,

by courtesy of Petrobras
The vertical connection method allow the tie-in of flexible flowline up to 12", service line up to
6". The vertical connection flowline hub weights about 2T.
The hub includes a torpedo which is used as a guiding device and the subsea structure (i.e.
production adapter base cradle, which receive the hub and the X-mas tree) is equipped with
the corresponding funnel (receptacle, see following figure 3.7) which includes an helicoidal
guiding device to orientate properly the hub. The upper part of the X-mas tree is equipped
with the corresponding connector which is latched on the line hub during the X-mas tree
landing operation.

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Connector
X-mas tree (upper part with
X-mas tree)
Location for
future vertical
connector (see
Production adapter figure 3.6)
base craddle
Receptacle
funnel (for
torpedo guide)
Permanent guide
base
Figure 3.7 - X-mas tree adapted to vertical connection (Marlim field),

by courtesy of ABB Offshore Technology
This tie-in method has a small drawback, i.e. the X-mas tree must be recovered should an
intervention be required on the vertical connection flowline hub.

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3.5 Merlin connector

The Merlin connector is composed of two (inward and outward) hubs, both notched on the
mating face. The connection operation consists in:
1. Stabbing of inward hub onto outward hub

2. Injecting pressured fluid within the two mating hubs while pushing them together
with clamp jaws
3. Release pressure when inward and outward hubs are fully engaged
The Merlin connector is available from 8" to 36". It has been used by Subsea Offshore Ltd.
on the BP Harding field to fabricate a rigid pipeline: the pipe strings were laid on the seabed
and then assembled by means of Merlin connector.
Figure 3.8 - Merlin connector

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3.6 Electrical connector
Figure 3.9 - CE connector, by courtesy of Tronic
The prevailing concept for low and high power connectors since the 1980's is the fluid filled
connector principle. Basically, the controlled environment (CE) plug concept removes
seawater from contact with the critical components:
• the electrical socket (female contact) is protected by its own oil bath, which in turn
is protected by a primary oil filled chamber. The whole assembly is pressure
balanced to minimise stress.
• a shuttle pin prevents both water ingress and loss of oil when the connector is
unmated.
• during the connection, the male contact pushes on the shuttle and penetrates the
oil filled chamber, being thus wiped clean of water twice before making contact
with the electrical socket.
The main electrical subsea mateable connector manufacturer is Tronic which has in
particular developed a 11kV, 400A rated connector; this connector has been tested as part of
the GEC Alsthom SPEED (subsea power electrical equipment distribution) project which
allowed to test a 1MVA subsea power station rated for 300m during seven months.
Electrical connectors are used for power, control and data transmission as further detailed in
document "Umbilicals" which is part of the deepwater field development reference book.

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4 TIE-IN TOOL TECHNOLOGY REVIEW
4.1 General
The pull-in and connection systems can be divided in two types:
1. Remotely Operated Tools (ROT).

These autonomous ROT systems can be:
∗ two-tools tie-in systems (a pull-in tool and a connection tool) or single tool
systems which combined all the functions. A pull-in tool is designed to pull
the line in the structure through a serie of guides or funnels, lock the line on
the structure, release the pull-in head and remove the debris cap; the
functions of a connection tool are to position the line hub, perform the
connection and carry out seal tests.
∗ designed for guideline or guidelineless installation method.
∗ with subsea winch integrated within the pull-in tool, or linear winch on ROT
and cable storage drum on tie-in vessel.
2. ROV-mounted pull-in and connection tools
Above types of tools reflect the historical evolution of the tie-in tool technology:
• the first generation was composed by two ROT system (one pull-in tool and one
connection tool)
• single tool ROT, combining both functions of pulling and connecting, were
designed as an evolution of the first generation
• ROV-mounted tools represent the latest improvement for deep to ultra deep
water depths.
All the connector types (as previously reviewed) can be potentially used with both ROV-
mounted tools and ROT.

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4.2 Remotely Operated Tools

Almost every SPS manufacturers / subsea contractors have developed their own ROT:
• Kvaerner PICT
• Kongsberg UTIS, etc.
• Cameron DISPS and McPAC
• Hydrotech
The ROT system can be either two tools deployed independently, one for initial pull-in
operation and one for the connection phase, or one single tool combining both tie-in
sequence.
The design maximum operating depth of such type tie-in tool is about 500m. They are able to
handle both rigid and flexible lines.
The main tools and their characteristics are described hereafter:
• Cameron McPAC.
The McPAC two-tool pull-in and connection system uses a drillpipe deployed pull-
in tool to pull a flowline or umbilical onto a porch structure by means of a surface
winch cable, then the connection tool connects the line with a 2-bolt clamp and
seal plate assembly. The McPAC system has been used several times on
projects such as Shell/Esso UMC (UK North Sea), Placid's Green Canyon 29 and
Enserch's Mississippi Canyon 441.
Flowline sizes: up to 16" (flexible and rigid pipe)

Pull-in tool design water depth: 460m
Pull-in tool dimensions (WxBxH): 4m x 3.3m x 5.6m
Pull-in tool weight: 25.5ton
Connection tool design water depth: 850m
Connection tool dimensions (WxBxH): 3.2m x 1.2m x 2.9m
Connection tool weight: 3.7ton
• Kvaerner "TOGI tools"

As per above method (drill rig + lay ship), Norsk Hydro TOGI (Troll Oseberg Gas
Injection project) 20" gas trunkline was pulled and tied-in, in 1991, with two ROTs
manufactured by Kvaerner:
∗ PLT: Pull-in and Lockdown Tool

∗ UCT: Universal Connection Tool

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Clamp Seal ring

Figure 4.1 - Pull-in and lockdown tool Figure 4.2 - Universal connection tool
Maximum pipe diameter: 20" (rigid pipe)

PLT dimensions (WxBxH): 3.4m x 2.4m x 4.2m
PLT weight: 34ton
Maximum pull-in force: 60 / 120ton
UCT dimensions (WxBxH): 2.9m x 2.7m x 3.9m
UCT weight: 28ton

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• Cameron DISPS pull-in and connection system.

This two-tool pull-in and connection system has been developed by Cameron as
part of BP Exploration's DISPS project. It is run on drillpipe and includes a pull-in
tool, a connection tool, a clamp connector and a piggable termination cap.
Flowline sizes: up to 12" (rigid pipe)

Design water depth: 730m
Pull-in tool size (WxBxH): 2.4m x 2.2m x 4m
Pull-in tool weight: 9.2ton
Connection tool size (WxBxH): 2.4m x 2.2m x 4m
Connection tool weight: 14.8ton
• Kvaerner PICT (Pull-In and Connection Tool).

The PICT is a single trip tool that combines the pull-in, by means of linear winch
and pull-in cable coming from surface, and connection functions. The benefit,
against two tool systems, is saved operational time related to less launching and
recovery time. It is a field proven system that has been used extensively on Norsk
Hydro Troll (approximately 300m) development for tie-in of ISU umbilical and up
to 10" flexible flowline.
Linear pull-
in winch
ROV
panel
Funnel
Clamp
Bull
nose
retrieval
Torque tool
for clamp
tie-in
Figure 4.3 - Pull-In & Connection Tool (PICT),

by courtesy of Kvaerner
Maximum pull-in capacity: 30ton

PICT main dimensions (WxBxH): 3.2m x 3m x 4.5m
PICT weight (in air): 10ton
Flexible pipe size: 10" (maximum)
Water depth: 500m

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• Kongsberg UTIS.
The Kongsberg Offshore Universal Tie-In System (UTIS) is a combined pull-in
and connection tool, designed to perform connections of steel lines of up to
14" OD and flexibles of up to 12" ID. It has successfully performed ten tie-ins of
flexible flowlines at Zaphiro field phase 2 (500m). It was also used for tie-ins on
Statoil Statfjord north and east or Saga petroleum Snorre fields.
Figure 4.4 - Universal Tie-In System (UTIS),

by courtesy of Kongsberg
Maximum water depth: 2500m

Pull-in force: 40ton
Pull-in speed: 0 – 15m/min
Max. stroking force capacity: 65ton
UTIS footprint: 1.4m x 1.8m
UTIS Height: 4.9m (including tool control unit)
UTIS weight (in air): 14.4ton
UTIS weight (in water): 12.4ton

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• Exxon Zinc pull-in and connection system

This system was developed to connect the two 8" export flowlines and the 4"
service line to the Zinc subsea template. It is able to perform pull-in, connection
and pressure testing using subsea winch and ROV-conveyed modules (i.e.
neutral buoyant connection tool to be positioned by ROV).
Flowline sizes: <10" (rigid pipe)

Design water depth: 460m
Figure 4.5 - Exxon Zinc pull-In & connection system,

by courtesy of Hydrotech
4.3 ROV-mounted pull-in and connection systems

The ROV mounted pull-in and connection systems are typically composed of a pull-in and
connection tool which can be deployed independently from the ROV, an interface skid which
is mounted on the ROV and a tie-in porch which interfaces with the subsea structure. All
these tools can be operated by means of a working class ROV deployed from a standard
ROV support vessel.
The ROV mounted tools have the following general characteristics:
• Maximum pull-in force: 30ton

• Pull-in distance: from 3m to 40m
• Angular alignment: +/-15°
• Tool weight: 8-10ton
They are able to handle flexible lines up to about 20" and small diameter rigid pipelines
(depending on the required pull-in force).

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The main contractors/ROV mounted tools are:
• Coflexip Flexconnect (for flexible pipe from 1.5" to 19")

• Sonsub DFCS (for flexible pipe from 4" to 16")
• Kvaerner RTS (for flexible pipe up to 10")
• ABB Icarus
• Subsea Dmac (for flexible pipe from 4" to 12")
• Kongsberg RPC (for flexible pipe up to 10")
• Coflexip Flexconnect.
The Flexconnect system has successfully completed its onshore and offshore trials (end 97 –
early 98) and is now considered as part of the Coflexip project proposals for deepwater
developments. It consists in an ROV-operated connection system, composed of a services
skid (deployed with the ROV) and a pull-in module (wet mated to the services skid), which
would accommodate water depth up to 2500m and flexible flowline sizes from 1.5" up to 19".
The interface between the subsea structure and the system is performed by means of a
cassette bay, which includes the clamp used to connect the two hubs.
ROV
Services skid
Pull-in module
Cassette bay
Flexible
flowline
Flowline hub
Figure 4.6 - ROV-mounted tool Flexconnect,

by courtesy of Coflexip Stena Offshore

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Figure 4.7 - Services skid integrated Figure 4.8 - Flexconnect Pull-In

to TRITON XL 17 Module (PIM)

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• Subsea DMac.
The "Fuel Subsea Engineering & Costain" tie-in system is designed for 1500m water depth
and flowline sizes up to about 12". It consists in a ROV tool (including torque tools, seal plate
replacement tool, hot stab and pressure test tool), a line pull-in tool, interface skid and
connection porches mounted on subsea structure. It has been used for Foinaven's tie-ins.
Figure 4.9 - ROV-mounted tool DMac,

by courtesy of Subsea Offshore Ltd.

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• Kvaerner RTS
The ROV operated Tie-in System (RTS) consists of a pull-in and connection tool
mounted on a standard work class ROV via the ROV interface skid. This tool is
composed of the following main items:
∗ Pull-in winch with pull-in rope and anchor

∗ Jack screw torque unit
∗ Termination orientation system
∗ Termination lockdown system
∗ Receiver funnel
∗ Outboard hub alignment clamps
∗ ROV panel
ROV
Pull-in
module
Clamp
connector SPS guide
posts
Figure 4.10 - ROV-operated Tie-in System (RTS),

by courtesy of Kvaerner Oil Products
Flexible flowline size: up to 10" (can be upgraded)

Design depth: 1000m (can be upgraded)
The Kvaerner RTS have been used on Norsk Hydro Njord (1998) and planned for
Visund (1999).

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• ABB Icarus
ABB has developed an ROV mounted pull-in and connection tool similar to the
above Kvaerner RTS.
The Icarus pull-in system is planned to connect the jumpers on the Chevron's
Kuito field in Angola.
Figure 4.11 - ROV mounted tool Icarus,

by courtesy of ABB Offshore technology
• Sonsub DFCS (Deflect and Connect System)

The DFCS is a tooling package powered and operated by work-class ROV. It is
used to retrieve, pull in and connect pre-laid subsea flowlines or umbilicals. The
Sonsub system has performed three tie-in operations (two 13.5" and one 6"
flowlines) in 310m water depth at Amoco's Liuhua 11-1 field and is planned to
perform 19 flowline and four umbilical tie-ins at Esso Norge's Balder field in 1998-
1999.
Figure 4.12 - ROV-mounted tool DFCS,

by courtesy of Sonsub
Flexible flowline: up to 16"

Water depth: 500m

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• Kongsberg RPC (ROV Pull-in and Connection system)

The Combined Pull-in and Connection tool is designed to handle 10" 6000psi
flexible and umbilicals; the maximum water depth is 2500m.
The system is composed of:
∗ the pull-in skid including dual pull-in winches
∗ a collet connector, actuated by components internal in the tool skid
∗ a flexible termination assembly
∗ an inboard hub
Figure 4.13 - ROV-mounted tool RPC,

by courtesy of Kongsberg
The system main features are:

Pull-in skid size: 2.8L x 1.7W x 0.85H
Pull-in skid weight: 2ton
Maximum pull-in force: 15ton

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4.4 ROV-mounted connection systems

Some tie-in operations based on direct stab-in of the connector require a much simpler ROV
mounted tool, since the pull-in winch system is not required anymore.
These tie-in operations can be basically described as follows:
• a rough positioning of the outboard hub is performed by means of hub's torpedo

mating the corresponding funnel (for further details, see section 5.5 "Vertical
stab, hinge-over and lay-away")
• then the ROV-mounted connection tool aligns and mates the two hubs (outboard
hub is translated by tool onto the inboard hub)
• the connection is performed (with either a collet or clamp connector)
Figure 4.14 further depicts the ROV-mounted connection tool operation (herein represented
with a clamp connector).
Connection Inboard
tool hub
Outboard hub Clamp

connector
Torpedo
Funnel
Figure 4.14 - ROV mounted tool connection sequence

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Figure 4.15 - Connection as performed by a ROV mounted tool
The ROV mounted connection tools are available from the main SPS contractors such as:
• Cameron
• Kongsberg Offshore
• ABB offshore technology
This tie-in method is valid for:
• flexible and rigid pipe: all diameter (API 5L)

• water depth: limitation only with ROV depth capabilities
• first end initiation and lay-away
• flexible jumpers
• rigid spool jumpers
and have been used mainly in GOM (BP Pompano, BP Troika, Shell Mensa).

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4.5 "MATIS" API flange tie-in tool

Stolt Comex Seaway (SCS), and partners Hydra-Tight Ltd. and National Hyperbaric Centre
Ltd., developed the Modular Advanced Tie-In System (MATIS).
This unique tool is designed to be deployed and controlled by ROV and to perform the tie-in
of 10" class 1500 bolted flanges. MATIS allows to load all bolts simultaneously and to check
the residual bolt load and distribution without diver intervention (design water depth: 1000m).
To date, no field tie-in have been performed using this tool.
Figure 4.16 - MATIS,

by courtesy of Stolt Comex Seaway

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5 TIE-IN METHODS
5.1 General
This chapter will review the existing tie-in methods, which have been used, or could be used
in deepwater applications.
Tie-ins are mainly required between subsea structures such as:
• between X-mas trees and manifolding systems

• between manifolding systems and PLEMs
• between PLEMs and riser bases
Basically all diverless and guidelineless connector systems (as reviewed in the previous
chapter) can be used to perform a connection. However the selection of a tie-in method must
be based on the following key topics:
• the field subsea architecture (number of tie-in points, manifold, PLEM, etc.)
• the water depth
• the seabed conditions (i.e. soil type, visibility, current, etc.)
• hydrocarbon product temperature, pressure and chemistry
• the connection technology (mechanical, electrical, monobore or multibore)
• the line type (i.e. rigid pipeline, flexible or umbilical) and its diameter
• availability and cost of the selected connector, tie-in tools, etc.
• the SPS manufacturer, which can propose its own connection tool, adapted to its
subsea production system and connector technology.

