Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Installation
Vessels
Sealines
Subsea Control
Systems
ROVS and Tools
Risers
Umbilicals
Tie-in
Systems
Subsea Production
Systems
SEPTEMBER 2000
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
PREFACE
The Deepwater Reference Book has been prepared by the Advanced Technology
Department in order to assist engineers involved with development studies and
projects in deepwater.
This book has been designed for use as a quick first point of reference for engineers
who are not necessarily specialists in the areas of technology discussed. It is not an
operations or design manual and therefore does not include Company Specifications
or (e.g.) recommended procedures for installing equipment subsea. However, it will
enable an engineer to grasp the key points and industry jargon associated with a
particular subject, in order to approach the relevant specialists and contractors
involved.
The Deepwater Reference Book presents the state of the art with respect to
technology associated with deepwater field development from seabed to surface.
The book does not cover technology associated with drilling operations (i.e.
subsurface) or floating production systems, which are not specific to deepwater.
This reference book is a living document that was up to date at the time of writing in
1999 – 2000. With the passage of time the information contained within this
document will be superseded as new technology is brought onto the market. For this
reason the book is designed to incorporate revisions within each chapter, which
should be performed at the appropriate time by the Advanced Technology
Department (or similar function) within the Development Studies Group. It is
envisaged that once every five (5) years may be a realistic timeframe to consider
such a revision.
J G CUTLER
JC BERGER
DOCUMENT REVISIONS
Acknowledgements
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 5
1.1 SCOPE.................................................................................................................................5
1.2 REGULATIONS, CODES AND STANDARDS ..............................................................................6
1.2.1 International Specifications...........................................................................................6
1.2.2 UK Statutory Instruments..............................................................................................7
1.2.3 NORSOK Standards .....................................................................................................7
1.3 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................8
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
In deepwater field developments the great challenges are providing a stable platform on
Figure 1.1 - Subsea Production Systems Offer a Cost Competitive Option for
Deepwater Field Developments
which to mount the production facilities and transporting the production fluids to and from
those facilities. Subsea production systems provide a cost competitive development option
that lessens, or in some cases completely eliminates, the need for surface mounted
production facilities.
The scope of this study is to provide an overview of subsea production systems technology.
Key topics to be covered include the following:
• A general description of the main components of subsea production systems and their
functions.
• Interface requirements for subsea production facilities.
• Overall field architecture considerations for subsea developments.
• Identification of areas of risk and risk management issues.
Production Riser: The piping through which the production fluids are delivered
from the sea floor to the surface production processing
facilities.
Production String: See Production Tubing.
Production Tubing: The tubing through which the production fluids are delivered
from the reservoir to the production tree.
PVT: Pressure, Volume and Temperature
ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicle.
SCM : Subsea Control Module
SCMMB: SCM Mounting Base
SCMRT: Subsea Control Module Running Tool
SCSSV: Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve
Seal Assembly: The annulus seal assembly. See Packoff.
SEM: Subsea Electronics Module
SFL: Steel Flying Lead
Side Valve Tree: See Horizontal Tree.
Single Bore Tree: A subsea tree with the production bore passing vertically
through the tree body and the annulus bore exiting through
the side of the tree.
Single-Bore™ Tree: A Dril-Quip mono-bore tree.
SIT: System Integration Test
Subsea Production Manifold: A fabricated steel structure installed on the sea floor for
production gathering, distribution and control.
Subsea Production Template: A fabricated steel structure designed for supporting multiple
subsea wells and associated piping and controls on one
structure.
Subsea Tree: A christmas tree designed for installation on a subsea
wellhead.
Subsea Wellhead: A machined, forged steel housing welded to the surface
casing of a subsea well to which a BOP or a subsea tree may
be connected for controlling the well and containing well
pressures during drilling and production operations.
Surface Conductor: The first casing installed for guiding the drill bit when a well is
first started (usually 30”). It may be driven, jetted or drilled
into place.
Surface Tie-Back System: A system of special connectors and casing for extending the
well casing from a mudline suspension system to a surface
completion.
TCU: Topside Control Unit
Temporary Guidebase: A fabricated steel structure with an opening and guide funnel
at its center used for guiding the surface conductor into place
when first starting a well, or for guiding the bit if the surface
conductor is to be drilled into place.
TEPU: Test Electrical Power Unit
TFL (Through Flowline): A specialized well workover system using special tools
designed to be pumped through the production flowline and
down the production tubing.
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Through-Bore Tree: A subsea tree with the production bore passing vertically
through the tree body and the tubing hanger in the tree body.
Tree Connector: The mechanism at the base of the tree that connects the tree
to the wellhead by means of a hydraulic or mechanical
actuator. See Wellhead Connector.
Tree Mandrel: A machined hub at the top of a dual bore subsea tree for
connection of the tree running tool or the LMRP and gaining
access to the tree bore.
Tree Running Tool: A specially designed tool used for lowering the subsea tree
onto the wellhead and actuating the tree connector or,
inversely, for removing the tree from the wellhead. For dual
bore trees it is sometimes incorporated into the LMRP.
Tubing Hanger: A component of the wellhead system for supporting the
production tubing in the well and aligning the production and
annulus bores with the BOP or subsea tree.
Tubing Head: A term sometimes used for a wellhead with a tubing hanger
but no casing hangers. See Mudline Wellhead.
Tubing Spool Adapter: A wellhead adapter for 1) converting from a wellhead of one
profile type to another or 2) providing a new wellhead seal
surface if the original one is damaged.
TUTA: Topside Umbilical Termination Assembly
TUTB: Topside Umbilical Termination Box
UJB: Umbilical Junction Box
UPS: Uninterruptible Power Supply
USV: Upper Swab Valve
UTA: Umbilical Termination Assembly.
UTH: Umbilical Termination Head
VSE: Valve Signature Emulator
Wellhead Connector: A mechanism for connecting other equipment to a wellhead
by engaging and locking onto the wellhead profile. See Tree
Connector.
Wellhead Profile: The external machined profile at the top of the wellhead that
provides a load bearing shoulder and seal surface for the
BOP connector or the tree connector.
2.1 Introduction
As subsea production equipment has proven its reliability in service and as its cost, in relative
terms, has fallen, the oil industry has come to accept it as a technically viable and competitive
field development option. Subsea production equipment here is meant to include subsea
wellheads, subsea production trees, subsea manifolds, subsea well templates and the
ancillary equipment associated with these.
The focus for this discussion is deepwater developments. The term “deepwater” is subject to
interpretation, but in general one can assume it to be beyond the reach of current saturation
diving technology. Subsea developments within diver accessible depth are so routine as not
to merit much comment these days. For this discussion we are assuming deepwater to begin
at water depths well beyond the practical range of saturation diving, within the reach of
current generation ADS equipment and extending to depths that require methods other than
human intervention, such as remote control or ROV intervention. This covers a range of
roughly 300 to 2500 meters. It should be noted that 2000 to 2500 meters represents the
approximate limit of current well completion experience, although exploration drilling activity
continues to push into deeper waters.
Drilling a subsea well from a floating drilling rig or completing a well subsea requires a subsea
wellhead. Subsea wellheads serve several purposes:
• to support the subsea blowout preventer (BOP) and seal the well casing during drilling
• to support and seal the subsea production tree
• to support and seal the well casing.
• to support and seal the production tubing hanger.
The subsea wellhead together with the BOP or the production tree provides the means to
safely contain reservoir pressure during oil and gas drilling and production operations. It
rarely sees actual reservoir pressure but is rated to withstand this pressure in case of loss of
well control during drilling or a breach of a primary pressure barrier during production.
Standard API pressure ratings in use are 5,000 psi, 10,000 psi, 15,000 psi. and more recently
20,000 psi.
The subsea wellhead may also be designed to accommodate a surface tie back system to a
surface completion on a TLP, spar or, more rarely, a fixed platform.
The size designates the nominal bore (I.D.) of the wellhead, in inches. The 18-3/4 inch
subsea wellhead is currently the most common. Earlier subsea drilling systems used a “two
stack” approach and relied on a low-pressure 21-1/4 inch BOP to start the well and a high
pressure 13-5/8 inch BOP for finishing the well. With the development of the 18-3/4 inch x
10,000 psi (10M) BOP, the well could be drilled to final depth with one BOP and the 18-3/4
inch x 10M wellhead became the standard. Wellhead pressure ratings are trending higher,
with 18-3/4 inch x 15M wellheads becoming the new standard, though manufacturers still
offer 10M models. 18-3/4 inch x 15M BOPs are not as common, but the 15M wellheads are
compatible with the 10M BOP connectors.
Traditionally Drill Ships have used 16-¾ inch subsea wellhead systems. The advantage of
the 16-¾ inch wellhead is smaller riser and less mud volume. Riser storage requirements are
reduced, the suspended weight is reduced, current drag on the riser is reduced, and the mud
system can be smaller. The 16-¾ inch wellhead systems are relatively common in Brazil,
probably influenced by their significant deepwater experience and prevailing available
equipment at the time that trends were established.
An area for further development by wellhead manufacturers is in smaller bore versions of
current wellhead and tree technology. This would help mitigate the increased weight imposed
by deeper water operations. Manufacturers of Subsea Intervention Trees are being
pressured to provide higher pressure rated designs for use within smaller (16-¾ inch) bores.
Operators may adopt Slim Hole well technology that starts with 26-inch conductors.
Wellhead
Wellhead Datum
Profile
Wellhead
Datum
Internal
Profile
Datum
Figure 2.3 - Wellhead Profiles. The two most common external wellhead
profiles are show in this diagram – the upper figure shows a typical
Vetco H-4 (Mandrel) profile and the lower figure shows a typical
Cameron (Hub) profile.
Interface features are also identified –note especially the datum line– used for
all height measurements.
Deepwater profiles are now becoming more commonplace. These were developed for much
higher bending and tension loads that can be experienced in deeper water depths. Cameron
has developed the double hub style profile. This profile is unique in that either their new
deepwater connector or their standard connector can latch onto it. ABB Vetco Gray has also
developed a deepwater profile and wellhead. It is similar to their existing designs except that
the wellhead wall thickness is greater and the outer profile diameter is larger providing more
strength than their conventional wellheads.
provides an initial seal that, with deformation, causes the metal seal to be forced into place or
‘energized’. The elastomer serves as a back-up seal.
Most of the casing weight is suspended at the mud line by the wellhead. Some casing strings
are anchored deeper in the well. Later when the production tubing is installed, it is suspended
either in the wellhead or tubing hanger adapter spool or in the tree above. Each method
transfer the loads back to the wellhead.
During well production thermal and pressure effects on the tubulars can reverse the hanger
loads and push up against the wellhead. Therefore lock down of the hangers is
recommended for production wells. Some ‘Exploration’ wellheads do not apply the lockdown
feature so as to facilitate dismantling and abandonment of the well and because this feature
can sometimes be troublesome to install.
The nomenclature “permanent” is used to distinguish it from the “temporary” guide base
(TGB), at one time traditionally used for starting the well, although modern equipment has
made the TGB largely unnecessary. The TGB is typically a gravity-stabilized guide structure
normally with a 42 - 46 inch diameter central hole that is lowered to the seabed on four guide
wires. The TGB lies on bottom at the angle of the seabed and holds the guide wires in place
to enable the 30-inch conductor to be easily guided through the central hole. The housing at
the top of the 30 inch has the PGB attached to it, to take over the guidance function after the
30 inch conductor has been secured. The term “temporary” in the name is misleading in that
it is a permanent fixture to the well once deployed.
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PGBs normally incorporate level indicators that can be observed by camera when landing the
first conductor in a new well. If the conductor is off true vertical by more than about one
degree, the driller may decide to re-spud the well. It is recommended almost universally to do
this if the well is off vertical by more than one degree. If not, key seating (wearing on one
side) of the casing and or BOP stack can occur seriously degrading the pressure integrity of
the well and well control equipment.
The guideposts are normally designed to accommodate guide wires latched to the post tops.
The post tops are generally designed to enable easy latching or unlatching of the guide wires
and include a means of reestablishing new guide wires onto the post top. Virtually all PGBs
utilize the API standard post spacing, four guideposts at 90º spacing, on a six-foot radius
from the well center. This leads to the standard 101.82 inches between posts.
PGBs can be designed to be retrievable while leaving the well intact for future use. This offers
the advantage of not having to purchase a new guide base for every well. This style of guide
base is more expensive than one that is not retrievable, but pays for itself after use on very
few wells. These types of PGBs are often referred to as RGBs – Retrievable Guide Bases.
If it is known beforehand that the well is to be a production well, the guide base may
incorporate piping, flowline connections, and tree piping interface hardware. This type of
guide base is generally referred to as a completion guide base (CGB), or a flowbase.
Virtually all CGBs are application specific designs. Sometimes a CGB is deployed on top of
an existing PGB if it cannot be easily removed.
The following is a list of typical materials used for main components in a subsea wellhead
system.
COMPONENT MATERIAL
Low Pressure Conductor Housing AISI 8630 Modified.
Conductor Pipe API 5L X52
18 3/4 inch Wellhead Housing AISI 8630 Modified, 80 Ksi. Yield
Wellhead Seal Area Inconel 625 Overlay
20 inch Casing Extension, API 5L X52
Wellhead Lock Ring AISI 4140/4145, 105 Ksi. Yield
Casing Hangers AISI 8630 Modified, 80 Ksi. Yield
Pack-Off Seal Elements AISI 1010 or 1015
Pack-Off Bodies AISI 4140, 75 Ksi. Yield
Pack-Off Split Rings 17-4 PH, 100 Ksi. Yield
tree. The joint generally consists of a 30 inch conductor housing welded onto a 30 inch
conductor pipe. A proprietary, mechanical, pin connector is fabricated onto the bottom end of
the 30-inch conductor. The overall length of the joint is approximately 45 feet. The 30-inch
conductor will normally have large landing pad eyes for handling and hang off purposes
welded to it near the housing. The string is suspended below the pad eyes through the rotary
table while the running tool is made up to it. The padeyes are then cut or burnt off and the
casing run to the seabed.
A 30-inch conductor housing should normally provide the following features:
• An internal profile locking facility for the 30-inch conductor housing running tool.
• Side outlet holes with diameters for cement returns.
• Control of the elevation, concentricity, and vertical alignment of the 18-3/4-inch
wellhead housing by the load shoulder and locking mechanism incorporated with the
internal profile.
• Unrestricted passage of a 26-inch drill bit.
• Available working pressure of 2000 psi (135 bar).
casing hangers. The 18-3/4 inch wellhead housing joint generally consists of an 18-3/4 inch
high pressure housing welded to a 20 OD pipe (typically 0.625 inches wall thickness). A 20
inch pin connector is welded to the lower end of the casing joint. The overall length of the 18-
3
/4 inch wellhead housing joint is approximately 40 feet.
An 18-3/4 inch wellhead housing should generally provide the following features:
• Positive mechanical lockdown mechanism into the 30 inch conductor housing.
• Provision for the flow of drill cuttings and cement returns between the 18-3/4 inch
wellhead and the 30-inch conductor housing.
• Control of the elevation and concentricity of the casing hangers and the tubing
hanger.
• Seal surfaces appropriate for the sealing systems associated with the test and running
tools.
• Transfer loads from the hangers and bending loads from the BOP and riser into the 30
inch conductor housing. This can be achieved by a two point socketing arrangement
between the 30 inch housing and the 18-¾ inch wellhead housing.
Profile
Wellhead
Wear
Bushing
Pack Offs
Casing Hangers or Seal
Assemblies
through cooperative agreements and license arrangements. The two most common
profiles are currently being further developed for deep water requirements demanding
higher capacities.
HC CONNECTOR ON
DWHC HUB
DWHC Connector on
Standard Hub
DWHC Connector on
DWHC Hub
Figure 2.11 - One Manufacturer’s Standard (HC) and Deepwater (DWHC) Wellhead
Connectors on Standard and Deepwater Wellhead Hubs, Demonstrating Their
Interconnectability
• 6 5/8 inch API regular box up by 4 1/2 inch API Internally Flush (NC50) box down.
• Anti-rotation pins to prevent free spinning of the tool inside the housing.
• Valves to allow filling of the string with seawater and then closed.
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• Run 30 inch conductor string into open hole with 30 inch suspension joint attached to
the guidance cone.
• Once landed and set to the correct vertical elevation, cement 30 inch conductor in
place according to operator procedures.
• Rotate the drill pipe and pull to release running tool. Pull back to surface.
• Drill the next hole to TD and run the 20-inch casing.
• Attach the 18 ¾ inch wellhead body to the 20-inch casing. Install the bore protector in
the wellhead (if not installed at the factory). Run cement stinger into wellhead housing
sitting on rotary table and make up the wellhead body to the running tool. Make up
running tool to wellhead.
• Run the wellhead body assembly into the suspension joint. Cement.
• Release the running string from the wellhead by rotation and pull back to surface.
• Place the drilling BOP across the spider beams over the moon pool. Make up the
hydraulic umbilicals and check all the functions.
• Run the BOP on marine riser. Lock BOP connector onto 18 ¾ inch wellhead. Rig up
diverter with choke and kill lines.
• Make up the isolation test tool onto drill pipe string. Run into the wellhead. Test the
BOP stack then retrieve the test tool.
• Drill the hole for the 13-3/8 inch casing. Pull back the string and make it up to the
bore protector retrieval tool. Run in and retrieve the bore protector.
• Run in the 13-3/8 inch casing string with attached cementing equipment.
• Make up the 13-3/8 inch casing hanger and the pack off to the single trip tool and
make this assembly up to the casing string, run in the hole with the drill string and
casing.
• Land the hanger into the 18 ¾ inch wellhead. Slack off the weight and cement the
string into place. Activate the pack off setting mode of the tool
• Slack off the string weight and close the BOP pipe rams.
• Build up pressure above the tool to set and test the pack off. Open the pipe rams,
release the tool from the pack off and then pull it back to the surface.
• Run in the 13-3/8 inch bore protector on the bore protector running tool. Land and
lock into the wellhead. Release the tool and pull back to the surface.
• Repeat the above steps to run the next casing strings.
• Start next functions for well – (e.g. Temporary abandonment, permanent
abandonment, completion, etc.).
be correctly orientated so they mate properly with one another and the production and
annulus bores are properly aligned and sealed. Alignment of the tubing hanger in the
wellhead is generally accomplished by interaction of a pin and helix between the tubing
hanger running tool and the BOP or a pre-machined vertical orientation slot in the BOP
connector upper body. The reaction between the pin and the helix causes the tubing hanger
assembly to rotate into the correct position. Alternatively, the tubing hanger is rotated until
the alignment slot lines up with a spring-loaded alignment key on the running tool. The tree is
subsequently aligned by the permanent guidebase.
through the tubing hanger. This port, as well as the production bore, must be closed before
removing the BOP or the subsea tree.
On a conventional style tree, the annulus port is typically sealed with a wire line plug run and
retrieved through a multi-bore completion riser or a riser with a diverter mechanism. This
riser is generally expensive and dedicated to the tree system. Refer to descriptions of riser
systems elsewhere in this document for detailed descriptions.
In the mono bore tree system the tubing hanger is run on drill pipe or tubing and the annulus
is accessed through a hose bundle. Opening and closing of the annulus is accomplished by
means of a “shiftable” plug or valve in the annulus bore. The disadvantage to this, as
compared to the dual bore system, is the requirement for moving parts within the tubing
hanger that must be left subsea for the life of the completion.
Some designs incorporate a second plug or valve, ported in series with the primary plug,
which can be actuated as a backup to close the annulus if more redundancy is desired.
The mono bore tree obviates the need for a true vertical annulus bore through the tree.
name, are: 1) the tubing hanger is installed in the tree itself, rather than in the wellhead and
2) the top of the tree is designed so the BOP may be landed onto the tree. This arrangement
allows the tubing string to be recovered without first retrieving the tree.
Horizontal Tree technology was conceived and developed to run and retrieve well bore tubing
through an installed tree providing a simple and efficient work-over capability. Originally, this
type of technology seemed ideally suited for Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) applications,
where frequent pump maintenance or replacement may be required. Well interventions were
most commonly caused by the need to repair downhole problems as opposed to subsea tree
equipment problems.
The concept was extended to include standard production and injection wells in the belief that
horizontal technology offered much greater benefit over conventional technology, at least in
some applications.
The benefits and drawbacks of both horizontal and conventional tree technologies have been
the subject of many debates for several years. The newer horizontal tree technology has
been shown to have significant merit in order to have acquired at least 50 % of the market in
less than six years. It is probable that both completion technologies will have a vital part to
play in future oil and gas developments and the possibility of a winner for all applications is
unlikely.
• Subsea component ‘building blocks’ can be arranged into many different tree layouts.
This has given considerable flexibility to horizontal tree configuration and improved
the opportunity of mass produced tree equipment by allowing the flexibility to
manufacturers. Tree internals can be standardized while external characteristics can
be varied or moved to suit the application.
• A Horizontal subsea tree design, using guidelines, can be readily converted to a
guideline-less and funnel-down, wellhead re-entry system. This is achieved by adding
a bolt-on funnel to the bottom of the tree. A funnel-down, BOP stack, wellhead re-
entry system can be used for guideline-less re-entry to a Horizontal Tree with little or
no change to the standard guideline subsea tree. This will provide the lightest possible
guideline-less subsea tree weight.
• The tubing hanger hydraulic and electrical penetrations exit through the side of the
subsea tree’s spool body. Control of hydraulic functions and monitoring of electrical
functions is typically not provided although available, during installation of the tubing
hanger system.
• The side outlet penetrations for control and electrical functions are additional leak
paths in the primary tree bore during drilling and completion operations
• ROV’s must be used to connect/disconnect work-over controls between the BOP and
Subsea Tree.
• A landing string leak or failure during well test or well clean up can divert
hydrocarbons to the rig floor, burst the marine riser, or evacuate the marine riser
allowing it to collapse under hydrostatic pressure.
• The subsea tree is not required to withstand high loads associated with a Drilling BOP
stack.
• Work-Over control connections are normally made between stab rings mounted on
the tree mandrel and the LRP connector. No ROV is required.
• The subsea tree must be recovered in order to perform a tubing work-over. This
disturbs the production flowline and umbilical connections. This creates new
opportunities for damage to other hardware that is not easily recovered.
• A Monobore riser with a selector crossover mechanism at its base, in order to provide
wireline access to the annulus can be unreliable.
• The subsea tree is typically installed on the dedicated work-over riser and wireline
BOP intervention system in order to provide for flow testing, wireline and coil tubing
operations, and emergency disconnect. This adds complexity and time to the
installation process. This is the same as running the horizontal tree's tubing hanger
on the subsea intervention tree and associated landing string system.
• The integrity of the wellhead interface is an issue. Damaged seal surfaces in the
wellhead are not readily replaced and require an expensive tubing hanger adapter.
• No industry standard interface exists and the formalities of exchanging design
information with a competitor and taking responsibility for its performance can be
difficult.
• The tubing hanger’s orientation system is very complex with very significant
orientation tolerances in the system. It relies on accurate setup and active interaction
with the BOP stack. The interface between the tubing hanger and the subsea tree
cannot be tested until the BOP stack has been recovered and the tree installed.
• A leak or failure of the riser system during well test or clean up will produce
hydrocarbons to the environment. If the failure occurs near the surface safety issues
arise.
Seals
The rules of the ASME pressure vessel code apply for the design of pressure containing
shells. Seal design, however, is largely beyond the scope of the pressure vessel code, and a
great variety of proprietary manufacturer’s designs exist.
While the pressure design of the tree body, tree valves and piping is fairly straightforward, the
interfaces between the various tree components require careful consideration or unexpected
pressure effects may not be discovered until too late. It should be assumed that all seals are
subject to failure, and at least one redundant or secondary seal shall be provided for every
primary seal.
The following are some of the seal interfaces to consider:
• Sealing between the production bore and the annulus bore.
• Tubing hanger to tree interface.
• Tubing hanger to wellhead interface.
• Tree connector to tree body interface.
• Valve blocks to tree body interface.
• Valve seats, stems, gates, and bonnets.
• Flowline and valve flanges.
• Running tool interfaces.
• Riser interfaces
Seal Materials:
• Metal to metal seals. These employ a soft metal seal ring such as a stainless steel.
The sealing seating surface is a harder material. Seal surfaces are usually overlaid
with a non-corrosive material such as a high nickel alloy (Inconel). Metal seals come
in a variety of forms including gaskets, rings, wedges and other geometric
configurations.
• Elastomer energized metal seals. These are composite metal and elastomer seals
designed such that, the elastomer allows applied pressure to energize the metal
seals, or confined elastomer compression squeeze energizes the metal seal during
the setting procedure. Even with degradation of the elastomer, the metal component
maintains the seal. Some designs include provision for potentially the opposite to
occur in which the elastomer provides a back up seal for metal seals that may be
damaged during setting or through use – for example fretting if movement occurs with
temperature or pressure cycling.
• Elastomer seals. The temperature rating and fluid compatibility of the elastomer is
very important.
Manufacturers of equipment almost always try to adhere to API specifications, but the
customer should specify requirements when purchasing. All factory acceptance testing
procedures will be generated by the manufacturer and should be reviewed by the customer to
ensure that specific field requirements will be met by the equipment. System integration
testing is another process that verifies that the equipment is suitable for use. These
procedures are normally very project specific and relate to various equipment interfaces
within the project. Refer to the section on testing.
Most manufacturers maintain a quality assurance system within their manufacturing and
testing facilities to monitor and identify problems as early as possible in order that rectifying
actions can take place as early as possible to prevent schedule delay. The method that most
companies employ is for a report, often call a non-conformance report or NCR, to be
generated. This report is created so that experienced engineers and/or customer
representatives can review and decide on what course of action to take to assist the project
meet schedule and quality goals. These quality systems are normally in compliance with ISO
9000 series specifications or API Q1 specification.
Manufacturing records of the material certificates, pressure tests and charts, non-
conformance records, weld maps, nondestructive testing reports, x-rays, dimensional logs
and other critical information such as test reports are collected, maintained, and published by
the quality assurance group in the manufacturing companies. These records or parts of
these records are required by regulation in many parts of the world in order to be able to
deploy and use the subsea equipment.
may be retrieved in open water to avoid having to trip the BOP stack for just the wear
bushing retrieval. This exposes the wellhead gasket sealing area to potential risk of
damage. Extra precautions may be taken to avoid this such as an extended rubber
tipped bull nose being run below the retrieval tool, or other means or guidance such
as a guide frame.
• Depending on the system design, a completion guide base or tubing hanger adapter
spool may be deployed next. If not, the tree in a horizontal tree system will be
deployed and then the BOP stack. Alternatively for a conventional system, the BOP
stack will be run before the tree.
• Horizontal Tree – An elevation check tool may be optionally run to confirm the height
of the last casing hanger in the wellhead with the same precautions mentioned above.
The Horizontal Subsea Tree is then run on drill pipe with the tree running tool and
land on the wellhead. The operation should be monitored by ROV. The umbilical
should be strapped to the drill pipe as the tree is being run. The tree is then locked
onto the wellhead and the gasket tested. The ROV then disconnects the work over
umbilical junction plate and parks it above the tree running tool. The tree running tool
and umbilical is then retrieved. The BOP and marine riser is then run and latched
onto Subsea tree. The BOP can then be tested by running the isolation test tool
which is then retrieved. Completion work is then carried out and the tubing hanger
run after the bore protector has been retrieved. The tubing hanger is run with the
landing string and usually subsea test tree – refer to the section on work over risers.
The well typically flows through the landing string for well clean up and well test
purposes. A crown plug is set in the tubing hanger after the well test or clean up is
finished. An internal tree cap is then set and the BOP stack retrieved. A debris cap is
then run onto the tree.
• Conventional Dual Bore Tree – The BOP stack is run onto the wellhead before any
completion work commences. An elevation check tool may be optionally run to
confirm the height of the last casing hanger in the wellhead through the BOP.
Completion work is then carried out and the tubing hanger run after the bore protector
has be retrieved. The tubing hanger is run and oriented with the installation and work
over riser configured for the tubing hanger running tool – refer to the section on work
over risers. Plugs are then set in the tubing hanger and the installation riser and BOP
stack are retrieved. The tree is then run on the installation and work over riser
configured for the tree running tool and lower marine riser package. The plugs in the
tubing hanger are then retrieved and the well tested or cleaned up through the
installation and work over riser. The riser is then retrieved and a debris cap run onto
the tree.
• The guidelines are then cut or released usually by ROV.
• The rig then pulls anchors and departs.
All of the above operations must be carefully planned before mobilizing offshore in order to
avoid costly errors. In addition to all the logistical issues to be addressed, a part of the pre-
planning should include consideration of weather limitations for the various operations and
contingency plans for abandoning or suspending operations in case of bad weather.
2.3.5.3 Reentry
Installation and workover systems are discussed in a separate section. It also describes
various options for umbilical connection
In either design the tubing may be reentered with the tree in place. The reentry mandrel
profile is a profile that is provided on the top of the tree. It is designed to provide a
mechanical connection and pressure containment for the mating connector on the
“Installation and Workover” riser system, or the subsea BOP in the case of a horizontal tree.
Recovery of the downhole tubing is another issue. With all conventional dual bore tree
designs, the tree must be retrieved before pulling tubing. With horizontal trees, the tubing
may be retrieved without pulling the tree.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide in the presence of water forms carbonic acid which corrodes low alloy steels.
The principle indicators to watch for are partial pressure and temperature, with corrosion
rates increasing with the increase of either the temperature or the partial pressure. Above
60°C a protective deposit of iron carbonate is formed on the surface of low alloy steels that
inhibits the corrosive effects of CO2. Any areas not so protected, due to a feature of
operation that prevents the formation of this carbonate product or disrupts it, will continue to
experience high corrosion rates.
Much work in the field of CO2 corrosion has been conducted by DeWaard and Milliams
[Simom-Thomas MJJ, DeWaard C, SmithLA: “Controlling Factors in the Rate of CO2
Corrosion.” UK Corrosion 1987].
Chloride Ions
Chloride ions, present in the formation water of the reservoir, can cause cracking and pitting
in certain materials. The cracking mechanism is chloride stress corrosion cracking, in
stressed areas above 50°C. This corrosion mechanism is largely independent of pressure.
Austenitic stainless steels, such as type 316, are susceptible. Low alloy steels and
martensitic stainless steels (F6NM) are less susceptible to chloride induced stress corrosion
cracking, but suffer from pitting corrosion.
2.3.6.2 Erosion
Erosion is a physical process, whereas corrosion is usually a chemical process. Apart from
the direct loss of material from erosion effects, erosion often accelerates the rate of corrosion
by preventing the formation of protective films or scale and exposing new metal to the
corrosive environment.
The worst erosion agent is sand in the produced fluids. It is impractical to design against high
levels of sand production so sand control and monitoring is critical.
There are several design features that can mitigate erosion effects.
• Large flow passages to reduce velocity.
• Long radius piping bends.
• “Cushion” tees.
• Overlay with harder and/or more corrosion resistant materials in susceptible areas.
• Extra material thickness in susceptible areas.
There is instrumentation available to monitor sand production and material loss. New
technology is constantly under development. The first defense is prevention of sand
production through careful design and deployment of well completions. If that fails the
monitors may detect the problem before it becomes catastrophic.
There are a number of measures that can be taken to mitigate flow assurance problems.
Among them are the following:
• Insulation: The subsea tree and flowline may be insulated against the cold seawater.
There are many types of insulation. Syntactic foam is often used for deep water
applications because of its high compression strength.
• Chemical injection: Wax inhibitor, pour point suppressant, methanol, and scale
inhibitors may be injected at the subsea tree, or even downhole. The chemicals are
often delivered through tubes in the production control umbilical reserved for that
purpose, or through a dedicated umbilical or tube bundle. Actuated injection valves
and check valves are typically provided at the injection point on the subsea tree.
Downhole injection requires that the tree and tubing hanger be ported, and a
downhole injection line installed with the completion tubing string.
• Heating: While not commonly implemented due to cost and technical obstacles, heat
tracing of the subsea tree and flowline, accompanied by insulation, could be a solution
to an extreme flow assurance problem. An alternative may be to circulate hot water
within a production bundle, or stabilised crude oil where two flowlines are connected
to the production manifold.
• Pigging: Regular pigging can control the accumulation of wax, sand and asphaltenes.
Pigging issues are discussed in more detail elsewhere.
Deep is a subjective term, but as developments move into ever deeper water those issues
that have always posed challenges to subsea engineers become even greater, and the
solutions that worked successfully before no longer suffice. It is the designer’s challenge to
identify where to apply new solutions while building on what has worked in the past. The
following are some deep water design challenges:
operating temperature. During temperature cycling, rated working pressure will be applied to
the equipment at the temperature extremes with no leaks. Temperature cycling from room
temperature to the lower temperature extreme plus cycling from room temperature to the
upper temperature extreme may be substituted for temperature cycling directly between the
two temperature extremes.
Performance verification tests at rated working pressure or greater are performed at test
temperature equal to or less than the minimum rated operating temperature classification,
and at a test temperature equal to or greater than the maximum rated operating temperature
classification to confirm the performance of the equipment. As an alternative to testing, the
manufacturer can provide other objective evidence, consistent with documented industry practice,
that the equipment will meet performance requirements at both temperature extremes.
Not all types of components are identified in the mentioned API specifications and therefore
interpretation of type of function is often used to define testing requirements for components.
Typical examples of these components include many horizontal tree components such as
internal tree caps and crown plugs.
Performance verification testing, Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or classical engineering
analysis can be used to verify the manufacturers rated load capacities for API Specification 17D
equipment. If testing is used to verify the design, the equipment should be loaded to the rated
capacity at least three times during the test without deformation to the extent that any other
performance requirement is not met. If FEA or engineering analysis is used, the analysis will be
conducted using techniques and programs that comply with documented industry practice.
Life cycle/endurance testing, such as make-break tests on connectors and operational testing
of valves, chokes, and actuators, is intended to evaluate long-term wear characteristics of the
equipment tested. Such tests may be conducted at any temperature. API Specifications 6A
and 17D list equipment that should be subjected to extended life cycle/endurance testing to
simulate long-term field service. For these life cycle/endurance tests, the equipment will be
subjected to operational cycles per manufacturer’s performance specifications (i.e., make up
to full torque, break out, open/close under full rated working pressure).