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5.2 Lay-down & pull-in
5.2.1 Description
Figure 5.1 - Pull-in principle
Connection's type line's type vessel(s) required

Separated operations:
• Laying vessel
Flexible line
Sealine - subsea structure • Tie-in vessel
Umbilical
(with ROV and
adequate deck space
for pull-in tools)
The lay down and pull-in method consists in pulling in and connecting a flowline or umbilical,
pre-laid down on the seabed in a predetermined target area, to a subsea structure (X-mas
tree, manifold, riser base).
This method is effective for both first end and second end extremity connection of flowline to
subsea structure. Typical pull-in force expected for such an operation is about 5-10T,
depending on the line type and soil conditions (friction coefficient) and a pull-in distance to be
limited to less than 50m.

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5.2.2 Tie-in procedure
The lay down and pull-in operation can be divided in three phases:
1. The flowline or umbilical end extremity (first or second) is equipped with a pull-in
head. The termination head is laid on the seabed within a target area by a lay
vessel. Several laying configurations can be adopted near the connection point:
∗ line approaching the structure along a straight-line oriented towards the

connection point but with sufficient downstream "slack" line for future pull-in
operation.
∗ line laid in curve near the structure (flexible or umbilical lines) in order to
decrease the pull-in tension.
∗ off-centred straight-line configuration in order to perform a lateral deflection

during the pull-in operation.
2. The pull-in operation is then performed by a smaller vessel (i.e. tie-in vessel)
equipped either with (1) an ROV-mounted pull-in tool or (2) an ROT/pull-in system
remotely operated from surface tie-in vessel. The pull-in tool function is to place the
line's hub connector closed to the subsea structure's hub (it generally includes a
guiding device such as a funnel, to perform a rough alignment) and to prepare the
connection operation (the debris cap is retrieved, etc.):
∗ with an ROV-mounted tool: the tool package is fixed on ROV which then
attaches the pull-in rope on the subsea structure pull-in porch, clamps itself
on the pull-in head of the line and performs the pull-in operation. When the
head is closed to the connection point, ROV prepares the hubs (debris cap
removal, etc.) and performs the connection prior to the seal test performing.
∗ with a Remotely Operated Tool: the pull-in tool is lowered and fixed on the
subsea structure; ROV attaches the pull-in rope, then the line's head is
pulled toward the connection point and aligned at the final stage by guiding
devices on the tool. After the pull-in operation, the connection is performed
if the tool is a two-tool system, otherwise the pull-in tool is recovered
onboard and the connection system is lowered.
3. Finally the line is connected to the subsea structure with:
∗ either the same ROV-mounted and combined connection tool
∗ or an ROT/connection system remotely operated from surface tie-in vessel
The connection is typically performed by means of collet connector or clamp

connector in combination with a seal plate. External leak tests (nitrogen or
hydraulic) are then performed by ROV or ROT means to check the connection.

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5.2.3 Utilisation and limitations
The lay-down and pull-in method has been extensively used in most oil provinces but mainly
for shallow water depth applications (200 - 400 msw). Petrobras has experienced this method
with no satisfactory results (i.e. near seabed ROV operation on soft soil).
The ROT based connection systems utilising a surface-operated winch become unsuited as
the water depth increases due to the number of lines running from surface (lifting line, pull-in
cable, umbilical).
For deepwater operation, the ROV-mounted tools (e.g. Flexconnect, RTS) are better
adapted.
The “lay down and pull-in” method requires good seabed conditions:
• good visibility by cameras (and ROV) near seabed

• seabed clear of any debris within the pull-in pattern
• low soil shear force coefficient to ease the pull-in operation, but still consolidated
soil bearing to prevent pull-in head diving into the mud-line.
This tie-in method is therefore not recommended for deepwater connection in the case of
very soft soil conditions (i.e. 5-15kPa) and poor visibility near seabed.

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5.3 Direct pull-in
5.3.1 Description
Figure 5.2 - Direct pull-in

Rigid pipeline Combined operation of
Sealine - subsea structure
Flexible line Laying vessel and
Riser - subsea structure Tie-in vessel equipped with
Umbilical pull-in tool
The direct pull-in method consists in connecting a flowline or an umbilical to a subsea

structure (manifold, tree) by pulling it directly to the tie-in point in order to:
• either initiate the laying operation. The line is pulled off the laying vessel to the
subsea structure, latched and then the laying vessel continues the laying
operation. The connection is then performed when the laying sequence ends.
• or connect a flowline that has been towed from an onshore fabrication yard. the
pull-in is performed to help controlling the lowering of the line and allows to adjust
the first end position to perform the connection.
For the pull-in, a cable coming from a surface winch or subsea winch can be used and then
the connection is performed by a separated tool.
This method is effective for first end tie-in of umbilical, flexible and relatively small diameter
rigid line.
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The main phases of a direct pull-in can be basically described as follows:
1. Setting of the pull-in tool on the subsea structure
2. Attachment of the pull-in cable which runs from the pull-in tool to the line to be
laid and connected.
3. Lay initiation of the line: the line is pulled towards the subsea structure while
being paid out from the laying vessel. The catenary curve is controlled by
monitoring the line pull-in head position, by means of transponders, and tension
in order to avoid any buckling problem.
4. When the line pull-in head arrives at the subsea structure, the pull-in tool latched
it, allowing to start the nominal laying mode.
5. The connection is then performed by the adequate tool(s).

The direct pull-in method allows to perform the initiation of a line laying without using a
PLEM, anchor or another supplementary item because the subsea structure is used as an
anchor point. This involves to take the pull-in loads into account for the design of the
structure.
This method is very effective for flowline initiation with however two main drawbacks (see
chapter 6 "Advantages and disadvantages"):
• it requires the availability and good coordination of two vessels.

• the connection cannot be performed until the end of the laying operation where
the flowline is “pigged” and flooded.
The “Direct pull-in” method is limited by the design maximum water depth operability of the
pull-in tool (i.e. about 300m-500m) and has been used on Nork Hydro TOGI for up to 24"
rigid sealine.

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5.4 Deflect-to-connect
5.4.1 Description
Figure 5.3 - Deflect to connect principle
ROV support vessel with

Sealine - subsea structure Rigid pipeline
adequate subsea lift
This method consists in lifting a defined length of a pipeline (typically 500m – 800m) by
means of buoys, deflecting the line end near the structure with a vessel or subsea winches
and finally pulling the line to the subsea structure in order to perform the connection.
The deflect-to-connect method is effective for rigid pipeline tie-in to a subsea structure. The
pipeline must have been laid along an off-centred straight line near the structure prior to the
deflection (typical distance 100m – 200m).

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A typical deflect-to-connect operation can be described as follows, the procedure starts when
the sealine is laid in the predefined configuration:
1. When the preparatory works are performed (survey of the seabed, check of the
equipment, etc.), air bags (or buoyancy elements) are fixed to pre-installed
collars (Troll Olje method) and inflated in order to lift the future deflected length of
pipeline (fixed by the required final curvature). Drag chains (installed during
pipelay operation) spread along the lifted length are used to control the height of
lifting and the pipeline curve during the deflect operation (by varying the chain
length friction with seabed and so controlling the drag forces at different points of
the deflected length of pipeline). The deflected length is also equipped with
transponders to check the elevation and the pipe curvature during the deflect
operation.
As an example, about 15 air bags and 5 transponders were spread along the 400m – 500m
of deflected pipeline on the Troll Olje project.
2. The sealine is deflected:
• either by a vessel which displaces a dead weight attached to the pipeline

extremity toward the subsea structure (Elf East Frigg and Norsk Hydro
Troll)
• or by subsea winches mounted on the subsea structure (R.J. Brown
method)
This is done by steps of approximately 10-20m until the pull-in head is in front of
the subsea structure; the pipeline curvature is checked at each step by means of
transponders and compared to the theoretical values (the minimum bending
radius and line tension must always be controlled to avoid any local buckling,
etc.).
3. When the pull-in head is in front of the subsea structure, a pull-in and connection
operation is performed by ROT:
• after the pull-in operation and once the pipe is secured inside the subsea
structure, the pipeline can be flooded
• on completion of pipe flooding, the connection can be performed
• on completion of the tie-in task, all installation riggings are recovered
(chain, buoyancy elements, etc.)

This method is mainly used to connect large diameter rigid pipeline because of the difficulty
to manipulate and connect them with another method. The sealine final curve must also
consider the service conditions, in terms of temperature dilatation, possible slugs, etc.
Besides these technical issues there is no foreseeable limitation for deepwater applications.
Several diverless deflect-to-connect operations has been successfully performed including

the two 16" ID export lines on Norsk Hydro Troll B project and the two Elf East Frigg 24”
bundles.

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5.5 Vertical stab, hinge-over & lay-away
5.5.1 Description
1 CONNECTOR LOWERING 2 STAB-IN
3 HINGE OVER 4 CONNECTOR IN FINAL POSITION
Figure 5.4 - Vertical Stab and Hinge over principle

Small diameter rigid pipeline Separated operations:
Flexible line • Laying vessel
Riser - subsea structure
Umbilical • Tie-in vessel
This tie-in method is used to initiate flowline or umbilical first extremity by stabbing and
latching it (by means of a hinged torpedo) in a receptacle (i.e. funnel) mounted on the subsea
structure (manifold, tree, PLEM). The connection is performed after the laying operation by
means of an ROV-mounted connection tool (see chapter 4.4).

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Prior the nominal laying operation, the line first extremity is lowered down and latched to the
subsea structure by the stab and hinge over method:
1. The stab and hinge over assembly is connected to the line (flowline or umbilical)
and a transponder is attached to position the line termination during initiation.
2. The assembly is lowered at the vertical position of the subsea structure receiver.
While setting up in DP over the tie-in point, the laying vessel continues to pay out
the line. The stabbing of the assembly into the receptacle funnel mounted on the
subsea structure is performed; the final approach is assisted by ROV. An
orientation helix in the receptacle rotates the head into the proper rotational
alignment for the hinge over.
3. When the assembly is fully engaged and locked in its receptacle, the laying
vessel moves ahead slowly while paying out the line until the line is correctly
landed on the seabed. The laying operation continues.
4. At completion of the laying operation (i.e. pipe flooded), the connection (by a tie-
in vessel) is performed by stroking out the hub or connector that is retracted
during the stab and hinge over operation and then connecting it to the subsea
structure (see chapter 4.4).

This tie-in method is effective for rigid, flexible and umbilical lines but attention must be paid
to the rigid line stabbing and initiation loads. A minimum flexibility of the line is required
during the stab step of the method, particularly if no heave compensator is used.
This method is probably the most cost effective solution to perform the fist end initiation and
tie-in for deepwater applications. No water depth limitation is expected (i.e. the only limiting
factor is the connection tool maximum water depth operability, which is today about 2500m).
The only limitation is with large diameter rigid pipeline due to potential high load on the
subsea structure during the stabbing and hinge-over phases, although passive heave
compensated tensioners would annihilate this limitation.
This method has for example been used to connect 6" flowlines and umbilicals to manifold on
the Shell's Mensa field (1620m); hydraulic connectors powered by ROV via an ROV interface
panel were used.

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5.6 Surface tie-in, lay-away & lay-to
5.6.1 Description
This method, developed by Petrobras, was used up to 1992 and was then replaced by the
vertical connection method (see chapter 5.7).
Figure 5.5 - Lay-away principle,

by courtesy of Petrobras
Sealine - subsea tree Flexible flowline Combined operations with a

Laying vessel and a
Riser - subsea tree Umbilical
Drilling rig
The lay-away and lay-to surface tie-in method is effective to connect first or second end of a
flexible and umbilical line to a subsea tree.
This method consists in performing the connection between the line and the X-mas tree
onboard a drilling rig prior to the lowering of the assembly.

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The lay-to or lay-away methods, which have been primarily developed by Petrobras to
improve existing pull-in methods, can be described as follows.
The lay-away tie-in procedure can be divided in five main phases:
1. After arriving on location, the laying vessel positions itself approximately 30m
away from the drilling/completion rig. A cable is passed from the rig to the laying
vessel (e.g. by means of a messenger line) and attached to the flowline(s) (the
number of flowlines depends on the laying vessel capacity) first extremity
equipped with a pulling head.
2. Each flowline first extremity is transferred to the rig by paying out the line while
pulling the cable according to a predefined sequence.
3. When the predetermined catenary curve is achieved, each flowline first extremity
is connected to the subsea tree onboard the drilling rig. The assembly is fully
tested, allowing the eventual problems to be solved prior the laying operation.
4. The tree and the flowlines are then lowered simultaneously. The tree is landed
and connected.
5. When the connection is pressure tested, the nominal laying mode can start: the
flowlines are laid by the laying vessel towards the production floater.
The lay-to operation applied the same philosophy:
1. While laying the flowline(s), the laying vessel arrives near the drilling/completion
rig. When the line(s) second extremity is fully secured on the working table of the
laying vessel, a transfer cable is passed from the rig (e.g. by means of a
messenger line) and attached to it. The flowline second extremity is transferred to
the rig by lowering it by means of an abandonment cable while pulling the transfer
cable according to a predefined sequence.
A second option is that the line is lowered by the laying vessel on the seabed in
an extended loop arrangement and later recovered by the rig by means of a lifting
cable attached to the flowline extremity by ROV. This method avoids the problem
of the simultaneous presence of the laying vessel and the rig.
2. The flowline(s) second extremity is then connected to the tree onboard the rig.
The assembly is fully tested, allowing the eventual problems to be solved prior
the lowering operation. A cable (from the laying vessel) is then attached at a
defined intermediate location on the flowline(s).
3. The drilling rig lowers the tree while the laying vessel retains the line(s).
As the drilling must be located at the vertical position of the well during the
operation (if guidelines are used to install the X-mas tree), a flowline overlength
(at least equal to the water depth) is required.
4. Once the tree is landed and tied-in, the vessel lays the loop on the seabed.

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The main advantages of this method (see chapter 6 "Advantages and disadvantages") are
clearly to allow the connection and all tests to be performed in surface.
The lay-away method was a standard for diverless connections in Campos Basin up to 1992
where 57 lay-away operations, including 36 guidelineless operations, have been successfully
conducted in water depths ranging from 280m to 1030m. Then the vertical subsea
connection system (see section 5.7) was developed to overcome its drawbacks (mainly the
obligation of the presence of both drilling rig and laying vessel and also the fact that only
connections to subsea trees are possible).

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5.7 Vertical connection and triple flowline lay-away
5.7.1 Description
The vertical connection method was developed to overcome the drawbacks of the surface
tie-in, lay-away and lay-to method (see chapter 5.6).
Figure 5.6 - First end Direct Vertical Connection principle

Flexible line
Umbilical Laying vessel
Bundle
The vertical connection was developed by Petrobras to allow connection of flexible lines to
any subsea structure with no requirement for the simultaneous presence of drilling rig and
laying vessel.