Scaling may be used to verify the members of a product family. A product family is a group of
products for which the design principles, physical configuration, and functional operation are
the same, but which may be of differing size. The design stress levels in relation to material
mechanical properties must be based on the same criteria for all members of the product
family in order to verify designs via scaling. Testing of one size of a product family will verify
products one nominal size larger and one nominal size smaller than the tested size. Testing
of multiple product sizes also verifies two nominal sizes larger than the smallest item tested
and two nominal sizes smaller than the largest item tested. The test product(s) may be used
to qualify products of the same family having equal or lower pressure ratings.
The procedures used and the results of all performance verification tests used to qualify
equipment to API Specifications must be documented. The documentation requirements for
performance verification testing are laid out in the API specifications.
When the design is proven and the prototype has passed PVT testing then manufacture of
the components to be delivered can begin.
Reliable rig handling systems and trained personnel are of vital importance to the overall success
of a subsea project during the subsea installation, well completion and production testing phases.
SIT is an opportunity for the tests to contribute to the success by optimizing installation
procedures and familiarizing offshore personnel with equipment and equipment handling to
promote efficiency and safety in installation and operation of subsea production wells.
The SIT can be used to expose relevant equipment to abnormal situations which can occur
during operation such as low hydraulic supply pressure, low voltage supply etc. The purpose
is to reveal “system margins”.
Depending on the production system, there are many types of checks that should be
performed. If possible, it is best to perform the test utilizing the actual subsea equipment and
tools. If the possibility to perform full-scale testing does not exist, system performance should
be demonstrated by verification analysis.
Tests should include simulations of field conditions for all phases or operations from
installation through maintenance. Special tests may be needed for handling and transport,
dynamic loading, and backup systems. The SIT may be appropriate to verify data on
response time measurements, operating pressures, fluid volumes, fault finding, and operation
of shutdown systems.
The different tests performed during integration testing should be used to check reliability,
and should be used to demonstrate tolerance requirements and the correct functioning of the
complete system. Detailed procedures for the integration tests should be prepared prior to
starting the tests.
The subsea system should be subjected to the following activities during system integration
testing:
• Check the cleanliness of the hydraulic control fluid and circuits.
• Test of all mechanical and hydraulic functions.
• Test of tree system using temporary IWOC system.
• Documented integrated function test of components and sub-systems.
• Final documented function test of all electrical and hydraulic control interfaces.
• Documented orientation and guidance fit tests of all interfacing components and
modules.
• Simulation of installation, intervention and production mode operations as practical in
order to verify and optimize relevant procedures and specifications.
• Simulation of ROV intervention operations using a mock-up. Include ROV pilot
training during SIT.
• Operation under specified conditions including extreme tolerance conditions as
practical in order to reveal any deficiencies in system, tools and procedures.
• Operation under relevant conditions as practical to obtain system data such as
response times for shut-down actions etc. This could include shallow water tests and
rehearsals.
• Subject to testing to demonstrate that equipment can be assembled as planned and
satisfactorily perform its functions as an integrated system.
• Fill with correct fluids, lubricate, clean, preserve and pack as specified.
• Subject to a final inspection in order to verify correctness of the as-built
documentation.
It is important to functionally test all manual override functions in connection with the above
tests. The purpose of the intervention test is to verify the interfaces and the functions of the
ROV systems and tooling. In addition, hatch operation, guidepost/mini-post replacement and
mechanical override of connectors (if not performed at FAT), as well as tests using any
Company provided items should be performed to verify interfaces and functions.
All additional tooling interfaces such as choke insert and POD running and retrieval tools
should be integrated with the final subsea equipment assemblies.
If dummy structures are to be utilized during testing, a verification of the possible dummy
structures should be performed to verify that the dummy structures are in compliance with the
real structures.
The facilities on the integration test site should include test facilities with crane capacity for
handling and stack-up of x-mas trees and associated equipment. The test facility should be
clean and not disturbed by other activities. The test facility should be suitable for performing
flushing operations. Any activity generating particles including grinding etc. must not take
place in this facility. The test facility should be suitable for performing system tests of the
production control system involving sensitive computer equipment and include adequate
indoor facilities for storing of equipment and site office facilities for the client.
A typical format for a subsea equipment integration testing procedure could include the
following: Purpose/Objective, scope, requirements for fixtures/set-ups, facilities, equipment,
personnel responsibilities, performance data, changes, acceptance criteria, and certification
and reference information.
Outline commissioning procedures should be developed prior to establishment of the test
procedures. Hence the end user requirements should be defined prior to developing the
actual test procedures. The idea behind this requirement is to maximize applicable
experience from one phase to the next. Hence experience gained during FAT is applicable for
test activities during SIT and commissioning.
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A schedule for the activities should be developed prior to the start of the integration test.
Equipment logistics should be part of the schedule. The Operation and Maintenance Manuals
(O&M’s) should be used as guidelines for establishing the test procedures. Test procedures
should be signed off step by step during each test operation.
A daily log should be written for each test activity. Test findings should be briefly described in
the log. A query system that should handle all test findings should be developed including
procedures to rectify the findings. The manufacturer should arrange frequent status meetings
with operator during the integration test phase.
The operator’s personnel should have access to all test facilities during testing. They may
monitor or witness all tests and should have free access to the test results. Emphasis should
be put on the requirement that the operator’s offshore-nominated personnel have access for
complete insight into system functions, system operation and debugging methodology.
Photographic records can be of considerable value in future diagnostic work when the
equipment is subsea. Comprehensive still photography and video records are recommended.
The test program should include an index of the test procedures, equipment-handling
procedures and further identify facilities, equipment, materials and other items required for
the program.
The manufacturer should develop and establish procedures and check lists necessary in
order to verify that the requirements of the contract are met. The integration test procedures
should be developed in such a manner that operational conditions can be simulated. All
procedures for system integration tests should be reviewed and approved by the operator
prior to start of the test. The test procedures should include defined acceptance criteria.
Although the amount of equipment each have delivered over the years differs, they have
similar capabilities with varying levels of manufacturing, sale,s and service support around
the world.
Other companies who offer larger subsea packages such as manifolds and fabricated
equipment primarily use equipment supplied by the companies mentioned above.
Several other companies exist that manufacture subsea valves, subsea connection systems,
subsea BOP stacks, etc. exist but are not considered to be subsea production equipment
supply specialists because their range of products are limited.
Subsea Tree
ROV Panel
Umbilicals
Control Pod
Choke Module Module
Jumper Connector
Manifold Connection
Hub
Flying
Pigging Valve
Leads
Figure 3.1 - Diagram Showing a Typical Subsea Manifold and Subsea Field Equipment
Arrangement
Conductor
Support
• To collect the flow from several field production gathering flowlines and deliver that
flow to a larger production export pipeline.
• To isolate the production from individual wells and deliver it to a well test header or a
well test flowline.
• To segregate high pressure and low pressure production into separate high pressure
and low pressure headers and flowlines.
• To control the flow from individual wells by means of subsea chokes. Wells may be
choked at the trees or at the manifold.
Figure 3.4 - Nine Slot Template Being Lifted from a Work Boat (Left) and
being Deployed from a Jack-Up Drilling Rig (Right)
incorporate many of the functions of a subsea manifold described above, all in one integral
assembly. Some specific functions of a subsea template are:
• To provide a guide for positioning the well conductor and guiding the conductor during
installation.
• To control spacing between adjacent well conductors.
• To provide guidance and support for the BOP in some cases.
• To provide guidance and support for well completion equipment (e.g. trees) in some
cases.
• To accommodate pre-installation of well flowline piping and facilitate interface of the
production trees with their flowlines.
• To accommodate pre-installation of tree control hardware and facilitate interface of the
production trees with their controls.
• A mud skirt is often provided. It is designed to penetrate into the soft bottom and
provides lateral shear resistance. If the soil shear strength is high enough this may be
adequate for supporting the structure. If the soil is very soft, piles may be required.
Suction piles may be used in soft clay bottoms. Soft soils with sand and aggregate
may require driven piles. Harder bottoms may require drilled and cemented piles.
• Templates will have guide sleeves for positioning well conductors. They should be
long enough to keep the conductor in a nearly vertical position during installation.
Spacing varies depending upon the requirements.
• A cover may be provided for dropped object protection. In shallower waters
sometimes the structure is designed for over-trawling by fishing trawls without
snagging. Templates may have hinged or removable roof hatches over each well to
provide access to a well or subsea tree. These may be designed for opening or
removing with a line or tool from the rig above, using ROV assistance if necessary.
• Production flowline connections can be installed on the template, positioned so as to
mate up with a receptacle on the tree when it is landed. These may be hydraulically
actuated by means of the IWOC system.
• Flowline branch valves and flowline chokes. These provide control of individual wells.
• Header piping and header valves.
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• It may be desirable to mark manifold piping for identification, for example with flowline
numbers or flow direction arrows.
The number of wells served by a template will determine its size. Templates may be designed
for two wells to two dozen or more. Template size is often limited so as to fit through the
moonpool of a drilling rig.
Larger templates (accommodating more wells) are sometimes hinged so they can be folded
up for passage through the moonpool and then unfolded for deployment on the seafloor.
Another method of accommodating more wells and installation through the moonpool is with
a modular template. These designs consist of individual interlocking sections or modules,
each serving one to several wells, that are deployed individually and connected to one
another on the seabed, usually by some sort of guide pin and sleeve arrangement. They are
often used when the ultimate number of wells is unknown, as a way of keeping the initial
capital cost of the development as low as possible.
Very large integrated templates may be too large for installation through the moonpool. In
such cases a heavy lift vessel may be used to deploy the template.
As a rule, the more equipment that can be pre-installed on the template the better. This
minimizes the time required for the rig or installation vessel to deploy the template.
Production manifolds are usually pre-assembled complete with most of the piping, valves and
controls installed prior to deployment. For large template structures that include a production
manifold, the production manifold may be installed as a module or several modules
subsequent to the template deployment. This is necessary in the case of modularized
templates run through the moonpool of a drilling rig.
The piping itself is designed to the same standards as the piping on subsea trees, typically
the ASME B31.3 piping code or some equivalent. Flowline branch and header sizing is
normally done in accordance with API 14E.
Piping materials are typically carbon steel, low alloy steel or high alloy steel depending on the
service.
The design pressure of the manifold must be carefully considered. The simplest approach is
to match the shut-in pressure of the wells. If this is impractical due to cost, then there needs
to be careful consideration to overpressure protection, by assuring proper valve shut-in
sequences, valve failure positions and pressure relief at the host production facility (topsides).
Connector Profile
Template Landing
and Lockdown
Profile
Conductor
• Soil borings must be done to assess the geotechnical characteristics of the soil for the
piles, mud mat or skirt design.
• Bottom slope. The sea floor should preferably be near level. Leveling devices may be
required for leveling the template or manifold structure after it is landed on the seabed.
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Templates are commonly installed by a drilling rig as the first step prior to drilling. The
template is often installed from a floating rig through the moon pool or from jack-up in shallower
water. They are run on retrievable equipment usually using drill pipe or collar from a rig.
Standard guideline or guidelineless techniques can be deployed on the individual well slots.
If the template is too large to be handled through the moonpool, it may be keelhauled, that is
passed from another vessel alongside and swung under the keel of the drilling rig, where the
load can be transferred to the rig and lowered on drill pipe by the rig to the seabed. This
transfer operation is potentially risky and very weather sensitive.
Very large templates are sometimes installed using a lift barge. This poses problems in
deeper water, for mooring the barge, providing enough wire rope capacity to reach the
seabed and maneuvering the template or manifold into place. For very deep water a
dynamically positioned heavy lift vessel would be required. This option of course causes the
project to incur lift barge mobilization and demobilization and lift costs.
• The installation method. Installation methods include ADS diver assisted, ROV pull-in
or “stab and hinge-over”. The installation method determines the connector
orientation for example, or the type of connector to be used, or the loads likely to be
imposed during installation.
• Guidance methods. Guideline or guidelineless techniques may be used. For
guideline methods, ROV retrievable guideposts may be employed. Funnels and guide
structures may be provided for guidelineless interfaces. Typically guidelineless
techniques are employed in depths of approximately 500 meters and greater.
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ROV Valve
Actuator
Buckets
Flowline
Attachment
Point
Figure 3.11 - Another View of a Typical Deepwater Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM)
3.4
Tree
ROV
Jumper
Flowline
Figure 3.12 - A Four Satellite Well Cluster Tied Into a Manifold With Rigid Pipe
Jumpers.
Ancillary Equipment
3.4.1 Valves
The individual flowline branch valves employed on subsea manifolds are often identical to the
types of valves used on subsea Christmas trees. Larger header valves may be specially
designed for manifold service. Ball valves developed for subsea pipelines are often used in
the larger sizes. Valves used for subsea manifold service are typically designed, fabricated
and tested in accordance with API 17D, API 6A and API 6D.
Subsea valves are typically furnished with manual (ROV) actuators or hydraulic actuators.
For critical service the hydraulically actuated valve may have a ROV override. ROV operated
valves should have a visual position indicator.
Manifold valve service is usually less critical than subsea tree service, in that a small amount
of valve leakage may be tolerable. Also, manifold valves may be designed to fail open,
whereas subsea tree valves are nearly always designed to fail closed. A combination of fail
open and fail closed valves may be provided in the manifold piping so that a control system
failure will allow production to continue uninterrupted in a safe mode and/or flowline pressure
management – typically for hydrate prevention after a shut down. Large valves may have
double acting actuators that fail “as is”.
Manifold valves are usually full opening. Header valves often must be piggable and the bore
must be smooth and may have to be closely matched to the inside diameter of the flowline
and header piping.
The manifold valves and the actuators must be designed for high hydrostatic pressure in
deep water service. Hyperbaric testing is recommended. Pressure balanced actuator designs
help to mitigate the effects of hydrostatic pressure, but testing is essential to identify
unanticipated effects on seals, unrecognized leak paths and such.
Subsea tree valves rated for 10,000 psi are commonplace. As more subsea trees are
designed for 15,000 psi, high pressure valves in smaller sizes will become more available.
High pressure valves (10,000 and 15,000 psi) in larger sizes lag in development. Availability
of valves in the required pressure rating needs to be considered when conceptually planning
the manifold performance requirements.
3.4.2 Chokes
Chokes are flow control devices designed to take the rigors of high pressure drop and high
fluid velocities through the ports and across the seats. They are normally provided on the
individual well flowlines, and are designed to control the flow and pressure from the wells into
the manifold. They may be mounted on the manifold or on individual trees.
Hydraulic and ROV actuated chokes are both usually provided with a visual position indicator.
In addition, hydraulically actuated chokes are normally provided with a position transducer.
There are a variety of choke trim designs and each has useful application for flow control
depending on numerous factors such as fluid composition, flow rates, pressures, accuracy of
control requirements, debris content, bi-directional flow requirements and others. The
varieties of trim design include Plug and Cage, Orifice and Bean, Rotating disk or Plate, and
others.
Choke trims are normally coated with hard wearing material such as Tungsten carbide to
prolong the life of the trim. Trims are sometimes designed so that the high velocity fluid
impinges upon itself in the turbulent area of flow in the choke to also assist to prolong the life
of the trim.
Reverse flow or even reverse pressure differential can damage some choke trim designs and
thus if the possibility of this occurring exists, alternative designs should be selected.
Instances where this can happen occur in fields where multiple wells are commingled into a
single flowline or even during flowline commissioning pressure testing.
Subsea chokes are routinely designed and built to enable the remote replacement of the
choke internals and actuator without retrieving the rest of the subsea hardware. The main
outer body of the choke remains in place fixed to the piping on the subsea hardware. The
choke internals or “choke insert” can be removed and replaced with a dedicated tool and
ROV.
The retrievable choke insert is designed as a module that can be installed and removed using
a running tool. These are sometimes run on guidelines, but in deep water are usually
guidelineless and directed into guidance funnels by ROV.
An alternative simple choking device that is often employed on subsea trees is the orifice
choke. This is a gate valve with a small orifice in the gate position that would normally be the
closed position on the gate. The orifice choke is used for well start up, to prevent dramatic
and damaging draw down across the reservoir, and to slowly pressurize a flowline. The
actuator is then functioned to fully open the choke – by moving the gate to the full open
position. Orifice chokes are not normally remotely replaceable as insert chokes.
See Section 4.2 for more discussion of flowline tie-ins and jumpers.
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The following are some of the key design issues that must be considered when specifying or
designing the subsea control system:
• Offset distance. Distance affects signal strength, hydraulic pressure loss, response
time and cost.
• Valve control requirements: The number of valves, types of valves, types of
actuators, size of valves, failure position of valves.
• Chemical injection requirements. Valve operation, umbilical sharing.
• Instrumentation requirements: Pressure or temperature monitoring, pig detection.
• Installation and workover requirements and interface with the IWOC system.
• Redundancy requirements.
• Expandability. Future wells, future flowline tie-ins.
Manufacturers are also developing all electric control systems, but they have not yet been
applied commercially.
Figure 4.1 - Example of a Direct Hydraulic Control System HPU and Panel for
Six Subsea Wells
The MCS consists of a computer (or a serial interface with the platform DCS computer),
power conditioners, modems and multiplex/de-multiplex (mux/de-mux) circuits.
The mux/de-mux circuits process the signal data so it can be transmitted over the same
conductors that carry the electrical power. The output from the mux/de-mux to the subsea
control system is typically a maximum of 600V.
Two power channels within the MCS convert the power from the topside supply. It is then at a
level for transmission through the umbilical to the subsea control modules. Components in
each output channel are identical and completely separate. Power modules, controllers and
other components can be removed from one channel without affecting any other.
A line insulation monitor is incorporated on each power module to provide protection against
insulation faults in the channel output line. The line insulation monitor has two alarm levels at
adjustable resistance settings. At the first level an alarm signal is issued to the master control
computer. At the second, lower impedance, the affected power supply is isolated and a
secondary alarm generated.
The outputs from each channel are electronically protected against over voltage transients
and over current. The voltage and current for each output are displayed on the controllers’
front panel and transmitted to the master computer for display.
Both the power channel outputs and the modem line connections interface with the umbilical
via a power and signal combiner. A combiner is required for each channel. The
communications circuits are bi-directional for both up-link and down-link transmissions. An
output circuit breaker is fitted on each combiner.
isolated in case of damage. Filters and modems in the EPU allow communication signals
between the MCS and the SCM to be transmitted over the same circuits that are used to
transmit power.
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The hydraulic distribution system for the EH-MUX system is open loop with valve actuator
returns vented to sea via a relief valve in the SCM.
with dual oil filled barriers protecting the contacts. Either Tronic or Ocean Design Inc.
manufacture most of the subsea electrical connectors currently in use. Electrical connectors
housings can be manufactured from duplex stainless steel grade UNS 32550, titanium or
other suitable alloys. Typically the non seal containing half (male pins) are mounted to the
permanent subsea structures.
Within a project, it is best to standardize on one SCM design for all trees and manifolds if
possible.
Lockdown
Mechanism
Electrical/Optical
Connectors Accumulators
Subsea Electronics
Module
Control Valves
and Manifolds
Hydraulic
Couplings
the host production facility the rig must provide all power and control. If the production control
system is available, the option to use the production umbilical for power is available.
Philosophically, most (but not all) operators dictate that when a rig intervenes on a subsea
tree, this action disables the platform from controlling the tree. This is particularly important
on trees with valves in the vertical bore, such as dual bore trees, because the rig would never
want the platform to inadvertently open or close a valve on the tree while the rig was working
on it. Closing a valve could cut wireline or coiled tubing that could be in the well, while
opening one could unexpectedly bring well pressures and fluids to the rig. There is less risk
with horizontal trees because there is no tree valve in the vertical bore.
The lockout of control can be accomplished in a number of ways. Conventional tree designs
have a tree cap with all the key hydraulic functions usually passing through a junction plate in
the cap. When the cap is removed, it disables the platform controls to the tree by breaking
the control circuits. When the tree running tool, lower marine riser package (LMRP) or other
interface is mated to the top of the tree, hydraulic functions are re-established to the broken
circuits and control is now with the rig.
If the IWOC connection is by flying lead, a similar principal can be applied with a “bridging
plate” or “logic cap” that, when removed to allow the IWOC control umbilical to be plugged in,
also breaks the circuits controlled by the platform.
These two methods of transferring control circuits are usually employed when an EH-MUX
system is used on the tree. The tree cap or bridging plate circuitry normally disrupts the
hydraulic pod (or subsea control module) outputs so that the pod is rendered ineffective.
In direct hydraulic controlled systems, the production control umbilical or flying lead from it is
normally unplugged to allow the rig controls to plug into the tree. This thereby transfers
control from the platform to the rig.
The hydraulic power unit (HPU) is the source for hydraulic pressure and power. The HPU will
often include a control panel for directing hydraulic power as required. Larger systems may
have a separate control panel. Direct hydraulic systems require a complex panel with panel
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mounted valves, gauges, hydraulic tubing and relays. An EH-MUX system relies on a
computer as the control interface. The HPU typically includes a number of accumulators to
store hydraulic power. These help to speed up response time when opening valves and
prevent the pumps from stopping and starting continuously to compensate for pressure
bleed-off.
In addition to the main IWOC panel, some control functions may be included on the umbilical
reels and often the side of an IWOC umbilical reel will be a mini panel. Hydraulic functions
that are required to remain “live” (such as a tree running tool or tubing hanger running tool)
during the spooling out of the reel will be controlled on the reel. A single supply line can be
connected through a swivel at the axis of the reel and distributed to the appropriate hoses in
the umbilical through the reel mounted panel. After deployment of the umbilical the main
supply jumper can be hooked up.
EH-MUX systems can be controlled during installation or workover by a computer and electric
down line (umbilical) plugged into the pod on the tree. Hydraulic power must also be supplied
to the tree in order to provide motive power for the actuators on the tree. As mentioned
earlier, this can be supplied through an IWOC hydraulic umbilical that is run from the rig or if
the production umbilical is available from the host production facility.
During workover, it is often preferred not to break any of the hydraulic circuits from the
production control umbilical because they are known to be functional and pressure tight. An
EH-MUX system is highly suited to this principle in that the system can be designed such that
plugging in of an electric down line will disable the control from the host production facility.
This can be accomplished by unplugging the electric line from the production umbilical to plug
in the down line. Alternatively, it can be done by having a separate IWOC receptacle on the
pod and building into the pod the logic that prevents it from acting on any instruction it
receives from the production host while a down line from another computer is plugged into it.
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The IWOC system also controls the LMRP and EDP for a conventional or mono-bore tree
system. The IWOC system provides the controls and umbilical to operate the tubing hanger
running tool, perform seal and gallery tests within the tree system, and the means for
chemical injection for the tree and down hole as required.
Proper placement of the IWOC on the rig is important for running the umbilicals. The
umbilicals are passed from reels through roller sheaves above the point where the umbilicals
go down into the riser or splash zone. The umbilical reel needs to be located within line of
sight of the sheave. The sheaves must be securely attached because the weight of the
umbilical will be supported by them. It is good practice to have sheaves certified with a proof
load and include weld NDE and load testing of the mounts.
The HPU can be located anywhere because the hydraulic power can be relayed or distributed
to the various reels by hoses as required. The HPU is distributed to the umbilical and reel
through jumper hoses that may run around the deck of the rig. The umbilical reels are
typically air powered for paying out and hauling in the umbilicals. They should include a fail
safe brake that is released when air is supplied to the drive motor.
This unit goes by other names and acronyms, such as Topside Umbilical Termination Box
(TUTB), Umbilical Junction Box (UJB), Production or Platform Umbilical Termination
Assembly (PUTA), etc.
4.1.4.2 Umbilicals
The main functions of a subsea production umbilical are:
• To deliver hydraulic or electrical control signals to subsea control devices such as pilot
valves, solenoid valves or relays.
• To provide power for subsea actuators or motors, either hydraulic or electric.
• To convey injection chemicals to subsea trees or manifolds.
• To monitor well annulus pressure.
Umbilical Splices
Umbilical splices are successfully and routinely used, particularly on very long umbilicals.
They must be well designed and correctly installed. If not, they often represent weak points
and frequently turn out to be the source of water ingress leading to electrical failures and
hydraulic leak points. They can be very reliable, but as a general rule, should be avoided
where possible, as they are a potential source of failure. Splices are a useful means of repair
to a damaged umbilical, and enable very long umbilicals to be created and installed from
shorter flaw free lengths. Unplanned field splices are time consuming to install during an
umbilical installation procedure and should be conducted under the close supervision of a
representative of the umbilical manufacturer. Planned field spices can be preinstalled on
umbilical lengths to minimize field splice make-up time.
Figure 4.15 - Umbilical Splice Connections. Left Photo is a Planned Field Quick Make
Up Splice Kit. Right Photo is a Permanent Factory Splice -It Is Similar To a Repair
Splice- the Cover is Not Installed.
Reference Standards
Standards governing the material selection, manufacturing and testing of umbilicals include
API 17E and ISO 13628, Part 5.
Flying Lead
Figure 4.17 - A Typical Subsea Control Umbilical Termination Assembly For Two
Subsea Wells. Note The Hydraulic Flying Lead Plugged Into One of The
Hydraulic Junction Plates. Note The Electrical Connection Points.
For a complex system the UTA might be broken down into a number of sub-components
consisting of an umbilical termination head (UTH), electrical distribution unit (EDU) and the
hydraulic distribution module (HDM).
EDU
Figure 4.19 - Example of a Large Umbilical Termination Assembly with a Large EDU
Included.
Hydrostatically Balanced
Dielectric Oil Filled Cable
ROV Connectors
Figure 4.20 - Diagram Of an Electrical Flying Lead with Typical ROV Wet Mate-
Able Electrical Connectors
For deep water applications a new high collapse resistant hose has been developed. High
collapse resistant hose is steel reinforced to prevent the collapse of the hose in deepwater.
The flying leads are stiffer than those of Kevlar® reinforced hose, but can be deployed in a
similar manner.
Another type of hydraulic jumper is the steel flying lead (SFL). The steel flying lead is a
bundle of steel alloy tubes terminated into couplers on a junction plate. Most designs use
super duplex stainless steel material for its high strength. This allows thin wall construction
for flexibility. Even so, the steel flying lead is stiffer than the thermoplastic flying leads.
Deployment may require additional tooling besides just the ROV. Various deployment kits
exist to lay the steel flying lead like a small umbilical. Once the lead is deployed, the ROV
can complete the end connections.
4.1.5.1 General
Remotely Operated Vehicles are commonly referred to as ROV’s. These are remotely
controlled unmanned submersible robots – submarines. They are available in a variety of
capabilities and sizes. The most basic ROV is merely a camera carrying vehicle with
thrusters to drive it to location under water. Larger work class ROV’s include many cameras,
manipulator arms with a variety of capabilities, numerous thrusters, sonar, and other sensors.
They are available with a variety of different depth ratings.
ROV’s are controlled from a central computerized control room – often nicknamed the ROV
shack – with power and control signals passing through an umbilical to the vehicle. The
umbilical stays permanently attached to the ROV. The deeper classed systems include a
powered diving cage and tether management system to reduce current drag on a long
umbilical system from the surface vessel.
ROV’s can perform a wide variety of functions underwater. The only constraint is that most
functions must have been pre-designed for ROV interfacing before the equipment is installed
subsea. In addition to the manipulator and gripper functions, ROV’s can easily be equipped
with special additional and often standard tool packages. These are designed to interface
with the equipment being installed subsea.
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ROV interface is a system level issue as it affects almost all work packages and certainly all
of the subsea installation, workover and intervention activities. There is effort within the
subsea industry to standardize the ROV interfaces on all subsea equipment. To do this, the
connection, handling, and marking interfaces must be the same on all subsea equipment.
The specification that most manufacturers, ROV companies, and operators have followed for
ROV interfaces is API Specification 17D. This specification was created based on the two
most common interface standards that were present in the industry at the time of writing it.
As such, and although a great deal has been standardized, the two standards were mixed
together, and perfect standardization has not been accomplished.
Figure 4.23 - Standard ROV torque buckets -the end effector inside the
bucket is difficult to see in these photos. The end effector size and shape
determines the torque ratings for the bucket - note the optional grab handles
on the panel in the right hand photo
• Hot stab – The hot stab is used to introduce hydraulic fluid into a port for testing
purposes, chemical injection, hydraulic power to actuate devices such as connectors
or actuators. The fluid supply can often be arranged to come from the ROV package.
• Tool Deployment Unit (TDU) – The TDU facilitates secure docking of the ROV and
precise X-Y indexing of tools for specific functions. The TDU can be configured to
carry numerous small tools used to connect and disconnect flowline clamps, operate
valves and undertake hot stab operations. The TDU can offer advantages over “free
flying” of tools, particularly in strong currents. The disadvantages of using a TDU are
that the ROV intervention equipment must be purpose built, requiring more interface
engineering, and expense. Typical TDUs are shown in Figure 4-24.
4.1.5.3 Testing
Torque tools are commonly used during tree and manifold testing to verify torque values for
functions on the actuators and to check for fit and accessibility.
An ROV bucket contains two slots where the dogs on the torque tool latch in on both sides
inside the bucket. The distance between the latching dogs and the nut to be driven is critical
and is dictated by the API 17 D specification. Also, surrounding the bucket or likely, nearby
Figure 4.24 - Single Point Docking TDU (Left) and Twin Point Docking TDU (Right)
will be placed a grab bar. The grab bar can be used by the ROV to stabilize while attempting
to engage or torque. Grab bars are also specified diameter. The valve or location is also to
be marked in a manner to allow ease of visibility by the ROV camera, both upon initial
installation and long term, for intervention purposes.
The junction plates are also mated by ROV. The plates are made up using a torque tool
inserted into the bucket and then the torque strokes the plate to mate the hydraulic couplings.
Spreader Beam
Hydraulic
Jumper
Connectors
Insulated
Hard Pipe
CONNECTOR
MAKE-UP CYLINDERS SOFT LAND
CYLINDERS
ALIGNMENT
FUNNEL
HUB
ALIGNMENT
STRUCTURE
Wires to
surface
Flowline
or
Manifold
ROV or Tree
Pulled In Flowline
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of a riser system requires investigation of a complex interaction of the following
variables:
• Pressure rating – the riser must be able to contain well shut in pressure
• Bore size – wireline or coiled tubing equipment that will be used in the well must be
able to pass through the riser, additionally the well fluid flow regime will be dictated by
the bore
• Structural strength – the riser shouldn’t fail when being handled, or with applied
tensions and bending moments
• Fatigue life – the riser must have a reasonable fatigue life – particularly if being
utilized for a number of wells and for the life of a field.
• Practical operating limitations for the riser – driven by factors including allowable
operating envelopes to prevent over stressing the riser, handling and make up time on
the drilling rig, and physical size and weight limitations.
• Water Depth – affects loading on the riser
• Sea States - affects loading on the riser
• Current - affects loading on the riser
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There are two basic operating scenarios for an Installation and Workover Riser. These are 1)
Deployment within a Drilling Riser and 2) Deployment in open water.
Deployment within a drilling riser can be considered to be less severe service than
deployment in open water in that the workover riser is shrouded within the drilling riser, but
the variables noted above affect the performance characteristics of the riser in both scenarios
as discussed below.
As the water depth increases, the bending loads on the riser reduce, but the tensile loads
increase. In shallow water, the problems are associated with the limitations to the operating
envelopes for the vessel. Very small offsets can produce high bending loads in shallow
water. The vessel’s motion characteristics in response to the Sea State also have a greater
significance on the loading and a greater influence on the fatigue life in shallow water.
In deeper water, the Sea States and vessel characteristics tend to have less influence and
fatigue life improves. However, high currents can produce increased bending loading on a
riser. This can lead to a lower fatigue life and a reduction in the operating envelope. When
designing for deeper water, the wall thickness of the riser tubular may need to be increased in
order to withstand the increased tensile loading, resulting in an increased stiffness. As the
stiffness of the riser increases, the bending loads become greater and this again reduces the
fatigue life.
Sea States provide the forcing functions that are applied to the vessel. The vessel
characteristics determine the vessel’s response to these forces that result in the vessel
motions. These motions are more significant to the riser in shallower water than deeper
water and in combination with vessel offset influence the allowable operating envelope for
both riser strength and fatigue life.
Sea currents have significant effects in deeper water. They can not be neglected in shallow
either. The currents can vary with depth, magnitude, and direction. The larger the diameter
of the riser, the greater the loading. In deep water, these loadings can create significant
bending loads and fluctuating currents can result in greater fatigue loading despite depth.
These are more significant in shallower water. Vessel Characteristics under varying sea
states influence the loadings on the top of the riser. These effect fatigue life more than
loading. Vessel Offset, the horizontal distance that the vessel is away from being vertically
over the well, has a direct influence on the bending loads on the riser.
To design a large bore workover riser for a multiple field role, a reasonably open operating
envelope, a long fatigue life, shallow to deep water flexibility, under all conditions is probably
impossible.
It is therefore preferable to define all these variables prior to initiating the riser system design.
The resultant design would be specific to a fixed set of conditions, but could then be analyzed
for any variations in the conditions.
The specific limitations, usually in the form of operating envelopes, need to be addressed for
each set of field conditions. In some cases, this will result in a reduced operating envelope or
maybe even a reduction of the full pressure rating.
Historically, land based and then platform surface trees were concentric mono bore trees.
The production bore rose concentrically through the casing and passed vertically through a
stack of flanged individual gate valves. The tubing tended to be of smaller diameter and the
pressures lower. Initially, subsea trees were surface trees with their materials and coatings
selected for submersed operations. The annulus was spurred off horizontally, low down on
the tree. The concepts of multiple completions down one well and Through Flow Line (TFL)
techniques required a tube to pass vertically through the tubing hanger and down into the
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annular cavity around the production tubing. Wire line plugs and tooling were required to
enter this tubing for down hole operations and the riser had to provide the access. This was
the Dual Bore Riser.