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Initially the vertical connection was developed with a temporary abandonment base for the
first end termination, with the following operation sequences:
1. The laying vessel lays the line with its hub connected to a temporary
abandonment base on the seabed. The hub is positioned closed to the subsea
structure (tree or manifold) to be later connected. The laying vessel can leave the
site.
2. The drilling / completion rig retrieves the hub from the temporary abandonment
base and installs it onto the production adapter base cradle. Then, the tree is run
and locked simultaneously on the production base housing and flowline hub.
This vertical connection system has been used extensively since 1992 (more than 30
successful operations in Campos Basin), but the direct vertical connection system was then
developed to improve operational efficiency and to eliminate the need for a temporary
abandonment base, which implies additional installation costs.
Because the laying vessel lowers and directly locks the flowline hub to the structure (both
tree and manifold), the direct vertical connection system allows first end and second end
connections without using a temporary abandonment base. The flowline itself or an auxiliary
cable is used as string for the lowering operation, the principle of this method being to
perform the connection with the help of a torpedo mounted on the bottom of the line hub (see
previous section 3.4 ″Petrobras triple line connector″).

Only the direct vertical connection method is described here as it is considered as a more
advanced connection method.
The main steps of a direct vertical connection procedure are:
1. The laying vessel is positioned over the subsea structure. Transponder is fixed on
the lines (or bundle) first extremity equipped with vertical connection head.
2. The assembly is lowered over the tie-in point. While setting up in DP over the
subsea structure, the laying vessel continues to pay out the lines. The final
approach is assisted by ROV and consists in stabbing the torpedo into the
production adapter base cradle. The lines are orientated by the passive
orientation system included in the receptacle.
3. When the assembly is fully engaged and locked in its receptacle, the laying
vessel moves ahead slowly while paying out the lines until they are correctly
landed on the seabed. The laying operation continues.
4. The connection is then performed after the landing of the X-mas tree by the
drilling rig.

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The direct vertical connection method allows the initiation of bundles; the average flowline
stabbing and locking time is 2-3 hours, which can be considered as excellent.
In 1996, the first direct vertical connection was performed on the Albacora manifold in 620m
water depth; up to now, more than twenty direct vertical connections (first end and second
end connections) were performed in the Campos Basin. This method allows simultaneous
laying of up to three lines (e.g. production line, service line and control umbilical) which are
connected to the structure by multibore hub and sealplate.
This vertical connection combined with the lay-away of bundles in one lay sequence
represent the most cost effective solution for deepwater la y operations. However in
the case of a second end connection requirement, some difficulties have been experienced
during the torpedo stabbing into the receptacle due to:
• flexible lines stiffness (flowline length adjustment)

• torpedo receptacle alignment angle (i.e. seabed level)
• current drag effect
• vessel heaves

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5.8 Flexible jumpers
5.8.1 Description
Figure 5.7 - Flexible jumper principle

Rigid and Flexible flowlines Vessel equipped with ROVs
Umbilical and lifting capacities
Tree - manifold
The principle of this method is to perform the link between two subsea structures (tree and
manifold) or between a subsea structure and a line end termination (PLEM) by means of a
flexible jumper. The distance between the two connection points, and hence the length of the
jumper, is conventionally about 20m - 50m (i.e. within most medium size vessel lifting
capacity).

Flexible jumpers can be used for vertical or horizontal connection method. The flexible
jumper installation method depends on the connector type but it can basically be described
as follows:
• with horizontal connector (either collet or clamp connector), the jumper is typically
laid down on the seabed in the connection area and then connected by the pull-in
method.
• With vertical connector (i.e. collet connector. cf. figure 5.7), the jumper can be
installed with a spreader bar and with upward facing mandrel vertical connectors
located on subsea structure.
• the stab and hinge over method can also be used; this type of tie-in was utilised
to perform the connection of flexible jumper for Shell's Rocky field: the first end
was equipped with a "Stab & hinge over" type hub and the second end included a
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vertical collet connector. After landing and locking of the first end, the second end
was connected.
This tie-in method is dependent on ROV operation for all phases from guiding, landing,
docking to connection and leak tests.

Flexible jumpers are effective means to perform the connection between flowline end
termination and subsea structure or between two subsea structures (i.e. tree and manifold).
Flexible jumpers allow to withstand some imprecision in the position of line ends or subsea
structures (and the eventual flowline dilatation); thus there is no drastic requirements
concerning subsea metrology (unlike steel jumpers) and it is sufficient to position pipeline
termination head and/or subsea structure within less stringent target boxes.
Flexible jumper's diameter and water depth limitation are dictated by the flexible technology.
The use of flexible jumpers for deepwater applications would be limited mainly by economic
consideration.

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5.9 Steel jumpers
5.9.1 Description
Figure 5.8 - Steel jumper principle

Rigid and Flexible flowlines Vessel equipped with ROVs
Riser - subsea structure and lifting capacities
Umbilical
Tree - manifold
Steel jumpers are 20m to 50m long rigid spool piece which perform the connection between
a PLEM and a riser base or a subsea structure, or between two subsea structures. They are
typically U or inverted-U shaped, depending on the required flexibility (360° loops acting both
as expansion loop and spring could also be added in the jumper) and are either vertical or
horizontal connection types.

Accurate measurements are required before steel jumper fabrication, either on shore or on
board the laying vessel (or barge, etc.). These measurements aim to define the relative
position of both jumper's ends future location (distance and inclination between the two
connection points) in order to define its final dimensions and to allow quick and hazardless
installation. These measurements can be obtained by acoustic array or taut wire metrology
(see chapter 7 "Subsea metrology").

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The main phases of a steel jumper fabrication and installation are described below; the
considered connection can be either between subsea structure(s) and/or flowline
termination(s):
1. When the subsea structures or flowline terminations have been laid over the
seabed, their position is determined using acoustic transponders in order to:
• check that they were laid within the target boxes (e.g. 5m x 5m)
• determinate an approximate jumper length for pre-fabrication. That allows,
if the jumper is fabricate offshore, to perform some cut and welds
operations during a non-critical period of vessel use (e.g. during flowline
hydrotest) and thus to reduce the final jumper fabrication time.
2. Accurate measurements of the jumper length and of the elevation differences
between the two connection points are performed. This can be done by one or
both of the following systems:
• Extra High Frequency (EHF) acoustic transponder and digital quartz depth
sensor
• measurement tool which consists of a taut line, winch and protractors
3. After conversion of the detailed measurements into cut points and lengths, the
final jumper fabrication can be performed either onshore or offshore (e.g.
onboard a barge).
4. After fabrication, jumper geometry is verified by placing it on a fabrication jig. The

jig is set up based on the measurements taken subsea and mocks the jumper
receiver structures in order to verify that the jumper would mate with them.
5. The jumper is then transported offshore, lowered to the seabed and connected.
This can be done by using a spreader bar or the stab and hinge over method
which consists in:
• lowering the jumper vertically

• stabbing one extremity of the jumper
• Stabbing the other extremity
• Performing the connection by ROV
Figure 5.9 - Steel jumper installation (Stab & hinge over method)

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Figure 5.10 - BP Troika field, steel jumper installation

(spread bar and vertical connectors)
No diameter or water depth limitation is expected.
The main advantage (see chapter 6 "Advantages and disadvantages") of the steel jumper is
its economical aspect when combined with stringent heat insulation requirement. This point
suffices to explain its extensive use in the Gulf of Mexico deepwater developments.
5.10 "Rigi-Flex" jumper

A new tie-in product is being promoted by ABB Vetco Gray to be able to compete with both
flexible jumpers and rigid spools, and is expected on the market by the end of 1999. It is
designed to be more flexible (by 40 times) than a rigid spool while providing more
protection/insulation and being less expensive (by 25%) than a flexible jumper. "Rigi-Flex"
comprises a corrugated inner pipe surrounded by conventional casing in which series of slits
have been cut.
Vetco aims to have a range of spools from 4-14in in 12m lengths with the maximum
assembled length of around 90m; the high-pressure and temperature applications are
targeted, as the product is rated up to 410bar and 150°C. The terminations would be welded
and the intention is to have a range of endfittings to make the spoolpieces compatible with
most pull-in systems.
The jumper can span between two subsea structures or lay on the seabed. There is no
foreseeable water depth limitation.

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5.11 Hybrid steel pipe & flextail
5.11.1 Description
Figure 5.11 - Hybrid steel pipe and flextail principle

Rigid pipeline Laying vessel
This method consists in combining rigid and flexible line: a flexible tail is added to the rigid
pipeline to be able to manipulate more easily the extremities during the tie-in phase.
The philosophy can be considered similar to the flexible jumper method, as a flexible line is
used to perform the connection between a rigid flowline and a subsea structure, but the
flextail and the rigid flowline are connected in surface, simplifying this part of the tie-in
operation and allowing to perform external connection leak tests prior to the lowering of the
hybrid pipe.
This method has been used mainly by Coflexip Stena Offshore for Petrobras (Roncador) in
Brazil.

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The flextail is used to perform the connection between a rigid pipeline and a subsea
structure. It can be installed as per one of the following methods:
1. The flextail can be installed as part of the rigid pipeline: at the end of the pipe
laying, the flextail is directly connected onboard the laying vessel and then:
∗ either the connection between the flextail and subsea structure or riser
termination is performed by the laying vessel.
∗ or the flextail is laid with the connector supported by an abandonment skid to
be later connected.
2. The rigid pipeline is abandoned on the seabed and later recovered to connect the
flextail prior to the connection between the flextail and the subsea structure or the
riser base structure.

An hybrid steel pipe and flextail can be used with the following restraints:
• The rigid pipeline diameter is limited: flextail and rigid pipe must have the same
internal diameter (e.g. pigging operation).
• Flexible line must be designed for the considered water depth (i.e. reversed end
cap effect: collapse of the steel armour under hydrostatic pressure) and the
tension load induced by the rigid pipeline (air filled) during the abandonment
operation.
• Limitation is related to flexible line technology.

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The following table is a list of the main advantages and drawbacks of each tie-in methods:
Tie-in Method Advantages Drawbacks
Lay-down and pull-in • Laying and connection • High pull-in loads may be
operations are necessary
(Flexible lines and independent
• Optimum seabed conditions
umbilicals) • First end and second end
• Limitations in flexible line
applications
diameter
• Complexity and size of tools
• ROV-mounted tools are
dependent on ROV reliability
Direct pull-in • Allows initiation without • High pull-in loads acting on

additional anchor subsea structure
(Rigid and flexible lines • First end initiation only
and umbilicals)
• Coordination of two vessels
Deflect-to-connect • Laying and connection • Large area of unobstructed

operations are seabed is required
(Rigid pipelines) independent
• Longer tie-in operation
• First end and second end
applications
Vertical Stab, hinge • Low installation loads • Weather sensitive operation

over and lay-away transmitted to structure
• Heave compensation could
• Initiation of the line and be required for the rigid
(Rigid and flexible lines preparation of the flowline
and umbilicals) connection are
• First end initiation only
simultaneously performed
Surface tie-in, lay-to & • Reliability of connections • Only connections to subsea

lay-away performed in surface trees are possible:
incompatible with subsea
• Connection tested prior to
(Flexible lines and arrangement involving
the installation
umbilicals) manifold which implies more
• First end and second end than one connection
applications
• Simultaneous presence of
both laying vessel and
drilling rig

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Tie-in Method Advantages Drawbacks
Vertical connection • Low installation loads • Weather sensitive operation

and triple flowline lay- transmitted to structure
• Only flexible line can be
away • Initiation and preparation of considered
the connection are
(Flexible lines and • Difficulties during second
simultaneously performed
umbilicals) end stabbing
• Triple initiation and lay is
possible
Flexible jumpers • High degree of flexibility • More expensive solution

than steel jumper
• Only simple measurement
of relative connections • Two subsea connectors are
position required per jumper
• Low load transmitted to
structure
• replacement of the jumper
is possible without any
impact on subsea
equipment
Steel jumpers • simple and robust design • Longer overall tie-in

operation when considering
• rigid pipeline heat
subsea metrology operation
expansion absorbed by
spool piece • Accurate measurements of
connections relative position
• Better heat insulation
• Large deck area is required
• replacement of the jumper
is possible without any • Weather sensitive operation
impact on subsea
• Two subsea connectors are
equipment
required per jumper
Hybrid steel pipe & • High degree of flexibility • rigid pipeline recovery, if
flextail required, is a critical
• Low load transmitted to
operation
structure
• Water depth application is
• Only one subsea connector
limited by the flexible
is required
technology
The above summary table has clearly established that there is no obvious or simple tie-in
method that could be considered as the generic solution for deepwater applications.
There is good range of alternative tie-in methods and only a thorough evaluation of all
relevant field technical data, as further itemised in chapter 2 “Interface requirement”, can
provide the most cost effective tie-in method and technology to be selected for each project.

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7 SUBSEA METROLOGY
7.1 General
Some subsea tie-in operations require accurate subsea measurements, especially steel
jumper installation because it is necessary to precisely determine distance and angles
between the two tie-in points prior to the final jumper fabrication. These measurements are
generally made using two measurement tools in order to check the values; both "Acoustic
Base Line" and "Taut Wire Metrology" described hereafter can be used as the primary
measurement means.
A premise for this method is that the subsea structures must be installed within the following
tolerances:
• lateral position within +/- 5m of its nominal position

• heading of structure within +/- 2.5°
• maximum inclination relative to horizon within 2) in any direction.
7.2 Acoustic base line
Figure 7.1 - A typical transponder array
A long base line (LBL) acoustic array is deployed on the seabed by ROV in the area of the
jumper route. This array typically consists of up to six extreme high frequency (EHF)
transponders: two are deployed on the seabed and two are placed at each tie-in point (a dual
transponder arrangement at each tie-in point offers a better level of redundancy).
The array is calibrated after the determination of the sound velocity in water from
temperature / salinity measurements. Once the transponders are in position, the
programmable acoustic navigator interrogates transponders to measure all baselines. A least
squares analysis allows to determine the relative positions, orientations and distance of tie-in
points. The relative height difference is determined using the pressure sensors in the
transponders. To determine accurately the relative orientation between the tie-in points, the
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ROV can dock on the two points and measure the heading using a precision gyro (i.e. laser
based gyro).
This technique typically allows measuring better than +/- 5cm (over a 50m length) and 1° on
relative headings.
A typical metrology operation would be between 12 – 24 hours to include transponder

deployment and recovery.
7.3 Taut wire metrology
Figure 7.2 - The pre-measurement tool
A taut wire measurement tool typically consists of a taut line, winch and protractors with dual
axis inclinometers. It is deployed and operated by ROV and a measurement operation
consists in:
• Installing the tool into the adapted receptacles.

• Deploying the measurement cable by ROV and applying tension in the cable with
the winch.
• Measuring the vertical elevation difference and angular misalignment between
the two tie-in points by the protractor and dual axis inclinometer readings.
A resolution of 1° can be achieved.
• Determining the distance between the two points from the length of the taut line.
This length can be measured from a calibrated measuring wheel mounted near
the winch. This counter can achieved an accuracy of +/-3cm (over a 50m length).
The ROV video is used to document relative angles and distances between the two points.
The measurements are normally repeated to verify values and to help to assess accuracy.

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8 TIME ESTIMATED FOR DEEPWATER TIE-IN OPERATION
The time required to perform a deepwater tie-in operation will depend greatly on key topics
such as:
• the choice of the tie-in method
• the number of tie-in operations that can be performed in one installation phase
(i.e. learning curve effect consideration)
• ROV and ROT reliability and availability when required
• experience and training of the ROVs and tie-in personnel
• the water depth in terms of launching and recovery time based on an average
descent and ascent speed of 800m - 1000m per hour
Albeit the above criteria, the benchmark for deepwater tie-in operation could be defined as
follows:
• 24 hours - 36 hours for a stand alone or single tie-in operation
• average of 6 hours to 12 hours per tie-in, in case of large number of tie-ins (e.g.
more than 10 tie-ins) being performed within an installation campaign.
The above timing is to be considered from spread arrival on site until completion of the tie-in
operation, ready for departure to other location and without any major downtimes (i.e.
technical and weather related).