In a dual bore system, and after the tubing hanger has been set, the annulus and production
bores are sealed by setting a wire line plug in each bore at the tubing hanger. This will then
allow the BOP to be retrieved with a barrier in the wellhead. The tree is then run and landed
on the wellhead and tubing hanger. The two plugs are then retrieved through the dual bore
riser. The annulus traditionally became a 2” bore - not for the three barrels per minute
required for circulation, but because the smaller plugs had less reliable setting mechanisms.
Current dual bore annulus tubing, still has 2 to 2 ½ “ diameter bores.
Structurally dual bore risers generally rely on the strength of the production riser pipe with the
annulus pipe hung between its connections. At these connections, the annulus pipe has
telescopic joints - these avoid pressure, temperature and bending loads producing coupling
forces at the connections. The connection tends to be of similar diameter to the tubing
hanger. The production tubing is attached eccentrically by threading or welding and the
annulus pipe is fed through another eccentric and diametrically opposed hole. The
connections are proprietary and often not suited to the vessel’s casing handing equipment.
The demand for larger bores and higher pressures has pushed these pipes closer together.
In many instances, the larger pipe and the need for vertical access to the down hole
production tubing has forced the annulus to ‘dog leg’ through the tubing hanger body
preventing down hole plug access. These twin bores passing through the major forgings for
the tubing hanger, tree, lower riser package, and surface flow head are also reaching a limit.
For sour gas applications, the forging material is either required to have a low hardness and
therefore yield strength or utilize expensive and difficult to machine alloys. The low yield
strength eventually restricts the differential pressure capacity. Yields are reduced further by
high temperature applications. Connectors requiring welding of the tubular members also
reach their limitations with restrictions on post weld hardness and the difficulty of welding
higher yield materials. Higher yield pipe reduces the wall thickness and therefore the
suspended weight of the riser.
The weight and costs of two pipes rather than one can become limiting as depths increase.
Dual bore risers are used on about 50% of the trees in the world today. Horizontal trees,
which do not utilize dual bore risers, make up the vast majority of the remainder of riser
utilization. Horizontal trees use a mono-bore riser made from premium threaded tubing and
readily rented riser valve and disconnect equipment and.
Other riser types that have been deployed but in very limited numbers include a 1) mono-bore
riser with a selector or diverter mechanism, or 2) a concentric riser system or a 3) mono-bore
riser system with a mono-bore tree.
Figure 4.46 - A Dual Bore Riser System Configured To Run A Subsea Tubing
Hanger Inside A Subsea BOP And Marine Riser
Figure 4.47 - Dual Bore Riser System (See Previous Diagram) After Retrieval of the Subsea
BOP and Marine Riser, Ready to Run the Subsea Tree Onto the Preinstalled Tubing
Hanger
The guide base is a common interface with the tree and therefore the tree can be orientated
to a known tubing hanger orientation. There are numerous types of guide bases such as
guidelineless, retrievable, and flow bases. If used a tubing hanger adapter spool may have
its own guidance for the tree instead of relying on the guide base. Whichever design is
employed, they will all share a means of orientation with respect to a common interface
between the BOP stack and tree to enable orientation of the dual bore hanger and tree. It is
very common for a reference slot on the 30 inch wellhead housing to determine the
orientation of the guide base or tubing hanger adapter spool.
If a tubing hanger adapter spool is used, another means of orientation includes a helix
orientation shoe inside the tubing hanger adapter spool. A tubing hanger adapter spool is a
piece of equipment that can be optionally placed on the subsea wellhead to provide a new
tubing hanger landing profile instead of the wellhead. The adapter can also be used to
convert from one wellhead profile to another.
Some concentric tubing hangers do not require orientation but this is generally with some
compromise in the hanger capability or reliance on remotely operated annulus sleeve or other
mechanism. Hanger capabilities that can be compromised are such things as electrical
penetrations for gauges or other equipment.
Dual bore risers are typically specially built for individual tree designs and can represent
significant investment. Consequently, operators may try to use a single riser design across a
variety of projects, which can impose restrictions on tree design or selection options. This can
also have the disadvantage of leading to equipment availability conflicts if more than one field
requires work at the same time while a restricted number of riser systems are available.
Dual bore risers have historically not been generally readily available on the market for rent.
This may traditionally have been due to the fact that there are many different dual bore tree
THRT
Dual Bore Helix
Riser BOP Slick Joint
Muleshoe
Figure 4.49 - Dual Bore Tubing Hanger Orientation Joint With “Slick Joint” Clearly
Visible – Shown Being Lifted From It’s Shipping Basket To The Rig Floor
designs with variables such as pressure, bore sizes, bore spacings, and water depths
different on different projects. Consequently large numbers of varieties of riser systems are
required to accommodate all tree designs and equipment suppliers were not prepared to
invest and have money tied up in varieties of riser systems.
The Tubing Hanger Orientation Adapter can also be referred to as the "Tubing Hanger
Orientation/Extension Joint." An acronym for this item of equipment is "THOJ". As described
above, the lower section of the THOJ will include an orienting sleeve configured with a helix
leading longitudinal slot.
The tubing hanger orientation/extension joint includes two sections of flow pipe for the
production bore and the annulus bore. The lower end of the THOJ includes stab subs to
connect the THOJ production and annulus bores to the tubing hanger.
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The middle section of the THOJ is smooth and has a reduced ID to allow both annular
preventers of a typical subsea BOP stack to close for well control and for pressure testing of
the tubing hanger seal. This area of the riser is often referred to as the “slick joint”. The
lower end of the THOJ will normally include hydraulic stabs and sometimes electrical
connectors that interface with the tubing hanger running tool.
Umbilical clamps are located near the riser connections including at the top of the THOJ. The
clamps secure the umbilical lines to the top of the THOJ. Hydraulic functions pass through
the THOJ. This allows the BOP rams or annular bags to be closed on the joint and external
pressure to be applied to the joint without affecting the hydraulic functions passing through it.
When the tubing hanger is tagged out during installation, a hydraulically actuated BOP
orientation pin mounted through the BOP makes contact with the THOJ and engages the slot
on the orienting sleeve. As the THOJ is raised, the BOP orientation pin contacts the edge of
the orienting helix and forces the THOJ to rotate until the pin engages the longitudinal slot.
While landing the tubing hanger, the pin remains engaged in the slot to ensure proper
orientation of the tubing hanger. Note that the hydraulically actuated orientation pin is not
normally standard on BOP stacks and has to be purposely installed for subsea installation
and workover work. Note additionally, that various rigs have a huge variety of different BOP
designs and stack up configurations. This means that the orientation system must be
individually tailored to each rig. Consequently, the orientation system that may have been
used to install a subsea tree system will more than likely have to be reconfigured to work the
well over if a different rig is used for the workover.
After the tubing hanger has been run, orientated and set or locked down, wireline plugs are
set in the two bores and the riser retrieved to surface. The BOP stack is then retrieved to
surface.
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The riser is then reconfigured to deploy the subsea tree. This reconfiguration starts at the
bottom of the riser where a Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP) and Emergency Disconnect
Package (EDP) are installed. The logistics of how and when this is done will depend on
particular rig operating designs and procedures but generally, the subsea tree is prepared in
the moon pool and the LMRP and EDP are stacked on top of it to be connected to the riser.
When any type of pipe or riser are being run from a drill rig, some means of supporting the
weight of the pipe must be provided. When drilling, rigs are equipped and set up to handle
pipe at the rotary table through the use of “slips”. These are friction devices that are easily
and quickly set and removed each time a connection is made at the pipe. Rotary tables and
slips are designed for single round pipe.
Dual bore risers have two sets of pipe and therefore cannot be hung off at the rotary table
with conventional slips. The method that is used to run dual bore riser is to employ a device
often referred to as a spider.
Riser Spider
The primary function of the Riser Spider is to provide a means to support the weight of the
entire Riser or Landing String at the rotary table and thus relieve the hang-off weight from the
travelling block. This allows the elevator to be unlatched in order to pick up another riser
joint. The elevator is then available for handling joints as required, during the running and
retrieving operations. For a dual bore riser, the spider enables slips to be set to hang off two
strings. For all riser types, it also provides an opening for umbilicals, DHSV control tubing,
and/or downhole gauge line(s) to exit from the rotary table master bushing to the rig floor.
The Spider’s last function can often be to provide guidance to the Surface Joint as it strokes
through the rotary with the vessels’ heave, after the Tubing Hanger has been landed.
Figure 4.51 - Example Of A Spider For Running Installation And Workover Riser.
Figure 4.52 - Dual Bore Riser Being Made Up At The Drill Floor. Note Use Of
Dedicated Spider For Supporting The Already Suspended Riser.
All pressure containing components must have the same rating as the tree. A lower riser
package (LMRP) usually includes three major components:
• Valve block or Ram assembly with LMRP connector and Re-entry mandrel
• Frame
• Control System
The LMRP valve block assembly can be described as consisting of three portions: upper,
center, and lower. The upper portion of the valve block assembly includes a re-entry hub. The
re-entry hub includes production and annulus bore seal pockets that mate with the EDP
Assembly as well as seal pockets that inter-face with the seals on the EDP stab subs. The
OD profile of the hub mates with the EDP Assembly. The re-entry hub is part of the riser
system that enables disconnect and reconnect and is designed with seals that make up
remotely.
A hydraulic stab plate is usually set at the re-entry hub. It contains hydraulic couplers that
provide communication to the LMRP functions and to selected tree functions. It allows the
installation workover control (IWOC) umbilical to be disconnected without damage if required
with the EDP.
The center portion of the valve block assembly is usually a composite valve block and may
Upper
Upper
Mandrel Alignment Guide
Guide Pin Frame
Mandrel
Post Top Connection
Control
Hydraulic Stab Cross
Coupler Plate Over
Valve
Annulus
Swab Valve
Production
Swab Valve
Annulus Production
Master Master
Valve Valve
Accumulator Accumulator
Lower
Annulus Seal Mandrel
Sub
Production Connector
Seal Sub
Secondary
Stab Plate Unlock
Locking Alignment Piston
Hydraulic Segment Primary Hole
Coupler Piston
contain small BOP rams or valves corresponding to the bore sizes in the tree and riser. The
block houses production and annulus valves or BOP rams or both.
The valves or BOP rams on the production and annulus bores are normally fail safe-close
design with a facility to shear. That is to say, if hydraulic power to the tree is lost, by for
example umbilical damage, the valves or rams will close automatically, and will shear wire if
in the well.
Often a crossover valve is an integral part of the valve block assembly and provides
communication between the production and annulus bores.
Methanol injection valves are often included in or on the valve block. Communication is
achieved by direct porting into the production bore.
The lower portion of the valve block assembly is a hydraulic connector that locks to the
subsea tree mandrel. The connector is designed for remote operation and often has facility
for both primary and secondary hydraulic unlocking.
It will also have visual indicators that enables an ROV, or other conveyed camera, or diver to
ascertain the status of all relevant, remotely operated functions for the connector.
A second, lower LMRP stab plate fits onto the connector. It provides hydraulic communication
with the tree upper stab plate. Certain couplers connect to valves that can vent fluid pressure
upon disconnect. All others are able to seal to prevent ingress of seawater upon disconnect.
Many tree systems are designed so that the installation and workover riser system and the
hydraulic couplers contained in it disable the host production platform controls of the tree.
The same mating halves of the described couplers on the tree are required to mate with the
tree cap and its associated couplers before the production facility can take control of the tree.
The lower end of the valve block at the subsea tree interface includes production and annulus
bore, stab subs that seal in the tree upper seal pockets.
The LMRP frame is a protective structure with bumper bars for protection of exposed
equipment and guidance. Landing alignment posts on the LMRP frame provide primary
guidance for orientation of the EDP/LMRP to the tree.
The LMRP runs at the bottom end of the workover/completion riser string with the emergency
disconnect package (EDP) latched to its upper mandrel profile. The assembled unit is then
run on the dual bore riser system. The LMRP lands and locks to the tree upper mandrel
profile. The workover umbilical, which mates with a stab plate on the EDP/LMRP assembly,
provides communication from the workover control panel to selected tree functions.
Stress Joint
A Tapered Stress Joint or stepped stress joint is included in almost all installation and
workover riser designs. It engages with the emergency disconnect package (EDP) and
accommodates the larger loads that occur at the bottom of the dual bore completion riser
system.
It is called tapered because the wall thickness of the joint tapers from very thick at the bottom
to thinner at the top – thus distributing stress more evenly through the joint than a straight
pipe would. Alternative designs use a series of steps to provide the transition from thick wall
at the base to thinner at the top. This is done because it is cheaper to manufacture and is
almost but not as good as a true taper.
It is important to note that the design of an installation and workover riser system and the
stress joint in particular, is based on analyses that take into account the characteristics for a
specific range of drilling rigs and the operating conditions under which it is anticipated to
operate.
Connect
or Primary Connector
Actuating
Piston
Stab Plate
Alignment Hole
Hydraulic
Emergency Coupler Connector Secondary
Liftoff Unlock Piston
Cylinder Locking Segment
Alignment
Riser Box Key Slot
Connection Riser Box
Annulus Connection
Bore Production
Bore
Retainer Retainer
Ring Ring
Riser
Annulus Clamp
Bore
Production
Bore
Alignment
Ring
Retainer
Ring
In addition to standard riser joints usually about 40- 45 feet long, there are typically 20 feet,
10 feet, and 5 fee. pup joints. These pup joints allow for optimization of space-out.
Tension Joint
A tension joint assembly is positioned near the top of the riser below the drill floor. It is used
to attach motion compensated tensioning cables. The tension joint is a dedicated joint that
provides a means of tensioning the dual bore riser system during completion and workover
operations.
It is generally equipped with tension line connection eyes fitted to an independently rotating
ring. The ring allows rotation without affecting the riser system.
The tension joint is compatible with all other joints in the riser system. It should be sized to be
run though the 37-1/2" diameter hole in the rotary table after removal of the riser spider
assembly.
Riser Box
Riser Box Connection
Connection Production
Annulus Bore
Bore
Alignment
Plate
Retainer
Nut Retainer
Nut
Rotating
Tension Line Production
Connection Bore
Ring
Tension Line
Connection
Eye
Annulus
Bore Riser
Clamp
Alignment
Ring
Retainer
Figure 4.61 - A Photo Of A Simple Surface Tree (Or Flowhead) For A Dual Bore
Riser System –Shown On Its Side.
The riser weight is suspended from the surface tree that is in turn suspended from the crown
block. A swivel is generally installed beneath the tree to enable the tree to be rotated to assist
with the line up of the choke and kill lines above the drill floor. In a horizontal tree system, the
swivel also allows the tubing hanger to orientate when landing, or the tree to orientate in a
dual bore tree system. The swivel also eases the make up of the last riser connection, if the
connection is threaded or requires orientation.
The surface tree must also be elevated above the deck to accommodate vessel vertical
movement. One of the limiting features of the surface tree is its overall stack-up height when
combined with the Swivel, the Surface Joint and a Coiled Tubing Tension Frame inside the
derrick.
Typically an elevator profile is machined below the upper connection on the surface tree to
enable the tree and riser to be supported by the draw-works. A working platform is often
mounted around the surface tree to enable personnel to operate manual valves and work the
connection of the lubricator unit.
Lubricator adapters at the top of the tree block assembly enable the attachment of wireline or
coiled tubing lubricators which in turn allow tool access to a live well bore. The production
lubricator adapter is normally shouldered to be compatible with elevators for handling
purposes.
Wing valves are fitted to outlets on the production and annulus bores and are typically
hydraulically actuated so that they will shut in automatically when tripped by the rig well test ESD.
A large (e.g. twenty-inch) casing elevator profile on the block allows the tree to be suspended
by a tension frame assembly – see description below.
The derrick system applies motion compensated tension to the installation riser. The load
path could pass down bails hung from the travelling block, through an elevator to the surface
flow tree and on down to the riser. However, this method restricts coiled tube and wire line
access to the top of the tree. To obtain this access a tension frame is used above the surface
tree. A coiled tubing gooseneck, injector head, and the lubricator can then be installed within
the frame if required. It can take 24 hours rig time to change from the bails system to the
tension frame and operators install the frame as a safety precaution.
A surface tree is run at the top of the riser in the same manner and for the same reasons as
in the dual bore riser system.
F lo w H ead
M arin e R iser (not sh ow n)
L u bricato r V alve
Sh e ar S u b
BOP
S tack
9 -5 /8 r a m s
T u b in g H a n g er R etain er V alv e
S lick Jo in t
W ellh ead T u bin g H ang er R un n in g T o ol
T u bin g H ang er
Figure 4.65 - Typical Horizontal Tree Installation And Workover Riser System Deployed
Inside A Subsea BOP Stack.
ensures that the Marine drilling riser is not exposed to high pressures.
The installation and workover riser for a horizontal tree normally consists of premium
threaded tubing or casing and is additionally normally configured with a number of valves and
disconnect mechanisms to safely handle a number of unplanned possible events that could
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occur that may compromise safety. This is the riser of interest and discussed below. All the
valves and bore sizes must be suitable to pass the wireline plugs required in the tree. These
are normally larger than any other tools or device than must pass into the production tubing
down hole and usually dictate the size of the riser or landing string.
Test Tree
The subsea test tree (SSTT) is deployed at the bottom of the installation and workover riser
for a horizontal tree system. The SSTT is typically configured with two valves. The tree is
hydraulically operated and requires an umbilical to be run with the riser system inside the
marine drilling riser. They are normally fail safe close valves.
The SSTT serves several functions.
The primary function of the SSTT is to provide valves at the bottom of the riser to shut-in the
well at the tree if desired because there are no valves in the vertical bore of the tree. The
valves are designed to be capable of cutting wireline or coiled tubing if they were in the bore
at the time of closure and to be capable of sealing after cutting.
Another function of the tree is to allow the riser to be disconnected above the closed valves
on the SSTT if desired. This feature is reversible and enables a remote reconnect if
disconnection did take place. The SSTT connection system includes a hydraulic interface for
all the hydraulic functions for the SSTT and the tubing hanger running tool. The reconnect
feature is designed to be self-aligning and all stingers will only make up once the correct
alignment is achieved.
The SSTT also incorporates a slick joint, which allows the BOP rams to be closed on the riser
system. This serve to prevent high pressure from entering the marine drilling riser and as a
secondary hold down of the lower end of the riser. The slick joint is generally at the bottom of
the SSTT. If the tubing hanger running tool is hydraulically functioned (for deep water, they
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virtually all are), the slick joint will have porting through it for the tubing hanger functions. This
allows hydraulic communication without hose or piping and thus prevents the rams or
externally applied pressure from affecting the hydraulic functions. The slick joint is the
interface between the SSTT and the tubing hanger running tool. Once the riser has been run,
it can be tested against a closed valve in the SSTT for pressure integrity.
Coiled Tubing
Ball Valves
Retainer Valve
The retainer valve, or riser containment valve, is deployed low in the installation and workover
riser, above the SSTT. The purpose for the riser containment valve is to prevent high
pressure and/or hydrocarbons in the riser from being released into the marine drilling riser in
the event of an emergency disconnect.
The release of hydrocarbons into the marine drilling riser or open sea is problematic, but the
uncontrolled release of riser pressure into the marine drilling riser could prove to be
catastrophic. This could launch the riser up into the rig floor. It could burst the drilling riser. It
could divert large quantities of hydrocarbons including gas to the drill floor, which could burn
or explode. It could evacuate the drilling riser then allowing external hydrostatic pressure to
collapse it.
The retainer valve typically incorporates logic that does not allow a disconnect to occur until
the valve is closed. The valve is hydraulically actuated. It is normally the termination point for
the tubing hanger running tool and SSTT control umbilical(s). The hydraulic lines are typically
ported through the body of the valve to the SSTT from the umbilical termination.
Lubricator Valve
The lubricator valve is an optional valve usually installed in the installation and workover riser
just below the rotary table.
It allows long tool strings to be deployed in the well without exceptionally long lubricators
being deployed above the surface tree above the drill floor.
5 FIELD ARCHITECTURE
• Well groupings. Clustering wells or installing well templates can facilitate drilling
operations and save flowline cost.
• Optimizing intrafield flowline configuration.
• Pigging requirements must be identified and addressed.
• Long tie-backs will dictate the use of electrohydraulic production controls. This may
add some expense for a development of only a few wells.
• Possible need for subsea production boosting (pumping) as part of the initial
development or future needs
Single Well
Well Pair
Figure 5.3 - Three Types Of Well Grouping: Single Well (Satellite), Well Pair and
Cluster
Host Facility
Umbilical
Flowlines
UTA Flying
Manifold Lead
Tree
Flowline Jumper
Well Jumper
and the production platform. Figure 5-4 shows a field with three clustered satellite wells, a
subsea production manifold and a single production umbilical and UTA.
In the case of clustered satellite wells, wells may be placed from several meters to tens of
meters from one another. The wider well spacing is often dictated by a desire to be able to
position the drilling rig over one well without imposing dropped object risk on adjacent wells.
It is hard to precisely control the spacing of individual satellite wells, so crossover piping and
control umbilicals must be able to accommodate the variations in spacing.
The following are some disadvantages of production well templates as compared to clustered
satellite wells:
• Design and fabrication time may be longer due to greater complexity.
• There may be safety concerns related to simultaneous drilling and production
operations.
• Heavy templates may be more susceptible to subsurface instability, such as shallow
water flows.
• Less flexibility in determining well locations.
• Fewer qualified contractors and suppliers.
• ROV access may be limited due to space constraints.
5.4.5 Pigging
Pigging of flowlines is often necessary to remove paraffin deposits, produced sand and other
debris that may accumulate in the flowline. Pigging may be done on a regular basis as
preventive maintenance, as a remedy to an unforeseen fouling problem, or as a diagnostic
tool. Different types of pigs are available for different situations. Some impose limitations on
the pipeline design and should be considered beforehand. The following are a number of
issues that should be considered when planning a field development that will include
provisions for pigging flowlines:
Satellite wells, each with a separate flowline to the production platform, may be connected to
one another to create a pigging loop. A pigging tee would be required on each tree and a
pigging crossover valve on one or both trees.
6.1.2 Engineering
6.1.3 Manufacturing
6.1.4 Installation
• Inadequate equipment.
• Poor interface planning.
• Installation equipment availability delays.
• Installation equipment failure.
• Installation errors or delays.
• Equipment or system failures during commissioning.
• Failure to anticipate and prepare for weather risks.
6.1.5 Operations
SEALINES
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 PIPELINE DESIGN FOR DEEP WATER .................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.2 MATERIAL SELECTION ............................................................. ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.3 PIPELINE DESIGN METHOD....................................................... ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.3.1. General consideration........................................................ Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.2. Pipeline diameter determination. ....................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.3. Pipeline wall thickness....................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.4. Dynamic calculations. ........................................................ Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.5. Stability check. ................................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.6. Span calculations............................................................... Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.7. Pipe expansion calculations. ............................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.3.8. Upheaval buckling.............................................................. Erreur ! Signet non défini.
2.4 DESIGN BASED ON LOCAL BUCKLING CRITERIA VERSUS BUCKLING PROPAGATION CRITERIA
ERREUR ! SIGNET NON DEFINI.
2.5 RADICAL ALTERNATIVE APPROACH IN DEEPWATER PIPELINE LAY ........ ERREUR ! SIGNET NON
DEFINI.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
The challenges of deepwater oilfields and inter-continental gas transportation present the
biggest opportunities the pipeline technology faces today. Sealine new thermal insulation
technologies will be required to assure that produced fluid will flow through long distance
subsea lines, at low seafloor temperature.
The scope of this study will cover the following topics:
‘’Guide for gas transmission and distribution pipeline system 1080’’ ASME
“ Part 2 – Flexible pipe systems for subsea and marine applications” ISO 13628
(in preparation to replace API RP 17B)
“ Pipeline transportation system for the Petroleum and Natural Gas ISO 13623
Industries “
WD = Water Depth
1.4 References
1. Offshore Technology Conference papers from 1969 to 1998
2. In-house technical database
3. In-house experience in rigid and flexible pipeline installation
4. Manufacturer and subsea contractor product leaflets
5. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Tie-in Methods”
Document n° TOTAL/Z/EN-005/98 (SEAL Engineering)
1.5 Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with courtesy of
technical information and photographs of their products.
2.1 Introduction
A typical deepwater flowline system is designed to transport produced fluids from several
subsea wells directly or through a subsea manifold on to the floating production system via
sealines and risers. In addition to the production flowline system, there are flowlines to export
gas and/or oil to shore. Pipelines are far the most economical method for transporting large
quantities of fluids. Other modes are more economical only when the quantities are too small
to justify the capitol cost of a pipeline or where technical difficulties make it impossible to
construct a pipeline. The principal technical difficulties are related to extreme depths, and
occasionally to uneven seabed and to high currents.
The primary factors that predict the difficulty of a deepwater pipeline project are the maximum
depth (high hydrostatic pressure) and the diameter and weight of the pipe.
A pipeline has to meet several design criteria. It has to be strong enough to resist internal
pressure, which in force terms is usually much the largest load it has to carry. It has to be
strong enough to withstand other loads applied during installation and operation, principally
external pressure and bending, but also axial tension, torsion and shear. It may have to carry
large concentrated loads applied by installation method. It has to be made out of materials
which guarantee the life time of the pipeline under erosion and corrosion effects. It has to be
heavy enough to be stable against hydrodynamic forces, but not so heavy that it sinks into
the seabed or become over-stressed when it spans low points.
It would be wrong to suppose that all these questions become more severe when the pipe is
in deep water. On some instances, many of them become easier. Usually, though not always,
the currents near the bottom are quite small in deep water, because surface wave action is
insignificant more than half a wavelength below the surface, and because tidal flows are
insufficient to generate high velocities because of the large flow cross-section.
Most pipelaying techniques lay the pipe with the internal atmospheric pressure. In deep
water, the pipe wall is then subject to a net external hydrostatic pressure during installation..
In operation, the pipe is subject to a net internal pressure, and the depth and hence the
external hydrostatic pressure may serve to reduce the required minimum burst wall thickness,
particularly if the selected wall thickness includes a corrosion allowance which will be present
during installation and consumed during operation.
The obvious difficulty is that external pressure may cause the pipeline to propagation buckling
which is first initiated by a local buckling of the pipe wall due to external hydrostatic pressure,
axial force and bending moment then run along the pipe under the effect of external pressure,
collapsing the pipe into a dumb-bell cross section. Buckle propagation could destroy many
miles of pipeline. The determination of pipe wall thickness to mitigate the buckling problem is
presented in section 2.3 Pipeline Design Method.
Some deepwater pipelines are designed so that the maximum net external pressure is lower
than the propagation pressure, so that propagation cannot possibly occur. This becomes an
onerous requirement in deep water, and a less conservative approach is to install buckle
arresters, so that a buckle initiated by unexpectedly severe bending might propagate to the
next arrester, but could not destroy a long length. The calculation and design of buckle
arresters is a well known technique.
External pressure governs the design of pipelines conventionally installed in deep water. This
condition is most severe during installation, when the pipelines carries demanding
combination of external pressure, bending and tension.
During the design phase, the following points will be checked out:
• Hydrostatic collapse:
where: pc is the pipe collapse pressure and depends on the wall thickness, the
diameter, the Young modulus (E), the Poisson coefficient (ν), the minimum
specified yield strength (SMYS) and the ovalisation (see DNV 96 section
5C306) (Mpa).
pe is the external pressure (Mpa).
γr is the resistance factor (typically between 1.19 and 1.58).
• Buckling propagation:
The design is based on this criterion if no buckle arrestor is expected on the pipeline.
The buckling propagating pressure is to fulfil:
ppr > pe
All these criteria allow to define a first wall thickness that will then be checked during the
following design phases. A corrosion allowance must be considered (depending on the
corrosivity of the environment, of the producing fluid and on the inspection means). This
corrosion allowance is not to be taken into account for resistance calculations during
operation but can be considered for the installation phase.
2 2
γ f. γ c . M f γ e. M e pe
<1
Mc pc
γ r γ r
0.5
I
L 16. . SF. SMYS
. .
DgWs
Determining the maximum allowable span regarding VIV aspect can be performed, as a
primary study, by determining the maximum first natural period of the pipe spanning part
which avoids VIV (i.e. a first natural period out of the VIV period range).
Two sorts of VIV may occur: the in-line oscillations and the cross-flow oscillations ("in-line"
means parallel to the current direction). Even if the cross-flow vibrations are of primary
interest regarding the fatigue damages, the in-line oscillations are the most stringent when
considering the natural periods.
The maximum natural period of the pipe to avoid VIV can be defined as follows:
V r.max. D o
T max
V
2. m e. δ
Ks
2
ρ sea. D o
where: me is the effective mass per unit length of the pipeline (kg/m)
δ is the logarithmic decrement of structural damping (typically 0.1885)
ρsea is the sea water density (kg/m3)
Do is the overall outside diameter (m)
The corresponding maximum span length is defined by the expression of the first natural
bending period of the equivalent beam:
0.5 0.5
I
L C. T max. E.
me
π 2
T comp N pi p inst . . D i . ( 1 2. ν ) A. E. T T inst . α
4
The pipe expansion calculation depends on the soil friction coefficient, on the manner the
pipe is laid on the seabed (whether embedded or not), on the boundary condition, etc.
H
qs γ . g. H. D o. 1 f.
Do
W sp . g qs
This force must be greater than the upward force due to the thermal expansion and
unevenness of the soil. A model gives the following force:
1 1
2 2
δ . W sp . g . .
4.76 . EI W sp g
w T comp. . 1.16
EI T comp δ
The above basic design phases must be considered as part of a "design spiral" as some
iterations are required to define the pipeline characteristics. Other design phases or criteria
can be added, such as the insulation calculations, depending on the pipeline system.
2.4 Design Based on Local Buckling Criteria versus Buckling Propagation Criteria
For deepwater pipe lay projects, with the adoption of limit state design factors which allow
design to be based on specific risk failure modes, the current trend is to design the pipeline
against the local buckling criteria instead of the buckling propagation criteria (i.e. the later
criteria will result in a higher pipe wall thickness) based on the following reasoning :
• risk assessment - the pipeline is exposed to the maximum load case during the
installation phase which is limited in time (e. g. days or weeks) versus its life cycle (e.g. 20
to 30 years), the contingency in case of pipe buckle would be to relay a line
• cost consideration - the adoption of the local buckling criteria will result in substantial gain
in steel pipe procurement and offshore installation cost, up to 30 % cost saving (versus
the buckling propagation design basis)
• technical consideration - the lay tension of a typical API 10" pipeline at 2000 m water
depth is some 400 tons (based on buckling propagation criteria) which is the tensioner
limit for the latest deepwater lay vessel (i.e. Allseas Solitaire) when local buckling criteria
will concede 140 tons lay tension which is more in line with most current deepwater lay
vessel capabilities.
• water-filled pipe required less lay tension than heavy wall (propagation buckling
requirement) air-filled pipe as off the 1000 m water depth range
• water-filled pipe start to be lighter than thickener wall (local buckling requirement) air-
filled pipe as off the 2500 m water depth range
There are many cost advantages to lay pipeline liquid-filled (1) by reducing the cost of steel
procurement, (2) which in terms required less offshore spread time (less welding time on
thinner wall pipe) and (3) to prevent the excessive capital expenditure for the upgrading of
laying equipment and vessels.
3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT
3.1 Introduction
Development of the field requires several subsea wells to be drilled at different water depths
and locations. These wells will be connected by means of sealines and risers to floating
production system positioned near the field.
The main interface requirement in the sealine design is related to:
For the interface requirement related to subsea connection, please refer to the document
"Tie-in Methods" (Reference 5) of Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book.
Horizontal
Connector
Sealine
terminated
with male
hub
Flexible terminated
with gooseneck
and female
connector
Vertical connector
PLEM
terminated with
flange for
connection to
sealine
The flexible pipe structure is terminated with end-fittings at both ends (see figures 04a, 04b
and 04c). This end-fitting provides a link between the unbonded layers of the structure and a
flange which allows for connection with the floating production platform, rigid/flexible lines or
sled piping. Each end-fitting is an assembly of several steel components.
Flexible line
End fitting
Bolted flange
connection
• Space/dimension provision for the selected connector, the tie-in tools and ROV
operations
• Permanent and temporary subsea hardware related to the tie-in method
• Connection/reaction loads which vary with the tie-in method
• Resist to the in-service load conditions such as temperature, slugging, etc.
Subsea hardware used for the diverless connection of pipelines and permanently mounted on
subsea structure or landed on seabed are as follows :
The following are examples of subsea hardware temporarily mounted on subsea structures in
order to perform the desired tie-in :
• buoyancy modules
• winch and cables
• protection caps
• blind and test caps
• pull-in/connection tool and pull-in head
• positioning and measuring equipment
• pig launcher / pig receiver
ROV panels
Pre-
installed
clamp
connector
for
connection
to sealine
Satellite tree
Pre-installed
male hub for
connection
to sealine
• Steep S-Lay
• J-Lay
• Reel-Lay
Each above laying method will induced high dynamic load onto the pipeline with different
cumulative and residual strains which need to be addressed in the pipeline design.
In deepwater applications, flexible pipelines are mainly installed using the J-Lay method with
tensioners integrated in a laying ramp or a dedicated vertical flexible laying system.
The typical dynamically positioned lay vessels are hereafter illustrated:
Firing line
J-LAY ramp
Flexible
Lay ramp vertical
laying
spread
Firing line
Figure 10 – Combined flexible & rigid pipe lay vessel: Seaway Falcon
(500m WD 12” flexible and rigid pipe lay capacity)
Flexible
Flexible storage vertical
laying
carousel spread
4.1 Introduction
For the deepwater field development, the following sealine material and technology are
readily available:
Material :
• Carbon-Manganese steel pipe
• Duplex and Super Duplex stainless pipe
• Stainless steel
Technology :
• Wet insulated rigid pipe
• Flexible pipe
• Pipe-in-pipe system
• Pipeline bundle system
• Clad pipe system
The following sections will further describe the above material and technology.
• Seamless pipe:
Seamless pipe is made one round at a time from single billets by one of several
possible multi-step hot-forming processes. However the general process is
practically the same:
- Heating of cylindrical or parallelepipedic billets up to 1300°C
- Piercing of billets (1150 – 1250°C) (see figure 12)
- Lamination at 1000 – 1100°C to obtain the required thickness (see figure 13)
- Final calibration (800 – 900°C) to fixe the external diameter
- Cut from the resulting pipe (12m long or more) to the desired length
Pipe
Mandrel
Cylindrical billet
Guiding roller
Mandrel Cylinder
Pipe
Pipe
Roller
Electrical electrodes
Pipe
Induction
current
The seam-welding of SAW pipe is done in two passes both in the flat position, one from the
ID side and one from the OD side. Usually the ID pass is made first by means of a three-to-
five wire welding head. The pipe is then turned 180 degrees, and the OD pass is made with a
two or three-wire welder. No post-weld heat treatment is required. Factors which can affect
quality are the filler-metal chemistry and flux chemistry and the manner in which the first pass
is made. Holding the edges in the proper position and preventing relative movement while the
first pass solidifies are essential. For this reason some manufacturers tack weld the edges of
the cans prior to seam welding. Others rely solely on mechanical restraint.
External
U Forming Welding
Matrix
Pipe
O Forming
Expansion
Straight-seam SAW pipe is obtainable in sizes ranging from 16-in OD through 48-
in OD (larger sizes may be available from manufacturers in Europe or Japan) and
in grades from Grade A through Grade X70. Grade X80 materials may be
available through certain manufactures. SAW pipe is also obtainable with a
spirally-oriented seam (see figure 16).
External welding
Internal welding
In this process, the plates are welded end-to-end so that a continuous strip is fed
at the proper prearranged angle to a forming stand. The spiralling strip is then
continuously welded along the incoming edge into a round tube. Both an ID and
an OD pass are made. Pipes of the desired length are then cut from the resulting
continuous tube. Finally, if the pipe is to be coated with fusion-bonded epoxy, the
pipeline surface condition should be suitable for coating. The main problem to be
avoided is surface slivers which, when raised by grit blasting and heating, cause
severe coating defect problems.
In deepwater applications, SAW pipes are not commonly used except in bundle
configuration where the carrier pipe may be made from SAW pipe as a cost
effective alternative to seamless pipe.
The "Coflexip" product of flexible pipe have been extensively used in Brazil Campos Basin
since 1977.
The world deepest application (at report date) was reached last year on Petrobras Marlim Sul
with 4" ID x 12km oil flexible line tied back of 2 wells at 1710m.
With the introduction of the "Teta spiral" technology by Coflexip and the application of
composite material, it is generally agreed that this technology has reached its maturity as
follows:
NKT has been manufacturing flexible subsea pipes since 1968 and has been collaborating
with the FURUKAWA Electric Co. Ltd (FEC) for more than 10 years concerning the
development of flexible pipe technologies.
The first flexible pipe produced and laid in 100m WD by NKT was a ID 4-inch water drinking
flexible pipe with a pressure rating of 70 bar. NKT’s first high pressure offshore pipe for the oil
industry was delivered in 1991 to Maersk Oil and Gas AS for installation at the DAN field in
the Danish sector of the North Sea, consisting of a 500m long, ID 4-inch water injection pipe
with a design pressure of 4,000 psi.
NKT’s dynamic risers for dynamic applications use C-shaped steel profiles for internal
pressure containment whereas CSO flexibles utilise Zeta or Teta profile.
NKT’s product range starts from ID 2-inch to 14-inch with a design pressure of 10,000 psi and
3,000 psi respectively, both in static and dynamic configurations. The maximum design
temperature is 130°C when PVDF is used as polymer material for fluid barrier.
The structure of a typical flexible pipe, produced by either CSO or NKT, is shown in figure 17:
The various layers constituting a typical flexible pipe are detailed hereafter, from the inside
part of the pipe to the outside :
The list of material used in flexible structure is shown in the following table:
Note :
• Fabric tape is placed above the crosswound tensile armours to bind the under layer of amours
during manufacturing before the external plastic sheath is extruded.
• Antifriction tape (made of polyamide) is applied above the Teta layer to avoid friction and wear
between the Teta layer and tensile armours. It is also placed between the two layers of amour.
• If necessary for extreme high pressure, the interlocked layer is reinforced by a flat steel layer which
is not interlocked.
• For deepwater applications, armour layers made out of fiber glass and carbon have been produced
and tested in 1000m WD in Brazil. No further development is planned for this type of flexible due to
economical and technical limitations: high cost, requirement for high quality control in mass
production of uniform composite material, difficulty to link the composite armour layers to the steel
end fitting, etc).
The maximum design pressure of typical flexible structures in the range from 2 – 16-inch are
represented in the following table 2:
ID (in) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Design pressure (psi) 10,000 7,500 7,500 5,000 5,000 5,000 3,000 3,000
Remarks: The above information should be compounded with the water depth capability to define the
overall technical characteristics of a flexible.
then stainless steel must be considered. Two of the most widely used methods to produce
stainless steel pipe are shown in figure 19.
Matrix
Trim
Extrusion
punch
container
I.D. punch
The seamless hot-extruded pipe is produced on the 30,000 ton hydraulic press in the range
of 150 – 1200mm Diameter, 10 – 200mm Wall Thickness and 16 metre maximum individual
length.
It is desirable that the material should be easily welded. This means, in terms of corrosion,
that the weldments must exhibit mechanical properties and a corrosion resistance similar to
the base material.
13% chromium steel, widely used for wells to mitigate against CO2 corrosion in the absence
of H2S, is much less utilised in surface installations. Austenitic Stainless Steel type 316L
(very low carbon content or stabilised to avoid intergranular corrosion) and the various
austenitic-ferric steels (Duplex) have a better weldability and above all a better corrosion
resistance than 13% Cr steel. However, they are very sensitive to corrosion pitting. An
intensive welding qualification programme has been set up for the Asgard project to allow the
implementation of 13%Cr steel as flowline material.
The use of these materials for sealine is viable even though the cost is greater than carbon
steel.
Cleaning Slabbing
Assembling
Plate Rolling
Backing Steel
(C-Mn steel)
Conventional TMCP
Clad Metal
(AISI 316L)
UO Pipe Forming
Expansion
Sizing
Pipe Finishing
In the clad pipe manufacturing process, the clad metal and the backing steel are
metallurgically bonded by hot rolling process after slab assembling.
Two types of rolling processes are used:
In the application of TMCP to clad plate rolling, it becomes difficult to obtain both high
strength and good toughness of backing steel when wall thickness is increased. As-
quenching type heat treatment on welded pipes is useful for heavy wall thickness or superior
toughness requirement. Quenching from relatively high temperature is also effective to
improve corrosion resistance of the clad metal even if the corrosion resistance is deteriorated
by hot rolling or longitudinal seam welding.
Longitudinal seam welding procedure consists in first welding backing steel by submerged
arc welding (SAW) with one pass in each side, and next performing an overlay welding in two
molten pools by tandem Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) with the hot wire method.
Finally, inner surfaces of welded clad pipes are polished with wet brush to remove weld
scales and to smooth the surfaces, otherwise they deteriorate corrosion resistance of the
weld through the crevices created under weld scales.
Clad pipe can also be manufactured using the ‘’thermo-hydraulic fit method’’ as shown in
figure 21, which is, in principle, a combination of the ‘’thermal shrink-fit method’’ and
‘’hydraulic expansion method’’. This technique allows to produce economically long lined
pipe with high fit-in stress. The principle and the procedure of this method is as follows : Into
an outer pipe which has been heated and thermally expanded, a liner tube is inserted and
expanded by hydraulic pressure. After removing the pressure and heat in the outer pipe, the
tight fitted lined pipe (TFP) is obtained. By this method, the accuracy of fitting is achieved by
plastic expansion of the liner tube and the desired fit-in stress is achieved by thermal
shrinkage of the outer pipe. By the use of this manufacturing procedure, many problem
inherent to usual lined pipes, such as implosion, stress corrosion cracking and general
corrosion, have been solved.
Dpo DLO
From the above, a typical wet insulated system consists of (see figure 22):
• Thick and rigid pipe made in carbon-manganese steel, 13% Cr steel, clad steel
pipe or duplex stainless steel
• Corrosion protection on the steel surface made in fusion bonded epoxy instead of
coal tar due to the outstanding properties at elevated temperatures. Anti-corrosion
coating of a pipe consists to spray epoxy powder onto pipe pre-heated at about
232°C
• Insulation material made of syntactic foam (polyurethane or polyethylene)
• External coating (polypropylene) to ensure mechanical protection (towards
impacts) and sealing (towards the sea water) of foam shells which, when exposed
to external hydrostatic pressure, could be filled with water in a longer period of time
Thermal Insulation
Pipe
Thermal Insulation
Pipe
Corrosion Protection
Corrosion Protection
Flowline
A typical pipe in pipe system for reel lay (see figure 23) consists of a casing pipe housing an
insulated wrap flowline pipe, concentrically positioned in the carrier pipe by means of spacer
blocks placed every 2.5m on the production flowline. Insulation material is strapped and
attached onto the production flowline pipe using galvanic steel, tape or band wire. The
assembly of pipe in pipe consists to pull the production pipe into the outer casing pipe in one
continuous length while securing spacer blocks and insulation material on production flowline
pipe.
A basic pipe in pipe concept applicable for other methods of installation (S-lay, J-lay, Towing)
comprises of an inner product carrying pipe inside an outer sleeve pipe. Variations occur
when the specific detail of pipe materials, bulkhead configuration, insulation system, field
joints or method of fabrication change.
The sleeve (or outer) pipe has a multipurpose role in the design of a pipe in pipe system.
Keeping the insulating material dry is one of the most basic requirements when designing and
installing an insulated subsea pipeline. An obvious solution is to surround the insulation with
an external waterproof sleeve (wet insulated system). The use of a sleeve will also protect the
insulation material from mechanical damage during installation and service. It reduces the
overall thermal loads within the system and can reduce the installation stresses experienced
by the system.
Load transfer can occur between product carrier pipe and sleeve pipe, which results in
reduced thermal expansion. This is typically achieved by use of a welded connection
(bulkhead) between inner and outer pipe that also provides a high integrity water stop (see
figure 24).
14" Sleeve
Figure 24 - Bulkhead assembled between 8-in oil line and 14-in sleeve
During the assembly of the pipe in pipe system, the flowline joints are welded together and
insulation field joints are applied to fill the gaps at the welds. The sleeve pipes are joined by
fillet welding half-shell steel sleeves over the insulation field joints. Preformed half foam shells
are top surface fire resistant to prevent from arc burn during welding operation. Preheating
may be required for TIG orbital welding process but there is no post weld heating for welded
joints of C-Mn steel pipe having nominal wall thickness less than 49mm.
The main drawbacks with the use of bulkheads in the pipe in pipe system are numerous cool
points along the flowline at every bulkhead locations.
Electrical Umbilical
Hydraulic/Chimical Lines
Elastomer Spacer
Production Flowline
Water Injection
This configuration is defined as having multiple flowlines, hydraulic control and service lines,
and electrical umbilicals encased or integrated in a single carrier pipe or casing (see figure
25). As required electrical or circulating fluid heating lines could be integrated to reduce the
risk of hydrate and wax plug formation when production lines are shut down or to heat up the
production lines before start up.
In the deepwater pipeline bundle configuration, all flowlines are wrapped in two half shells of
moulded low density , open-cell polyurethane foam, approximately 2-in thick. This isolates the
warm space near the flowlines from the cool annular space in the casing. Hard polyurethane
spacers are used to secure all flowlines and umbilicals. Rollers wheels on the spacers
facilitate flowline bundle pull-in into the outer casing. There are no intermediate bulkheads
isolating the annular space of the casing. The entire annular space is permanently
pressurised with nitrogen, in order to maintain zero differential pressure across the casing
wall at the deepwater end. This allows the casing to resist collapse while minimising the
required casing wall thickness and bundle diameter. An unusual aspect of the bundle is the
high casing diameter to thickness (D/t) ratios, which approach 100 for deepwater pipeline
configuration.
The fabrication of the bundle started with the welding of carrier pipe followed by the pull-in of
the internal components as the assembling proceeds. The bundle is fabricated onshore using
a relatively inexpensive fabrication spread (compared to an offshore lay vessel), and then is
towed to location using a construction spread that may consists of two high bollard pull tugs
and a survey vessel.
The design of a pipeline bundle to be installed by tow method is considerably more complex
than that of a normal submarine pipeline. The design embraces fabrication, installation and
operational requirement, and proceeds from the inner pipe outwards to the carrier pipe with
iterations of design where necessary.
• the inner pipeline material and wall thickness are based on normal operating
and design conditions and maximum allowable stress, as well as accounting
for axial restraint imposed on the pipe by carrier pipe and seabed friction
• minimum thickness of PUF insulation is calculated on the allowable
temperature drop for a given duration
• nearest standard pipe-sizes and wall-thickness is chosen for the carrier pipe to
accommodate the required amount of lines and insulated material
• the carrier pipe is not subjected to direct effects of product flow, but is stressed
by heat transfer through the PUF and by pressure/temperature effects from the
inner pipe via the bulkheads placed at defined distance
• the carrier pipe is designed to provide adequate buoyancy during towing and
requires sufficient wall-thickness to withstand beach-pull, break-out load and
towing loads
• the bundle’s on bottom stability
• the whole bundle is checked to ensure it is capable of withstanding dynamic
loads occurring during launch, tow and installation
For ultra deep water application (i.e. beyond 1500m WD), there are practical difficulties in the
design of the carrier pipe for the tow operation due to:
• carrier pipe D/t ratio optimisation with regard to nitrogen pressure and weight
• bundle overall net submerged weight for tow operation
Note: On Asgard project, the annulus is filled with inhibited water at ambient pressure after the tow
operation.
In this case, the industry is proposing a wet-insulated bundle based on "syntactic foam" with
the adequate thickness (e.g. typically in 30" to 32" diameter shell) to provide:
A thinner carrier pipe (e.g. 6mm – 10mm wall thickness) can be retained for the purpose of
"wears" during beach-pull (or bottom-tow method), while providing a mechanical containant.
Under external hydrostatic pressure, this carrier pipe would collapse in a non controlled
manner onto the syntactic foam which is pressure resistant.
On completion of towing operation and position confirmed by ROV, the bundle will be
connected in diverless mode to the others subsea systems. Please refer to document “Tie-in
Methods” – Reference 5 – Deepwater Field development.
Deepwater fields are economically developed using subsea completions, with hydrocarbon
fluids typically conveyed via multiphase pipelines and flowlines to an existing floating
production platform. These flowlines operate in a low ambient temperature, high external
pressure environment, conducive to the formation of paraffin deposits or hydrates. The
leading strategy to circumvent these deleterious effects is to minimise heat loss from the
system using insulation. The proper design of flowline insulation requires a balance among
the high cost of the insulation, the intended operability of the system, and the acceptable risk
level.
Economical long distance production of multiphase wellstream fluids (oil, gas condensate,
and water) can be achieved with an effectively insulated flowline by minimising the costs,
revenue loss, and risks from the following :
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U or U-value) is the parameter normally used to quantify
the heat retention characteristics of an insulated flowline. The U-value is directly proportional
to the heat transfer radially from the flowline centreline. The U-value can be calculated from
the flow behaviour of the production fluid, the thermal properties and geometry of the
insulation system, and the ambient environmental conditions.
Thermal insulation systems for subsea pipelines are normally designed for an overall heat
transfer coefficient U-value (W/m²°C) that aims at preventing a temperature drop below the
wax and hydrate formation limits for most of the expected steady state flow regimes.
However, transient conditions that frequently may occur at temporary stops or long lasting
shut downs, can also predict an U-value giving the operator time to respond before the fluid
supercooling reaches critical limits.
Pipe in pipe systems are well suited for all relevant water depths and provides through a 3-4’’
thick insulation layer, an excellent U-value in the range of 0.8-3.5W/m²°C. Some examples
are given in the following table 3:
The higher value is tied to the use of solid polyurethane with a thermal conductivity
k=0.19W/m°C (or other high density polymer materials), as needed to improve the pipe
collapse pressure and to prevent insulation crushing during installation in deep waters.
The insulation material usually used for pipe in pipe are :
The main thermal insulation materials that are normally considered for use with pipe in pipe
are detailed below in table 4:
- water-logging at high external hydrostatic pressure and thus loosing of its insulating
properties (estimated water absorption for syntactic foam at about 10 – 15 %)
- required mechanical strength to resist to loads imposed during installation
The main thermal insulation materials that are normally considered for use with wet insulated
pipe are detailed below in table 5:
A range of suitable high performance pipeline coatings adapted to spooling processes has
been developed. These materials include Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE), polyolefines
(polyethylene and polypropylene), neoprene and other insulated coatings.
For high temperature application, Coflon watertight sheath placed around the interlocked
layer is used as insulation material. This material is capable to withstand temperature up to
145°C.
In general there is a limitation on the insulation thickness, due to the sealine “on seabed”
stability criteria and “Vault effects” occurred in crushing loads during installation phase.
For a 6”-8” ID flexible line, a typical thermal exchange coefficient U of 1.5-2W/m²°K can be
achieved with “Carizide” (or Cofoam) insulation material.
6 HEATING TECHNIQUES
6.1 Introduction
The seabed temperature at 100m water depth and deeper may range from 7°C to -1.5°C,
causing a rapid cooling of hot well streams being transported in subsea flowlines.
At such low temperature vulnerable crudes and multiphase compositions will deposit wax and
asphalt, and the gas - water phase may freeze solid hydrate particles that can permanently
block the pipeline.
A conventional approach to flow assurance has been to use thermal insulated flowlines in
combination with the following measures :
• Continuous injection of chemicals to reduce the hydrate freezing point and the
rate of wax deposition
• Depressurisation of the flowline to enable a further reduction of the hydrate
freezing-point
• Use of twin parallel flowlines to achieve a more effective depressurisation of
pipeline, and to perform pig cleaning operations. Further to circulate hot
water/oil in order to melt out wax and to pre-warm the flowlines after long shut
downs.
• The pressure head in deep water pipelines may give an insufficient pressure
relieve at blow downs
• Blow down and depressurisation of pipelines will involve pressure drop
expansions and a related Joule-Thomson supercooling of multiphase fluids,
that by itself can cause severe wax deposits and hydrate formation.
• Heat loss in long twin pipelines that shall be preheated in a serial configuration,
will restrict adequate heating above 10-15km length
• Continuous injection of large amounts of hydrate and wax inhibitors will
dissolve in the produced water that may have a restricted release to sea
• Long twin flowline installations will generate high investment and operational
costs (e.g. OPEX).
Thermal insulated and electrically or hot water heated flowlines represent alternative
prevention method for wax and hydrates that will not be restricted with the same limitations.
A review of different designs and functional principles conclude that electrical heating or hot
water circulation heating technologies are available for flexible and rigid pipelines, pipe-in-
pipe and bundle systems for all practical lengths in subsea transportation. Some of these
have been in operation with a satisfactory performance over a period of more than 20 years
in shallow water application.
Ongoing development and qualification of subsea electrical power distribution systems, is
believed to enhance use of electrical powered equipment and in particular heating of subsea
flowlines.
Heat loss compensation by electrical power or hot fluid (water) circulating system is ensured
by providing external heat to the pipe steel material corresponding to a desired temperature
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DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
equilibrium that may well be higher than the fluid temperature. This operation will heat the
fluid to a higher temperature level, and all losses to the sea will be sought from the external
energy source.
- To maintain steady state pipe temperature above the hydrate formation temperature after
planned or non-planned shutdowns,
- Heating of the pipe, which have been cooled down to the ambient seawater temperature
(long shutdown due to equipment failure),
- To maintain the required temperature at low production rates.
The pioneer subsea system and most applied heating principle to date is the SECT system
(Skin Effect Current tracing) whereas Combipipe, Combibundles (based on induction heating)
and direct electrical heating systems for wet insulation are newcomers on the market place.
Each heating element (tube) may generate between 15 and 150W/m and has a maximum
circuit length of 15km. A typical dimensioning for a 36’’ pipeline is, however, to use five 1’’
tubes in a 5km long 3-phase power system, where 2 tubes are spare, and the other 3
generate up to ~ 40W/m each.
Production Line
Electrical
Junction Box
SECT Cable
A genuine SECT design under the trading mark TTDPISQ has been developed for pipe-in-
pipe sections where the inner and outer pipes are coupled through Special Joint Connectors
that are butt welded at the ends. The SECT cables are conveyed in the pipe annulus through
the connectors and into junction boxes located between the connector (s). Each pipe section
may be 12 or 24m long.
This solution is well adapted to pipeline in bundle configuration as it is very difficult to
implement such technique when installing long pipeline with J-lay, S-lay or reel lay
techniques.
SECT heat tracing was utilised in Panarctic project in the Canadian High Arctic in 1977 where
the SECT cables were integrated in a bundle pipeline.
Groove
Flat Protection Strip
Production line
Induction Cable
Flowline
Strap
Thermal Insulation
The embedded cables are at one end connected to a high voltage source of 12kV with a
variable frequency control of 50/60-200Hz. The opposite ends of the cables are connected to
each other in a prefabricated joint that is integrated in to the pipeline insulation.
Coulomb heat is generated in the outer skin of the flowline ferromagnetic material by
electromagnetic induction from the high frequency alternative current in the cables. 60-70% of
the power supply is generated as heat in the flowline and the rest in the cable.
Combipipe heating systems may generate between 50-200W/m and have a maximum circuit
length of some 70 km. This distance limitation is mainly due to the difficulty in producing high
voltage (more than 36 kV) small cable to compensate the voltage drop in long pipeline.
Induction Cable
Centralizer
A Combibundle heating system does not have any physical limitation with regard to maximum
heat generation and electrical circuit lengths as the number of induction cables is only limited
to size of the carrier pipe.
This solution qualified for a specific installation at a full scale test in 1992 is more expensive
and efficient than the SECT heat tracing.
Cross-section
Power Supply Concrete Protection Flowline
Coulomb heat will as a function of the pipeline (s) Ohmic resistivity be generated both in the
flowline as well as in the outer pipe. No operational data or research results have been
obtained for the direct heated pipe-in-pipe system, but it is assumed that approximately one
half of supplied power is lost in the uninsulated outer pipe, leaving one half for effective
heating of the flowline.
Direct heated wet thermal insulated flowline is another alternative arrangement for direct
heating of wet thermal insulated flowlines, where both phases of the voltage source are
connected to each end of the flowline (see figure 31). No external electrical potentials will be
exposed towards the flowline ends (platform/subsea production wellheads), as the current will
solely pass between the connection points of the feeder cable (s).
Flowline
Conduction of the current will however be divided between the seabed, seawater and the
flowline with a ratio that is mainly dependent on the flowline electromagnetic properties and
the flowline electrode/anodic system. Furthermore, this system does not impact the pipeline
cathodic protection.
A carbon steel flowline with an ordinary thermal insulation and Aluminium-sacrificial anode
system will, according to test, distribute some 40-60% of supplied current through the flowline
steel material, whereas the rest is transferred through the seabed and water.
The heating exposure is also dependent on the distance between the flowline and the parallel
feeder cable.
A full scale subsea test showed that adequate heating in the range of 50-200W/m could
safely be achieved, both when the feeder cable was laid 500mm away from an 8’’ pipe, as
well as when the feeder cable was clamped as a piggy-back on the 50mm thick thermal
insulation. This system has been qualified for the Asgard and Huldra projects.
Further expectations are that heating by this method would become available for all actual
lengths of flowlines, both as a permanent installation made during pipe lay as well as being
possible to install if and when a demand arises. The current limits are due to the cable
insulation level (36 kV), fixing the max pipeline length to 50 km.
Strap
The hot water lines are used to flow hot water to heat up the production line. The water is
injected from the floating production platform and dumped to sea.
By using 2-in hot water lines and circulating hot water at 80°C at the floating production
platform, the estimated time to heat up a 10-in production line from 5°C to 30°C over 5000m
is 6 hours, which is reasonable.
Service line
Carrier pipe
Plastic filler
By using 2-in hot water lines and circulating hot water at 80°C at the floating production
platform, the estimated time to heat up a 10-in production line from 5°C to 30°C over 5000m
is 6 hours, which is reasonable.
7 BURIAL TECHNIQUES
7.1 Introduction
Many submarine pipelines have to be trenched. A trench protects the pipe against damage
from fishing gear, reduces hydrodynamic forces from waves and currents, gives a degree of
protection from small anchors and from construction vessels’ mooring lines, and may be
desirable for safety or environmental reasons. The relative importance of these factors
naturally varies from project to project. If the trench is backfilled, protection against fishing
gear and wave is fully fulfilled, risk due to others damages is reduced, and heat transfer
between pipe and the sea is reduced.
However in deepwater there is no fishing activity, this explains the fact that most sealines are
laid untrenched in current deepwater field development.
The requirement for better thermal insulation of the sealines could dictated the sealines to be
trenched and backfilled; in transient conditions a trenched sealines could provide a longer
shut down time by a factor of 4 when compared to the same untrenched sealine.
For the purpose of sealine flow assurance at low seafloor temperature, there is a need to
review existing burial or trenching techniques which could be used in deepwater applications.
Jetting was the technique almost always used to trench submarine pipelines. Since jetting
techniques were first developed in the 1950s, they have been substantially modified, but their
efficiency is much affected by geotechnical conditions of the sea bed. In medium clay, for
instance, jetting cuts a neat rectangular trench, but in loose sand it leaves a wide and shallow
trench, with side slopes less than 10°, which does little to protect the pipeline. In the wrong
conditions, jetting is slow and expensive.
A creative dissatisfaction with the high cost and limited efficiency of jetting led to a search for
better trenching methods. There have been two principal axis of development, ploughs and
mechanical cutting systems. Each of these systems is appropriate in the right conditions. At
first, mechanical cutting systems (bucket wheels, cutter-heads, ripper wheels) were plagued
by mechanical and electrical faults, and by sensitivity to bottom soils and topography. These
problems have now been largely overcome and good results have been achieved with cutting
systems in a number of project particularly the trenching of power cables in the English
Channel.
At the same time, there has been a major development of pipeline trenching ploughs which
met a hostile and often derisive response in the past. Ploughing is now an accepted and
widely used technique, and in many conditions is the method of choice.
• The plough was to be pulled by a tug with a bollard pull corresponding to plough
weight and soil conditions
• Accurate depth control was essential, since otherwise the specified trench depth
would not be achieved everywhere, and the plough might require more force than
the tug could apply.
The outstanding advantage of this configuration is precise and consistent depth control. Skids
or wheels hold the front end of the beam at a fixed height above the sea bed. The rear end of
the beam carries a share, which cuts the soil and lifts it upwards and sideways (see figure
36).
REAR
Twin hinged
FRONT Half shares
Skid
Mouldboards push the spoil outwards, so that it does not fall back into the trench. Under the
share, and fixed to it, there is a rigid heel. In normal operation, the plough runs so that the
heel is horizontal, and the plough is in balance under the combined action of the soil force on
the front of the share, the reaction under the heel, the pull force at the front end of the beam,
and its own weight (usually small by comparison with the other three forces. If the plough
attitude alters, so that it cuts less deeply, the heel loses contact with the trench bottom, the
heel reaction falls to zero, and the share reaction pushes the share downward so that it cuts
more deeply. If, on the other hand, the plough cuts too deeply, the heel itself has to cut the
soil, and the heel reaction increase and lifts the share to reduce the cutting depth. In
consequence of the long beam configuration, the plough cuts at a uniform depth , and the
trench does not change if the soil strength changes (unless it becomes so weak that it cannot
support the heel or the skids).
Pipeline can be trenched in different modes :
In both cases it is required that the trench will not collapse, although this is more critical in a
pre-trenching mode, where it may take several days before pipeline installation will take
place. In a post-trenching it will only be the few minutes the pipeline requires to settle down.
In the post-trenching mode, the principal design problem is to configure the shares so that
they can be placed over the pipeline without risk of damage, so that they can close beneath
the pipe to excavate a trench under it, and so that the plough can be recovered easily at the
end of the operation. The solution to this problem is the ‘’butterfly’’ configuration : twin half-
shares are hinged to the rear end of the beam, are placed over the pipe in an open position,
and rotate and close under the pipe as the plough is pulled forward (see figure 36).
The dimensions of a plough are primarily determined by the depth and cross-section of the
trench it has to cut. The structural weight is determined both by the size of the plough and the
draft, the pull force required to advance the plough through the bottom soil. The draft
increases rapidly with the depth of trench. In clay, for geometrically similar trenches, the draft
increases roughly as the square of the trench depth, while for trenches of constant width the
draft increase more than linearly with the depth. In sand, the draft increases still more rapidly
with trench depth.
Consequently any plough that cuts a deep trench in a single pass will necessarily be both
large and heavy, and will require a large pull force. Once the pull force exceeds 500 tonnes,
the difficulties multiply. Not only does the structural weight of the plough begin to become
excessive, but friction generated by the weight itself begins to make a significant contribution
to the draft. Because the plough is so heavy, it becomes difficult to handle. A large barge is
required to transport it, and a large crane to lower it safely onto the pipeline. There has to be
a strong link between the plough and whatever is pulling it : even allowing a rather small
factor of safety of 2 on minimum breaking load, a wire rope of some 125 mm in diameter is
needed to pull 500 tonnes. Finally the pulling system must be anchored, finding good holding
ground, and balancing and controlling mooring line tensions become relatively important if the
pull force exceeds 500 tonnes, whereas the requirement to anchor against 100 or 200 tonnes
is common and easily satisfied, in deepwater laybarge pipelaying for instance.
All these factors indicate that a deep trench should not be cut in a single pass, but that it will
be better to adopt a multi-pass technique, in which the required depth is reached in two or
more cuts. In this concept, the trench is cut by the front plough to a trapezoidal cross-section,
with a level bottom and sides at 30° to the horizontal. In the second pass, a deeper triangle is
cut from the bottom of the first-pass trench by the rear plough (see figure 37).
Second
Plough
Fisrt
Plough FRONT
REAR
Skid
When pipeline engineers speak of ‘’burial’’, they generally mean ‘’trenching’’. Trenching
techniques usually leave the pipeline in an open trench. Ploughing leaves the spoil neatly
piled along the trench sides, rather than dispersed into the water. As well as eliminating water
pollution, this has the advantage that once trenching is complete a backfilling device can
move along the trench, to push the spoil back to cover the pipeline. A back filler can be
constructed on the long beam principle.
The Flexjet, a lightweight flexible pipeline burial vehicle was designed based on the above
principle. It consists of a 400 HP water jetting system which is electrically and hydraulically
controlled by a 100 HP Triton Work Class ROV located in the center of the Flexjet vehicle
(see figure 38).
Trenching arm
Jetting pump
Motorised
Track
Figure 38 - Flexjet
The Flexjet has a set of tracks that are used during burial operations and general bottom
crawling. When transiting to the operational area on the seabottom the Flexjet is neutrally
buoyant and ‘’flies’’ as a standard ROV. Once on the seabottom the vehicle can be ballasted
down by bringing on board 1.5 tonnes of water with the variable ballast system. The 1.5
tonnes ballast load during crawling allows a 1 tonne draw bar pull of the Flexjet.
Trenching results are obtained with 400 total HP of jetting power split between high pressure
and low pressure jetting systems.
The high pressure jetting system consists of 2 x 125 HP pump/motor sets. The high pressure
jet on the trenching arms face forward into the direction of Flexjet travel and are used to cut
or fluidise the soil. Each 125 HP assembly produces 6,623 LPM at 8.5 bar. The low pressure
clearing jet systems consists of 2 x 75 HP motor/pump assemblies. The low pressure jets on
the trenching arms face aft and are used to clear the fluidised soil from the trench as it is
fluidised by the high pressure jets. Each 75 HP assembly produces 13,247 LPM at 1.7 bar.
Several sets of trenching and backfilling flange mounted arms are available with the Flexjet
system. Since 1993 Flexjet has been successfully used for the trenching of telecom/power
cable, electrical umbilical, 2’’ to 8’’ flexible flowline, rigid service and injection bundle.
The burial performance of the Flexjet is as follows:
♦ Pipe capacity : 400 mm OD maximum size
♦ Trench depth : 0 – 2 metres maximum
♦ Operational depth : 1000 metres maximum
The Capjet trenching system, developed for the protection of subsea cables, umbilicals and
pipelines, uses the waterjetting principle for both trenching and propulsion thus presents no
risk of damage to the subsea lines or structures (see figure 39).
Simultaneous backfill with the fluidised materials is achieved during the trenching operation.
The Capjet system is an alternative to existing heavy equipment that can cause damage to
cables, umbilicals, flexible and rigid pipes, and subsea installations. The cable or pipe does
not pass through the Capjet, and the machine can therefore start and stop trenching
operations at any point along the route. No forces are applied to the cable, umbilical or
pipeline during the operation. The system is neutrally buoyant in water, but can be ballasted
during the trenching operation.
Figure 39 – Capjet
The Capjet systems are capable of trenching in most clay and sandy soil conditions. The
systems are suitable for offshore operations (up to 1000m) and have all modern positioning
and data collection equipment. Depending on the soil conditions, a trench depth up to 3m can
be achieved by the existing jetting trenchers.
Main experience of Capjet system is listed below:
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♦ -Haltenpipe (1996) 57km 16” rigid steel pipe trenched to 0.6 – 1.2m,
♦ Troll Olge and TOGP projects (1994- 1998) 200km of umbilical and flexible pipe,
♦ Oseberg Ost (1998) 24km 12” rigid steel pipeline trenched to 2m for insulation
purpose.
Flexible pipe
Trench
Rigid pipe
Trench
The monitoring of the line supporting device geometry and loading allows a real-time
knowledge of the mechanical stresses in the line itself and of the burial depth during
trenching.
In general, a trench depth of 2-3m can be achieved with existing mechanical cutter trenching
technique.
Digging chain
Motorised track
Cutting wheel
7.5.1 Introduction
The requirements of the authorities for a minimum distance (typically 0.9m) between top of
pipe and mean seabed level or fully covered pipe have created the need to develop different
backfilling methods in addition to the sandbagging :
• To take the material from the seafloor by suction hopper ship dredgers and
pumping it through a floating hose to a DP vessel positioned above the pipeline.
The material will then be transferred through a vertical fallpipe down to the gas
pipeline
• To use a converted bulk carrier with a DP system. This vessel utilises material
taken from shore and placed above the pipeline through a vertical fallpipe
equipped with a guiding thruster at the lower end.