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ANNEX 1
Manufacturers and Contractors List

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ABB OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY P.O Box 1200

N-4301 Sandnes
Norway
Tel : (+47) 51 60 37 00
Fax : (+47) 51 60 37 10
CAMERON P.O Box 1212

77251-1212
Houston Texas
Tel : 713 939 2211
Fax : 713 939 2620
http : //www.camerondiv.com
COFLEXIP STENA OFFSHORE GROUP 23, avenue de Neuilly

75116 Paris, France
Tel : (+33) 1 40 67 60 00
Fax : (+33) 1 40 67 60 03
FMC CORPORATION Ltd Wellhead Equipment Division

Pitreavie Business Park
Queensferry Rd
Fife KY11 5PU
Tel : 01383 731531
Fax : 01383 727250
GRAYLOC PRODUCTS P.O Box 2291

77252-2291 USA
Houston Texas
Tel : 713-468-8853
Fax : 713-937-2335
HYDROTECH SYSTEM Inc. 11500 Northwest Freeway

Suite 620
77092
Houston, Texas
Tel : 713-688-5277
Fax : 713-688-9166
KONGSBERG OFFSHORE P.O Box 1012

N-3601 Kongsberg, Norway
Tel : (+47) 3273 9898
Fax : (+47) 3273 9378
KVAERNER ENERGY a.s P.O Box 9277

Gronland
N-134 Oslo, Norway
Tel : (+47) 22 66 61 88
Fax : (+47) 22 66 64 00
OCEANEERING International, Inc. 11911 FM 529

Houston, Texas 77041, USA
Tel.: 713-329-4500
Fax.: 713-329-4951
http : //www.oceaneering.com

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OIL STATES INDUSTRIES,Inc P.O Box 670

7701 S. Cooper Street
Arlington, Texas 76001
Tel : 1 817-468-1400
Fax : 1 817-468-6200
http : //www.oilstates.com
SONSUB Broadfold Rd
AB23 8EE
Aberdeen
Tel : 01224 706888
Fax : 01224 706705
STOLT COMEX SEAWAY AS 36, Boulevard des Oceans

13275 Marseille France
Tel : 04 91 23 50 65
Fax : 04 91 40 72 75
SUBSEA OFFSHORE Ltd Greenwell Road

East Tullos
AB1 4AX Aberdeen
Tel : (01224) 292000
Fax : (01224) 879312
TRONIC Sandside Road

Ulverston, Cumbria
LA129EF England
Tel : (01229) 5850500
Fax : (01229) 589200

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REFERENCE BOOK
DEEPWATER ROV AND TOOLS
Rev. 0 Page 1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 4
1.1 SCOPE................................................................................................................................4
1.2 REGULATION, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS .........................................................5
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS ...........................................................................................5
1.4 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................6
1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................6
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT....................................................................................... 7
2.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................7
2.2 INTERFACE WITH SUBSEA STRUCTURES ...............................................................................8
2.3 INTERFACES WITH SUPPORT VESSEL ..................................................................................10
3 INTERVENTION PHILOSOPHY AND FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT ...................... 11

3.1 GENERAL ..........................................................................................................................11
3.2 INTERVENTION BY ROV.....................................................................................................12
3.2.1 Functional requirements ............................................................................................12
3.2.2 ROV classification......................................................................................................13
3.2.3 ROV stabilisation methods ........................................................................................13
3.3 INTERVENTION BY ROT .....................................................................................................16
3.4 LAUNCHING AND RECOVERY CONDITIONS ...........................................................................17
3.5 ROV CREW ......................................................................................................................17
3.6 OPERATION DOCUMENTATION ............................................................................................18
4 DEEPWATER ROV REVIEW ...................................................................................... 19

4.1 GENERAL ..........................................................................................................................19
4.2 ROV VEHICLE SYSTEM ......................................................................................................20
4.2.1 Vehicle structure ........................................................................................................21
4.2.2 Hydraulic power and propulsion ................................................................................22
4.2.3 Observation equipment..............................................................................................22
4.2.4 Navigation aid equipment ..........................................................................................23
4.2.5 Cabling systems.........................................................................................................24
4.2.6 Manipulator arm.........................................................................................................24
4.3 CONTROL SYSTEM.............................................................................................................26
4.4 LAUNCHING AND RECOVERY SYSTEM (LARS) ...................................................................27
4.5 TETHER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (TMS) .............................................................................31
4.6 OBSERVATION ROV..........................................................................................................34
4.7 DRILLING ROV .................................................................................................................35
4.8 W ORKING ROV ................................................................................................................38
4.9 SURVEY ROV ...................................................................................................................40
Rev. 0 DEEPWATER ROV AND TOOLS Page 2
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5 REMOTELY OPERATED TOOLS............................................................................... 41

5.1 GENERAL ..........................................................................................................................41
5.2 COMPONENT CHANGE-OUT TOOLS ....................................................................................41
5.3 PULL-IN AND CONNECTION TOOLS ......................................................................................42
6 ROV TOOLS ............................................................................................................... 44

6.1 GENERAL ..........................................................................................................................44
6.2 TOOL HANDLING AND IMPLEMENTATION ..............................................................................44
6.3 HYDRAULIC CONTROL INTERVENTION TOOLS (HOT STABS) ..................................................46
6.4 ROTARY TORQUE TOOLS ...................................................................................................47
6.5 LINEAR VALVE OVERRIDE TOOLS ........................................................................................49
6.6 DREDGE / JET PUMP SYSTEM .............................................................................................50
6.7 HYDRAULIC CABLE CUTTER................................................................................................51
6.8 FLOWLINE HUB CLEANING TOOL .........................................................................................51
6.9 SEAL REPLACEMENT TOOL.................................................................................................52
6.10 HYDRO-ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENT TOOL ............................................................................53
6.11 TAUT WIRE METROLOGY....................................................................................................54
6.12 ROV-MOUNTED PULL-IN AND CONNECTION TOOL ...............................................................56
ANNEX 1: DEEPWATER ROV........................................................................................... 57
ANNEX 2: ROV CONTRACTORS AND MANUFACTURERS ............................................ 60

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
Field development in deep waters typically involves the use of a floating production support in
combination with a flowline network, subsea wellheads and manifolds. Such a development
scheme results in numerous subsea intervention tasks that are out of the reach of the direct
human intervention, thus putting demands on Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) role and
reliability to a high level.
ROV's were introduced offshore in the early 80's, as an observation and safety means of
divers during their underwater interventions. With the acceptance of these new tools by the
diving personnel, these remotely operated robots were further equipped with arms (i.e.
manipulators) to perform more meaningful works than just observation tasks.
At the same period deeper water development at 300 - 500 meters were being contemplated
(mainly in the North Sea and in Brazil) as at that time exploration drilling was already deeper,
and it is the drilling industry who has provided the ROV industry with the unique opportunity
for further development. The incentives were twofold (1) ROV's are more cost effective than
manned intervention (e.g. saturation diving systems, submarines, one-atmosphere bells) (2)
safer operation as humans were not required in the hostile underwater environment.
With commercial diving limited by water depths (e.g. 180 - 250 meters in North Sea and
around 350 meters in Brazil), the ROV ability to work at extreme depths make it an essential
tool for the offshore deepwater exploration and production. ROV's are the "eyes and the
arms" of those who have remained in "surface".
Today there are ROV readily available for 3000m water depth from all main ROV Contractors
(e.g. CSO, SCS, Oceaneering, Sonsub, etc), and up to 6000m water depth (i.e. Ifremer).
This document will review the current state of art in ROV's technology, its capabilities and the
requirement for deepwater operations such as:
• route and seabed surveys

• drilling supports
• subsea interventions on subsea structures
• Inspections, maintenance and repairs.
ROV subsea intervention effectiveness lay firstly with the adopted intervention philosophy, as
further depicted in enclosed chapter 3, follows by the evaluation of the impacts on the
Subsea Production System (SPS) design and ROV surface support vessel interface
requirements (see chapter 2).
Chapter 4 is dedicated to the general description of ROV system and the main technical
characteristics for different ROV vehicles (i.e. Drilling ROV, Construction ROV, Survey ROV).
Once the subsea tasks to be performed have been identified, the next phase is to establish
the intervention method. There are two primary methods of remote intervention on subsea
production systems, intervention by remotely operated tools (see chapter 5 – ROT) and
intervention by tools mounted onto the ROV vehicle as further detailed in chapter 6, ROV
Tools.
The technical characteristics of the available deepwater ROVs and the list and addresses of
the main ROV Contractors and Manufacturers provided in the annexes, will conclude this
document.

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ISO-13628 (under preparation):
• Part 8: Design and operation of ROV interfaces on subsea production equipment

• Part 9: ROT intervention systems
IMCA R 004: Guidance Note on the safe and efficient operation of Remote Operated
Vehicles (AODC 051 previously)
OLF-040: Recommended guides lines for ROV services

AODC: Association of Offshore Diving Contractors
CCO: Component Change-Out tool
FPS: Floating Production System
HPU: Hydraulic Power Unit
HPR: Hydroacoustic Position Reference System
ICM: Insert choke Module
IMR: Inspection, Maintenance and Repair
LARS Launch and Recovery System
MFM: Multi-phase Flow Meter
MQC: Multi Quick Connect
MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures
OLF: Oljeindustriens Landsforening (the Norwegian oil industry association)
OBSROV: Observation ROV
PLEM: Pipeline End Manifold
RCIU: Retrievable Chemical Injection Unit
ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicle
ROT: Remotely Operated Tool
SCM: Subsea Control Module
Spread: a complete system encompassing all equipment, spares, consumables and
dedicated personnel
SPS: Subsea Production System
SCSSV: Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve
TDU: Tool Deployment Unit
TMS: Tether Management System
WROV: Working ROV

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1.4 References
This study is based on the following sources:
• ROV Vendors / Manufacturer published technical data.

• In house technical data from the ROV subsea contractors.
• In house past experience in remotely operated subsea tasks.
• Deepwater field development reference book “Tie-in Methods”.
We wish to thank the ROV manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with
courtesy of technical information and photographs of their products.

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2.1 General
A deepwater ROV system is basically composed of the following sub-systems:
• launching and recovery system (LARS) with umbilical winch

• propulsion system
• camera system
• lighting system
• navigation system (sonar)
• manipulator system
• ROV tool system
Two sorts of ROV interfaces must be considered:
• interface between the ROV vehicle, tools and SPS (Subsea Production Systems)
• interface between the ROV deck equipment and the surface support vessel
The surface support vessel can be either:
• a dedicated support vessel (e.g. ROV survey activities, subsea interventions)

• a drilling support rig, DP vessel, semi-submersible, etc.
• a Floating Production System
Defining the ROV operated systems, and hence evaluating the interface impacts on the SPS
design and support vessel deck layout, requires also to precisely evaluate the subsea tasks
to be performed. Such intervention philosophy and the functional requirements must be
defined and the external environmental conditions criteria acting on it.
Industry standard interfaces have been established for ROV intervention, to maximise the
potential use of standard equipment and design principles. In general such ROV interface
requirements and implementation lay mainly with the ROV Contractors. The purpose of
standard ROV interfaces is to re-use intervention tooling in the interests of minimizing life
cycle costs and to increase the use of proven interface tooling.

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2.2 Interface with subsea structures

The definition of the interfaces between the ROV and subsea production systems (SPS)
mainly addressed the following topics:
• accessibility for ROV and tooling

• interfaces between ROV tools and SPS (e.g. ROV panel)
• ROV stabilisation method (e.g. docking system)
• loads induced by subsea tasks (e.g. pulling, torque reaction forces)
• required guiding devices (e.g. helical entry guide post)
• required visual aids (e.g. marking, color coding)
The ROV interfaces are generally located on the SPS in a manner that allows accessibility to
the ROV, tools (i.e. manipulator, TDU or tool skid mode) and ROT. This means that the
overall dimensions of the ROV and its tooling package (or the ROT) must be taken into
account in addition to the required space to manoeuvre. In the design of the SPS interfaces,
attention must be paid to the environmental conditions as significant current could
tremendously complicate the pilot task.
Component
Change-Out tool
landing units
ROV panel
SPS
Tool Deployment
Unit (TDU)
ROV
Figure 2.1 - "Illustration of some interfaces between ROV and SPS"
Interface between SPS and ROV are generally performed by ROV panel. It includes the
various interfaces for rotary torque tools and linear pushing tools for valve actuation, provides
inboard hubs of MQC or female receptacle for hydraulic intervention tool, etc. (see enclosed
chapter 6: "ROV tools"). It also provides docking points (if TDU method is used) or grasping
bars for ROV stabilisation (see chapter 3.2.3 for further details on the stabilisation methods).

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Valve
state
markers
Female
MQC
"T" bar
Figure 2.2 - "ROV panel"
SPS may be also equipped with landing units for landing and locking of ROT (e.g.
Component Change-out tool) if required. The functions of these units are to perform the final
alignment, to provide soft landing, to lock the ROT during the operation if required and to
support tool weight and eventual additional loads.
The SPS and the interface items must be able to support various loads induced by:
• ROV stabilisation (environmental loads acting on ROV, tooling package and

umbilical tether must be considered)
• tooling engagement
• subsea works to be performed (i.e. tool reaction loads)
• eventual collisions
An adequate colour and marking system of SPS must be implemented to allow easy
identification of:
• structures (for global navigation)

• key subsea equipment (e.g. control pods, latching items)
• inspection area
• intervention interfaces (e.g. ROV panel)
• status of each equipment (e.g. open or close position for valves)
The colours generally used are yellow (most visible colour through a subsea camera), white
and orange in combination with black and grey.
Character sizing depends on the distance they should be read, depending on their role (i.e.
primary identifier for system location or secondary markers, such as those on ROV panels).
They can be from 5cm to 50cm height. Prevention of marine growth and cleaning (e.g.
jetting, brush) shall be provided for markers having operational functions for the field life
duration.

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2.3 Interfaces with support vessel

The interfaces between the surface support vessel and the ROV system mainly concern (1)
the deck layout (i.e. space required by the deck equipment of the ROV and associated
equipment) and (2) the required facilities (e.g. power, communication, etc.) for further
mobilisation activities onboard the surface support vessel.
As a minimum, the ROV deck equipment includes:
• launching and recovery system (LARS), handling frame or crane, electro-

hydraulic umbilical winch complete with drum, cables and umbilical capable of
operations at the required water depths
• ROV control cabin fully equipped (i.e. monitor recorder with hard copy print out
off the screen), air conditioned and pressurised as Zone 2, A.60 fire rated
• video display to be located in the support vessel main control room (e.g. DP
control, drill cabin)
• direct communication and telephone links between the ROV control cabin and the
'DP' control room
• workshop / maintenance cabin
• all required spare parts for above ROV system
ROV's Subsea Contractor must provide a general arrangement on deck of its

equipment/system and the required facilities / connections interfacing with the support
vessel.
The surface support vessel must provide a safe working platform for the subsea activities to
be performed by ROVs and ROTs. This implies that both support vessel and LARS shall be
related for effective operations at the defined environmental conditions or sea state (see
section 3.4 Launching and recovery conditions).

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3 INTERVENTION PHILOSOPHY AND FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT
3.1 General
Working effectively in deep water demands more efficient subsea operations which start with
the ROV equipment capabilities, but lays mainly with the ROV personnel / operator skill and
training, and with the ROV Subsea Contractor culture and attitude for services and
performance.
With deepwater applications, reliability of the ROV system becomes much more a vital factor
for operation success and cost effectiveness. Priority is being given to increase the
endurance of equipment so that the vehicle does not have to be brought back on deck for
routine maintenance, as the round trip from/to 2000 m can take more than 4 hours. Although
such deployment time could be reduced with the use of traction winch capable of 100
m/minute launch & recovery speed.
Typical ROV breakdowns are related to the main and tether umbilical, electronic pods and
electrical connectors following a water ingress or condensation effect due to a much colder
water at seabed (e.g. 4°C, -2°C).
Today an ROV working rate of up to 98% is achievable, when the ROV design is based on
the "degraded mode of operation" philosophy. This implies that high risk ROV sub-systems
are provided with built-in backup systems in the event of failures of the primary system. In
most cases, the ROV will be able to continue the mission but at a reduced performance. The
most well known high risk sub-systems which are to be provided in dual mode are: dual HPU,
dual motors, dual depth sensors, dual navigation compasses, multiple cameras, dual seven-
function manipulators, multiple fibre optic data transmission, etc.
The establishment of an intervention philosophy at an early stage of ROV system design for
particular application allows defining the required types of ROV, the eventual ROTs, the
associated equipment (i.e. ROV tools) and then to manage the interfaces (i.e. with SPS,
deck layout, etc.). Such intervention philosophy must be defined as early as possible and
should address:
• the various tasks to be carried out (survey, drill support, SPS installation, IMR)
• the type of support vessel (drilling rig, construction vessel)
• the intervention methods (ROV, ROT)
• the required types of tools (torque tools, hot-stab, etc.)
• operators skill and eventual specific training
• ROV stabilisation method (e.g. docking panel, working platform)
• SPS accessibility requirements (versus ROV dimensions, manipulator envelope)
Remote subsea operation can be conducted either by ROV or ROT (with ROV used for
backup function).

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Typical intervention tasks include:
• visual inspection and monitoring

• cable cutting
• measurements (metrology)
• component installation and replacement (e.g. transponders, modules)
• template / wellhead workover (e.g. valve operation and emergency override,
valve maintenance and testing, etc.)
• umbilical and flowline installation (i.e. pull-in and connection)
• pipeline burial
• etc.
The functional requirements are performance oriented and should define the minimum
criteria which must be satisfied in order to meet with stated objectives (e.g. to provide reliable
ROV support to ensure cost effective and safe operation):
• list of subsea tasks to be performed

• ROV launch and recovery limitations versus weather window (sea state definition)
• available ROTs and/or ROV tooling (e.g. generally from the SPS manufacturer) to
be interfaced to the ROV systems
• ROV availability or working rate
• contingency plan in case of ROV failures (e.g. availability of spare parts,
components, vehicle, umbilical, etc.)
• continuous improvement plan based on experience feed-back (for both ROV
operators and Contractors)
• etc.
3.2 Intervention by ROV
3.2.1 Functional requirements
ROV is a compliant system that allows to perform various subsea tasks such as those quoted
in previous section. Deepwater ROV design shall provide adequate equipment / tooling and
the capacity to interface with the SPS design, with sufficient power (i.e. for tool
implementation and propulsion adapted to the subsea conditions), depth capacity, etc.
Three main ROV configurations can be adopted to perform these subsea tasks :
• ROV fitted with manipulators

• ROV equipped with Tool Deployment Unit (TDU)
• ROV with toolskids or handling frame
The ROV spread shall be designed, based on the modular concept for ease of
transportation, handling, mobilisation and transfer onto alternative support vessel.

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3.2.2 ROV classification
ROV are typically grouped into about five categories, classified by role and/or size.
AODC 051 gives the following classification:
• Class I: Observation ROV

• Class II: Light-work or observation ROV with payload option
• Class III: Work ROV
• Class IV: Towed or bottom crawling vehicles
• Class V: Prototype or development vehicles
Observation ROV are employed for visual inspection / monitoring and diver assistance.
These systems are typically fitted with light sensors, probes and a simple grabber but carry
little or no payload.
Class II ROV is used for tasks ranging from inspection, observation and assistance during
drilling operations and light subsea tasks (e.g. 150-200 kg). They can carry one or two
cameras, sonar and a single manipulator arm; they are able to carry light payload tasks.
Work ROVs are employed for various tasks such as drill support, construction and repair
tasks, platform cleaning, subsea tool deployment and operations (e.g. up to 500 kg). They
feature higher hydraulic power and payload capacity, more sensor channels and are
generally fitted with either a grabber and a seven-function manipulator arm (e.g. for drill
support) or two seven-function manipulator arms (e.g. for construction tasks).
The WROV spread shall be based on the same design as the drilling support ROV, and as
much as possible using the same components, control systems, equipment, etc for the
purpose of ROV's pilot / technician training, familiarisation and maintenance aspects (e.g.
same spare parts).
Towed or bottom crawling are typically purpose built to a particular intervention task (e.g.
subsea trenching or pipeline repair).
Each ROV must accommodate a wide variety of tooling, work equipment and sensor
systems. Standardisation efforts on the equipment are performed, leading in particular to the
ISO recommendations.
3.2.3 ROV stabilisation methods

The intervention philosophy shall address the stabilisation method employed by the ROV in
order to be able to define the interfaces with the subsea structure and the ROV equipment.
The stabilisation can be achieved by means of the following:
• suction cups
• grabber
• docking device
• working platform

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Suction cups fixed on the end of an arm and activated by the ROV allow to anchor it by
suction effect when in contact with the structure. This system allows to perform some
manipulative operations, such as cleaning, valve activation or inspection, but it requires flat
and relatively clean surface near the work area. This stabilisation method is adopted for
subsea intervention tasks on subsea structures which have not been prepared for ROV
operations at the design stage.
Figure 3.1 - "Suction cup"

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ROV can grasp bars on the structure by means of a manipulator / grabber arm with parallel
or pincer jaw. Adequate standard bars must be fitted onto the subsea structure, which shall
resist the loads applied by the ROV (ISO recommends to design grasping intervention
interfaces to resist a force of about 225kg applied from any direction).
Docking is generally used in combination with TDU (see chapter 6), but it can also be used
during manipulator operations. It is convenient when effort transmission to the working
interface must be avoided (e.g. during operation involving hot stabs) or when heavy loads are
handled (e.g. stab plate connection). Docking provides stable and accurate positioning of the
ROV; it is performed by stabbing one or two docking probes in docking receptacle(s). The
docking probe is an hydraulically operated device with locking dogs at its extremity, as
depicted on figure 3.2.
Docking receptacle ROV panel
Docking probe
Docking face
(SPS/ROV panel)
Docking
probe
ROV
tooling
Locking dogs
TDU
Figure 3.2 - "Docking principle"
A working platform can be used in replacement or in combination with one of the previous
stabilisation methods. It can be composed of bars or gratings.

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3.3 Intervention by ROT

Remotely Operated Tools (ROT) are generally used to perform the replacement or
installation of SPS components, flowlines and umbilical connection (see figure 3.3). They are
preferred to free-flying ROV intervention mode when high lifting or pulling capacities are
required.
ROTs are lowered by means of lift wires and powered by a surface umbilical with either
dedicated thrusters or ROV assistance for lateral guidance. If necessary, ROV are used to
activate backup functions.
Figure 3.3 - "sketch of ROT intervention system"

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3.4 Launching and recovery conditions

The ROV vehicle is generally launched over-the-side (sometimes through a dedicated
moonpool) and requires a purpose built Launch & Recovery System (LARS) to control the
pendulum movements on deck and until it extends through the sea splash-zone.
Because it extends the weather window and provides longer duration dives, the LARS is now
regarded by many as the next major step in deepwater ROV development, with the umbilical
being the most critical item for further improvement.
Such handling system shall be designed, built and operated to suit the conditions in which it
is to perform. Today most LARS are designed to meet with sea state 6:
• significant wave height Hs=4m to 4.5m

• wave peak period Tp=8s
This implies that ROV operations should not be subject to weather downtime in milder areas
(than North Sea) such as West of Africa, Brazil or Gulf of Mexico (excluding during hurricane
period), and providing that such diving operations are performed from a suitable surface
support vessel.
3.5 ROV crew

Efficiency of the ROV crew is a major factor of subsea operation success. Deepwater ROV
workforce is responsible for:
• the ROV maintenance

• the correct implementation of the operational procedures
• the adequate and accurate ROV manipulation
• experience feed back for further improvement of equipment, procedures, etc.
The personnel shall be qualified and sufficiently experienced.

Deepwater ROV crew typically consists of the following, during 12 hour shifts in 24 hour
operations:
• one supervisor, whose role is to prepare the operations and to interface with the
support vessel operation superintendent
• one senior pilot / technician
• one pilot, helping the senior pilot by manipulating the arm, the TMS, the LARS,
etc.
The above 3 men crew are generally sufficient during most of the drilling campaign, however
2 additional pilot/technician will be required for a continuous 24 hour coverage during the
high activity periods such as re-entries, well completions.
For subsea construction activities (e.g. flowline tie-ins) a much higher workload will be
required from the WROV spreads, in general a minimum of 2 WROVs and 12 men crew (i.e.
6 men crew/12 hrs shift) are needed.
IMCA are putting together a competence scheme for ROV personnel, which hopefully carry
City & Guilds accreditation. This will involve the keeping of log books, recording of vehicles
and tools used.

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3.6 Operation documentation

Two media are used to consign and record all the ROV activities:
• video tape, which continuously records ROV activities.

• dive log, which reports ROV tasks, also covering the launch / recovery times and
surface activities.
Following the latest computer technology improvements, some subsea contractors now offer
to use digital video interface, converting all video received from the ROV into a digital format
and hence allowing a broad range of utilisation and modification (image insertion in the
reports, addition of graphs to the images, etc).
The ROV report from the subsea operation includes as minimum the ROV procedures, the
dive log and a short video version of the operation.

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4 DEEPWATER ROV REVIEW
4.1 General
Deepwater ROV systems are composed of the following main items:
• vehicle
• tether management system (TMS)
• umbilical and winch
• launching and recovery system (LARS) and associated equipment
• telemetry and control system
• fibre optic system
• control and maintenance cabins
• power generator
• spares
Additional equipment and tools are then added, depending on the subsea tasks to be
performed and the ROV intervention mode (e.g. with TDU, tool skid, etc.).
Some ROVs feature up to 200 hp, but in general 100 hp are sufficient for most purposes and
separated in two units of 2 x 50 hp for redundancy and degraded operation philosophy.
For deeper waters than those currently envisaged (i.e. more than 1500 m), most ROV
manufacturers will just uprate an existing model, which is largely a case of ensuring that the
electronics are adequately housed, the vehicle's buoyancy, lights and cameras are designed
for the planned water depths.
The following sections further describe the ROV vehicle, control system, LARS and TMS as
common part of all the (deepwater) ROV systems. The different types of deepwater ROVs
are then depicted.

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4.2 ROV vehicle system

The ROV vehicle is composed of an open frame, fitted with buoyancy modules, supporting
the hereunder-detailed minimum equipment and eventually some additional tooling (e.g.
TDU, services skid, etc.):
• HPU and propulsion system

• observation equipment
• navigation aid equipment
• cabling system
• manipulator arms
Umbilical tether
Thrusters Flotation modules
Pan and tilt

camera unit
Grabber
Electric/electronic
1 atm. pods
HPU Tooling HPU manifold 7F Manipulator
Figure 4.1 - "ROV main components"

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4.2.1 Vehicle structure
The ROV vehicle structure is a welded open frame, made generally from aluminium alloy with
stainless steel fixtures and designed to:
• carry all the ROV sub-systems

• support additional payload hung under the frame (e.g. tool skid)
• allow easy access to the sub-systems for control and maintenance
• carry additional tools (e.g. in TDU intervention mode)
The open configuration keeps clear waterways for thrusters water flow. The frame is
protected against corrosion (e.g. sandblasting) and fitted with anodes for corrosion control.
Flotation modules
Grabber (5F)
ROV framework Thrusters
Figure 4.2 - "Slingsby's MRV deepwater ROV"
Deepwater ROV vehicles are equipped with syntactic foam flotation modules, which provide
adequate trim and allow the ROV to be slightly buoyant or nearly neutral.
The syntactic foam is preferred to materials such as polyurethane or copolymer foams due to
its deepwater pressure resistance capacity. Syntactic foam is composed of hollow glass
microspheres (typical diameter of about 100 – 150 microns) dispersed within a base polymer;
hollow macrospheres (typical diameter of 5cm) can be added to reduce the foam density. A
2500m water depth rated composite syntactic foam typically has a density between 450 –
500 kg/m3.

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4.2.2 Hydraulic power and propulsion
The ROV vehicle is generally powered by two hydraulic power units (e.g. 2 x 50 hp), each
being able, if required, to independently operate the system at reduced power hence
providing more reliability.
Each HPU is composed of the following main items:
• electrical motor (e.g. 50 hp, three-phases, 60Hz, 2300 VAC motor)

• hydraulic pump (e.g. 50 hp)
• coupler, joining motor and pump, contained in an oil filled, pressure compensated
housing to avoid water ingress
• pressure compensated reservoir, feeding the pump
The hydraulic power is distributed by means of valve manifolds to the various ROV sub-
systems, which are mainly:
• thrusters
• manipulators
• camera pan and tilt unit
• tools
ROV is typically equipped with 6 – 8 fixed thrusters allowing manoeuvres in all directions.
Thrusters are controlled by servo valves, which supply them with hydraulic power. Each of
them is able to provide typically about 250 – 300 kg of thrust.
4.2.3 Observation equipment
Camera function is to provide visual support to the ROV pilots to manoeuvre the vehicle and
perform the various subsea tasks.
Two types of cameras are generally fitted on ROV:
• SIT (Silicon Intensified Target) low light camera

• CCD (Charge Coupled Device) camera
SIT camera is primarily used by the ROV pilot during the vehicle's manoeuvres. It provides a
wide angle of vision and the best viewing in poor visibility conditions, allowing discerning the
eventual obstacles (e.g. cable or rope). The low light viewing capabilities of the SIT camera
allow locating a target from a greater distance than a CCD camera.
CCD camera is generally used for close in work or inspection tasks. It can be for example
mounted on a manipulator to view tooling functions.
The cameras can be located:
• on a fix location on the ROV (still camera) to be used as a reference camera for
ROV manoeuvres.
• on a pan and tilt unit, allowing to orientate the cameras for observation, reading
of gauges, etc.
• on manipulator or tool frame as tool operation support cameras

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Figure 4.3 - "Cameras and lights on a pan and tilt unit"
A camera positioned at the rear of the vehicle allows not only to perform manoeuvres but
also to check the tether position. Another camera can also be fitted on the TMS to allow
viewing of the tether winch, various gauges located on TMS (e.g. hydraulic gauges of HPU,
which provides power to the tether drum) and the whole vehicle deployment and recovery
process.
A sufficient lighting system must be fitted on the ROV to provide the required video coverage.
About four to five 250Watt lights (e.g. dry quartz halogen lamp) are typically mounted on the
ROV vehicle, on the pan and tilt unit, at the front and rear of the ROV to provide the uniform,
balanced lighting required for video coverage.
4.2.4 Navigation aid equipment

The ROV must be equipped with heading, depth, altitude, and pitch and roll sensors to assist
the pilot during manoeuvres.
The gyrocompass heading sensor provides the pilot navigational aid to assist in tasks
requiring directional orientation (e.g. locating the work site). Depth sensor or altimeter can be
used to hold vehicle position in the mid-water column while performing an operation, but
altimeter is generally more accurate and stable due to a shorter range (i.e. typically 50m).
Inclinometers help the pilot or the autopilot functions in controlling the vehicle position, roll,
pitch. Roll sensors are particularly useful when docking or mating operations are performed
or to work above a slope bottom.
Use of sonar allows spatial orientation and easy location of targets (e.g. SPS, pipelay) during
operation. Generally, as the ROV operates in a predetermined area, a medium to short range
sonar is sufficient, allowing to track target in relatively close range (i.e. up to 100 - 200m) and
to obtain high resolution images.
ROV are positioned by means of hydro-acoustic system; the short baseline (SBL) system
measures a range and direction from the surface support vessel mounted hydro-phones (or
transceivers) to a mini-beacon mounted on the ROV. Latest development on super-short or
ultra-short baselines (SSBL, USBL) for deep water survey used only one hull mounted hydro-

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phone/transceiver and one subsea beacon (transponder) to establish a 3D position of the

ROV.
In contrast, the long baseline (LBL) measures position with a ‘range range’ technique which
relies on transponders at known point on seafloor, or in an array (see section 6.10). The LBL
provides a higher accuracy (than the SBL system) and is used mainly for subsea positioning
and metrology.
4.2.5 Cabling systems
Connectors are generally used on external components to facilitate control and maintenance.
All the connectors are pressure balanced to avoid water ingress by means of an oil-filled,
pressure compensated tubing. A junction box is used to centralise the main connections,
minimise the risk of leaking and ease the maintenance.
4.2.6 Manipulator arm

Deepwater ROVs are typically equipped with either one seven-function manipulator arm and
one five-functions grabber, or two seven-function manipulator arms (i.e. construction tasks).
7XF Shingsby TA40 Storm

2X7F Schilling CONAN
7XF Slingsby HYDRUS
Figure 4.4 - "Manipulator arms"

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The state of art is a 'six degrees of freedom' plus claw, master / slave system for underwater
applications. Higher dexterity is achieved by the use of rotary-vane actuators at the joints,
thereby eliminating the envelope restrictions imposed by hydraulic rams (i.e. Slingsby
HYDRUS).
The typical characteristics of five-function and seven-function manipulators are hereafter
described:
Five-functions arm/grabber typical characteristics:
• linear working area: 1 – 1.5m

• lifting force fully extended: 50 kg (200 kg retracted)
• rotation torque at the wrist: 75 - 200Nm
• wrist rotation: 340°
Seven-functions manipulator arm typical characteristics:
• linear working area: 1.3 – 2m

• lifting force fully extended: 50 kg (210 kg retracted)
• rotation torque at the wrist: 50 - 150Nm
• wrist rotation: continuous 360°
Side elevation (m) Plan elevation (m)
Figure 4.5 - " Typical seven-function manipulator operational envelope"
The manipulator arms may be fitted with miniature cameras, installed on manipulator ‘wrest’
to further improve the operator views.