The deepsea dredger as illustrated in figure 46 has been developed for the mechanical
backfilling of deepwater pipeline up to 1000m water depth. In this concept, the backfill
material (if available) is dredged directly on location nearby the pipeline then directed to the
pipeline. Thus, the pumping of backfill material to surface and the discharge through fallpipe
are avoided in this efficient and cost effective solution.
The other system is based on a converted bulkcarrier doing the backfilling operation as well
as transporting the backfilling material stored in several holds from shore to the location (see
figure 47). The vessel is equipped with retractable azimuth thrusters for the DP system. The
primary navigation equipment for position keeping is interfaced to the DP system and
consisted of three different positioning systems. These systems have fixed radio beacons on
the platforms in the area or use satellite navigation system DGPS. In addition the equipment
could utilise an acoustic underwater navigation system based on transponder located on the
seabed. The vessel uses any of these position keeping systems or a suitable combination.
The accuracy of the primary navigation systems enabled the DP equipment to hold the vessel
stationary within 2 to 3 meters of a desired position. The system also enabled the vessel to
automatically follow a predetermined track at a constant speed varied according to the need.
Once the vessel is on location, a fallpipe made of polyethylene is lowered through a
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moonpool. At the lower end of the fallpipe is an electro-hydraulically driven thruster unit. The
thruster unit consisted of three propellers located tangentially to the fallpipe at 120° to each
other. This enables the operator to move the thruster and the fallpipe in any direction. The
thruster unit is equipped with an underwater navigation system based on acoustic
instruments which enables the operator on the vessel to ‘’see’’ the exposed or buried
pipeline and the sea bottom profile. This system consists of two sub-bottom profile arrays
containing transducers, a scanning profiler with transducers and miscellaneous auxiliary
equipment such as TV cameras, lights, etc.
By means of the acoustic reference system the position of the thruster unit could be
accurately determined in relation to the vessel or in relation to marker transponders on the
bottom. The thruster operator on the vessel could then, by means of the underwater
navigation system, position the end of the fallpipe directly above the pipeline and move it in a
pattern which ensured correct placement of the backfilled material. In each of the cargo holds
there is an excavator mounted on a pedestal. From each hold, there is a belt conveyor which
transported the backfill material to a collecting conveyor, taking the backfill material to the
hopper above the moonpool from where it is conducted through the fallpipe to the seafloor. In
the moonpool hopper, water is added to the backfill material in order to compensate for the
displaced water when the backfill material fell through the fallpipe.
8 INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
8.1 Introduction
The choice of installation methods is considered to be project specific ; at this time, there is a
cost incentive to extend the use of conventional S-lay vessels into deep water. In very deep
water, however, S-lay may not be technically and economically possible, and the installation
option is limited to the J-lay method. Towing the system can also be considered for limited
length pipelines. Reeling methods are limited by pipe diameter, either due to strain limitation
during reeling or by the maximum pipeline length which can be installed in one operation.
For installation of large diameter pipelines in very deep water, the J-lay and towing methods
are potentially the most attractive.
However in 1996 to the surprised of the laying industry, the Dutch company Allseas has
completed the 12” flowline laying for Shell Mensa at 1620m, from the DP Lorelay vessel.
Allseas has innovated with a variation of the S-lay technique known as Steep S-Lay and have
recently completed the installation of the deepest sealine of 12” Marlim (GoM) export line in
1650m water depth.
In the Steep S-Lay technique, a shorter stinger (e.g. 80m long) with a smaller radius of
curvature is being used, to reduce the pipeline departure angle closed to the J-Lay method.
With improved weld quality control and management of the Steep S-Lay ramp, a medium
diameter pipeline can be laid at a strain value of 0.4%. This strain value requires a radius of
curvature of 40m for a 12” pipeline and 50m for a 16” pipeline with the necessary tension no
greater than J-Lay.
At report date, there are only few lay vessels to be equipped for the Steep S-lay technique:
Lay Ship
Sea Level
Stinger
Rigid Pipe
Seabed
This technique consists in installing offshore pipeline with the pipe axis in the horizontal
position (5G) on the lay barge. The lay barge typically has a serie of tensioners to hold the
pipe into a ‘S’ bend. The near horizontal ramp allows space for several welding stations, an
X-ray station and a field joint station, tensioners, and a stinger of acceptable length can be
combined with an acceptable tension level. A very long stinger is undesirable, because it is
excessively vulnerable to wave and current forces. High tension is undesirable, because of
the risk of damage to the pipe coating caused by the tensioner and because the tension has
to be balanced by the barge’s mooring or dynamic positioning system.
S-lay was applied to lay the vast majority of pipelines in the world and this technology was
believed not suitable for ‘’deep’’ water. The maximum effective depth for S-lay is dependent
on the pipe diameter and lay vessel characteristics. Some examples of laying parameters are
provided in the following table 6:
Lay depth Steel pipe dimensions Subm. weight Eff. mass Hor. force
It has been recognised for a long time that J-lay has significant advantages, particularly in
deep water. It eliminates the vulnerable stinger, or at least allows it to be very short, and
allows tension to be substantially reduced. Furthermore it allows more flexibility in terms of
pipeline route. The J-lay technique places the pipe axis in the vertical position (2G) on the lay
barge with a continuous radius to the sea bottom (see figure 50). Generally, this technique
reduces the tension required (less strain in the pipeline) and makes it possible for much
smaller vessel to perform the pipelay operation. The major limitation of the J-lay technique is
the number of working stations. A conventional lay barge will have 5 to 10 working stations.
The work of welding, inspection, repair, and field coating is divided over these stations to
maximise production. In the case of J-lay construction all these functions must be performed
in one station making the cycle time of adding one pipe length much longer than on a
conventional barge. Moreover, the obvious disadvantage is that the steep ramp means that if
welding operations are carried out at a number of separate stations, line-up and first welding
stations are at the upper end of the ramp, high above water level. That has major implications
for the layout of the vessel, as well as for its stability and resistance to rolling in a seaway. If,
however, welding operations can be carried out at a single station not far above the waterline,
then J-lay becomes attractive. A pipe transfer system elevates pipe strings (e.g. 72m six-
joints or 48m quadruple-joints) which had been welded together offshore or onshore and
brought out by cargo barge.
Most of the proponents of J-lay have focused on its applications in very deep water. However,
there is no reason to confine the method to deep water, and it has advantages in intermediate
depths. If these technical advantages can be realised as commercial advantages, J-lay can
be competitive in projects conventially thought of as the preserve of S-lay. It may be
necessary to reduce the ramp angle, as is routinely done in reelship pipelaying (see figure
51).
Figure 51 - J-Lay System. Variable angle ramp for shallow and deep water
Note: The laying angle is dependent on the water depth, laying tension and vessel RAO.
Because the pipelay is without residual strain, most pipelay contractor have invested in the J-
Lay method:
J-Curve laying tension parameters for pipeline with D/t = 20 in 915m water depth are
presented in the following table 7:
8.6250 99 231
This technique requires an onshore welding yard to prepare long strings (e.g. 500m) which
will be later joined together during the reeling process onto the lay vessel.
During the reeling process at quay-side and the subsequent unreeling offshore, the pipeline
will experienced plastic deformation and cumulative strain deformation which are to be
maintained within acceptable criterias.
There are less reel-lay vessels when compared to J-Lay vessels; with Coflexip Stena
Offshore leading the way in deepwater laying generations:
• CSO Apache 2000Te reel capability with a 1998 world record 12” gas pipeline in
more than 1300m of water depth in the Itapemerin Canyon offshore Brazil
• CSO Kitt new 5000Te reel lay capability to be available early year 2000
• ETPM Norlift 1250Te reel capability
• DSND Nordica 1500Te reel capability
Current limits on bundle length are approximately 7km using Controlled Depth Tow Method,
and 20 km for Bottom Tow. These limitations are set by bundle size and bollard load of
towing equipment.
Further innovations are now under planning, including installation in water depths down to
1800m and mid-line tie-ins to allow unlimited lengths.
The tow speed is typically lower than 3 knots for a bottom tow method, and in the range of 4 –
5 knots for a controlled depth tow method.
The controlled depth tow method has been used mainly in the North Sea (e.g. Shell Gannet,
Statoil Asgaard, etc.) while the bottom tow is the preferred solution for the Gulf of Mexico
application (e.g. Placid green canyon, BP Troïka, etc.)
It is composed of a gutter, which limits the radius of curvature of the pipe entering the derrick,
several sets of tensioners inside the derrick and a working table. Depending on its load
tension capacity, it can lay flexibles from 2.5’’ up to 16’’ internal diameter over 2000m water
depth. Pipeline sections, stored on dolly base reels or carousel, can be passed through the
system and connected at the working table below the VLS derrick. The opening of the table
when completely retracted allows the lowering of modules up to 3 x 3m size (e.g. Plem, Pig
launcher, etc.). This has been particularly developed for connections of second extremities, in
which the catenary of the line is suspended to the table, and connected to the hub which is
then lowered on the sea bottom and connected onto the subsea equipment.
The operations of lowering, abandonment or recovery are carried out with the A&R winch or
the pipe follower, a Coflexip Stena Offshore patented technique, which consists in replacing
the classical abandonment steel cable by a flexible pipeline.
Rigid steel pipelines can be also recovered from the sea bottom with the A&R system in order
to connect a flexible line (e.g. riser) or, in case of damage, to weld an intermediate device and
carry out a repair.
The load cases of standard flexible lines in a 1600T basket storage carousel are presented in
the hereunder table 8:
The following lay vessels have the capability to lay flexible flowlines with a vertical laying
spread:
CSO Flexinstaller (at 500m WD) Seaway Falcon (at 500m WD)
rd
CSO Wellservicer (at 500m WD) SAIBOS FDS (at 2500m WD) available 3 year quarter 2000
st
CSO Flexservice I (at 1000m WD) CSO Kitt (at 2500m WD) available 1 year quarter 2000
CSO Sunrise (at 2000m WD) Rockwater GSV (at 500m WD)
9.1 Introduction
Protection pipelines from corrosion is achieved externally by use of cathodic protection (for
buried or subsea pipelines) and internally by injection of inhibitors to mitigate internal
corrosion.
Various inspection and monitoring techniques monitor both a pipeline’s condition for early
warning of failure and the efficiency of any mitigation program to reduce or arrest corrosion.
While traditional NDT techniques and in-line inspection tools (intelligent ‘’pigs’’) may
represent effective solutions for assessment of the condition and integrity of a pipeline, the
sensitivity and accuracy of these methods may be inadequate for monitoring inhibitor
performance. In this latter case, both the sensitivity and frequency of data collection must be
high regularly to produce reliable trends.
Even more important to the pipeline operator may be the economics of an inspection and
monitoring program. Suitable design of an NDT inspection and corrosion monitoring program
may help reduce the expenditures considerably.
A combination of monitoring of an actual pipeline with a certain number of Field Signature
Method (FSM) stations along a line combined with running smart pigs through the line at
infrequent intervals may represent an optimum solution in terms of condition and integrity
monitoring of the pipeline.
At the same time, such a program may be designed substantially to reduce the costs for
inspection as a result of the reduced frequency required of smart pigging.
9.2 Principle
When a structure is in a known condition, reference FS (Field Signature) measurements are
made by feeding an electric current into the structure between two feeding studs. The current
spreads out into a pattern which is determined by the geometry of the structure and the
conductivity of the material. Any flaws or defects in the structure, like a corrosion pit or a
crack will cause a distortion in the electrical field pattern. Also general corrosion, causing a
reduction in the wall thickness will result in an increased voltage drop and change in the
electrical field. By measuring this electrical field pattern and changes over a period of time, an
accurate assessment can be made of actual corrosion, of corrosion rates and trends and the
location and severity of pits and cracks (see figure 55).
Small sensing pins or electrodes are distributed in an array over the monitored area, to detect
changes in the electrical field pattern. A voltage measurement between any two selected
electrodes is compared to a measurement between a reference pair of electrodes (for
compensation of temperature and current fluctuations) and to the corresponding initial FS
values when monitoring started.
The selected area is fitted with the current induction transformer and the minimum number of
24 sensing pins. This number must however, be increased in multiples of 8 up to a maximum
of 64 pins for one FSM spool and instrumentation module.
The sensing pins may be distributed in a matrix over the critical area where the matrix
spacing or pin-to-pin distance may vary typically from 2-3 cm (1inch) up to 10-15 cm (4-6
inches), depending on the sensitivity required for detection of smaller pits. With a matrix
spacing of 2-3 cm the system has a proven capability of detecting and monitoring the growth
of pits in welds as small as 1-2 mm in diameter and depth. A matrix spacing of 10-15 cm is
used in the case of uniform corrosion, or when wide and shallow pitting is expected. Typical
surface area covered per instrumented module may range from 0.1 to 1.1 m2.
For subsea and remote monitoring, the FSM system can be supplied as ready made spools
for subsea production systems or pipelines. The subsea system consists of the following
components (see figure 59):
ROV
FSM Station
Subsea connector
Com. connector
Pipeline
An attractive alternative to the use of flexible pipe flowlines is the use of rigid pipe flowlines.
This is especially true in deep water giant fields or marginal fields, where the distance from
floating production units to the wells is often several kilometres. As the flowline length
increases the cost effectiveness of flexible pipelines is reduced when compared to rigid
pipelines.
The choice of flowline for a given deepwater project is a complex topic, where both technical
and economical “life of field cost” issues are to be thoroughly evaluated.
There is no universal resistance steel and each steel has a particular application domain,
which has to be well known to avoid costly mistakes.
The following table 8 will summarise the above information:
Each flowline material (i.e. C-Mn steel or stainless steel) and technologies (i.e. wet insulated
pipe, flexible pipe, bundle, etc.) have their own merits and limitations, as further detailed in
the hereafter chapter 11.
5. Bundle with dry • Not • Only for piggy- • Only for piggy- • Water depth
carrier recommended back bundle to back bundle to limitation (1000m-
main flowline main flowline 1500m)
6. Bundle with wet • Not • Only for piggy- • Only for piggy- • No known
carrier recommended back bundle to back bundle to limitation for
main flowline main flowline bottom tow
• Lay rate • Lay rate
Note: At report date, Allseas Solitaire DP Vessel has been awarded the Shell Malampaya pipelay which
includes a 16” diameter carbon steel incoloy 825 clad pipe at 850m WD.
Solid pipes made in C-Mn steel, 13%Cr steel, or duplex stainless steels, pipe-in-pipe or
bundle configurations, or flexible pipes are possible alternatives for pipelines. Advantages
and disadvantages of different types of pipelines are given hereafter.
• visual inspection
• internal cleaning
• outer sheath repair or new endfittings installation
• redefinition of the class of application
• hydrostatic test
The pressure and tensile armour are encapsulated between an outer and an inner polymer
barrier, and one may believe that the armour wires remain unaffected by both the sea water
and the fluid carried in the pipe as long as the polymer barriers are intact. Polymers are,
however, open to diffusion of gases such as CH4, CO2, H2S and water vapour. Diffusion of
water and corrosive gases into the annulus means that the armour wires are exposed to a
corrosive environment. It is well known that the fatigue properties of metallic materials
become poorer in corrosive environments. Fatigue testing of wires in corrosive CO2/water
environments has clearly shown the number of cycles to failure is significantly reduced in the
corrosive environment compared to non-corrosive conditions. Lifetime estimation of flexible
pipes should therefore include the effect of corrosion fatigue. It may be necessary to design
flexible pipes in such a way that this failure mechanism is avoided.
Ageing properties of polymers for flexible pipes are also extensively investigated. Two years
testing of PA 11, PVDF and PEX at 400 bar and 90°C in methane/oil/water show that PA 11
exposed to water become brittle, while PVDF and PEX are nearly unaffected.
Polymers such as PA 11 and PVDF contain 12-15% plasticiser. During service the plasticiser
will leak out and the polymer will shrink. PEX, on the other hand, will swell. The
consequences of this also have to be investigated.
• the high yield strength of the material (typically 450Mpa for 22%Cr and
550Mpa for 25%Cr duplex in the annealed condition) which allows thinner
walls whilst retaining the sample pressure-containing or load bearing capability
• the high resistance to corrosion in the internal environment such that, unlike
carbon steel, it is not necessary to add a corrosion allowance to the wall
• thinner walls which result in reduced fabrication times and reduced weight
• the high corrosion resistance which means that it is not necessary to have
chemicals to inhibit corrosion, thus reducing the operating costs
• the high predictability of the performance of the material such that inspection
requirements are minimal and maintenance and unscheduled shut-downs
negligible.
RISER SYSTEMS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 5
1.1 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 REGULATION, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS .................................................. 6
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... 6
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 7
1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ 7
3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT...................................................................................... 16
3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 WITH FLOATING PRODUCTION SYSTEM ...................................................................... 16
3.3 AT SEABED .............................................................................................................. 18
3.3.1 Flexible risers..............................................................................................................18
3.3.2 Top tensioned risers ...................................................................................................20
3.3.3 Hybrid riser tower........................................................................................................21
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
A riser is usually a pipe, which connects subsea pipeline (sealine) to the floating platform
system. In deepwater field development, the riser can be made out of rigid or flexible pipe in
the size range from 2" DIA to 16" DIA depending on requirements.
Risers are key components of all offshore production facilities having major economic and
safety significance. The riser provides access from the sea bed to the platform facilities for
subsea satellite developments (produced oil and gas, test lines, water and gas injection, and
control umbilicals), product import and export pipelines and platform utilities (control and
power lines).
Until now most deepwater projects have extended shallow water technology through the use
of new materials (e.g. titanium, composite, etc.) and manufacturing techniques. Although high
pipe flexibility is needed to accommodate vessel motions in shallow water, at greater depths
stiffer pipe is considered by many to be of worthy consideration because of the beneficial
effect of water depth on riser system compliancy. Riser systems are used to transport
hydrocarbons from the seabed to the platform facilities, and are dynamic systems which
operate at both high pressures and temperatures often with highly corrosive fluids. As a
result, they are technically complex and the materials and methods of manufacture and
installation make them very costly. These issues are of course compounded as depths
increase, due to higher loads and lengths involved making riser system selection and
optimisation even more complicated.
In recent years new riser arrangements have been conceived to meet the challenge of deep
water, offering significant commercial and technical advantages over conventional flexible
riser systems. These new riser systems utilise steel pipe which has a relatively low cost
compared to flexible pipe.
Two of the most promising concepts are the steel catenary riser and the hybrid riser
(combination of rigid and flexible pipe).
Riser system is a key issue within the offshore oil & gas industries and each riser type (e.g.
flexible, steel, composite) and configuration (e.g. Steep, Lazy, Compliant) would be a major
engineering topic for further design, analysis, etc…
The aim of this document is to review the current state of the art riser technologies, which are
well adapted to deepwater field development, and to highlight its key engineering topics,
limitations, advantages and disadvantages.
This document commences, in chapter 2, with a brief overview of the design process for
deepwater riser made out of flexible pipe or steel pipe used in hybrid riser tower, top
tensioned riser and free hanging catenary riser.
Chapter 3 provides information on top and bottom interfaces requirements for the different
riser systems (material and configuration), which are further analysed in chapter 4.
Technical solutions such as thermal insulation and heating to mitigate hydrate and/or wax
formation later in field life are described in chapters 5 and 6.
Chapter 7 discusses deepwater riser vortex induced vibration (VIV) problem affecting riser
fatigue life, and provides some options often chosen for VIV suppression.
As high well productivity is essential in offshore deep waters, chapter 8 describes one of the
most widely used artificial lift method, namely, gas lift.
Chapter 9 is dedicated to the installation methods related to the type of riser configurations.
Applications and limitations on riser material (flexible or steel pipe) are discussed in chapter
10, and chapter 11, Advantages and disadvantages of different riser configurations concludes
this document.
1.4 References
1 Offshore technology conference papers from 1969 to 1998
2 In-house technical database
3 In-house experience in rigid and flexible flowline installation
4 In-house capabilities of hybrid riser system dynamic analysis
5 Manufacturer and subsea contractor product leaflets
6 Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Tie-in Methods”
Document n° TOTAL/Z/EN-004/98 (SEAL Engineering)
7 Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Sealines”
Document n° TOTAL/Z/EN-005/98 (SEAL Engineering)
1.5 Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with courtesy of
technical information and photographs of their products.
2.1 General
There are mainly two types of riser: (1) flexible riser and (2) steel riser, which are available for
the deepwater field development from a floating production system. Each of these
technologies have its own design basis as further presented in the following sections.
The design checks related to the different design phases of a steel riser system are described
in the following sections.
Consideration for corrosion due to internal fluid and to the sea environment shall be
performed to identify the actual material characteristics, the required corrosion allowance and
the specifications for external coatings (if any)
Static analysis is the fundamental step for preliminary definition of the riser configuration. The
design water depth, the maximum static offsets and the heave motions imposed by the floater
allow the designer to select the most suitable geometry from the possible alternatives. The
definition of the riser total length and the amount of buoyancy (if any) are the next step to
achieve a well-balanced initial configuration. Such configuration results into a compromise
between the top end tension, the peak combined stresses arising in the touch down point
(TDP) or in the bent areas (e.g. arch) and the maximum angle variations at the riser
terminations. An adequate margin against the expected dynamic amplification must be
accounted for starting from this phase, in order to consider realistic data (e.g. dynamic
amplification factor, typically within 1.2-1.3 range, is used to determine the dynamic tensions
from the static results).
- Effective tensions
- Bending moments and combined stresses along the entire riser length
- Angular excursions and reactions forces at the top end
- Transverse riser motions
- Bending moments and potential compression at the TDP
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Particular attention has to be paid, under severe storm conditions, to avoid excessive axial
compression in the lower part of the riser (close to the TDP), which can lead to uncontrolled
deflected shape and involve high bending radius and hence buckling of the pipe.
The need for VIV suppressors should be investigated with respect to VIV effects induced as
part of the riser fatigue damage. Should excessive motions be expected, effective
suppressors will be selected and applied to the required riser extension. Numerical model of
the problem is required in order to evaluate the envisaged solutions. Limited developments
have been identified in this particular area and, among these, the widely recognised work of
Prof. J.K. Vandiver is a key reference, being also the basis of a specific software (SHEAR7
by MIT) potentially suitable for handling this problem.
- Mean motions of the vessel caused by the sequence of storms foreseen in the
long-term distribution
- Slow-drift motions of the vessel inside each storm event
- Wave-frequency motions of the vessel and hydrodynamic loads applied directly to
the riser for each of the above events
- Vortex induced vibrations (VIV) effects in some portions of the riser (e.g. first 100
meters below sea surface level)
The admissible fatigue life is assumed to be equal to 10 times the design life for the entire
pipe length. Suitable criteria will be defined to couple a particular environmental condition
(wave and current) with the corresponding vessel offset. A time-domain approach will be
followed to describe the dynamic response of the riser generated by the representative sea-
states of the long-term distribution. The damage is then evaluated by means of a suitable
procedure that shall be aligned with the solution approach, considering a reference S-N
(Stress range – Number of cycles to failure) curve like HSE, API X (in RP 2A) and the
Palmgren-Miner law for summing the partial contributions.
These phases, together with potentially disconnection and retrieval operations, must be
considered within the analysis methodology in order that maximum riser responses in
transient static and dynamic conditions are captured. The reference meteocean conditions
are identified on the basis of the estimated duration of each operation and of the period of the
year selected for the activity.
2.3.2 Axial compression of the pipe structure due to the reverse end cap load
The axial compressive stiffness of conventional flexible pipe is an order of magnitude lower
than the tensile stiffness. When a flexible pipe is subject to axial compression, the tensile
armour layers expand radially (i.e. increase of the diameter under compression known as
Poisson's effect), with resistance to expansion provided by the helical wrapped tape over the
tensile armour and the external sheath itself. The reverse end cap load in deep water is
substantial. For example, a 6" ID empty pipe at a water depth of 2000 meters is subject to
more than 80 tonnes reversed end cap load
There are three potential modes of failure of the flexible pipe resulting from the reverse end
cap load:
If the flexible pipe is not torsionally balanced under axial compression, or has residual torque
due to the manufacturing, reeling or installation processes, then the resulting twist can
increase the radial expansion of either the outer or the inner tensile armour layer. This would
increase the potential for these failure modes to occur. Thus torsion loading must also be
considered in evaluating the resistance of a flexible pipe structure to reverse end cap loads.
2.3.3 High tension load in operation of dynamic risers due to pipe weight and dynamic
amplification
In order to reduce the tension loads on flexible pipe for deep-water applications, a system
approach can be applied. Multiple flexible pipe structures are used with a mid-line connection
between the pipes. The top section is designed for higher tensile capacity and the lower
section is designed for high collapse resistance. This approach saves substantial weight over
making the entire pipe designed for both the required collapse resistance and top tension
capacity. The high tension capacity pipe can be made with composite tensile armour to result
in further weight reduction.
The estimated weight saving versus steel armoured pipe by using a combination of steel
structures composed of high tensile capacity top section and high collapse resistance bottom
section is 25%, and 50% for high tensile capacity top section with composite armour and high
collapse resistance bottom section with steel armour
Figures 2 and 3 present the pipe design and capabilities of the composite armour relative to
the steel material currently being used. In addition to weight reduction, the composite armour
offers the advantage of being essentially inert to corrosion, hydrogen induced cracking and
sulphide stress cracking, all potential mechanisms for reducing the service life of a flexible
pipe.
Figure 3 – Non bonded flexible pipe structure using composite armour material
The following table provides mechanical properties comparison between steel and composite
materials:
3 – 6 mm thick 1 – 2 mm thick
The flexible pipe structure must be designed to withstand the following installation loading
conditions:
The pipe structure is checked by stress analysis to verify that it can withstand these
combined loading conditions. Where necessary, the pipe layer dimensions or materials are
modified to assure that the loading is within the allowable utilisation factors prescribed in API
specification 17J.
• ABAQUS (developed by ?)
• COSMOS (developed by Structural Research & Analysis Corp)
3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT
3.1 General
The main interface requirements in the riser design are related to:
This study will address only the two last topics as the other subjects have already been
covered in the documents "Tie-in Methods" (Reference 6) and "Sealines" (Reference 7) of
Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book.
- Interface at pontoon level allows the riser to avoid the dynamic wave splash zone,
hence avoiding high environmental loads and eliminating the risk from accidental
vessel impact. This solution has the disadvantage of involving subsea connection,
which complicates the connection installation, inspection and maintenance.
- A deck level hang-off point has the advantage of being an above water connection.
However it require the riser to pass through the splash zone and increases the
reversal efforts applied on the floating production system (as riser tension is applied
above the centre of buoyancy) with a consequent impact on stability and payload.
For flexible riser, a hanging device is used to maintain the top of a riser on a support fixed to
the floater, for example at the top of a I or J tube. The I or J tubes are designed to protect the
riser against environmental loads (wave and current) and accidental collisions with vessel
(see figure 4). They are often equipped with a bell mouth system using mechanical dogs to
hold the riser bending stiffener with a conical structure facilitating the riser entry and allowing
angle deflection.
I Tube
Flange
Unlock Ring
Polymeric Spring
Dogs Device
In the case of rigid riser hung in a free catenary, a flexjoint receptacle fixed to the pontoon or
deck level acts as a hanging point (see figure 5).
Pre-Installed Spool Piece
Hull Piping Support Clamp
Field-Installed
Spool Piece
End Connection
Flexjoint
Guide Ring /
Wear Bushing
Main Housing
FPS
Elastomer Element
Installation Bumper
Catenary Riser
Flexjoint
receptacle
For the top-tensioned risers, a tensioning system is required to support the riser, maintain
required tension and compensate for the relative motions of risers and platform.
From a semi-submersible platform, riser is typically supported by hydro-pneumatic cylinders
and lines rigged through sheave blocks to magnify the movement of the cylinders and so
allow large relative motions between the platform and the riser.
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The amount of relative motion between the TLP and the riser is small and simple
hydraulic/pneumatic cylinders may be connected directly to the riser at the special "riser
tensioner joint".
In a Spar platform, the risers will only require a simple static tensioning system to be used
mainly during the riser installation. Once the desired mean tension is achieved the risers may
be locked off with the buoyancy cans attached to the riser and compensating for the platform
movements (see section 4.3.2 II.).
3.3 At seabed
The free hanging (rigid or flexible) catenary riser system is characterised by the absence of
additional hardware components except at the seabed connection to a steel sealine. This
sealine can be terminated by either a mechanical flange or a pipeline end module requiring a
mechanical connection and a jumper installation respectively.
In the other configurations and depending on the type of risers, the following subsea
interfaces are required:
Buyancy modules
Mid-water
arch
Flexible risers
In the wave configurations, the mid-water arch is replaced by buoyancy modules consisting of
two parts (see figure 7):
- A steel clamping system which ensures the attachment of the buoyancy module to
the flexible.
- A buoy with a torus shape. The material used for this buoy (usually a syntactic
foam) is designed according to the water depth.
Buoyancy
module
The anchoring base of a riser in Steep "S" or Steep "Wave" configuration consists of a steel
and/or concrete structure. It may include piping, valves and elbows (see figure 8).
RISERS
CONCRETE SLAB
The soil conditions are an important parameter. In fact, the angle of the subsea end fitting of
a riser in a Steep "S" or Steep "Wave" configuration has to be carefully controlled and
depends on the riser base being horizontal (+/- 2°). The riser base is generally stabilised by
its own weight, but can be piled if soil conditions so require.
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Riser Funnel
Pinned Stress Joint
Riser Bottom
Connector
Concrete Ballast
Seabed
Concrete Infill
Foundation Receptacle
Suction Pile
Foundation Receptacle
Typical Riser
Arrangement
Suction Pile
4.1 General
A riser system must be designed/selected to adapt the following requirements:
A wide range of riser configuration concepts have been designed and sometimes applied.
Variations occur due to the specific requirements of each application. These configurations
can be distinguished on the basis of:
• The structural properties of the riser section (i.e. rigid or flexible) and the materials
• The cross-section complexity (i.e. mono-bore or multi-bore)
• The general arrangement/configuration.
flexible pipe structure is inherently thermal resistant and corrosion resistant. Thermal
insulation layer(s) can be added under the external sheath to provide additional thermal
resistance.
Internal carcass
Fluid barrier
Anti-wear layers
Tensile Armors
External sheath
This pipe structure design has been employed successfully in water depths up to 1710
meters on Marlim Sul 3 in Brazil 1997. Recent plans to produce oil and gas from subsea wells
in 1000 – 2000m water depths pose new challenges for flexible pipe and other offshore
technologies.
The material of main layers used in flexible pipes are outlined in the following table 2:
The current flexible technology is restricted in terms of design pressure, water depth and
design temperature. These parameters are interdependent and also vary with the line
diameter. Typical values are 8000psi as a maximum design pressure, about 1500m
maximum water depth and a maximum design temperature of 130°C.
For example, 9" production flexible risers (5700psi and 130°C) and 9" gas injection risers
(7200psi and 90°C) were installed as part of the Asgard project (300-320m water depth),
which represented a technical challenge in the use of the flexible technology.
It is generally agreed that the “Flexible” technology has reached its maturity and the current
development would extend its application within the next 2-3 years, as follows:
- The termination which ensures the seal and the mechanical attachment of the end-
fitting to the flexible pipe
- The connector to allow the connection of the end-fitting to any other compatible
connector. All types of connectors can be supplied with any end-fittings, the most
common being API hubs (formerly "CIW hubs"), hammer unions and flanges.
Bending Stiffener
- At the bellmouth of a J tube (e.g. to control the bending load and the minimum
bending radius).
- At the horizontal connection of a wellhead or a template, when the distance
between the connection and the sea-bed is important (i.e. to control the bending
radius)
- As external protection for the flexible pipe (e.g. when crossing a large diameter rigid
pipe).
- In order to avoid any over-bending during installation, generally when the flexible is
connected to a structure (plem, automatic connector, skid, etc.) before installation.
Bending restrictor
- Weather conditions
- Water depth
- Number of lines
- Crowding of seabed
- Surface floater motions
- Maximum platform admissible loads
- Current profile
- Ease of installation
- Etc…
Flexible riser
Sagbend
The flowline system can be either all flexible pipe, or a combination of rigid sealine and
flexible riser. The installation of a flexible riser / rigid pipe consists in basically, after a
steel pipe has been installed and abandoned on seabed, retrieving the rigid line by the
flexible pipe lay vessel and connecting above surface a flexible flowline end segment.
The entire assembly is then lowered to the seabed and the continuation of flexible
flowline installation continues till the transfer of riser flowline to the floating production
system.
At seabed sagbend location, the FPS first and second order motions can induce
compression buckling in the flexible, or problem of pipe embedment in soft soil,
especially in the case of an FPSO. If this appears to be critical, the solution may be to
adopt another riser configuration such as "Wave" or "S".
Flexible riser
Dead
Weight
Mid-water arch
(with sub-surface buoys)
Flexible riser
Buoyancy modules
Flexible riser
Mid-water arch
Riser base
Flexible riser
Buoyancy modules
Riser base
Flexible riser
Buoyancy modules
Dead
Weight
4.3.1 General
Flexible risers have been extensively used for the field development based on the main
floating production systems (i.e. semi-submersibles, FPSO’ s). With the increase of water
depth, there are technical and economic limitations in the manufacturing of large diameter
flexible risers: collapse due to high hydrostatic pressure, reverse end cap effects, etc.
A rigid steel riser system can provide a technical and cost effective alternative to the high
procurement cost for flexible lines, which cannot always compensate for their lower
installation costs.
Pontoon
Tensioner centralizer Riser connector
50 m Package
Tensioner cables
Upper Riser
Tensioner Sheave
Connector
Package
Flexible pipe
Lower Connector
15 m
Riser Base
Template
Seabed
The Top Tensioned Riser consists of the following main components from the bottom to the
top:
The Enserch Green Canyon riser tower components are described below:
Riser base
The riser base consists of a hub profile centered between four radially located posts and four
pile sleeves. Vertical female receptacles surround the hub to provide production/annulus/oil
export line connections to the riser. Within the central hub connection, at a slightly lower
elevation than the others, is a vertical receptacle for the gas export line.
The lower riser connector provides the structural link between the riser stress joint and the
riser base at the template. The connector will transmit the tensile and bending loads from the
riser to the riser base. The lower riser connector guides the riser onto the riser base and
orients the riser for subsequent installation of the production annulus and export tubing. The
connector allows the riser to be hydraulically locked to the riser base during installation and
released for retrieval.
The connector is a field proven collet type connector which is modified to increase its bending
capacity. The centre section of the connector has a stinger which extends into the mating hub
to provide a moment carrying interface. This allows the collet segments to carry all tensile
loads and only a portion of the bending moment.
The stress joint provides required flexibility and stress reduction between the riser connector
and lowermost riser joint. Steel transition spools at each end have flange - hub connections.
The lower flange connects to the lower riser connector, while the hub clamps to the stress
joint. The upper spool hub clamps to the tapered end of the stress joint, while a bolt flange
connects to the lowermost riser joint.
Riser joints
The rigid riser is constructed of long bolt flange to flange steel joints. When fully assembled
the riser has sufficient buoyancy to make it free standing so as to reduce the deck loads on
the vessel. This buoyancy is provided by three separate methods. Each individual joint has
passive syntactic foam, which offsets the weight of each riser joint. The syntactic foam made
the joints lightly negatively buoyant in seawater. In addition to the syntactic foam modules,
each joint has an independent internal air can which provides air buoyancy to offset the
weight of the production and annulus tubing. The air cans can be filled through an umbilical or
independently filled or vented by an ROV. Five large air tanks are installed near the top of the
riser. These tanks provide the buoyancy needed during the installation phase, and also
allows the riser to withstand 100year storms and loop currents, even when it is disconnected
from the rig.
Fiberglass guide tubes (to guide the production lines) are moulded in the syntactic foam
modules mounted around the structural member. Each joint has twelve quarter sections of
foam.
On the outside of each foam module are attachment points for vortex strakes and umbilical
guides that are bolted and banded in place as joints are run through the moonpool.
Bolted to the uppermost riser joint with a flanged connection is the upper riser mandrel, which
acts as the structural connection between riser and the upper riser connector package. The
assembly includes a hub profile at its upper end surrounded by a guide plate to locate riser
guide tubes for flowlines and four guided posts to align the upper riser connector package.
The upper riser connector package acts as the interface point between the rigid riser and
flexible flowline jumpers to the rig pontoon. It is locked in place by a collet connector at its
lower end.
Around the main collet connector are "mini" collet connectors that lock to the annulus and
production lines when the upper riser connector package is landed on the riser. Goosenecks
attached to the mini-connectors make an 180-degree bend and terminate in a clamp hub
facing down. Flexible lines are attached to these hubs and hang in a catenary shape to
pontoon connection points on the floater. The export line is also located radially from the
central collet connector with a similar connector.
In normal operating conditions, the mini-connector/gooseneck assemblies are each free to
move independently in the vertical direction. This movement is necessary to compensate for
vertical tubing deflections due to riser deflection, temperature effects, and pressure effects.
Although the production riser tether system utilises drilling tensioned components, it is more
accurately described as a riser centraliser than as a riser tensioner. The riser is free standing
and does not depend on the tensioner for structural support.
If the floater moves away from the top of the rigid riser by the environmental forces, the
flexible flowlines take a shallower catenary curve. Without the restraint of the tensioner
system, the flexible flowlines would have to be significantly longer to prevent damage to their
terminations and would consequently cause greater stresses in the riser due to increased
weight and drag.
Applying a restraining force to the top of the rigid production riser and limiting its motion
relative to vessel keeps the flexible flowlines to an optimum length and allows them to remain
connected during the most severe environmental conditions. The tether system has line travel
capability that is adequate to keep the riser top in an appropriate position below the vessel.
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The tensioner lines exit the fairleader on the floating production system and travels through
the water to the riser interface sheave package, which is attached to the gas export line hub
on the upper riser connector package by a manual diver assisted connector below the ocean
surface.
The tensioner cables are centralised by means of a riser tether centraliser structure. This
structure consists of fairleaders mounted to the rig structure below the water line. Six wire
rope tensioners are mounted on the deck of the floater. All six tensioners operate together to
produce the required riser tension thereby controlling the riser excursion within the necessary
radius. The wire rope tension is controlled from the tether control system, which regulates the
flow of air high pressure supplied to pneumatic tensioners.
II. Top Tensioned Riser applied to TLP and Spar (see figures 22 and 23)
The Neptune Field development is the first Spar-based floating production system
using multiple top tensioned production risers from seafloor wellheads back to the
surface trees in the Gulf of Mexico at a water depth of 580m.
Rigid risers act as tensioned beams. To avoid buckling under its own weight, and
excessive bending stresses under lateral wave, current and vortex shedding
loads, the riser is tensioned.
In a TLP, there is still a small amount of movement of the risers and platform. Its
riser system uses simple tensioning system composed of hydraulic cylinders. In
the case of the SPAR buoy, there are still considerable vertical movements and
buoyancy cans are used instead of the cylinders, taking advantage of the deep
draft of the SPAR hull, which protects the buoyancy cans against the
waves/current action. In both cases, flexible jumper pipes are used to link the
trees to the fixed piping of the platform.
The following section will consider this more complex top tensioned riser applied
to SPAR.
Buoyancy Modules
Keel Joint
9 - 5/8 Riser
Seabed
Hydraulic-Pneumatic
Tensioners
Tensioner Joint
Figure 22 – Top tensioned riser
Splashzone Joints
applied to Spar
Sea Level
Riser Coupling
Riser Joints
Stress Joint
Tieback Connector
Seabed
In this configuration, the riser system provides a pressure-contained link between surface tree
and seafloor wellhead system. Each riser system acts as an extension of the well's
production casing string providing primary pressure containment during well maintenance and
work-over operations and secondary pressure containment during routine production.
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The production riser system provides guidance for downhole equipment and various
maintenance and stimulation activities associated equipment. Each riser has an internal
diameter compatible with the well's production casing. Well production, gas lift/annulus
access and downhole control are through dual tubing strings and umbilical lines within the
riser.
Riser installation uses casing installation equipment and techniques. Component assembly
during installation is limited to make up of threaded-and-coupled connections. The few
flanged connections within the string are pre-assembled and tested on shore.
The SPAR production riser system consists of the following main components (see figure 24):
-Buoyancy cans
-Adjustable riser support structure
-Keel joint
-Riser joints
-Tapered stress joint
-Tieback connector
-Centralising riser joints
-Waveform joint
-Tubing spool
Wellhead
Riser Centraliser
Upper Riser
Transition
joint Production Deck Level
Mean Water
Riser Joint Keel Joint Level
Foam Buoyancy
Keel Joint
Bouyancy Can
Wear sleeve
Lower Riser
Transition Joint
Riser Riser Centraliser
Within
Upper Riser Spar
Transition
Joint
Stress
Joint
Standard
Riser Joint
Tie Back
Connector
Buoyancy cans
Each riser is independently tensioned by long buoyancy cans (which volume depends
on the riser submerge weight). Stem from the upper can extends upward to the
underside of the surface wellhead providing riser support. The lower two cans can be
either flooded with water or displaced with air through two service lines running back to
the production deck. The cans are fabricated in steel structures and lowered into the
SPAR well slot as a single assembly using a crane barge. The buoyancy cans are sized
to support the riser, surface wellhead, tubing strings, and tree.
The adjustable riser support structure is a tool temporarily used to support a riser when
weight increases are anticipated and at the same time allowing vertical adjustment to
prevent riser over tensioning. If environmental conditions worsen to the point where
allowable motions may be exceeded, the riser is lowered into a controlled buckled
configuration and supported by the adjustable riser support structure. This prevents
riser over-tensioning that might result from increased displacements of the Spar.
Tieback connector
The tieback connector is the lowermost component in the production riser string and is
part of a riser subassembly that includes a Titanium stress joint and lower riser
transition joint. By making theses items a subassembly, critical flanged connections are
made up and fully pressure tested before they are shipped offshore.
The tieback connector is remotely locked through an ROV hot stab to the wellhead
housing, forming a pre-load structural connection and pressure containing interface with
a through bore.
At the upper end of the tieback connector, a compact flange with beryllium-copper
radial interference seal forms the load and pressure containing attachment to the stress
joint.
The use of Titanium stress joint reduces stresses in the riser and bending moments
applied to the tieback connector due to its flexibility. This is especially critical during
lateral offsets for the drilling operations. The stress joint is made from a high strength
alloy, Ti-6A1-4V ELI.
The Titanium stress joint consists of cylindrical tubes. The two tubes with different OD
are welded together and compact Ti flanges are welded to each end for connection to
the steel flanges of interfacing components. The flanges incorporate radially energised
metal-to-metal beryllium-copper seals. To prevent deleterious galvanic corrosion
between the Titanium and steel, each steel flange is Inconel 625 overlaid. All the outer
surfaces of the stress joint, plus the two flange connections are encapsulated in an
elastomeric coating to prevent hydrogen absorption by the Ti and mitigate galvanic
interaction between Ti and steel.
The lower riser transition joint is the uppermost part of the bottom subassembly and
forms the pressure containing and structural crossover between the Titanium stress
joint and production riser string. The upper connection to the riser string is a threaded-
and coupled TCII. For corrosion protection, the outer surfaces are coated with thermal
sprayed aluminium.
Riser joints
The bottom 3 riser joints have syntactic foam buoyancy modules. If a riser undergoing
work-over operations is lowered on the adjustable riser support structure and supported
by the Spar, its lower end goes into a controlled buckled configuration. The buoyancy
modules provide additional lift reducing the curvature in this area of the riser. The
syntactic foam, sized so it easily passes the buoyancy cans, is attached around
standard riser joints and vertically restrained by thrust collars.
The riser strings use TCII threaded-and-coupled connections. This connection creates a
joint efficiency approaching that of L80 pipe in tension and compression with radially
energized metal-to-metal seal.
The use of threaded-and-coupled connection allows the use of conventional casing
string installation techniques and equipment.
For corrosion protection, the riser's outer surface is coated with thermal-sprayed
aluminium. The coating acts as a combination barrier coating and cathodic protection
system.
Keel joint
The keel joint provides a pressure containing conduit, hull to riser wear surface, and a
reaction point for load transfer between the riser and Spar. The keel joint prevents
detrimental wear using a wear sleeve that rides within a bushing at the keel of the Spar.
The wear sleeve is attached to and supported by the inner pipe with a elastomeric
bearing at each end.
Lateral loads between the Spar and riser cause localized bending and the much-stiffer
wear sleeve limits the inner pipe deflection by distributing the load through the
elastomeric bearings and allowing the inner pipe to deflect into a curved configuration.
The keel joint is also a threaded end coupled joint. Because of the pipe size differences,
transition joints are used above and below the keel joint to crossover to the riser string.
Above the keel joint and inside the hull the riser is made of standard casing. As the riser
comes up through the hull, it enters the buoyancy cans where it is laterally supported by
centralising riser joints.
The centralisers are standard riser joints with neutrally buoyant 3m long syntactic foam
modules. Like the buoyant riser joints, these foam modules are pre-installed on a
standard riser joint and vertically restrained by thrust collar assemblies.
Three centraliser joints are added into the riser string positioned near the bottom, centre
and top of the buoyancy cans.
Waveform joint
The last joint within the riser string is a waveform joint that provides for riser space-out
using adjustable slips in the surface wellhead. Once the riser is locked to the seafloor
wellhead and tensioned, the proper wellhead is determined and the waveform slips are
set.
The landing ring, which is previously attached to the buoyancy can stem is stroked
upward using the adjustable riser support structure and attached to the surface
wellhead. The remaining waveform joint above the wellhead is removed and a seal
assembly installed. A clamp hub and seal pocket at the upper end of the wellhead is
used for attachment of the tubing spool.
Tubing spool
A tubing spool is attached to the wellhead that provides an internal bowl for tubing
hanger support, sealing and lock-down. The upper end of the tubing spool has a clamp
hub for attachment of either the surface tree or blowouts preventer spool. The hanger
supports dual CRA (corrosion resistant alloy) tubing strings that run through the riser
and lock into a packer located below the seafloor wellhead. A control umbilical strapped
to the tubing strings provides riser annulus dewatering, subsurface safety valve control,
and chemical injection.
Marlim Field, in a water depth of 770 meters. The platform will be taut leg
anchored with 16 polyester/chain lines.
The successful installation of this riser is expected to be the next evolutionary step
in deepwater production technology for floating production systems, which impose
more motions on the riser than on the tension leg platforms.
The use of steel catenary riser system on FPSO’ s is still under development with
main concern on the fatigue issue due to the ship first order motion characteristics.
Hang-Off platform
FPSO
Bending Stiffener
0m Sea Level
-50 m
Sub-surface Buoy
-65 m
-70 m
Bending Stiffener
Gooseneck
Insulation Foam Steel Line Hang-off Leve
Central Air Can
-1000 m
Suction Piles
150 m
-1000 m Seabed
The concept of the offset hybrid riser tower includes the following main items:
The riser tower is designed with steel flowlines spread around a central air can.
The latter combines both functions of (1) providing additive buoyancy and (2) load
resistance by taking tension and bending moment. The flowlines are suspended
at the riser tower top level and are free to move axially along the tower due to
thermal expansion. Spacers and thrust collars are welded and spread along the
riser tower length to guide the flowlines and to transmit the uplift force of the
buoyancy modules to the central air can.
The subsea buoy is attached to the central can (e.g. by means of a flex-joint)
providing uplift force to maintain the top of the riser tower within a desired watch
circle under the drag and weight action of the flexible risers, and also the FPS
motions.
The flexible risers are connected to the upper riser tower connection system
composed of connectors and goosenecks. This assembly enables the transition
between the upper end of the flowlines spread around the central air can, and the
flexible risers.
• the riser tower section arrangement (i.e. the number, the diameter and the
repartition of the flowlines around the central air can)
• the minimum thickness of foam
• the required buoyancy of the tower, especially for tow stability
considerations.
• static equilibrium of the riser system in production mode with the required
tension provision in order to avoid any dynamic compression of the central
member. The dynamic analysis will verify that no compression occurs.
• Eigen period analysis, as the first natural period of the hybrid riser system is
mainly governed by the subsea buoy tension (see the following section for
further information on "Eigen-mode analysis").
The dynamic response can be of two different natures: (1) inertial response
governed mainly by the excitation period, and (2) resonant response at a natural
period of the system, governed by the existing damping rate.
The pendulum resonance mode (i.e. low frequency resonance) can be prevented
by a proper hydrodynamic design of (1) subsea buoy tension and (2) flexible riser
configuration, to obtain a pendulum frequency higher than the FPS slow drift
frequency but lower than the subsea buoy vortex shedding frequency.
The riser tower bending mode can be excited in the high frequency range, which
can varied from high frequency (flexible riser VIV) to the wave frequency range
(e.g. FPS 1st order motion, riser tower VIV).
For the subsea buoy, the vortex shedding frequency falls in the low frequency
range.
5 INSULATION TECHNIQUES
5.1 General
Deepwater offshore oil and gas fields are economically developed using subsea completions,
where produced fluid may travel a quite long distance, before reaching process facilities on
the floating production system.
During transport, the produced fluid could cool down to the ambient seawater temperature as
low as 4°C or less. Studies and experiences have shown that produced fluid at such a low
temperature could cause unacceptable emulsion, hydrate, and paraffin wax deposition
problems.
The field proven solutions to above problems are discussed below:
An insulated flowline (sealine + riser) approach could overcome these problems by keeping
the produced fluid temperature above a required temperature for the different operation
modes : e.g. 40°C for production mode and 13°C for well testing.
5.3 Insulation material for steel riser and hybrid riser tower
For the growing activities in deeper waters (> 300m) the options are limited to the use of solid
materials, special engineered polymer composites and epoxy syntactic with hollow glass or
silicate microspheres, that can sustain a water depth of more than 1000m and a temperature
of 135°C.
Such constructions may be supplied with a thickness of 100mm and a thermal conductivity
k=0.1W/m°C, corresponding to a heat transfer U-value of 1.5W/m2°C.
The most promising thermal insulation material in deepwater applications are syntactic foams
which fall into two groups as described below:
− Pure syntactic foam composed of base polymer as initial constituent with a specific
gravity around 1.0 hence the material is almost neutrally buoyant. The density of the
polymer is reduced by including large numbers of small hollow glass spheres known
as microspheres. The microspheres typically have a diameter of between 100 and
150 microns. Their presence can result in a reduction of the specific gravity to
between 0.5 and 0.6. This material is well adapted to rigid steel riser.
− Composite syntactic foam where a third component known as macrospheres is
added to further reduce the material density. Macrospheres are typically hollow
thermoplastic spheres with a nominal external diameter of 50mm. Inclusion of the
macrospheres can reduce the syntactic foam specific gravity to between 0.3 and
0.4. This thermal insulation material is well adapted to hybrid riser.
The main thermal insulation materials that are normally considered for use with wet insulated
steel riser are detailed below in table 3:
Cofoam layer
It should be noted that the Coflon (thermoplastic material used in flexible riser to cope with
high temperature produced fluid) has a lower thermal conductivity than Polyamide which in
turn has a lower thermal conductivity than high density polyethylene. The thermal conductivity
coefficient of these thermoplastics is very low:
For 6-8 inch ID flexible riser, a typical heat transfer coefficient U-value of 1.5-2W/m²K can be
achieved with "Carazide" (or Cofoam) insulation material.
Please refer to chapter “Insulation techniques” in "Sealines" Document (Reference 7) for
further information on thermal insulation material applied to deepwater flowline.
6 HEATING TECHNIQUES
6.1 General
Heating technique, considered as active subsea insulation method, is viewed as a key
technology for flow assurance as the industry moves into increasingly deep waters. This will
help to reduce the risk of hydrates and wax plug formation when production lines are shut
down while at the same time reducing the risk of environmental contamination through
leakage of chemicals currently injected into the lines as a preventive measure.
The heating techniques may be designed for the following purposes:
- To maintain steady state pipe temperature above the hydrate formation temperature
(typically 15-25°C) after planned or non-planned shutdowns. The objective is to start
the system prior to hydrate formation
- Heating of the pipe, which have been cooled down to the ambient seawater
temperature. This situation might be valid after the unlikely situations of either a very
long major electric power system shut-down, > 10 hours, or after a simultaneous
process shut-down and heating system failure
- The system could also be used to maintain the required temperature at low
production rates.
The rating of a heating system is dependent on many factors. These might be material or
operational parameters, or design criteria.
The following parameters are essential for the design of the heating system:
6.1.1 Pipeline
- Material/composition thermal data
- Dimensions: diameter/thickness
- Riser insulation: dimensions (thickness), thermal conductivity (with corresponding
U-value and heat capacity)
- Thermal data and dimensions of protection on the riser section resting on the
seabed (surrounding/seabed, including depth of gravel, rock dumping, etc.)
- Thermal properties of the pipe content in different operation modes
- Geometry/length of riser
At present, the main techniques proposed by manufacturers to heat up risers are listed
below:
Power Cable
Straps
a/
Topside
b/ Power Supply Thermally Insulated
Pipe
Power Supply
Cables
For safety and reliability reasons, the heating system is electrically connected ("earthed") to
surrounding seawater through several sacrificial anodes for a length of approx. 50m at both
ends where the cables are connected.
The following results can be drawn from the qualification test performed on 8-12" single rigid
steel pipe:
Plastic filler
Production line
Central can
The heating lines are either in coiled tubing pipes or flexible pipes dependent on riser design
criteria. The diameter and number of the heating lines will mainly depend on the dimensions
of the riser to be heated up and the temperature variation between seawater and the
produced fluid for different operation modes.
The heat transfer value between the heating lines and the production riser to be heated is
low, but it can be improved by either creating a heating chamber with thermal insulation
material or using a conductor material placed between them.
7.1 General
The vortex vibrations are induced by a fluid flow acting on cylinder elements (i.e. vibrations
due to vortices, see section 7.2) and forcing them to vibrate by exciting their closest eigen
mode (i.e. mode shape associated to natural frequencies of the pipe closest to the vortices
oscillation frequency).
Mainly the rigid pipe riser systems are associated to the VIV problem. The high inertia value
of the rigid pipes involves high natural frequencies, which correspond to the VIV excitation
periods. But even risers made of flexible pipe, which have large structural damping, can
experienced VIV, although the consequences are quite minimal and thus are not a real
concern.
VIV generally does not induced high stresses in the rigid pipe riser, but it is damageable to
the system as it reduces its fatigue life by inducing high cyclic loads.
- The riser, immersed in a fluid flow, creates vortices; the two separation points (see
figure 30) oscillate on the riser sides, thus creating forces that oscillate at the vortex
apparition frequency. There are two types of oscillation: (1) oscillation in-line with
the velocity motion and (2) oscillation perpendicular to the velocity vector.
Flow
Flow separation points
- This vibrating phenomenon becomes critical when the cross flow force frequency is
relatively close to one natural period of the riser. This phenomenon called “lock-in”
occurs (i.e. pipe oscillates at its natural frequency which is closest to the excitation
induced by the vortices) which can result in serious damage by reducing the fatigue
life of the system.
Predicting VIV and estimating response amplitude and frequencies are key issues when
determining the fatigue life of a riser system.
The difficulty in predicting VIV occurrence and effects is due to:
Some verification rules and methods are recommended by classification societies or institutes
supplying with regulations and codes (such as DnV, API, etc.). These methods are based on
simplified formulae, which allows quick verifications and estimations but are generally
conservative.
Programs are also available to help in VIV occurrence and effect prediction. The most widely
used is the MIT program SHEAR7. It was initially developed to model straight risers. Current
versions are also able to perform runs with other structure models, such as catenary, by
utilising hybrid techniques (i.e. equivalent model calculated by a finite element program, can
be read in file data form); the program limitations for catenary shapes introduce uncertainty.
- Either redesign the riser by modifying the tension, changing its mass or designing
another configuration. This solution is generally costly and may have repercussions
on the production floater.
- Or add vortex suppression devices.
• Helical strakes
• Fairings
• Perforated or axial rod shrouds
• Splitter plates
SPLITTER PLATE
HELICAL STRAKES
PERFORED SHROUD
FAIRINGS
The most popular devices are the helical strakes and the fairings. Weathervaning fairings are
for example used in the Gulf of Mexico on the Shell Mars TLP risers, while helical strakes
equipped the export steel catenary risers of Auger. Both strakes and fairings can dramatically
reduce VIV fatigue damage (by over 80%) but introduce intrinsic disadvantages:
- Both complicate the installation phases as the equipped riser system is difficult to
handle.
- Strakes increase the riser drag, which is detrimental to the riser behaviour, and
require a continuous coverage of the VIV sensitive length.
- Fairings can reduce drag loads and only require a partial coverage of the critical
length of the riser, but they need to rotate with current direction, which is a great
disadvantage for long-life utilisation, as efficient anti-fouling devices are required to
avoid their gripping by marine growth.
8.1 General
Artificial lift is required when the natural reservoir pressure is insufficient to lift the produced
fluids to surface at economic production rates. This can occur in the event of water
breakthrough at the wells (increasing the weight of the liquid column), low pressure at the
reservoir or the production of low GOR heavy crude.
Artificial lift also helps to stabilise the fluid flow regime, and hence eliminate slugging in the
production riser.
Artificial lift may be a cost effective solution to develop satellite fields as it facilitates the
transportation of produced fluids over longer distances, thus reducing the investment by
simplifying the production layout and reducing the number of platforms. Furthermore, it
increases field life and recovery rate.
The offshore oil and gas production is typically based on natural flow driven by reservoir
pressure, water injection and artificial lift, whenever necessary.
The flow rate requirement on top of the production riser is formulated as follows:
- The Bottom Riser Pressure, which can be increased by adding a pump unit
- The transported fluid density ρ along the riser, which can be reduced by gas
injection. The lower is the injection point, the better is the lightened effect. Therefore,
the injection point should be positioned close to the riser base.
The following covers only the gas lift method (i.e. the most cost effective solution) applied to
rigid or flexible riser and hybrid riser tower having the gas injection point at the riser base.
No difficulties, regarding the riser system definition, are expected when using the
conventional gas lift method; the only requirement is the provision of a sufficient number of
gas lift line. But an activated riser configuration requires additional studies, mainly due to the
lack of experience. As the injection point is positioned on the lower part of the riser, special
studies must be conducted to precisely define the required equipment (valve, gas diffuser,
etc.) and the consequences on the riser structure (reinforcement to increase high stress and
fatigue resistance) and behaviour.
The gas lift method is characterised by two modes:
- Internal mode: In this mode the gas lift method uses coil tubing introduced from the
top of the riser to the riser base or gas lift lines circumferentially arranged around the
riser (e.g. integrated flexible riser)
- External mode: In this mode, each production line has its own gas lift line clamped
to the outside diameter. The production lines can also be activated by a common
gas lift line through the subsea manifold
Riser
Coil tubing
Sealine
Produced fluid
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Possibility to adjust the injection point to - Recovery of coil tubing before pigging
the production type (specially during start - Difficulty to study the dynamic behavior of
up) both lines (vibration of gas lift line,
- No requirement for thermal insulation on potential wear by friction, requirement for
gas lift lines (i.e. gas remains at effluent centring devices, etc.)
temperature as there is no contact with - Flow section reduced by the presence of
sea water) the gas lift line
- No interaction with the environment loads - High cost due to coil tubing unit and deck
on the production line space
- Not applicable to hybrid riser
Riser
Sealine
Produced fluid
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Standard installation method - Increase drag and VIV due to larger
- No interference with pigging or coil tubing external diameter
operations - Increase tension load during laying
- No requirement for thermal insulation on operation and at hang off platform
gas lift lines - Requirement for specific tensioners
- No interaction with the environment loads - Flexible technology to be qualified for
on the production line deep waters including manufacturing
process
- Technical and economic limitations to
small production risers (ID = 6"-8")
- High purchase cost
- Externally mounted on each production riser using the piggy back method (see
figure 35).
- Inserted in the thermal insulation of the production riser.
- Clamped to the central member of the hybrid riser.
Riser
Sealine
Produced Fluid
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Surface control of the gas injection - Increase drag
- No interference with pigging or coil tubing - Longer installation time (two lines)
operations
- Requirement for thermal insulation on
- Applicable to most type of risers
both lines
- Complete independence between
- Dynamic behaviour of lines may impact
production and gas lift lines
on clamps (fatigue, wear, etc.)
- Configuration well adapted to coil tubing
- Critical injection point requiring detailed
pipe technology
engineering
- Low cost solution
- Lower operation and maintenance cost
Gas injection
Gas lift
Riser
line
Sealine
Produced fluid
An alternative to the above solution consists to gather all gas lift lines together in a multi-bore
line, which will be distributed at the riser base for the gas injection in the production risers.
In the first alternative, the gas injection is controlled from the surface by means of electro-
hydraulic umbilical connected to the subsea manifold, whereas in the second solution, the
control is done directly from the surface. This technique is applicable for all type of risers.
The advantages and disadvantages of this solution are summarised in table 10:
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Limited number of lines to be installed - Well adapted for compact riser configuration
9 INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
9.1 General
Selection of methods for installing hybrid, flexible or metallic risers is strongly dependent on
field development type, vessel capability and availability, and riser material.
The following table 12 illustrated the installation techniques that can be considered depending
on the type of riser:
Non-offset hybrid riser Conventional drilling riser running 1. Drilling and/or production vessel
techniques and equipment (TLP, Semi-submersible, Spar)
3. Survey vessel
2. Survey vessel
Metallic riser (e.g. SCR) 1. J lay with tensioners or collar 1. Lay vessel
hang off points
2. Survey vessel
The installation techniques for flexible and metallic risers are further discussed below.
The simplified installation procedures of the different riser configurations are described hereunder:
Lay vessel
FPS
1 4
LAYING VESSEL POSITIONNING LOWERING OF RISER 1st END EXTREMITY
Lay direction
3 6
RECOVERY OF MESSENGER LINE LAYING OF FLEXIBLE RISER
A typical installation procedure would consist of the following phases (see figure 37):
1 – 3. A messenger line is passed from the floating production facility to the installation
vessel
4. The upper end of the riser is transferred from the installation vessel to the FPS
with the upper section of the riser
5. The upper end of the riser is secured to the riser hang off platform by means of
clamp
6. The flexible riser is paid out from the lay vessel until reaching the touch down
point.
Once the touch down point is confirmed by means of ROV, the flowline is laid in the direction
of its final destination
Mid-water
arch
Flexible riser
A typical installation procedure would consist of the following phases (see figure 38):
1. A messenger line is passed from the floating production facility to the installation
vessel
2. The upper end of the riser is transferred from the installation vessel to the FPS
with the upper section of the riser
3. The mid-water arch is launched and positioned at mid-depth by means of the
dead weight while paying out of the riser continues
4. The retaining swivel is disconnected from the mid-water arch and the lower end of
the riser is laid on the sea bed
5. The flowline is laid in the direction of its final destination
Lay vessel
FPS
Transfer line
Buoyancy
modules
Flexible riser
A typical installation procedure would consist of the following phases (see figure 39):
Lay vessel
FPS
Transfer line
Flexible riser
Mid-water
arch
Riser base
A typical installation procedure would consist of the following phases (see figure 40):
Lay vessel
FPS Messenger
line
Buoyancy
modules Pulling
Flexible
line
riser
Riser base
A typical installation procedure would consist of the following phases (see figure 41):
1. Lowering of the flexible riser and its automatic connector (vertical entry) at the
stern of the installation vessel.
2. Installation of the buoyancy modules at adequate locations on the flexible riser.
3. The flexible riser and its automatic connector is directed towards the riser base
by means of ROV.
Perform automatic connection of the flexible riser onto the riser base by means
of ROV.
4. Paying out of the remaining part of the flexible riser and the vessel takes its
position for the transfer of flexible riser to the floater.
5. On completion of messenger and pulling lines recovery, connect the pulling
line to the pulling head mounted on the flexible riser and start the transfer ot
the flexible riser to the floater.
6. Once load transfer is completed, recover A&R cable, resume pulling the
flexible riser and secure it to the hang off platform.
Subsea tree
Dead weight
Securing
sling
2 CONNECTION OF THE TAUT LINE 5 PULL-IN OF THE RISER 2nd END EXTREMITY
Flexible riser
Transfer in final position
line
A typical installation procedure would consist of the following phases (see figure 42):
1. The first end of the flowline is initiated at the subsea structure and the flowline
is laid in the direction of the dead weight.
2. Installation of the clamp/attachment line sub assembly and the buoyancy
modules at adequate locations on the flexible line
Perform the connection of the attachment line to the dead weight by ROV
3. Recover flexible line to surface to form the loop before resume paying out
flexible in the direction of the floater
4. A messenger line is passed from the floating production system to the
installation vessel for the transfer of the pull in cable.
5. Once the pull in cable is connected to the pull in head mounted on top of the
riser, the second end of the riser is lowered with the A&R cable.
6. On completion of the load transfer and disconnection of the A&R cable by
ROV, the second end of the riser is pulled in I or J tube then secured to the
hang off platform.
9.3.1 General
Outwith the conventional drilling riser running techniques used for the deployment of top
tensioned riser from semi-submersible, TLP and Spar, the two most promising installation
techniques for metallic risers are J-lay and tow-out. The other methods involving plastic
deformation of welds and pipes may affect fatigue life of metallic risers (e.g. reeling, S-lay,
combination horizontal firing line and vertical lay, etc…). Another reason restraining the use
of these installation techniques is the requirement for wet thermal insulation on metallic risers
due to roller friction on risers, which may damage thermal insulation coating.
The installation techniques for metallic risers are described hereafter:
During J-lay, pre-welded pipe strings consisting of 1 to 6 pipe joints (each approx. 12m long)
are welded to the riser, which is clamped on an inclined lay ramp. Pipe joints are welded
together, NDT tested and coated before leaving the working platform at a defined angle.
The simplified installation procedure of a steel catenary riser with second end transferred to
the floater is illustrated in figure 43:
Pulling line
1 RISER LAYING AND VESSEL POSITIONING 4 LOWERING OF THE RISER 2nd END EXTREMITY
A&R cable
Steel riser
The tow out from the onshore fabrication site where the riser tower is assembled
and tested.
The upending operation
The connection of the tower to the riser base
Leading Tug Spar Buoy Buoyancy Modules Hybrid riser tower Trailing Tug
in subsurface tow
1
Sea Level 0m
2
Leading Cable
Trailing Cable
3
Riser Tower
in vertical position
Seabed -1000 m
The flexible risers are installed and connected at a later phase, after the FPSO has arrived on
site.
The flexible jumpers could be either "pre-installed" at the onshore site or subsea installed.
The tow out operation consists in bringing the tower on site by towing it with the help of
leading and trailing tug (assisted by a survey vessel). The tower is supported by means of
subsurface and surface buoys, while its own weight is adjusted by temporary flooding of
some flowlines.
Once on site, the up-ending operation is performed. The tugs apply the adequate tension to
prevent any excessive bending while the buoys are removed. Two up-ending alternatives can
be considered:
− the controlled riser bottom end lowering, with the help of the trailing tug (quasi
static method).
− or the "free-fall" upending method.
The leading tug and the Sub-surface Buoy will control the riser tower top position.
Monitoring of tension and curvature of the riser tower is performed continuously during the
operation by the survey vessel using acoustic transponders installed on the riser tower.
On completion of the up-ending operation, the riser tower is towed at the vertical position of
the riser base.
The connection of the riser tower to the riser base is performed by ballasting the sub-surface
buoy, and by pulling down the riser tower by means of subsea winches. Once the tieback
connector is landed on the riser base and confirmed by ROV, the connector is hydraulically
locked.
When connection operation is achieved, the Sub-surface Buoy is de-ballasted to reach the
nominal tension, the tower is ready for top connection to the floater and bottom connection to
sealines with respectively flexible risers and flexible jumpers.
A typical top connection mainly consists in:
- Perform first end flexible riser initiation on top of the riser tower
- Once the connection is completed, the flexible riser is laid in the direction of the
FPSO
- A messenger line followed by the pull-in cable is transferred from the floater to the
installation vessel
- Connect the pull-in cable to the pull in head and start lowering the flexible riser
using the A&R cable
- When the load transfer is achieved, disconnect the A&R cable by ROV and pull
the flexible riser in I or J tube
- Lock the flexible riser bend stiffener in the I or J tube and secured the flexible riser
to the hang off platform.