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4.3 Control system

The control system is housed in a control cabin located on the surface support vessel deck.
A maintenance cabin is also part of the on-deck ROV system, providing enclosed
atmosphere, to store spares and performs maintenance operations. Both cabins can be air-
conditioned, pressurised as Zone 2 and A.60 fire rated if required (i.e. drilling rigs).
The control system is typically composed of:
• a pilot's console, with all joysticks, switches, trackball and computer graphics
user-interface components.
• a navigator's console, including video tape recorders, a sonar processor and
monitors.
Pilot's console
Sonar processor
Video tape recorders
Navigator's console
Figure 4.6 - "Control system"
A video overlay on the pilot's monitor allows to display one or a combination of the following
data: date / time, depth / depth history, heading and auto heading set point, altitude, pitch
and roll, hydraulic data (i.e. pressure, temperature, fluid level), motor current and voltage
status, thrusters status, alarms, etc.
Direct communication and telephone links between the ROV control cabin and the "DP"
control room must be provided to allow full subsea intervention co-ordination.
The electrical power distribution is generally enclosed in the control cabin (but separated
from the control room by wall for safety reasons), providing power to the ROV system HPU
motors, electronic hardware on the ROV and the control and maintenance cabins.
The telemetry and control system is the ‘heart’ of the ROV technology, it provides high speed
serial communications, utilising topside computer, and a bottomside microchip (e.g. Intel
Pentium) control system in the ROV vehicle/cage.
Through the use of standard industrial computer components and ‘custom’ designed
software, the control system is flexible, reliable and easily maintained. The control logic for
various vehicle functions, any added specialized tooling could be updated or reprogrammed
to suit subsea tasks specific needs and applications.

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4.4 Launching and Recovery System (LARS)

The functions of a LARS are (1) to perform the overboarding of the ROV and its TMS, (2) to
avoid any critical pendulum motions which would conduct to detrimental clashes between
ROV and floater hull and (3) to lower and recover the vehicle / TMS assembly through the
splash zones.
The launching and recovery system consists of following major components:
• handling frame
• umbilical winch
• on-deck hydraulic power unit (HPU)
A-frame
Umbilical winch
Docking head
ROV
TMS
(side entry cage)
Figure 4.7 - "A-frame type, moonpool based LARS"
The handling frame can be based on either an A-frame (see figure 4.7) or a crane (knuckle-
boom or telescopic boom, see figure 4.8). Its primary function is to perform the overboarding
of the TMS, which is hanged on the docking head and supports the ROV, and to position
both TMS and ROV at the sea water level as far as possible of the floater hull (i.e. typically
an overboarding reach of about 5m) in order to avoid contacts due to environmental loads
and pendulum movement. The handling frame shall withstand the weight of the TMS, the
ROV, plus its maximum payload (corresponding to an eventual added tool package); it shall
be able to perform its task in severe conditions.

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Umbilical
Docking
head
TMS
(Top-hat design)
Figure 4.8 - " knuckle-boom type LARS"
The umbilical winch can be fitted with active heave compensation, thus ensuring safer and
simpler docking of the ROV in rough weather conditions. The umbilical winch determines the
deployment / recovery speed of the ROV, which is typically about 30m/min. Speed is an
important characteristic of a LARS for deepwater applications as launching and recovery
times increased with depth, thus resulting in enormous expenditure. For deepwater and ultra-
deepwater operations, the umbilical winch should provide at least a deployment / recovery
speed of 50m/min.
1 2
Position: Position:
resting overboarding
3 4
Position: Position:
working working
extreme close
Figure 4.9 - " knuckle-boom type LARS launching sequences"

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Mobil, who was particularly concerned with this problem in the West of Shetlands with the
drilling semi-submersible "Jack Bates", awarded Subsea the design and fabrication of a ROV
system deepwater / harsh environment. Subsea developed the "Clansman" ROV system,
including not only a deepwater ROV (rated to 2000m) but also a heavy weather LARS. The
Clansman LARS is based on the use of four guide wires and a cursor frame which guide the
ROV cage from the main deck down to submerged pontoon level of the semi. It allows
launching and recovery of the ROV in sea state 8 (i.e. significant waves of up to 10m) and its
high speed umbilical winch is able to lower the ROV at a maximum speed of about
140m/min.
Figure 4.10 - " Clansman system"
The umbilical is usually the weak element of a ROV system, particularly for deepwater
applications due to the umbilical increasing length and weight. The main lift umbilical
experiences maximum working loads during launching and recovery of the ROV at the splash
zone, with TMS and vehicle freely suspended in water. A failure of a winch or an umbilical
statistically results in the longest ROV system downtime period. Efforts are made by
ROV/umbilical manufacturers to:
• minimise the weight of the umbilical while maximising its capability

• standardise umbilical in order to facilitate the storage of spare umbilical

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Deepwater main lift umbilical are typically composed of power conductors and fibre optics
internally installed in helical arrangement to reduce load stress (fibre optics can also be
surrounded by a protective gel to minimise friction with other components). The umbilical
allows the transmission of power, data, telemetry and video between the TMS and the
surface. The umbilical electrical components should be isolated and checked for possible
interference between power and data/video transmission.
The use of fibre optics can improve the umbilical size and weight; this allows to reduce the
drag loads (i.e. the current induce offset) and to minimise the size (and the cost) of the
LARS. But fibre optics forbid any repair as it can not be welded offshore. Standardisation is
hence important to allow an optimisation of spare umbilical.

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4.5 Tether Management System (TMS)

In general ROV's operating deeper than 500 m need a tether management system to remove
the effect of current on the main umbilical, and to improve ROV manoeuvrability.
The TMS functions are (1) to latch the ROV during the launching and recovery phases and
(2) to manage the tether length while the vehicle performs the subsea tasks. The ROV is
unlatch from the TMS and leave it when reaching the desired water depth and then can
manoeuvre in any direction up to the working length of the tether. The tether umbilical length
is normally 200 m with trend to increase it up to 600 m, with the use of fibre optical which
provide a smaller umbilical as narrow as 27 mm OD.
TMS allows decoupling of the vessel motions, surface effects and drag loads on the umbilical
through the water column. The ROV power can hence be fully used to perform the subsea
tasks as the vehicle pulling charge is minimised (the ROV is only retained by the tether
drags, which are quite inferior to those acting on the total umbilical length).
Current loads acting on the main lift umbilical and the TMS tend to push it far away from the
working area. The TMS weight, this is particularly true when high current are expected, is
useful to adequately position the ROV. Some TMS (e.g. the cage of the Hydra Magnum
ROV) are equipped with thrusters to assist in the positioning.
TMS is equipped with HPU (i.e. motor, coupler, hydraulic pump, plumbing, etc.), generally
similar to the ROV equipment for maintenance purposes, and valves to provide with hydraulic
power and to control the tether winch (and the eventual TMS propulsion system). Cameras
and lights are also fitted for viewing of hydraulic gauges, tether winch and the vehicle
deployment and recovery process.
All power and control for the ROV vehicle, after passing through the main lift umbilical, are
provided by the tether umbilical.

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Today, two types of TMS are available on the market:
• side entry cage

• "top-hat" TMS
Figure 4.11 - "Side entry cage" Figure 4.12 - "Top-hat TMS"
The typical main characteristics of both systems for deepwater applications are as follows:
Side entry cage "Top-hat" TMS

• Length: 3.2m • Diameter: 1.9m
• Width: 2m • Height: 1.9m
• Height: 3.5m • Weight in air: 1.7ton
• Weight in air: 2ton
Both cage and top-hat are equally used by the manufacturers / contractors as each of the
two systems has the opposite advantages and drawbacks.
The two main problems encountered with a "top-hat" designed TMS are:
• due to the top position of the TMS and the low submerged weight of the ROV, a
turning moment is applied on the ROV-TMS combination when lowered into the
water (i.e. the centre of gravity rises above the centre of buoyancy), thus applying
large lateral loads on the umbilical termination.
• It is relatively easy to pinch the tether when the ROV docks the TMS.

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A side entry cage has the inherent advantage of providing protection to the ROV during
Tether
Figure 4.13 - "Slingsby MRV's Top-hat TMS"
launching and recovery (useful in bad weather conditions to avoid direct clashes on the
floater hull), but its main drawbacks is to be less versatile: the size of tools and work
packages to be added on the ROV is limited by the cage dimensions.

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4.6 Observation ROV

Observation ROVs (OBSROVs) are rarely used during deepwater operations: because of the
high duration of ROV launching and recovery operations, heavier ROV are often preferred as
they are able to immediately perform more demanding subsea tasks. Nevertheless, class II
observation ROV function in deep waters is mainly to perform inspection of the subsea
equipment (i.e. SPS, risers, sealines), video monitoring (during tool manoeuvre and
positioning) and light subsea works.
Observation ROV can carry a wide range of light sensors and probes, plus a simple (i.e. from
one to three-function arm) grabber, but it can not carry heavy loads.
Figure 4.14 - "Perry Tritech Viper observation and light work ROV"
The main characteristics of a typical deepwater class II observation ROV are as follows:
• dimensions: 2.2m x 0.9m x 1.2m (LxWxH)

• total power: 50hp
• weight in air: 850kg
• depth rating: 2000m
• speed: 3 knots forward
2 knots reverse
1.5 knots lateral
1.5 knots vertical
• payload: 80kg
• manipulator: four-functions
The enclosed Annex 1 provides further technical characteristics of the main class II OBSROV
for deepwater applications.

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4.7 Drilling ROV

The drilling ROV will generally provide the required assistance during:
• re-entries, drilling and well completion
• X-mas tree installation
In particular, it must be suitable for performance of typical subsea tasks as follows:
• General observation
∗ observing spudding of well
∗ watching for fluid and cement returns to seabed
∗ observing and advising rig about guidance of bit or casing into well
∗ observing landing of equipment (e.g. guide base, BOP) at seabed
∗ observing and reporting currents
• Quality control observations

∗ checking bulls-eye for inclination of guide base, BOP, etc. (+/-1deg)
∗ checking orientation of guide base (+/-5deg)
∗ checking elevation of conductor above seabed (+/-0.5m)
∗ checking position of subsea equipment relative to rig position (+/-0.5m)
∗ confirming position of connector latch indicators (+/-1cm)
∗ observation of wellhead seal surface (from distance of about 0.25m)
∗ observing pressure during function tests with ROV stabs (+/-0.5bar)
∗ observation of BOP alignment pin position (+/-1cm)
• Manipulation tasks
∗ position beacons on seabed and/or on subsea equipment
∗ insert hydraulic stab onto BOP, tree, tubing spool and pressurise
(e.g. 210bar) to function/pressure test with sea water
∗ install and remove environmental gasket onto/from wellhead
∗ actuate retaining rods on BOP connector to release
∗ cut hydraulic line
∗ clean (mechanical and hydraulic) external and internal wellhead housing
(seal surface)
∗ manipulation of needle valves on BOP control panel
∗ connect/disconnect lift wires to/from subsea equipment
∗ remove small debris
∗ remove/clean cement and cuttings from guide base
∗ operate manual (ROV) gate valves
∗ override hydraulically actuated tree valves
∗ carry and install tree cap
∗ pressure control and methanol injection in tree cap
∗ connect/disconnect electrical subsea connections

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Figure 4.15 - "Oceaneering Magnum ROV"
Drilling ROVs are class III deepwater ROV. The main characteristics of a typical deepwater
drilling support ROV are as follows:

• total power: 100hp
• weight in air: 2ton
• depth rating: 2000m – 3000m
2 knots lateral
2 knots vertical
• payload: 50kg – 100kg
• through frame lift: 1ton – 5ton
• manipulator: 1 x seven-function manipulator arm
1 x five-function grabber
The deepwater ROV system as a minimum should be equipped as follows:
• scanning sonar with a range of 200-250 m and a 360° angle

• two (2) manipulator arms, one 7 functions and one 5 functions
• two (2) video cameras with at least one (1) being high resolution colour camera
and both equipped with pan & tilt system and video recorder with functions to edit
tapes, provide hard copies off the screen and to add a sound track (VHS system)
• data transmission via fibre optic technology

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• following instrumentation shall be connected to a surface display:

∗ automatic/manual heading and depth control, and be able to lock itself in all
three (3) axis by means of its control system
∗ gyrocompass
∗ thermometer for water temperatures at seabed
∗ depth-meter
∗ HPR system
• thruster propulsion system shall be sufficient for propelling and manoeuvring the
vehicle in all directions at any depth and withstand currents up to 2 knots at sea-
bed level
• high pressure pump system, 3000 psi, with line and hot stab for BOP actuation
• ROV tools :
∗ AX or VX ring tool
∗ hydraulic cable cutter
∗ hydraulic actuated wrench for 2" sockets
The drill support ROV, shall be able to be trimmed neutral buoyant (or slightly positive) when
carrying special tools.
The ROV shall be capable of a through frame lift of 500 kg (in air).
The ROV hydraulic power packs shall have spare valves to be able to operate two functions
bi-directional at an operating pressure of 210 bar (e.g. x-mas tree valves override operation).