Please refer to document "Tie-in methods" (Reference 6) for bottom connection using flexible
jumpers.
I. Installation of top tensioned riser tower from semi-submersible (see figure 21)
a) Recover the protective cover over the riser base with the drill pipe running tool
b) The assembly composed of lower riser connector and stress joint is brought up
through the V door and lowered down through the spider setting the upper end of
the stress joint on the spider
c) Bring the first riser joint up into the derrick, land it on the upper stress joint
flange and perform bolt flange connection
d) Perform regular riser joint (e.g. 12m long) installation to reach the required
riser length
e) Install quarter sections of external air tank on the last 2 riser joints (or required
length) by bolting them together around the riser joint as it run through the
moonpool
f) Bolt the upper riser connection mandrel to the top of the last riser joint to
complete the assembly of rigid part of the riser
g) Install the riser installation string on the upper riser connection mandrel then
lower the riser to the riser base using the heave and motion compensator
h) Once the lower riser connector is landed on the riser base and confirmed by
ROV, the connector is hydraulically locked by ROV.
i) Pump air in the two external air tanks through a temporary umbilical to make
the riser neutrally buoyant
j) Lower gas export line bottom termination through the running string by welding
joints as needed, land and lock both ends from the inside using drill pipe running
tool
k) Using guide frame and assisted by diver or ROV, position casing and tubing
into the proper location within the upper riser connection package
l) Lower annulus and production lines having stab latches at the lower end that
lock to riser base receptacles
m) Pump air in the two external air tanks to make the riser positively buoyant and
therefore self-supporting
n) Position the upper riser connector package in the moonpool and connect the
flexible lines to the gooseneck hubs at one end and pontoon porches at the other
o) Using drill pipe, lower the upper riser connector package to the upper riser
connector mandrel
p) With the lift off cylinders, lower the mini-connectors onto the flowline hubs and
hydraulically lock them in place.
q) Lower and connect the upper riser sheave package to the upper riser
connector package
r) Activate the riser management system to maintain the riser within the desired
watch circle
II. Installation of top tensioned riser from Spar (see figures 22 & 24)
Note: Buoyancy cans and stems are installed when the deck module is installed. The lower two of each set
of three cans are flooded and the cans are resting on their down stops. This placed the upper end of the
buoyancy can's stem at the production deck level where the riser-landing ring with the load cells is attached.
a) Riser installation starts with the crane lifting the tieback connector/stress
joint/lower transition joint and keel joint subassemblies aboard, upending and
hanging each in a vacant well slot.
b) The rig is skidded over the keel joint first, which is picked up through the rotary
table and stored to one side. Then the rig is skidded over the tieback
connector/stress joint/lower transition joint, which is also picked up through the
rotary table
c) Once the rig is skidded over the well slot and the messenger line, attached to
the lower end of the tieback connector stab sub, the subassembly is landed in the
spider
d) Buoyant joints are lifted up through the V-door and made up to the threaded-
and-coupled connection at the upper end of the lower transition joint. Threaded-
and-coupled riser joints are added until the proper length is reached for keel joint
placement.
e) An upper transition joint, the keel joint, and second upper transition joint are
placed in the string before running of standard joints continues.
f) When total riser length is reached, the waveform joint is made up and the
string slowly lowered as the ROV observes and laterally assists in stabbing the
tieback connector into the wellhead. The ROV then locks the connector through
an hydraulic hot stab. Afterwards, riser string over-pull and internal pressure tests
are made to verify connection integrity.
g) The riser is pulled to its operating tension while the Spar is de-ballasted to its
proper draft. The adjustable riser support structure is extruded to its full up
position, the waveform joint slips set, and the surface wellhead is attached to the
landing ring. With the riser lowered slightly, the excess length of waveform joint is
removed and the isolation seal and tubing spool are installed. Once the BOP
spool and surface BOP are attached, the well is ready for downhole completion
activities.
h) After the downhole completion is installed and the production and gas lift
tubing is landed and hung from a packer just below the seafloor wellhead, dual
tubing strings along with a control/chemical injection umbilical are run through the
riser and suspended from the surface wellhead. Finally the surface tree is landed
and locked to the tubing spool and the jumper flowlines and umbilical connect the
platform based manifolds and control equipment.
i) When the well is on stream, the riser's weight is transferred to the buoyancy
cans. This load transfer requires careful co-ordination of buoyancy can
deballasting and Spar ballasting. Once the load transfer is complete, the
adjustable riser support structure is removed and the riser system cans provide
complete support and tensioning of the production riser system.
10.1 General
Risers play an important part in the drilling, production, and transportation of hydrocarbons
and other associated fluids with any offshore oil and gas production. For a floating production
system, risers provide the link between the floating platform and:
- Drilling or production.
- Hydrocarbon imports (from remote wells/platforms),
- Hydrocarbon exports (via pipelines to shore, another platform or a storage unit).
- Water or gas injection (into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil up
the well).
- Gas lift (gas pumped into the bottom of the well or at the riser base to help the oil to
flow more rapidly up to the floating production system).
Note: Other risers such as hydraulic and electrical lines, work-over risers are not covered by this study.
- Rigid risers manufactured from steel pipe and generally found in free hanging
configuration or in a vertical position (top-tensioned riser or hybrid riser tower).
- Flexible risers manufactured from layers of wires and polymers, which are hung in
suspended catenary or free hanging configuration.
- the rigid pipe has no specific limitation concerning the water depth (the limits are
mainly fixed by the laying capacity of the installation vessel, the deck space and load
of floating production system)
- the reduction of the difference between the installation cost of rigid riser and flexible
lines in deepwater, combined with a lower fabrication cost for the rigid line, turn the
rigid pipe riser into a cost effective alternative.
- the flexibility of the overall riser in production phase increases with the water depth
(i.e. increased riser length induces increased flexibility).
At present, the steel pipe is mainly used in three types of riser configuration:
- top-tensioned risers
- steel catenary risers
- offset hybrid riser tower
- Tension Leg Platforms, which are constrained to move approximately on the same
arc as the top of the riser. The TLP riser tensioner is much simpler than the
tensioner required on a semi-submersible owing to the very small stroke requirement
(i.e. TLP low heave motions), so multiple risers are practical.
- Spar platforms, where the risers are tensioned by internal buoyancy cans in a deep
centre well in the platform
The advantages and disadvantages of several different configurations relevant to flexible and
steel risers including hybrid risers are summarized in the following table 13:
The advantages and disadvantages of riser tie-off at deck level and pontoon are also
presented in table 14:
UMBILICALS
Rev. 0 Page 1
30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 4
1.1 SCOPE ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 REGULATIONS, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS............................................... 5
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... 5
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 6
1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ 6
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT........................................................................................ 7
2.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 FLOATING PRODUCTION SYSTEM ................................................................................. 7
2.2.1 I//J tube and pulling winch ............................................................................................ 7
2.2.2 I/J Tube seal ................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.3 Topside hang-off assembly .......................................................................................... 9
2.3 INTERMEDIATE CONNECTION ....................................................................................... 9
2.4 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEM .................................................................................. 10
2.5 CAPS ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.6 LAYING VESSEL AND EQUIPMENT ............................................................................... 13
3 UMBILICAL TECHNOLOGY & MANUFACTURERS REVIEW .................................... 16
3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 THERMOPLASTIC HOSE UMBILICAL ............................................................................. 21
3.3 STEEL TUBE UMBILICAL ............................................................................................. 23
3.4 POWER AND CONTROL UMBILICAL .............................................................................. 27
3.5 INTEGRATED SERVICE UMBILICAL ............................................................................... 29
3.6 SUBSEA TERMINATION INTERFACE ............................................................................. 33
3.7 SUBSEA BEND RESTRICTOR ....................................................................................... 35
3.8 TOPSIDE BEND STIFFENER ........................................................................................ 36
3.9 TOPSIDE TERMINATION SYSTEM ................................................................................. 37
3.10 EXTERNAL CORROSION PROTECTION ......................................................................... 37
4. TEST REQUIREMENT ................................................................................................. 39
4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 39
4.2 MATERIAL QUALIFICATION TESTING ............................................................................ 39
4.3 UMBILICAL DESIGN QUALIFICATION TESTING ............................................................... 40
4.4 ACCEPTANCE TESTING .............................................................................................. 40
4.5 EXTENT OF FLUSHING, PRESSURE TESTING, CLEANING & PRESERVATION..................... 42
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
The current trend among oil companies is a move towards extensive use of subsea
production systems to develop new deepwater fields. These production systems are typically
remotely operated from an adjacent manned installation via umbilicals which provide the
following functions:
Umbilicals are structures that contain two or more functional elements, i.e. thermoplastic
hoses and/or metal tubes, electrical cables and optical fibres. These are typically assembled
together with a helical technique, to form a circular bundle, which is then encased in an
extruded thermoplastic sheath, reinforced with two contra-helically applied layers of steel
wires and finished with a second extruded thermoplastic sheath.
Many offshore projects require the consideration of greater depths, longer umbilicals and
more control functions than those common in the past. Further, most oil companies are
striving to reduce the time required to complete such developments, i.e. fast track projects.
As a result, the selection of umbilicals has become more critical as many factors such as
performance, fluid compatibility, impact on interfaces, ease of deployment, etc. must be
considered during the selection process.
This document aims at providing valuable information to help the design engineer in the
selection of the most suitable umbilical, knowing that a detailed analysis during the
engineering phase is essential to ensure that all of a specific project’s unique features and
needs are fully addressed.
Since umbilical performance is a function of material, size, length and other parameters,
chapters 2 and 3 give an overview of available umbilical technology and the associated
topside and subsea interface requirements.
As electro-hydraulic control systems are widely used in deepwater applications and require a
high level of umbilical reliability and tube cleanliness, the test requirements from the
reception of core components in the manufacturing facility to the umbilical installation in the
field are presented in chapter 4.
Chapter 5 is dedicated to the description of some typical umbilical configurations found in
deep waters including installation methods / sequences and laying equipment.
Virtually all production control system applications are based on the use of either
thermoplastic hose or metal tube. The limitations of these fluid lines are described in
chapter 6.
The presentation of advantages and disadvantages of different types of umbilical in chapter7
will conclude this document.
Extruded solid dielectric insulated power cables for rated IEC 502
voltage from 1kV up to 30 kV
Standard specification for polymer properties ASTM (see section 6.1, table 03)
Remark: Mechanical Engineering Centre of European Gas Turbines Ltd. (previously ERC committee) is
working on the generation of an API steel tube umbilical specification. Current steel tube wall thickness
determination is based on manufacturer rulings.
1.4 References
1. Offshore technology conference papers from 1969 to 1998
2. In-house technical database
3. In-house experience in selection and installation of thermoplastic, steel and
integrated service umbilicals
4. Manufacturer and subsea contractor product leaflets
5. Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book – “Tie-in Methods”
Document n° TOTAL/Z/EN-004/98 (SEAL Engineering)
6. Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book – “Sealines”
Document n° TOTAL/Z/EN-005/98 (SEAL Engineering)
7. Deepwater Field Development - Reference Book – “Riser Systems”
Document n° TOTAL/Z/EN-006/98 (SEAL Engineering)
8. TOTAL General Specification SP - ELC - 143, Subsea Cables
1.5 Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with courtesy
of technical information and photographs of their products.
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT
2.1 General
The main interface requirements in the umbilical design are related to:
Pull-in
cable
Floater structure
Umbilical
Seal plug
I/J tube
Bellmouth
The I/J tube seal can either be delivered as a moulded or packer-type sealing element.
The topside hang-off assembly provides a structural element to transfer the pull-in loads from
the umbilical during installation, and into the platform J-tube after the installation is completed
(see figure 03).
Topside
umbilical
interface
Bend stiffener
"J" Tube On Floater
Umbilical
Bend stiffener
Umbilical
Non armoured
umbilical cable
Tube separators
Weld type or Armoured umbilical cable
bend stiffener compression fittings (dynamic umbilical)
The electrical penetrators and connectors are placed inside an oil-filled, pressure-
compensated chamber. With respect to the electrical cables, the philosophy of using a
minimum of two barriers against water ingress is maintained throughout the entire system.
c
Service line
VIEW SHOWING ONLY
HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS
Fluid lines c
Hydraulic tubes Section cc
FULL VIEW
Hub (tie-in)
ISU end termination interface
Carrier pipe / orientation sleeve
The subsea termination system is typically manufactured in mild steel, painted and
cathodically protected.
The design of the subsea termination system is related to the selection of one of the three
following connection methods from the subsea end of the umbilical to the subsea structures:
method is mainly used for the hydraulic umbilical with a high number of lines or
high stiffness of the individual lines, which make the use of jumpers difficult (e.g.
Integrated Service Umbilical) (see figure 06).
Seal plate
Marine electrical
connectors
Tie-in hub
with hydraulic
couplers
Clamp connector
(pull-in and
protection) (for each termination head)
Subsea
termination
Figure 06 – Connection system using subsea termination head and clamp assembly to
connect integrated service umbilical to subsea structure
Umbilical
Termination Unit
Junction
plate
Junction plate
affixed to
Umbilical with
subsea tree
bend stiffener
X-mas tree
Hydraulic coupler
Electrical connector
ROV operated juction plate
Figure 07 – Connection system using subsea umbilical termination unit and ROV
operated junction plates
ROV handle
Receptacle
Connector
2.5 Caps
The umbilical is provided with protection caps and preservation caps installed on the subsea
termination system. The purpose of the protection cap is to provide mechanical protection
and prevent contamination of the connectors and seals faces. The purpose of the
preservation cap is, in addition to mechanical protection, to enable pressurisation of the fluid
lines above the ambient in hydrostatic pressure in order to compensate for pressure
variations in the lines during laying operations and prevent ingress of dirt and moisture.
- Horizontal powered reel, vertical powered reel or carousel for the storage of
umbilical (Integrated service umbilical and steel tube umbilical will be mainly
stored in horizontal powered reel).
- Straightener / spooler to assist in loading and unloading the umbilical. The
straightening function is only required for the laying of integrated service
umbilical/steel tube umbilical,
- Tensioner / aligner to align the umbilical with the tensioner central axis and retain
the laying load tension,
- Overboard chute to control the umbilical curvature,
- A & R winch to abandon umbilical on seabed and recover it in case of problem.
Overboarding chute
Termination Overboard
head chute
Umbilical
stored on
horizontal
reel
Umbilical
termination
head
Bend
restrictor
Straightener/spooler
Umbilical
3.1 General
Umbilicals are a combination of thermoplastic hoses, electrical cables, fibre optics and/or
steel tubes which are assembled together to form a circular cross section. In order to provide
axial tensile strength and abrasion resistance, the product can be supplied armoured with
steel wires prior to extruding an outer thermoplastic sheath or applying a roving layer.
Different types of umbilical are shown in figure 11.
Hydraulic lines may be either reinforced thermoplastic tubing or steel tubing. The former can
be in very long continuous and seamless lengths, whereas the latter are produced from
shorter lengths, which are butt-welded to achieve the final production length. The shorter
lengths may additionally be seam welded as part of the steel tube production process. NDT
and heat treatment shall be carefully supervised as possible source of failure.
• Power cables for the power supply of offshore platforms and subsea production
equipment (control pod, repeater, pilot control valve, electric pumps, etc.)
• Signal cables for the remote control/monitoring of subsea production equipment
(operation of pilot control valve, readback of wellhead status and operating
parameters, etc.) from host facilities (fixed platform or floating production system)
The arrangement of hydraulic lines and electrical cables in a typical umbilical is shown in the
following figure 12:
(PolyPropylene)
The increasing use of subsea production systems for the exploitation of oil and gas has
resulted in increased complexity of such systems. Additionally, as the confidence has
developed in the use of subsea systems there have been considerable increases in the
offset distance from the ‘Host’ platform. This has resulted in a very significant increase in the
quantity of hydraulic lines being employed in many subsea developments and it is not
uncommon to find a single development employing over 300 km of hydraulic lines. Coupled
with the ever-increasing number and complexity of control and well service fluids it is
important that compatibility between the hydraulic lines and these chemical fluids (i.e.
material selection) is carefully addressed if service problems are to be avoided. The same
considerations need to be given to all materials of construction used to contain service fluids
within the overall system, e.g. seals, rigid pipe assemblies, etc.
The manufacturing techniques used in the production of umbilicals are similar to those used
for flexible pipes; essentially helical lay-up, extrusion and armouring as shown in figures 13
to 17:
Armour wires
Umbilical
Umbilical
Steel tubes
Electric cables (on reels)
(on reels)
Umbilical
• Umbilical assembly line: The functional components can be assembled using the reverse
helix technique (i.e. clockwise and anti-clockwise alternated layers, method known as SZ)
which provides the umbilical with the required flexibility. The SZ assembling machine is
also used for the manufacture of integrated service umbilical and gas lift umbilical.
The following sections present the technology and manufacturing process used in the
production of different types of umbilical implemented in deepwater applications i.e.
thermoplastic hose umbilicals, steel tube umbilicals, power & control umbilical and integrated
service umbilical.
Internal
Thermoplastic
Liner
1 Or 2 Fibre
Braid Layers
External
Thermoplastic
Sheath
Thermoplastic hose liners are produced using an extrusion process. Polymer, in granular
form, is melted and forced through a pin and die arrangement to produce a tube, initially
greater in diameter than the finished product. Whilst still molten, the tube is drawn through a
sizing die to reduce it to the required size, immediately followed by rapid cooling to solidify
the product, to facilitate passage through the hauler and spooling onto the storage reel.
In the extrusion process, forcing material through the breaker plate and die arrangement, can
result in the liner tube exhibiting anisotropic properties (e.g. out of roundness hose).
To allow the hose liner to transmit fluid at high pressures, the liner tube is reinforced with
braided textile yarn. When pressurised, the hose liner is forced against the braided material
resulting in some material flow into the interstices of the braided arrangement. This can result
in varying stress levels around the circumference and along the length of the liner.
Some thermoplastic hose umbilicals are shown in figures 19 and 20.
Filler
Electrical cable
Thermoplastic
hoses
First armour
layers
Second armour
layers
Polyethylene
outer sheath
The fibre braids typically of high strength Aramid fibre provide the mechanical strength to
resist the hoses internal pressure.
Standard end couplings can be attached to the hose in the normal manner, i.e. by one of
several swaging techniques.
In the early days of subsea production, Polyamide 11 was the commonly employed material
construction for the hose liner and there were relatively few fluids to be conveyed. These
were typically water based controlled fluids and methanol. With the introduction of
electrohydraulic control systems demanding high levels of system cleanliness and thus ultra
clean hydraulic lines, an alternative, Thermoplastic Polyester (with lower permeation rate),
was employed to satisfy this aspect.
The hoses used have to transport many different chemical fluids and also transmit hydraulic
power. The problem with chemical fluids (e.g. methanol, glycol) used for hydrate formation
prevention, is that it permeates through the current industry standard hose lining materials.
This permeated fluid, which is retained by the umbilical inner or outer thermoplastic sheath,
due to the thicker section and different material used, builds up within the umbilical structure
and egresses from the umbilical at its ends. With fluids, such as methanol, disposal of
significant quantities can present problems (environmental, cost).
The introduction of XLPe (cross linked polyethylene) hose lining material has greatly reduced
permeation rate, almost zero at seabed temperature, and is also resistant to a wide range of
commonly used injection and hydraulic fluids.
XLPe proprietary lining material was developed using a specific grade of HDPe, which is
cross-linked using an original and patented (Duco), cross linking process.
The action of cross-linking HDPe slightly improves its mechanical characteristics, but
moreover it drastically improves its blistering resistance and its chemical resistance to liquid
or gaseous hydrocarbons.
In selecting the design parameters for a metal tube umbilical, the following topics must be
considered:
• a simple cross section formed solely of helically wound metal tubes is a viable
and potentially economical design (versus thermoplastic hose)
• if included, the electrical conductors require protection from crushing loads and
allowing the electrical conductors to move axially may improve the fatigue life
and reduce likelihood of damage during installation. This is performed by means
of PVC sheath.
• proper selection of materials plays an important role in determining the lowest
cost solution. Fluid compatibility and corrosion protection will also influence the
selection
• design details, such as splices, spooling, terminations and installation
procedures, are important in successfully placing an umbilical into service
without defects or damages
• armouring and other layers that are candidates for incorporation in the umbilical
cross section should each be considered carefully on their merits, that is,
whether they actually increase reliability or serve a vital function.
The requirements for well service and length of the umbilical usually determine the number
and internal diameters of tubes, and if included the size and number of electrical conductors.
In making choices about the umbilical configuration, the designer must be aware and take
into account all the facets of the umbilical application. This includes manufacturing process
and equipment available for manufacture, installation method and procedure, static and
dynamic loading, mechanical handling, storage, stability on seafloor, termination at the well
and platform, cathodic protection testing, internal cleanliness, and repair. All of these aspects
may be important in the installation and successful operation of an umbilical.
Typical manufacturing process of metallic umbilical is as follows :
1. Seamless tube joints (in approximately 20m lengths) are welded together and put on
small reels to bring the length up to required length. Butt welds in the tubes are carried
out using orbital welding techniques (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding system) on a dedicated
welding line, and are then passed through a real time radiography unit for validation.
Radiographic results are stored electronically, initially on video tape and are then digitally
stored on compact disc; this system enables rapid retrieval if historical examination
should be required,
2. These reels are then loaded directly onto a vertical lay-up machine, and the tubes are
helically bundled, tape-wrapped, and placed temporarily on a turntable storage carousel
with diameters of 22 to 26 meters and weight capacity of about 600 Te approximately.
Polyethylene Electrical
Steel tubes Binding tape
sheathed cables
tubes
Armour
layers
Conventional steel tube umbilical is composed of a static umbilical laid on the seabed and a
dynamic umbilical suspended to the fixed or floating production system. Some samples are
shown in the following figure 23:
Electrical cables
Steel tubes
Binding tape
Armour layers
Electrical cable
Steel tubes
Binding tape
Filler
Power cable
Advanced umbilicals for the transmission of power, signals and fluids have been produced
for the management and control of subsea wells.
Electrical power and signal cables are designed and manufactured to suit the final bundle
make-up, each component being sized to ensure a balanced and circular construction.
Insulation and sheath materials are carefully selected to meet the requirements of the
application (for subsea applications, polyethylene and polyurethane are the standard
choices).
Electrical conductors comprise multi-strand copper, either tinned or plain. Strand size is
determined according to specification (see section 1.2) and/or duty. Multi-strand construction
ensures good flexibility for dynamic duties.
Insulation materials are usually thermoplastic compounds, including polyethylene, cross-
linked polyethylene, polypropylene and PVC.
Data and signal transmission line options include twisted pair, triads or quads (screened if
required) and coaxes of various specifications, all optimised for particular attenuation,
capacitance, cross-talk, resistance and other required electrical parameters.
To avoid electro-magnetic interferences, power cables are screened using either copper
braid or aluminium/polyester film. Components are screened individually or in appropriate
groupings, taking account of heat build-up and storage/handling requirement (i.e. Minimum-
bending radius).
Fibre optic cables, where required are selected from standard basic units and then further
processed as necessary (no limitation considering total length). Fibre optic is being used
more widely for data transmission because of their large bandwidth capability and without
interference problems.
Multi- and single-mode fibres are available in a variety of buffering systems. Loose buffered
systems utilise fibres in plastic or steel tubes, while tight buffered systems typically include a
steel armour or Aramid reinforcement (see figure 26).
The process of power cable or service umbilical manufacturing is as follows:
• Lay up: To achieve the best dynamic performance and to prevent stress build-up
in the components during bending, all components are helically laid-up in a full
360 degree cabled construction. This promotes flexibility and helps to prevent
transmission of stress to the component during dynamic applications
• Armouring: Lightweight wire, or heavy duty contrahelical wire armour, can be
provided for umbilicals, where required. Such armouring gives damage-protection
from ship's anchors or from rock dumping or provides high tensile strength
dependent on design. Armoured cables are torque balanced and can have either
a single or double wire armouring to ensure maximum strength and protection
according to application
• Strength members: Aramid fibre braided strength members may be applied to
provide high tensile strength, flexibility and low weight. Alternatively, central wire
rope strength members can be used, if required
• Sheathing: Extruded sheathing of most thermoplastic materials (polyurethane,
polyethylene, nylon 11, polyester elastomer, polypropylene impregnated with
bitumen are commonly used) is available for maximum mechanical protection
and service life. Materials are selected for their resistance to a seawater
environment, durability under handling and cost.
Power cables
Fibre optic cables
Polyethylene
outer sheath
Armour layers
• Service lines
• Hydraulic lines
• Chemical lines
• Fibre-optic cores for data transmission
• Electrical cables for power supply
• Electrical cables for signal transmission
• Production line
The cross-section structure of the umbilical is designed to handle the various characteristics
of the individual elements. The concept offers full control of mechanical stresses and strains,
combined with maximum flexibility.
All elements in the cross-section are bundled together in a continuous helix. The outer
sheathing is of extruded polyethylene or polyurethane.
It offers the following main features:
Service line
Electrical cables
Fiber braid filler
Steel tubes
Polyethylene
outer sheath
Outer sheath
Electrical cable
Chemical injection
Or hydraulic lines
Service line
PVC profiles
The lay length of the Kvaerner ISU is relatively long compared to conventional umbilical
technology. The Kvaerner ISU is torque balanced as the manufacturing process ensures a
controlled back twist of the hydraulic tubes. Umbilical loops during installation have never
been experienced for any Kvaerner umbilical (e.g. Norsk Hydro TROLL, NJORD, VISUND).
The Kvaerner umbilical concept allows individual design to suit a range of applications
capable of transferring hydraulic fluids, electrical signals, power and fibre-optic signals.
Service lines (typically 1,5" – 4") can easily be included and are placed in the centre, with the
electrical signal and power cables, fibre optic cores and hydraulic tubing placed
circumferentially around inside PVC conduit elements. The circumferentially placed members
follow a helix trajectory. Each element is designed to sustain hydrostatic pressure.
The axial strength in the Kvaerner umbilical design is provided mainly by the central metal
tubing. Separate armouring layers to take axial loads and stresses are therefore not
necessary.
Where a thermoplastic or steel tube umbilical always has the electrical cables in the centre
(see figures 29 and 30), the cable position within the Kvaerner umbilical is not critical.
Covered by the PVC profiles, the electrical and fibre optic cables will bend around their own
centre axis and not around the centre of the cross section (see figure 31). The electric cables
in the Kvaerner umbilical are not subject to excessive strains. In addition, the conduit
elements give protection against external loads. Electric and fibre optic elements can thus be
placed in any position within the Kvaerner integrated service umbilical.
Electrical cable
Electrical placed
In the center line
and surrounded by
steel tubes
Steel tubes
Armour layers
Outer sheath
Steel tubes
Electrical
cable placed
in the outer
layer
Service line
PVC profiles
Seamless tubes in length up to 23m are butt welded and progressively spooled into
reels. The length of any reeled tubing depends on the tube size. The tube string
welding is run on line composed of programmable orbital TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas)
welding stations, real time X-ray inspection and CD recording. The Non Destructive
Examination (NDE) system of inspection provides a 100% traceability ensuring that
individual tubes and welds throughout the production are identifiable to their location
within the completed umbilical and mapped to achieve a complete manufacturing
history traceable to the original material certification,
Completed tube strings are hydrostatically pressure tested prior to release for the
umbilical lay up,
Tested tube strings are loaded into the umbilical lay up machine,
Seamless central service line (from 1.5” up to 6” OD and in approximately 20m lengths)
are welded together and stored on the carousel. Welding, NDE and pressure test are
performed as for the above seamless tubes,
The hydraulic/chemical tubing strings and electrical cables together with the PVC
profilers are helically laid up around the central service line,
The circular bundle is 100% tape wrapped then directed to a temporary storage
carousel. During the lay up operation tube to tube weld joints and electrical splices are
performed in order to produce the required length,
The umbilical is then passed through an extrusion line for the application of the
polyethylene outer sheath and routed to a large storage turntable, ready for factory
acceptance test, loading and transportation to the offshore site.
Interface flange
Female
Tube retaining collars connector
Umbilical
Resin filled
Tube
with flanged
interface
Articulated bend
limiter
Tube separator
Typical 5m
Tube bundle clamp Electrical cables
The outer steel or plastic tubes are separated from the centre tube by the insertion of a
tapered cone over the centre tube and this “sprayed” tube configuration is resin encapsulated
within a tubular compartment. To prevent the tubes from pulling out of the resin, collars are
fillets welded to the tubes (see figure 32) in order to provide a bearing surface against which
the resin is poured during assembly. In this way the compressive modulus of the resin rather
than the bond strength of the resin to the tube limit the load (or tension) capability.
The efforts applied to the umbilical are mainly taken by the interface flange, which
recuperates the tension forces through the tube retaining collars and the moments through
the bend limiters.
Umbilical
termination
head
The restrictor and not the umbilical subsequently carry additional external bending loads.
The subsea bend restrictors can be either based on cathodically protected steel elements or
conventional moulded elements. In the latter, the bend restrictor elements, or rings, are
manufactured from a specific grade of polyurethane elastomer. The material is tough, semi-
rigid and creeps resistant.
The steel material is preferable to the plastic elastomer, with respect to preventing over-
bending of steel tube umbilicals. The steel bend restrictor also provides better definition of
mechanical characteristics or improved strength. The subsea steel bend restrictor is
purposely designed for each individual application and is provided with cathodic protection.
The restrictor ring fasteners are not connected to a cathodic protection system and so they
are supplied in highly corrosion resistant materials.
Bending restrictors could be installed either onshore or (if reeling problems are expected)
offshore prior to the laying operation.
Bending stiffener
View X - X
Pull-in head
X
Ø324 Water blocking caps on
Umbilical electric cables
Heat shrink tape Resin filled Tube separator Tube retaining collars
Piping connections
Metallic coatings have been utilised for providing corrosion control in seawater immersion in
the North Sea, and more recently in the Gulf of Mexico. Thermal sprayed aluminium meets
all mechanical and corrosion requirements for steel tube. However, there is a concern
around the ability to sustain a high rate of tubing production and economics. An extrusion
process would be a more effective method to apply a metallic coating to the tubing with zinc
as the coating material. This solution was used for zinc coated wires in complex mooring
cables for Tension Leg Platforms. This design uses bitumen type blocking agent.
The barrier coating and cathodic protection functions of a zinc alloy are a function of the
alloy’s chemical composition. Zinc alloys typically used for cathodic protection in seawater
are quite active and have poor barrier coating properties. Conversely alloys, which exhibit
better barrier coating properties, have limited cathodic protection capabilities. A combination
of these properties is required for long term corrosion control of steel umbilical elements.
4. TEST REQUIREMENT
4.1 General
To demonstrate that the functional core components and umbilical system will meet the
performance requirements, a qualification/factory acceptance test program should be
undertaken. This will cover material testing of each umbilical component through to umbilical
performance verification.
♦ Electric cables
♦ Data transmissions
The steel umbilical prototype samples will include butt welded tube sections in order to verify
the integrity of the welds under flex fatigue conditions.
The performance criteria and cycles performed will be mutually agreed between umbilical
manufacturer and operator.
- Visual inspection
- Dimensional checks
- Burst pressure test (samples only)
- Proof pressure test (1.5 * design pressure)
♦ Electric cables
♦ Umbilical
The following tests will be carried out on the finished umbilical before load out and those
marked *, shall be repeated (as required) after loading onto the shipping/installation reel,
during the installation phase and the subsea pre-commissioning phase. Results should be
comparable to the previously performed tests (i.e. before load-out).
- Electrical cables
- Hydraulic tests
- Data transmissions
Notes:
♦ The umbilical hydraulic lines will be pressure tested using filtered fresh water or final
fluids as required, flushed and cleaned to meet or exceed the requirements of NAS 1638,
Class 6 (Hydraulic Control), Class 8 (Scale) and class 12 (Chemical/inhibitor). The
umbilical hydraulic lines will be delivered fluid filled, prior to load-out.
♦ Procedures for maintenance of the stored umbilical, including the frequency of fluid
replenishment, pressure monitoring, etc. should be generated.
♦ The pressure test is as follows:
♦ After installation and as part of the pre-commissioning phase, all test pressures refer to
the pressure at seabed, which shall equal the design pressure. Therefore test pressures
at surface (vessels or FPSO) must be defined according to the hydrostatic head relevant
to the water depth.
Line Type Flushing Pressure test Pickling * Hot oil Flow Cleanliness Preservation
&Cleaning flushing test
Prefab Prefab FAT Load Prefab FAT FAT FAT Load FAT Load
out out out
Chemical /
service X X X X X X X
lines
Hydraulic
lines X X X X X X X X X X X
After incoming inspection and dimensional control a foam pig is driven through the steel
tubes by dry filtered air, to verify cleanliness and remove any contamination before welding.
During welding (& reeling onto storage carousel) the tubing shall be equipped with special
end fittings for flushing and hydraulic pressure testing. After pressure testing the tubing shall
be thoroughly drained and dried by means of a wiper pig driven through the system by dry
filtered air. The operation shall be repeated until the system is clean and dry (e.g. NAS
1638).
Immediately after drying, blind caps shall be mounted on the end fittings for protection during
storage and transportation.
After assembly and welding into complete umbilical, another hydraulic pressure testing will
be required for all lines.
When the pressure testing has been accepted and recorded, chemical cleaning (pickling)
shall follow for the hydraulic lines. The chemical cleaning will be executed in three steps: acid
cleaning, flushing and drying.
In addition the hydraulic lines shall be flushed with hot oil. During this operation a cleanliness
verification and water content examination shall be executed by particle counting of the fluid
in accordance with NAS 1638 Class 6.
5. INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
5.1 General
Deepwater field development uses subsea drilled and completed wells tied back to fixed
structures in shallower water or floating production systems in deep waters. The tie back
connections may be performed directly or through a subsea manifold.
These subsea trees are monitored and controlled via umbilicals suspended in a catenary
shape and protected at the splash zones by I/J tubes fixed to the structures as illustrated in
figure 37.