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4.8 Working ROV

Deepwater working ROV (WROV) are used for installations or production supports, to
perform subsea tasks such as:
• all tasks as for drilling ROV (see section 4.7), plus

• landing, make-up, test, disconnect the SPS manifold
• pull-in and connection of flowlines and umbilicals
• install electrical and hydraulic flying leads between SPS
• hydraulic primary and secondary tool operations (e.g. manifold valves)
• operation of valves as primary or override functions
• water jetting and dredging
• deploy, install, make-up, test, disconnect, recover the X-mas tree mounted equipment
(i.e. choke inserts, control modules, chemical injection, flow meter module)
• operation of other purpose designed ROV tooling
• etc.
Toolskid
Figure 4.16 - "SEL Slingsby MRV ROV (with toolskid)"

The deepwater working ROV is a new generation of deep-water ROV specifically designed
for construction support activities and out-fitted with a Tether Management System (TMS).
Working ROVs are class III deepwater ROV. Typical characteristics are as follows (see Annex 1,
which gives further technical characteristics of the main class III deepwater ROV in tabular form):
• dimensions: 3m x 1.6m x 1.7m (LxWxH)
• total power: 100hp – 150hp
• weight in air: 2ton – 3ton
• depth rating: 2000m – 3000m
2 knots lateral
2 knots vertical
• payload: 150kg – 300kg
• through frame lift: 1ton – 5ton
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• manipulator: 2 x seven-function manipulator arms

• automatic functions: auto heading, auto depth, auto altitude
Figure 4.17 - "Perry Tritech Triton XL ROV"

The ROV system shall be capable of operation down to the required depth and as a
minimum shall be equipped as follows :
• scanning sonar with a range of 200-250 m and a 360° angle

• two (2) 7 function manipulator arms with the following SPS requirement (see also
chapter 4.2.6):
∗ reach of 1.3 m
∗ wrist function of continuous 360° rotation
∗ claw rotate torque of 75 Nm minimum
∗ lift capacity of 500 N at full extension and 1000 N in retracted position
• as an alternative, computer assisted manipulators (based on latest technology for
environment acquisition and load return forces) can be proposed for elementary
& repetitive tasks such as valve operations, torque operations, etc,
• two (2) video cameras with at least one (1) being a high resolution colour camera
and both equipped with pan & tilt system and video recorder with functions to edit
tapes and to add a sound track (super VHS system)
• data transmission via fibre optic technology
• following instrumentation shall be connected to a surface display:
∗ automatic/manual heading and depth control and be able to lock itself in all
three (3) axis by means of its control system
∗ gyro-flux gate compass (to prevent from magnetic field subsea structure)
∗ thermometer for water temperatures at seabed
∗ depth-meter
∗ HPR system
• thruster propulsion system shall be sufficient for propelling and manoeuvring the
vehicle at any depth with current up to 2 knots at sea-bed level
• multiplexing control capability allowing additional sensors and tools to be
attached, with additional spare twisted pair to allow for additional direct control
• high pressure pump system, 3000 psi, with line and hot stab for override
functions on the SPS

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• ROV tools :
∗ hydraulic cable cutter
∗ hydraulic actuated wrench for 2" sockets
∗ water jetting & dredging tools
The working ROV, shall be able to be trimmed neutral buoyant (or slightly positive) when
carrying special tools or equipment (such as tree-jumper tie-in tools, tool basket, etc).
The ROV shall be capable of a through frame lift of 2000 kg (in air).
The ROV hydraulic power pack shall have spare valves to be able to operate two functions
bi-directional at an operating pressure of 210 bar.
4.9 Survey ROV

ROV in charge of seabed survey operations must have the following characteristics to
efficiently perform its tasks:
• high video capacity. Survey ROV must be equipped with several high resolution
colour cameras, powerful lighting system and great capacity of data transmission.
• great propulsion capacity to be able to rapidly perform the survey of large areas
(e.g. 5-6 knots during pipeline as-laid survey).
Typical survey ROV characteristics are as follows:
• propulsion: 100hp (minimum)

• manipulators: 1 x seven-function and 1 x grabber
• cameras: 1 SIT, 3 S-VHS cameras and possibility to add more cameras
• lights: 18 x 250 Watt (dry quartz halogen lamp)
• sensors: Gyro, depth sensor, sonar, etc.
It must also be equipped with a junction box allowing to add typical survey instruments such as:
• trench profiler
• bathymetric system
• boom cameras
• cathodic protection detection systems
• pipe tracker, holiday detector (insulation coating defects)
• side-can sonar (e.g. free-span measurement), etc
Figure 4.18: "Stolt Comex Seaway SOLO survey ROV"

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5 REMOTELY OPERATED TOOLS
5.1 General
ROT are tool systems either actuated from the surface (with ROV for backup functions) or
operated by ROV. They are preferred to free-flying ROVs when high lifting or pulling
capacities are required.
ROT are generally used for the following subsea tasks:
• to perform the replacement or installation of heavy components

• to install and connect flowlines and umbilical
ROTs are deployed and lowered by means of LARS, lift wires and umbilical, with either
dedicated thrusters or ROV assistance for lateral guidance (guideline method is excluded for
deepwater applications).
Interfaces of ROT remain the same as the interfaces defined in chapter 2 for ROV systems.
5.2 Component Change-Out tools

The Component Change-Out tool is mechanical ROV Operated Tool designed to recover and
re-install subsea modules such as:
• Subsea Control Module

• Insert Choke Module
• Retrievable Chemical Injection Unit
• Multi-phase Flow Meter
• etc.
Lift wire
attachement
point
Latch unit
Swivel
Hydraulic
cylinder for soft
landing
Orientation device
(steel bar)
Module
protection
cover
Figure 5.1 - "Kongsberg Module Replacement Tool"

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An example of CCO can be the Kongsberg Module Replacement Tool (MRT). The MRT is a
ROV operated tool deployed by means of lift wire; an orientation device provides attachment
point to ROV manipulator and allows the ROV to guide and perform rough alignment. The
launching of the MRT is similar to a ROV launching (i.e. by means of LARS). Connection and
disconnection of modules is carried out using an ROV operated torque tool. Its main
characteristics are:
• weight in air: 1200kg (depending on the configuration)

• dimensions: 1m x 1m x 2.2m in transport mode (LxWxH)
5.3 Pull-in and connection tools

Pull-in and connection ROTs for pipeline, flexible pipe and umbilicals are further detailed in
the SEAL Engineering document "Tie-in methods", part of the Deepwater Field Development
Reference Book.
Basically, the ROT systems can be either two tools deployed independently, one for initial
pull-in operation and one for the connection phase, or one single tool combining both tie-in
sequence.
The historical evolution of the tie-in tool technology is as follows:
• the first generation was composed by two-ROT system (one pull-in tool and one
connection tool)
• single tool ROT, combining both functions of pulling and connecting, were
designed as an evolution of the first generation
• ROV-mounted tools (by means of tool skid, see chapter 6) represent the latest
improvement for deep to ultra deep water depths.
Linear pull-
in winch
ROV panel
Torque tool
for clamp
Guiding
tie-in
funnel
Figure 5.2 - Kvaerner Pull-In & Connection Tool (PICT)

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These tools include all necessary functions to perform their task; ROV is only used to help
during the deployment (i.e. to guide the ROT to the connection location and align it), to attach
the pull-in cable at the flowline extremity and eventually to activate back-up functions. ROT(s)
(one single or two tools for a tie-in operation) particularly include:
• guiding device (e.g. funnel) to perform rough alignment of the outboard hub
during the pull-in sequence
• either a subsea winch or a linear winch with cable coming from surface, to
perform the pull-in operation
• dedicated tools to retrieve protection cap and clean the hubs
• connector and sealplate
• dedicated tools to perform the connection (i.e. positioning of the connector,
tightening of screw in case of a clamp connector or hydraulic activation in case of
a collet connector, etc.)
• external seal testing system
The design maximum operating depth of tie-in ROTs is about 500m, for practical reasons
related to the encumbrance of lifting wire and umbilical deployment from the surface support
vessel. For deeper water an ROV mounted tie-in tool is the preferred alternative.

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6 ROV TOOLS
6.1 General
This chapter aims to describe the main ROV tools (i.e. descriptions and functions). The list is
not exhaustive and the description remains general as various tools exist and some of them
can be custom-made for special applications.
Additional tools are added, depending on the tasks to be performed by the ROV. Such ROV
tools (interface tooling), so far as possible, should be designed to operate with a range of
ROVs and not limited in application to one type of ROV (i.e. tool dimensions, payload, power
supply, etc).
All the deepwater ROV tools and equipment shall be rated to the adequate water depth.
6.2 Tool handling and implementation

Four main ROV tooling configurations can be adopted to perform subsea tasks:
• ROV fitted with manipulators

• ROV equipped with Tool Deployment Unit (TDU)
• ROV with toolskids or handling frame
• a combination of above (e.g. manipulators + toolskid).
Manipulator arm is a flexible way to perform subsea tasks, either directly using the
manipulator gripper or a manipulator held tool. Deepwater ROV manipulator is typically either
five-function arm, which mainly plays the role of grabber, or seven-function arm with high
versatility. In return of this operational flexibility, attention must be paid to:
• precision and repeatability of the task to be performed to evaluate the suitability

of manipulator.
• weight of any manipulated component, which must be checked with reference to
the manipulator handling enveloppe capacity.
• location of the interfaces with regards to the manipulator working envelope.
• mechanical resistance of tools and interfaces, which must resist the loads applied
by the manipulator.
• ROV stabilisation method used which must allow the complex manipulation
operation of the arm.
The Tool Deployment Unit (TDU) is a tooling package comprising one or two docking probes
and a tool mounted on a cartesian carriage arrangement. The TDU is installed at the front (or
the rear) of the ROV in addition to or in replacement of the manipulators. The docking
point(s) provide stability and accurate positioning while the one-, two- or three-degree of
freedom carriage arrangement allows the tool head to access one or several intervention
interfaces.

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Tool head
(1 degree of freedom)
Tool head
(3 degree of freedom)
Docking probe
Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2
"Single point docking TDU" "Twin point docking TDU"
A tool skid can be installed under the ROV vehicle in order to perform:
• either the installation of component (such as control pods and chokes)
• or the installation and connection of flowlines or umbilical (hydraulic or electric
connections).
• dredging or pumping skid, etc
Tool skid can be either surface connected to the ROV vehicle, involving a dual LARS
deployment (ROV through frame lift capability), or integrated at the seabed level (e.g. ROV
flying and docking onto the tool skid).

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6.3 Hydraulic control intervention tools (hot stabs)

A hydraulic control intervention tools, or hot stabs are designed to provide remotely actuated
subsea functions via the ROV. Hot stabs mainly consist in an insert style male probe, fitted
with internal hydraulic gallery and ports, used in combination with a female receptacle
mounted on the subsea structure or subsea tool (e.g. ROT override function). Single or multi-
port versions are available; in the last case each separated section is isolated from the others
by seals.
They are typically used for:
• hydraulic activation of valves

• testing of connection sealing
• overriding of existing systems
Manipulator or TDU can operate hot stabs.
Hydraulic
ports
T-bar for ROV

seals handling
Figure 6.3 - "Female and male dual hot stab"

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6.4 Rotary torque tools

Rotary torque tools output a rotary motion generally using a hydraulic motor
(2-10 HP range) ; all working drive components are positioned within oil compensated
housing to avoid water ingress.
Rotary torque tools are used in various ROV applications such as:
• actuating manual gate valves

• tightening screw (e.g. clamp connector)
• overriding or operating subsea tree valves
• completing lockout operations of SCSSV circuits
• operating running tools
• releasing shackles
• etc
The rotary interface is standardised by the ISO-13628 (Part 8) for low torque and high
torque:
• low torque (i.e. up to 75Nm) interface on SPS consists of a "T" bar or paddle
enclosed in a tubular housing
• high torque (up to 7000Nm) interface consists in a square drive stem enclosed in
a tubular housing
Reaction fins
Figure 6.4 - "Rotary torque tool"

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The design principle of the high torque tools involves no transmission of loads to the ROV:
reaction against the torque produced is provided by a pair of reaction fins mounted on the
tool and mating the female receptacle.
Reaction fin
receptacle
Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6
"Tool driver / reaction fins" "Rotary intervention receptacle"
Rotary (high) torque tool typical characteristics are as follows:
• length: 650mm
• diameter: 310mm
• maximum torque: 2700Nm (typical)
• output speed: 0.7 – 1.9 rpm

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6.5 Linear valve override tools

The functions of this type of tool are to actuate, override and lock open various gate valves
requiring a push action.
The reaction against the pushing force produced is internally reacted by tool:
the interface consists in a flange surrounding a central stem. The ROV mounted tool is
engaged upon the interface and locked onto the flange. Once installed and locked into place,
the tool provides a linear ram that is counteracted by the interrupted flange.
Typical linear valve overriding tool characteristics are:

• maximum output force: 50 – 70ton
ROV Handle
Hydraulic Jack
4
2
6
0
1
5
Figure 6.7 - "Linear Valve Override Tool"

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6.6 Dredge / jet pump system

This tool is a ROV mounted hydraulic pump unit, which has several functions such as:
• Removal of mud located on landing areas (e.g. x-mas tree, manifold)

• Suction kit for levelling of templates or installation of suction anchors, etc
• Water jet cleaning tool (e.g. seal faces) by reversing the pump direction of rotation
Typical technical descriptions are as follows:
• Dimensions: 0.4m x 0.4m x 0.3m (LxWxH)

• Weight: 30kg – 50kg (20kg – 30 kg submerged)
• Water flow output: minimum 200 l/minute at 2-5 bar
• Hydraulic pump: minimum 25 l/minutes (adjustable) at 140 bar (8-10 Hp)
Hydraulic Pump
Water Jet / Pump
Figure 6.8 - "Dredge / jet pump system"

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6.7 Hydraulic cable cutter

Hydraulic cable cutter is a gate hydraulic operated ROV tool for cutting either soft line or hard
line wire rope (up to 3” OD). It is generally handled and positioned by means of manipulator.
Cutting Blade
Guiding Blades ( Qty 2 ) Hydraulic Jack
3" OD cable
Figure 6.9 - "Hydraulic cable cutter for 3”OD cable”
6.8 Flowline hub cleaning tool

The flowline hub-cleaning tool is a hydraulic operated ROV tool for cleaning of the flowline
hubs. It exists in mono- and multibore hub versions. It is composed of rotating brushes and
can include cameras in order to inspect the hub.
This type of tool is used to clean a flowline hub prior to either a connection or a seal
replacement operation.
Typical characteristics of 9" flowline hub cleaning tool are:

• Weight in air: 30kg
• Weight in water: 20kg

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6.9 Seal replacement tool

This is a ROV back-up tool used to replace the sealplate and/or the gasket inside the flowline
connectors with a new sealplate if this should be required.
Seal replacement tools are generally designed to be used in combination with a flowline
cleaning tool.
A seal replacement operation basically consists in:
1. deploying the ROV fitted with the seal replacement tool (SRT). The deficient
connector has been previously opened and stroked back.
2. once ROV is docked, the SRT is lowered, by means of a tool elevator, in front of
the sealplate.
3. the SRT grips the sealplate and pulls it.
4. the ROV, the SRT and the sealplate are recovered. The sealplate is inspected.
5. in parallel with the inspection of the sealplate, the flowline hub cleaning tool is
deployed by ROV and performs the cleaning of the inboard hub, which was
containing the sealplate.
6. the sealplate fitted with new seals is lowered, positioned and re-installed by the
SRT.
7. the connection is then performed and tested.
Typical characteristics of 9" flowline seal replacement tool are as follows:

• Weight in air: 70kg
• Weight in water: 15kg
Figure 6.10 - "Seal Replacement Toll"

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6.10 Hydro-acoustic measurement tool

Accurate measurements are required by some subsea operations such as steel jumper
based tie-ins (see the document "Tie-in methods", sections "5.9 Steel jumpers" and
"7.2 Acoustic base line").
A hydro-acoustic measurement tool consists in four transponders arranged by pairs, which
are installed by the ROV on fixed points of the two subsea structures (e.g. SPS, PLEM) to be
connected. Each of the pairs of transponders is mounted on a frame, which fixes them in a
known relative 3D positions. The ROV handles this framework carrying a pair of
transponders and installs it on a predetermined and fixed location on the subsea structure.
Figure 6.11 - "Hydro-acoustic measurement tool"
Depth sensors are housed in each transponder. Once both pairs are installed (two other
transponders can be positioned on the seabed for more accuracy), the relative position and
orientation of the two subsea structure can be determined by measuring the distances
between each transponders and fixing their relative depth.
This technique typically allows for accuracy better than +/- 5cm (over a 50m length) and 1°
on relative headings. The typical characteristics of a hydro-acoustic measurement tool are:

(one pair of transponders assembly)
(one pair of transponders assembly)
• nominal measurement: 0 – 75m

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6.11 Taut wire metrology

The taut wire metrology and its applications are fully described in the document "Tie-in
methods", section 7.3.
Main
assembly Measurement
cable
Subsea structures
Figure 6.12 - "Taut wire measurement tool"
A taut wire measurement tool consists in two assemblies installed by the ROV on the two
subsea structures, of which the relative position must be determined.
Each of the two assemblies is fitted with guiding pins to accurately position it on a known
location on the subsea structure. Once installed, the ROV deployed a cable between them,
which is tensed by a winch part of the main assembly (i.e. containing the cable, the winch,
the measuring wheel, etc.).
The measurements are performed using the ROV video to read the various gauges on the
tool:
• The vertical elevation difference and angular misalignment between the two tie-in
points is determined by means of the protractors and dual axis inclinometers.
A resolution of 1° can be achieved.
• The distance between the two points is determined from the length of the taut
line. This length is measured from a calibrated measuring wheel mounted near
the winch. This counter can achieved an accuracy of +/-3cm (over a 50m length)
with correction of the wire catenary shape.

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Figure 6.13 - "Taut wire measurement tool scheme"
The typical characteristics of a taut wire measurement tool are as follows:
• Main assembly dimensions: 0.7m x 0.7m x 1.1m (LxWxH)

• Main assembly weight in air: 130kg
• Normal measurement: 0 – 50m

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6.12 ROV-mounted pull-in and connection tool

Pull-in and connection tools are described in the section "Tie-in methods", part of the
Deepwater Field Development Reference Book.
ROV-mounted pull-in and connection tools represent the latest generation of tie-in tool.
These systems are typically composed of an interface skid which is mounted under the ROV,
a pull-in and connection tool which can be deployed independently from the ROV and a tie-in
porch which interfaces with the subsea structure. All these tools can be operated by means
of a working class ROV deployed from a dedicated ROV support vessel.
The ROV mounted tools have the following general characteristics:
• Maximum pull-in force: 30ton
• Pull-in distance: from 3m to 40m
• Angular alignment: +/-15°
• Tool weight (in air): 8-10ton
ROV
Tool
skid
Figure 6.14 - Services skid integrated Figure 6.15 - Flexconnect
to TRITON XL ROV Pull-In Module (PIM)

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ANNEX 1
Deepwater ROV

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CLASS II OBSERVATION & LIGHT WORK ROVs
Unit VIPER SCORPION DRAGON HYSUB 50 SEAL MAX ROVER

GENERAL MK II
Manufacturer Perry Tritech Perry Tritech Hydrovision ISE Racal TTI DSSI
Type Class II Class II Class II Class II Class II Class II
Operating depth m 1000-2000 1000-2000 2 010 2 010 600 2 000
Total Power hp 50 75 60 50 50 40
Built today ea 15+ 23+ ? ? 3 ?
DIMENSIONS
Length m 2,50 2,03 2,00 2,50 1,50 2,23
Width m 1,04 1,14 1,20 1,40 1,00 0,90
Height m 1,42 1,44 1,10 1,60 1,00 1,21
Weight kgp 1 000 1 367 850 1 820 750 750
HP & PROPULSION
Power hp 50 75 60 50 50 40
Thtusters ea 1 V - 3H 3V-3H 2V-4H 3V-4H 2V-4H 2V-4H
Forward thrust kgf 163 350 250 172
Lateral thrust kgf 300 250 30
Vertical thrust kgf 225 150 25
Speed forward knots 3,00 3,00 3,50 3,40 3,50
Speed lateral knots 2,00 1,70 2,50 1,10 1,35
Speed vertical knots 1,50 1,00 1,50 1,50
INSTRUMENTATION
Camera SIT system Insite Gemini ROS Osprey
Camera CCD system Insite Orion ROS Osprey
Navigation sonar UDI Tritech Imagenex Mesotech
Sensor system gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass flux gate
Data transmission fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics
Auto heading ° +/- 2 +/- 2 yes yes +/- 4 +/- 3,5
Auto depth cm +/- 15 +/- 15 yes yes +/- 10 +/- 30
Auto altitude cm option option yes yes +/- 10 +/- 30
MANIPULATORS Slingsby Slingsby Hydrovision ISE

7F manipulator ea no no no no 1x7F no
Load capacity kg 45 50
Reach m 1 1,6
Torque Nm 1 120 1 080
5F Grabber manipulator ea TA-16 TA-16 1x5F 1 x 5F no 1x4F
SUPPORT FUNCTIONS
Payload kgp 170 204 50 90 80-100 80
Through Frame Lift kgp 680 454 500 600
LAUNCH SYSTEM OSEL ISE

TMS (vehicle entry) top hat top hat side entry side entry top hat
Cage weight tons 1,68 1 1,5 0,5
Launch speed m/mn 30
Main Umbilical OD mm 43 32 28
Umbilical submerged weight kg/m 2,7 1,5
Umbilical working load tons 9 5 5
Tether length m 200 150 170 150 102
SHIPBOARD SUPPLY
Power required KVA 175 75 110 175
Frequency Hz 60 60 50-60

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CLASS III DRILLING & WORKING ROVs
Unit MAGNUM MILLENIUMEXAMINER CLANSMAN TRITON XL MRV OLYMPIAN DEMON INNOVATOR HYSUB 150 SEALION II SEA SERPENT
GENERAL DIABLO MK II
Manufacturer Oceaneering Oceaneering Subsea Off. Subsea Off. Perry Tritech SEL Slingsby SEL Slingsby Hydrovision Sonsub Int. ISE Racal TTI Racal TTI
Type Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III
Operating depth m 2 500 3000 + 2 000 2000-3000 2 000-6 000 2 000 3 000 2 000 3 000 2 500 1 000 2 500
Total Power hp 100 150 100 120 100 - 150 200 120 150-200 150 100 160
Built today ea 50+ 15+ 5 20+ 10+ 1 5 5 26 1
DIMENSIONS
Length m 2,54 3,00 2,00 2,00 3,09 3,37 3,37 2,95 2,97 3,40 2,20
Width m 1,47 1,50 1,95 1,70 1,52 1,50 1,50 1,84 1,53 2,10 1,40
Height m 1,60 1,70 1,80 1,80 1,85 1,88 1,88 2,00 1,95 2,10 1,60
Weight tons 1,60 1,90 1,70 2,20 3,30 4,20 4,70 3 4,77 4,70 1,80
HP & PROPULSION
Power hp 2 x 50 2 x 75 75 120 100 100 200 2 x 75 100 2 x 80
Thtusters ea 4V-4H 4V-4H 4V-4H 2V-4H 3V-4H 4V-4H 4V-4H 3V-4H 3V-4H 4V-4H 2V-4H 4V-4H
Forward thrust kgf 520 520 560 704 660 550 550 700 920 700 700
Lateral thrust kgf 475 475 560 704 500 550 550 700 920 700
Vertical thrust kgf 395 395 560 250 580 300 480 300
Speed forward knots 3 3 3,25 2-3 3,25 3,25 3,10 3,5 3,75
Speed lateral knots 2 2 2,40 2 2,40 2,40 2,25
Speed vertical knots 2 2 2,40 1 2,40 2,40
INSTRUMENTATION
Camera SIT system Simrad Simrad Osprey Insite Gemini Osprey Osprey ROS Gemini Osprey
Camera CCD system Simrad Simrad Osprey Insite Orion Osprey Osprey ROS Apollo Osprey
Navigation sonar Mesotech Mesotech Imagenex UDI UDI UDI Tritech Tritech Mesotech Mesotech Mesotech
Sensor system gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass optic gyro gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass
Data transmission fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics
Auto heading ° yes yes +/- 2 +/- 1 +/- 1 yes +/- 1° +/- 1,5 +/- 1,5
Auto depth cm yes yes +/- 15 +/- 8 +/- 8 yes +/- 15 +/- 10 +/- 10
Auto altitude cm yes yes +/- 15 +/- 10 +/- 10 yes yes +/- 10 +/- 10
MANIPULATORS Schilling Schilling Kraft Slingsby Slingsby Hydrovision Schilling ISE
7F master/slave manipulator ea 2 x Conan 2 x Conan 1 2 2 x Predator 2 x TA40 1 X Hydrus 1 x RTL 7 1 x Titan III 2 x Magnum 2 2
Load capacity kg 170 170 210 114 120 50 50
Reach m 1,7 1,7 2 1,5 1,6 1,6
Torque Nm 400 1 120 108 108
5F Grabber ea no no 1 no no no 1 x TA9 1 x RTL 5 Rigmaster no no no
SUPPORT FUNCTIONS
Payload kgp 160 160 50 250 250 500 300 500 200-300 200-300
Through Frame Lift kgp 910 910 3 000 3 700 3 700 3 000 2 000 5 000 5 000 5 000
HPU hp 2x50 2x75 40 100 75 75 50 150 2 x 75
Pressure psi 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 2 500 3 000 3 000
Flow l/mn 155 155 80 166 112 112 10 265
LAUNCH SYSTEM Dynacon Dynacon Hydralift Hydralift Dynacon
TMS (vehicle entry) side entry side entry side entry top hat top hat top-hat top hat top hat side entry both both
Cage weight tons 2,00 2,00 3,0 2,81 2,30 2,9 1,80
Launch speed m/mn 150 30 30 - 60 50
Thrustered cage hp 50 50 no no no no no no
Main Umbilical OD mm 40 40 46 48 45 33 36
Umbilical submerged weight kg/m 4,5 4,1 3,22 2,9
Umbilical working load tons 16 16 25 16,75 8,5 9 28,8 25
Tether length m 180 200 200 300 200 230 200 - 600 250 - 1000 200 200 200
SHIPBOARD SUPPLY 200
Power required KVA 200 250 250 180 240 250 250
Frequency Hz 60 60 60 60 60 50-60 50-60

30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
ANNEX 2
ROV Contractors and Manufacturers

30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
ANNEX 2.1 ROV CONTRACTORS
COFLEXIP STENA OFFSHORE INTERNATIONAL

88 avenue du Général Leclerc
Boulogne – Billancourt 92100
France
Tel : 01 47 12 80 00
Fax : 01 47 12 80 10
GLOBAL INDUSTRIES OFFSHORE INC.

900 Halliburton center
5151 San Felipe
Houston 77056, Texas
Tel : 01 713 624 2222
Fax : 01 713 624 2220
OCEANEERING INTERNATIONAL LTD

Pitmedden Road
Dyce, Aberdeen AB21 0DP, Scotland
Tel : 44 1224 770444
Fax : 44 1224 771583
ROCKWATER LIMITED
Wellheads Crescent
Wellheads Industrial Estate
Aberdeen AB2 0GA, Scotland
Tel : 44 1224 777000
Fax : 44 1224 777731

30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
STOLT COMEX SEAWAY SA

467 chemin du Littoral BP 69
13321 Marseille Cedex 16
France
Tel : 04 91 09 68 01
Fax : 04 91 09 68 00
RACAL TTI PTE LTD

45 Joo Koon Circle
Singapore 62 9106
Tel : 65 862 1233
Fax : 65 861 8938
SONSUB INTERNATIONAL LTD

Tern Commercial Park
Denmore Road
Bridge of Don
Aberdeen AB23 8JX, Scotland
Tel : 44 1224 843400
Fax : 44 1224 843435
SUBSEA OFFSHORE LTD

Greenwell Base
Greenwell Road
Aberdeen AB1 4AX, Scotland
Tel : 44 1224 292000
Fax : 44 1224 879312

30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
ANNEX 2.2 ROV MANUFACTURERS
HYDROVISION LTD
Howe Moss Avenue
Kirkhill Industrial Estate
Dyce, Aberdeen AB21 DGP, Scotland
Tel : 44 1224 772150
Fax : 44 1224 772166
INTERNATIONAL SUBMARINE ENGINEERING LTD

1734 Broadway Street, Port Coquitlam
BC Canada V3C 2M8
Tel : 1 604 942 5223
Fax : 1 304 942 7577
PERRY TRITECH INCORPORATED

821 Jupiter Park Drive
Jupiter, Florida 33458
Tel : 1 561 743 7000
Fax : 1 561 743 1313
SLINGSBY ENGINEERING LTD

Kirkbymoorside, York
YO6 6EZ, England
Tel : 44 1751 431751
Fax : 44 1751 431388
OCEANEERING (see 2.1)

RACAL TTI PTE LTD (see 2.1)
SUBSEA OFFSHORE LTD (see 2.1)

30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA

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DEEP W ATER REFERE N CE BO O K

DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK

The book is organised in three (3) volumes as follows :

¾Volume 1 : Subsea Production Systems, Sealines, Risers

¾Volume 2 : Umbilicals, Subsea Control Systems

¾Volume 3 : Deepwater Installation Vessels, Tie-in Systems, ROVs and Tooling

Whilst much of the information contained within this document is available

Rev. 0 PREFACE Page 1

VOLUME NUMBER DESCRIPTION OF REVISION DATE OF REVISION

VOLUME ONE Original Document 30/09/2000

VOLUME TWO Original Document 30/09/2000

VOLUME THREE Original Document 30/09/2000

The following significant contributions are acknowledged in the preparation of this

SEAL Engineering S.A. Nimes, FRANCE

Rev. 0 PREFACE Page 2

SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

2 SUBSEA PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT........................................................................ 12

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 2

3 SUBSEA PRODUCTION MANIFOLDS AND TEMPLATES......................................... 63

4 SUBSEA SYSTEM INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS .................................................... 79

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 3

5 FIELD ARCHITECTURE .............................................................................................148

6 RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT ...............................................................158

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 4

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 5

1.2 Regulations, Codes and Standards

1.2.1 International Specifications

• ANSI B31.3, Chemical Plant Petroleum Refinery Piping.

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 6

• ISO 13628-5, Design And Operation Of Subsea Control Systems.

1.2.2 UK Statutory Instruments

• SI. 913, Design and Construction Regulations.

1.2.3 NORSOK Standards

• 13 M-CR-650, Qualification of manufacturers of special materials, Rev. 1, Dec. 1994

1.3 Definitions and Abbreviations

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 8

HPU: Hydraulic Power Unit

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 11

2 SUBSEA PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

Figure 2.1 - A Variety Of Field Development Options Exist as Subsea Technology

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 12

2.2 Subsea Wellheads

2.2.1 Functions of Subsea Wellheads

Figure 2.2 - A Typical BOP Stack Being

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 13

2.2.2 Types of Subsea Production Wellheads

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 14

2.2.3 Wellhead Connector Profiles

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 15

2.2.4 Tubing Spool Adapters

2.2.5 Casing and Tubing Hanger Interface

2.2.5.1 Typical Well Casing Programs

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 16

Figure 2.4 - Typical 13-3/8” Casing Hanger

2.2.5.2 Casing Hanger

Rev. 0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Page 17

2.2.6 Wellhead Guide Structures

2.2.6.1 Guideline Drilling and Completions

Figure 2.5 - A Typical Temporary Guide Base

Figure 2.6 - A Temporary Guide Base Being Deployed by a

Figure 2.7 - Example of a Retrievable Permanent

2.2.6.2 Guidelineless Drilling and Completions

2.2.7 Loads on Wellheads