Bend Stiffener
Deep water
Subsea termination assembly
Production Platform
2. Umbilical connecting ‘host’ platform to subsea structure
Attachment point
Sea level
J tube
Shallow water
Bellmouth
Seabed
Deep water
Umbilicals are installed from an umbilical/flexible pipe installation vessel and can be
deployed from two distinct umbilical laying spreads, depending on the line structure limitation
and the lay tensions :
♦ in-line two-tracks tensioners
♦ or directly from the storage reel
For deepwater applications, steel tube umbilicals can have a large size of over 100mm OD
(i.e. 110 mm – 180 mm) and high lay tensions varying between 30 tons and up to 100 tons at
2000m water depth.
Based on the umbilical crush resistance test (see section 4.3) and a typical usage factor of
0.67 (or safety factor, refer to API 17 J), an allowable compression load is defined.
Both, umbilical lay tension and allowable compression load will determine the required (dual-
track) tensioner contact length or the number of tensioners to provide the equivalent contact
length.
When the required contact length is higher than 10 m – 12 m, there is a clear advantage to
lay the umbilical directly from the storage reel, which must be rated for the lay tensions.
As for rigid pipe, the steel tube umbilical must be laid as per the rules for submarine pipeline
systems, and more specifically in accordance with the following criteria:
Static umbilical can also be integrated in a flowline bundle and installed by the towing
method.
With regard to the repair topic, the only known method is to recover to surface the
termination heads or the umbilical for repair; there is no underwater repair technique
alternative.
The following sections will cover the current umbilical installation method using DP vessel
equipped with suitable equipment for the work and related laying technique and procedures.
Laying
wheel
In-line
tensioners
Work platform
The umbilical lines are stored in a rotating basket in one or several segments and are routed
towards the tensioning system via a spooling and deflector system. A straightening function
will be added to the spooling system in case of integrated service umbilical deployment.
When umbilicals are laid directly from the storage reel rated to hold the full catenary tension,
the line is spooled out from the top of the reel with a spooling device.
The umbilical tensioning spread consists of individual in line tensioners over the working
deck.
Both the umbilical laying reel with associated spooling system and the umbilical tensioning
spread are controlled from the operation control room, in synchronization with deployment of
the flowlines in case of a dual lay. The storage basket and the associated spooling system is
operated generally from an individual control cabin.
The umbilical abandonment is performed with a winch fitted with adequate cable length and
size related to water depth and laying tension.
Abandonment of the umbilical line on the seabed is achieved using a ROV remotely
controlled disconnector or an acoustic release hydraulic shackle.
A deck crane (or A-frame) provides a direct access over the outside of the umbilical laying
wheel or overboarding chute. The proper outreach of the crane facilitates the overboarding of
umbilical connection or large termination unit.
5.3.1. General
1. Umbilical is initiated at the manifold with a stab and hinge over connection or a
pull-in/connection method and terminated near the subsea well with a second
end lay down sled (i.e. infield umbilical connection from manifold to satellite well).
The connection between the umbilical and the subsea well is later made using a
combination of the following tie-in methods: (1) rigid or a flexible jumper, (2)
junction plates and (3) flying leads (see figure 40).
2. Umbilical is initiated at the manifold with a stab and hinge over connection or a
pull-in/connection method. It is laid in the direction to the fixed or floating
production system and pulled through an I/J tube or cross hauled from the laying
vessel to the floating production vessel (see figure 41).
3. Umbilical can also be initiated at the fixed or floating production system and
terminated near the subsea structure with a second end umbilical termination
assembly (i.e. termination head, lay down sled, umbilical termination unit, etc.). A
pull-in and connection tool operated by ROV may be used to connect the
umbilical to the subsea structure (see figure 42).
For further information on connection technique please refer to Document “Tie-in Methods”
[reference 05] in Deepwater Field Development Reference Book.
The fabricated umbilical length must be accurately determined for installation purpose based
on:
♦ On site route survey (seabed bathymetry, pockmarks, seabed debris and obstruction, etc)
♦ Overlength (typically 2% - 5%) to mitigate for measurement accuracies of baselines (e.g.
DGPS, acoustic) and electronic equipments.
For steel tube umbilical and for deepwater installation, the internal fluid temperature drop
from surface (up to 40°C in West Africa) to seafloor at 4°C will induce fluid volume reduction.
In which case, potential tube collapse, under hydrostatic pressure at seabed must be
addressed, or fluid volume compensation must be provided during the installation
sequences.
The installation sequences associated with the above umbilical laying methods are further
described in the following section.
1. The first end of the umbilical is initiated with a stab & hinge-over connector at the
subsea manifold equipped with a stab & hinge-over receiver.
2. When the stab & hinge-over connector is fully engaged and locked in its receiver,
the installation vessel moves ahead slowly to perform the hinge-over operation.
3. During the hinge-over operation, the correct rotation of the connector and landing
of umbilical on seabed is monitored by ROV.
4. On completion of hinge-over phase, normal umbilical laying continues until
lowering of second end termination unit or sled on seabed.
5. Once the sled is laid down in the target area, its position is confirmed by ROV
and acoustic metrology.
6. When the sled abandonment and disconnection of A&R winch cable are
completed, the connection of the umbilical to the subsea structure is performed
by ROV using flying leads terminated with junction plates.
Note : As part of above step 4, when approaching the target area from a distance of 2 – 3 times the water
depth, the remaining umbilical length (in surface) is to be cross checked with the remaining lay distance (by
means of acoustic baseline). This will allow the umbilical over length to be stored in curves on the seafloor,
prior to the lay-down of the sled/umbilical termination unit in the target area.
Umbilical terminated
with stab&hingeover
connector
Receiver
Umbilical
termination unit
Target
area
Flying lead
Weak link
Junction plate
Umbilical
termination
unit
Subsea tree
Umbilical
1. Lowering of the umbilical with its stab & hinge-over connector using the umbilical
laying spread located at the stern of installation vessel.
2. Stab and lock the connector in the receiver mounted on the subsea structure.
3. Move the vessel in the laying direction while paying out on umbilical to perform
the hinge-over operation.
4. On completion of hinge-over operation, ROV will check the correct landing of the
umbilical on seabed before resuming the normal umbilical laying operation.
Umbilical is paid out until the vessel takes position for the transfer of umbilical to
the floater.
5. When the transfer cable is recovered from the floater, connect the pull-in line to
the pull-in head mounted on the umbilical and start the transfer of the umbilical to
the floater.
6. Once load transfer is completed, recover A&R winch cable, resume pulling the
umbilical through I/J tube and secure the umbilical to the hang off platform.
Note: The same note for umbilical over-length (see 5.3.2.1) is applicable during above step 4.
Lay vessel
Umbilical terminated
with stab&hingeover
connector
Subsea structure
Receiver
Lay direction
J tube
1. A transfer cable is passed from the floating production system to the installation
vessel by means of ROV.
2. The first end umbilical termination is transferred to the floater with the dynamic
part of the umbilical by pulling it through the I/J tube attached to the floater
structure.
3. The first end termination is secured to the hang off platform while paying out of
the umbilical continues.
4. Normal umbilical laying operation continues until the lowering of the second end
umbilical termination on seabed.
5. On completion of second end umbilical termination lay down in target area, ROV
will confirm its position before removing the A&R winch cable.
6. If the umbilical is terminated with a termination head, the tie-in method will consist
in first performing the pull –in of the termination head in the subsea structure then
its connection to the structure by means of ROV operated tools or running tools
to be deployed from the surface vessel.
If the umbilical is terminated with a termination unit/lay down sled, the tie-in method is
performed by ROV using jumpers and flying leads.
Note: The same note for umbilical over-length (see 5.3.2.1) is applicable during above step 4.
Floating production
system
Sea level
Transfer
Transfer cable
cable ROV
First end termination
Seabed
Attachment point
Lay away
direction
Second end
Umbilical termination
Subsea
structure
Target area
3 UMBILICAL ATTACHMENT & LAY AWAY 4 SECOND END TERMINATION LOWERING
ROV operated
connection tool
Termination Pull in
head winch
For example, if a series of tests performed on liner material immersed in a fluid at 70°C
shows that it takes 7 months for the elongation at break to reduce to half its original value,
the predicted life at 20°C would be extrapolated as shown in table 02:
70 0y 7m
60 1y 2m
50 2y 4m
40 4y 8m
30 9y 4m
20 18y 8m
Table 02 – Prediction life of liner material (50% life improvement for every 10°C reduction)
The increasing use of subsea production systems and increasing offset distances and the
need to inject well service chemicals, has resulted in a wider range of control fluids and a
proliferation of well service fluids. These fluids tend to be mixtures of chemicals contained
within a solvent base. At this time it had been observed that one of the hose liner materials
exhibited considerable anisotropic features and, it was felt, that perhaps the dumbbell test
method may not necessarily be a realistic test for such materials, particularly, with fluids of a
"cocktail" nature.
Whilst recognising the simplicity and low cost features of the dumbbell test, a more elaborate
yet simple low cost test was employed to address the anisotropic aspects. Instead of
immersing dumbbells in the fluid at ambient pressure, samples of extruded tube were
immersed and instead of measuring the elongation at break as a function of time, the burst
pressure of the tube was monitored with time.
In order to compare the sample immersion testing with pressurised hose testing, the
pressure cycling compatibility test method was developed and consists in filling the hoses
with control fluids, which would be subject to pressure cycling at elevated temperatures.
The qualification programme for a standard hydrostatic hose test in accordance with SAE
J343d rules for hoses up to 10,000 psi rated working pressure is as follows:
Stability of the service fluid is an important consideration and any instability could give rise to
localised incompatibility with a hydraulic line. Stability testing of the service fluid should be
undertaken to qualify a fluid and to highlight any potential problem areas. It is understood
that draft API 17F specification, "Subsea Control Systems", will include such tests. The same
consideration needs to be given to well service chemicals where separations of products are
not uncommon. Where hydraulic lines are installed in a vertical shape, e.g. J-tube, Floating
Production System, the potential for separation is greatly increased. The impact of any fluid
modifications, however minor, should be fully evaluated before being introduced into a
hydraulic line.
Regardless of the materials of construction of a hydraulic line (polymeric, elastomeric or
metallic), compatibility testing should be performed with the actual line design to be used in
service, in order to minimise the risk of problems arising after manufacture of the umbilical
system.
With thermoplastic polyester, the small volumes of additives (lubricant, biocide, etc.) in the
control fluid can have a significant effect on the rate of chemical reaction between the fluids
and the polymer.
For polymeric hose liners, the rate of increase in chemical reaction is more severe when
compared with the historical methods based on dumbbell and tube samples, accelerated
without stress.
For polyamide 11, the material would be expected to withstand chemical compatibility and
stress ageing. It has been demonstrated that a service life in excess of 20 years for
temperature up to 40°C is possible; there are examples of at least 16 years extended service
life experience for typical North Sea operational temperatures.
Resistance to weak acids D 543 Very good Very good Very good Very good
Resistance to strong bases D 543 Very good Very good Good Fair
For methanol, the following table 04 shows the permeation rates which have been measured
for Polyamide 11 and Thermoplastic Polyester at atmospheric pressure:
2
Temperature Permeation rate (g.m /mm/day)
50 190 150
40 115 100
23 40 22
4 13.5 5
Table 04 – Permeation rate of methanol in Polyamide 11 and Thermoplastic Polyester (69 bar)
The permeation rate of methanol in XLPe lining material for internal pressures of 344 bar and
69 bar are presented in the following table 05:
2
Temperature Permeation rate (g.m /mm/day)
60 1.35 1.81
20 0.078 1.11
4 0.018 0.079
Remarks : Comparing the permeation at 4°C and 69 bar, of the XLPe to the Polyamide 11, it can be seen
that the permeation rate through the XLPe is 750 times less than that of the Polyamide.
Note: Allowing the electrical conductors to move axially, usually by providing lubricants and selecting proper
insulation material, is the key to increase their fatigue life.
For dynamic applications the dynamic behaviour and fatigue life of the umbilical are two of
the most important characteristics of the design. There are two critical locations that may be
deficient in fatigue life and must be examined carefully: the region near the point where the
umbilical contacts the seafloor (the “touchdown point or sag-bend radius”) and the hang-off
level at FPS. The analysis that is required to assess fatigue life is both complex and time-
consuming.
There are two conditions that create fatigue loading: (1) vortex induced vibrations due to
current and (2) FPS motions due to wind, wave and current conditions.
One critical element in the design of a dynamic umbilical is the bend stiffener. This device is
an integral part of the top support and serves to limit extreme stresses, due to static offset of
the floating production system or strong currents, and reduce the cyclic stresses which
contribute to fatigue.
As part of the material selection, the key requirement is maintaining pressure integrity and
internal cleanliness for the expected life of the project. Along with the mechanical
requirements, the material must resist external corrosion in seawater and mud as well as
internal corrosion due to water-based hydraulic fluids and chemical (e.g. methanol).
The tubes within an umbilical are surrounded by seawater. The key parameters of seawater
are temperature, oxygen concentration and pH. Another aspect of exterior environment is
cathodic protection. Even though it may not be required for the umbilical material, cathodic
protection may be required on other parts of the system. It is difficult to isolate these
components from the umbilical. In some cases, cathodic protection not properly designed,
can lead to hydrogen embrittlement, the degradation of material properties caused when
hydrogen is absorbed.
Besides resisting corrosion on the inside, the umbilical material must not significantly change
the hydraulic fluid characteristics and in particular the cleanliness of the hydraulic fluid, which
must remain near NAS Class 6, since material particle can foul or plug the control valves in
the subsea control system.
To meet these conditions, three alternative tube materials were considered:
1. low-alloy carbon-steel
2. super-duplex stainless steel
3. titanium alloy
Carbon steel offer significant cost savings in comparison with other materials but it rusts in
seawater. This corrosion can be controlled with coating and/or cathodic protection (CP). Four
options are possible: (1) traditional coating and sacrificial anodes, (2) a thermally sprayed
aluminium (TSA) coating, (3) aluminium sheathing and (4) Zinc coating. Traditional cathodic
protection with sacrificial anodes is not a good option for two reasons. First, it is difficult to
make reliable anode connections to the umbilical. Second, attaching sacrificial anodes
significantly increases the laying time, and hence the laying cost.
TSA acts both as a barrier coating, as well as a sacrificial anode. These coating have been
used in the past, for example as a tendon coating on Conoco's Hutton TLP. There is a
significant difference between spraying large diameter pipe and small diameter umbilical
tubes. Small diameters decrease the efficiency of the spray process: (most of the sprayed
metal does not coat the target and is lost). In addition, it is more difficult to achieve a uniform
coating thickness.
The concept of aluminium sheathing is to create an outer aluminium tube around an inner
carbon steel tube with a crevice between the two. There would be no metallurgical bond
between the aluminium and the steel. To evaluate the aluminium corrosion resistance in
seawater, one test specimen had holes drilled through the aluminium sheath, exposing the
crevice between the steel and aluminium to seawater. Rapid corrosion of steel tube caused
this alternative to be rejected as a means of protecting carbon steel from corrosion in
seawater.
The Zinc cladding process was used for the Shell Mensa project (carbon steel tube
umbilicals) in which the zinc is metallurgically bonded to the substrate. Similarly to TSA, Zinc
coating acts as both a barrier coating and a cathodic protection. This option was selected for
Mensa as a reasonably economic solution due to the large size and quantity of steel tubes.
Internal corrosion may occur in carbon steel tubes containing either hydraulic fluid or
methanol.
Pure, de-oxygenated hydraulic fluid is not corrosive to carbon steel; however, above a small
concentration of seawater, pitting can be significant. The pitting of typical steel (e.g. AISI
4140) is a function of the seawater concentration in a typical water-based hydraulic fluid.
Successful use of carbon steel requires that the concentration of seawater be kept below
5%. Although seawater may enter the line through negligence, it is more common for
seawater to be ingested during coupling. Some have suggested that as much as 1 cm3 of
seawater enter each line during coupling.
De-aerated methanol does not promote corrosion in steel. Without oxygen, corrosion rates in
pure methanol and other corrosive agents are extremely low, about 0.02 mpy (millimeter per
year). At standard temperature and pressure, methanol may contain up to 45ppm dissolved
oxygen, whereas water can contain only 5-6 ppm. Consequently, the corrosion rate is greater
in aerated methanol. Some tests have reported corrosion rates on the order of 0.1 mpy in
90% methanol 10% water solution saturated with oxygen.
Duplex and super duplex tubing has been used for umbilicals in the North Sea. Duplex steels
are composed of two phases, austenite and ferrite, in a roughly 50/50 ratio. In super-
duplexes, the key elements providing corrosion resistance are chromium, molybdenum,
nitrogen and tungsten (not all super-duplexes contain tungsten).
Two issues are to be considered when evaluating the performance of duplex and super-
duplex tubes in seawater: pitting, and hydrogen embrittlement due to cathodic protection.
Although duplex and super duplex materials perform well on standard pitting tests, these
materials are susceptible to pitting in natural seawater. Local corrosion rates can be
observed after exposing different samples to natural seawater for periods from several
months to several years. The benefit of additional molybdenum, nitrogen and tungsten in
super-duplex is demonstrated by a decrease in the pitting rate from 22 Cr duplex to 25 Cr
duplex. Increased alloying on super-duplex increases the risk of forming σ-phase, a third
phase with very poor mechanical properties. Care must be taken to prevent the formation of
σ-phase when welding and heat treating these alloys. Good inspection procedures are also
required.
The use of proper welding and inspection procedures overcomes the problem of hydrogen
embrittlement of the super-duplex welds.
The good experience with these alloys in the North sea demonstrated their internal corrosion
resistance to water based hydraulic fluids, and to methanol.
6.2.4. Summary
The disadvantages of the thermoplastic umbilicals with reference to the steel tube umbilicals
and ISU are further explained in the following sections.
1. Increased minimum bending radius, limitation in storage lengths, and limit the
dynamic application to certain configurations
2. Limitation in recovery cycle (e.g. for repair) as this will involve plastic strains.
3. Limit to super-duplex tube length, resulting in many butt welds and associated
radiography/corrosion testing
4. Attack by sulphide reducing bacteria on super duplex butt welded joints (e.g. BP
ETAP, Shell ETAP, BP Troika)
5. Possible carbon steel longitudinal seam failure (e.g. Shell Mensa)
6. Risks of cathodic delamination of sheathing from carbon steel tubes leading to
localised corrosion cells
7. More onerous flushing requirements (steel tubes are difficult to clean). Loosen
particles or welding scale (e.g. by bending during installation) are potential risks
for control valves.
8. Increased weight during deep water installation
9. Super duplex corrodes in seawater above 55°C, limiting use for hot water
flushing and gas lift
Rev. 0 UMBILICALS Page 62
30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
Three metal materials are thought to be candidates for umbilical applications: carbon steel,
stainless steel and titanium. Each of these has advantages and disadvantages. Carbon steel
is the least expensive material, but corrosion and fluid compatibility must be addressed to
assure adequate service life. Carbon steel can be made in continuous lengths, which tends
to lower fabrication costs. Stainless steel, usually "duplex" or "super duplex" alloys, are more
expensive, are not currently made in continuous lengths, but have better corrosion
properties. Titanium is compatible with most fluids, can be made in continuous lengths, but is
also expensive. Further, some titanium alloys must be used with care since they are affected
adversely by anhydrous methanol and form brittle titanium hybrids under certain conditions of
cathodic protection.
• Improved chemical fluid compatibility. Super duplex steel is compatible with all
commonly used injection fluids
• No limit with respect to internal/external pressure. The tubing is individually
dimensioned for each specification
• The tubular expansion is limited and will not change over the years. The hydraulic
response time will not alter over the years
• No permeability of fluids through the steel tube walls
• No migration of injection fluids
• Improved internal tube cleanliness
• Increased and predictable design lifetime
• Not exposed to ageing/degrading
• Improved regularity
• Improved crush-resistance
• Very well fitted for large water depths
• Can be delivered in very long continuous lengths without factory splices. The
world longest continuous umbilical of 35 km length has been supplied by
Kvaerner to BP for their ETAP development (also with no splices in the electric
cables)
• No or limited use of fittings. If used, welded steel tube fittings are more reliable
than those for hoses (swaging)
• No separate armouring layers in case of bundle based umbilical configuration
(avoids bird-caging, corrosion of armouring wires etc.)
• Separate weight members may be designed into the cross-section to adjust
installation parameters or stability
• Standard installation vessels and equipment can be used.
The main disadvantages of ISU are similar to those described in the previous section 7.2.
Steel Tube Umbilical.
ANNEX 01
MANUFACTURER ADDRESS
NKT CABLES
NKT Allé 1
DK-2605 Brøndby, Denmark
Tel : 45 43 48 20 30
Fax : 45 43 43 38 65
OCEANEERING MULTIFLEX
38553 FM 1774 South New Line Magnoia, Texas
77355 P.O. Box 49, USA
Tel : 1 281 356 8790
Fax : 1 281 356 8459
Rev. 0 Page 1
30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 9
2 GLOSSARY OF TERMS .............................................................................................. 10
3 CODES, STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS ............................................................. 12
4 CONTROL SYSTEM TYPES........................................................................................ 14
4.1 DIRECT HYDRAULIC .................................................................................................. 14
4.2 PILOTED HYDRAULIC ................................................................................................ 16
4.3 (PILOTED) SEQUENCED HYDRAULIC .......................................................................... 17
4.3.1 Electro-Hydraulic.........................................................................................................18
4.3.2 Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed .....................................................................................19
5 RELIABILITY AND REDUNDANCY............................................................................. 21
5.1 RELIABILITY ............................................................................................................. 21
5.2 REDUNDANCY .......................................................................................................... 23
6 OPEN/CLOSED HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS.................................................................... 24
7 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE.......................................................................................... 26
7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 26
7.2 SUBSEA ................................................................................................................... 26
7.3 HYDRAULIC/ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION ..................................................................... 26
7.4 NUMBER OF SCM FUNCTIONS .................................................................................. 27
7.5 HYDRAULIC DISTRIBUTION ........................................................................................ 27
7.6 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION ....................................................................................... 27
7.7 EARTHING ................................................................................................................ 28
8 SYSTEM OUTLINE ...................................................................................................... 29
8.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 29
8.2 TOPSIDES ................................................................................................................ 29
8.3 UMBILICAL ............................................................................................................... 29
8.4 SUBSEA ................................................................................................................... 29
9 MASTER CONTROL STATION (MCS) ........................................................................ 32
9.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 32
9.2 COMPONENTS .......................................................................................................... 32
9.2.1 Computer ....................................................................................................................32
9.2.2 Cabinet........................................................................................................................33
9.2.3 Displays & Controls.....................................................................................................33
9.2.4 Printer..........................................................................................................................34
9.3 INTERFACES............................................................................................................. 35
9.3.1 Subsea Communication..............................................................................................35
9.3.2 Supervisory Control System Interface ........................................................................39
19 INTERCONNECTIONS ................................................................................................ 78
19.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 78
19.2 FIXED STAB PLATE ................................................................................................... 78
19.3 ROV STAB PLATE .................................................................................................... 79
19.4 CLAMP HUBS ........................................................................................................... 79
19.5 ELECTRICAL JUMPERS .............................................................................................. 79
19.6 HYDRAULIC COUPLERS ............................................................................................. 81
19.7 FIBRE OPTIC JUMPERS ............................................................................................. 82
19.8 JUMPER DEPLOYMENT .............................................................................................. 83
19.9 JUMPER RETRIEVAL.................................................................................................. 84
20 SUBSEA CONTROL MODULE MOUNTING BASE (SCMMB) .................................... 85
20.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 85
20.2 CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................... 85
20.3 INTERFACE WITH SCM.............................................................................................. 85
20.4 WORKOVER SYSTEM INTERFACE ............................................................................... 85
20.5 INTERFACE WITH TREE VALVES & SENSORS .............................................................. 86
20.6 DOCKING ALIGNMENT ............................................................................................... 86
20.7 LATCHING MECHANISM .............................................................................................. 86
21 SUBSEA CONTROL MODULE (SCM) ........................................................................ 87
21.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 87
21.2 HOUSING ................................................................................................................. 87
21.3 MOUNTING BASE ...................................................................................................... 88
21.4 INTERFACES............................................................................................................. 88
21.5 CONNECTIONS ......................................................................................................... 88
21.6 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 88
21.7 SYSTEM DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 89
21.8 ELECTRONICS .......................................................................................................... 90
21.9 CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................... 90
21.10 CORROSION PROTECTION ......................................................................................... 90
21.11 PRESSURE COMPENSATION ...................................................................................... 91
21.12 RETURN LINE COMPENSATION .................................................................................. 91
1 INTRODUCTION
A subsea well requires a Xmas tree at the wellhead, housing valves that control the flow of
fluids from the well and chemical injection fluids to the well. These valves are operated by
actuators, which themselves require a source of hydraulic pressure to operate.
The primary objective of a subsea control system is to operate these hydraulic actuators
which are attached to gate valves on a subsea Xmas tree. In its simplest form, such as for
single wells, the actuator is connected directly via an umbilical hose core to a source of
hydraulic fluid from the Topsides facility and is operated by supplying fluid to, or venting fluid
from the actuator (see section 4.1)
When a field development requires two or more wells, there may be a requirement for more
complex control, such as subsea choking of wells, commingling into a flowline, and a more
sophisticated control system type may be required. The various types of Control System are
described in section 4.
The surface location of the subsea wells and the number of wells often dictates the system
architecture, and conversely if the control system architecture is studied at the conceptual
phase in a development, the well location may be influenced by the control system capability.
The time taken for a subsea valve to respond to a control signal from the Topsides facility
("valve response time") may not be important for a single low energy well, or conversely can
be a safety critical item in emergency shutdown system applications (ESD systems), or a
potential environmental hazard if a High Integrity Pipeline Protection System (HIPPS) is used
to protect a pipeline which is not fully rated to the shut in pressure of a well.
Data may also be required. This can be for reservoir management, well monitoring, flow
assurance, or diagnostics. The means for provision of data may also dictate the control
system type.
As field development complexity increases and technology advances, the capability of control
systems has had to improve from the original basic on/off control requirement. Depending on
the development, there may be the need for such items as controlling subsea booster pumps
or submersible lift pumps, subsea separator control, or multi-phase metering. Due to the
changing technology, this list of possibilities is not exhaustive.
This chapter is an introduction to the types of subsea control systems, their architecture, and
some of the basic pointers for the selection of each type of system. The actual selection can
only be made with knowledge of the full field architecture, the economics of the control
system and umbilicals, and with consideration for all other costs such as platform or vessel
access, and installation and hook up costs.
All systems require a hydraulic supply for the actuation of hydraulic valves. A typical hydraulic
power unit and its functions are described later in the text.
A subsea control system consists of many component parts and therefore has many
interfaces. A key component and critical interface is the umbilical itself, which is usually from
a different supplier than the subsea control system. This section should be read in
conjunction with the umbilical chapter.
Offshore vessel time either during installation, hook-up and final commissioning, or later for
field intervention is at a premium cost especially in remote locations where suitable vessels
are not readily available. It is important therefore to focus on system detail and reliability
including physical interfaces and material compatibility.
2 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
TITLE DESCRIPTION
DHSV Downhole Safety Valve
EDB Electrical Distribution Box
E-H MUX Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed
EPU Electrical Power Unit
ESD Emergency Shutdown System
FAT Factory Acceptance Test
FSK Frequency-Shift Keying
HCR High Collapse Resistant (Hose)
HDS Historical Data System
HIPPS High Integrity Pipeline Protection System
HPU Hydraulic Power Unit
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer
MCS Master Control Station
MFRT Minimum Fit Running Tool
MIL-HDBK- USA –Department of Defence Military Handbook on the Reliability
217(F) Prediction of Electronic Equipment
MMRT Multimode Running Tool
Modem Modulator/Demodulator
Multiplex “of many parts” Data from many sources carried via a single
communications link
NAS National Aerospace Standard
Offset Distance Distance of the control facility from the production well
P&ID Process & Instrumentation Diagram
PETE Portable Electrical Test Equipment
PETU Portable Electrical Test Unit
POD Subsea Control Module
RVDT Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
ROV Remote Operated Vehicle
SAM Subsea Accumulator Module
SAMMB Subsea Accumulator Module Mounting Base
SCM Subsea Control Module
SCMMB Subsea Control Module Mounting Base
SCP Subsea Control Panel
SCSSV Surface-Controlled Sub Surface Safety Valve
SDB Subsea Distribution Box
SDU Subsea Distribution Unit
SEM Subsea Electronics Module
SIT Site Integration Test
Subsea The subsea equipment usually on the seabed, or mounted on equipment
at the seabed
TITLE DESCRIPTION
DHSV Downhole Safety Valve
EDB Electrical Distribution Box
SUTU Subsea Umbilical Termination Unit
TDU Tool Deployment Unit (ROV)
Topsides The surface mounted equipment, either on a platform, floating
production facility such as an FPSO, or onshore land based
TUTU Topsides Umbilical Termination Unit
UPS Un-interruptible Power Supply
UTA Umbilical Termination Assembly
HIPS High Integrity Pressure Protection System
OPPS Over Pressure Protection System (See HIPPS)
Reference Title
AODC 035 Code of Practice for safe use of electricity underwater
API RP 17F / Recommended Practice for the Design and Operation of Subsea
ISO-WD-13628-6 Production Systems Part 6 “Design and Operation of Production
Controls” - DRAFT
API 17H / Design and Operation of ROV Interfaces with Subsea Production
ISO-WD-13628-8 Control Systems – DRAFT
API RP 14C Recommended Practice for Analysis, Design, Installation and
Testing of Basic Safety Systems on Offshore Production Platforms
API RP 17A Recommended Practice for the Design and Operation of Subsea
Production Systems Part 1 “General Requirements and
Recommendations”
BS 3939 Graphic Symbols for Electrical Power, Telecommunications, and
Electronic Diagrams
BS 2917 / Graphical symbols used on diagrams for fluid power systems and
ISO 1219 components.
BS EN 55014 Radio Interference limits & Measurements for electrical appliances,
portable tools & similar electrical apparatus.
IEC 60079-11 Electrical Apparatus for potentially Explosive Atmospheres
BS 6231 Specification for PVC Insulated Cables for Switchgear and Control
Gear Wiring
BS 6360 Specification for Conductors in Insulated Cables and Cords
BS 6370 Code of Practice for Instrumentation in Process Control Systems:
Installation, Design and Practice
BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations, IEE Wiring Regulations
16th Edition
BS EN 60 068-2- Environmental Testing Procedures Test, Test “Ea” and Guidance –
27 Shock
BS EN 60 068-2- Environmental Testing Procedures Test, Test “Ed” – Free Fall
32
BS EN 60 529 Specification of Degrees of Protection provided by enclosure (IP
Code)
ISO 9000-3 Guidelines for the Application of ISO 9001 to the Development,
Supply and Maintenance of Software
BS EN ISO 9001/ Quality Systems
9002 / 9003
Reference Title
EN 50082-2 EMC Generic Immunity Standard for Industrial Environments
NAS 1638 National Aerospace Standard for hydraulic fluid cleanliness
DIN 50049.3.1(b) Material Traceability Requirements
• Direct Hydraulic
• Piloted Hydraulic
• (Piloted) Sequenced Hydraulic
• Electro-Hydraulic
• Electro-Hydraulic Multiplexed
PI PI
3 Way
Hand
Valve
Subsea
Control Panel
Tree
Valve
Figure 4.2 - Direct Hydraulic Control System
There are two main limitations of this system, firstly response time and hence offset distance,
and secondly lack of data for well monitoring or diagnostics.
When the three-way valve is actuated, hydraulic fluid from the HPU will flow through the valve
into the hose in the umbilical. The hose is full of hydraulic fluid at atmospheric pressure. To
open the subsea valve it is necessary to fully pressurise the thermoplastic hose over its entire
length which will expand by a nominal 10%, and to flow through the hose the total volume of
the valve actuator.
Opening the valve requires sufficient force to overcome the valve friction, the pressure in the
valve bore, and to compress the return spring. Once the valve is open, it will remain open
with very little hydraulic force.
The hose expansion can be minimised by decreasing its bore size. However there is a trade-
off here in that the hose still has to flow the volume of the subsea actuator. With a small bore
hose and a long offset, the internal friction in the hose makes flowing of hydraulic fluid very
difficult to do, so larger bore hoses are necessary.
As the offset distance increases, the valve response time increases. The acceptable
response time depends on several factors:
• The energy of the well and hence its flow through the closing valve, and
• The position of any safety valves downstream of the closing valve.
An acceptable response time must be determined by hazard (HAZOP) and safety analysis.
As an indication of the distances that can be controlled by direct hydraulic control using
thermo-plastic hose, 4 km is probably the furthest that should be considered.
For deep-water applications, the umbilical length from the surface to the seabed has to be
included into the 4 km nominal length and therefore limitations of direct hydraulic systems
become apparent.
The expansion characteristics and the external crushing caused by the static head of
seawater can be eliminated by using steel tube in the umbilical. There is one field in the Gulf
of Mexico where an 11 km offset has been achieved using a steel tube umbilical in a direct-
hydraulic system.
The closure of a subsea valve is the reverse of opening. By operating the three way valve
into the closed position, the umbilical core vents to atmospheric pressure in the hydraulic
reservoir. The volume of the actuator and the expansion of the hose core have to be returned
to the hydraulic reservoir in order for the valve to return to the closed position using the force
of the return spring.
In order to achieve the simplicity of the direct hydraulic system, there is one hose conduit for
each hydraulic function, and there are no cables in the umbilical for data monitoring.
It is possible to include twisted and screened signal pairs into an umbilical to access data
from transducers using 4-20mA loops. This capability is dependent on the power drivers for
the loops and the size of the conductors, and the offset distance. There needs to be a twisted
and screened signal pair for each transducer.
Another consideration in deep-water applications is that gate valve actuators may require
larger springs to compensate for the pressure caused by the static head of seawater. The
size of the spring usually requires a larger spring cartridge housing, and hence the valve
actuator volume also increases, having detrimental effects on valve opening and closure
response times.
Control fluid pressures may be increased allowing the use of smaller actuators. Also,
balanced stem actuators may be employed to reduce the resistance to motion from the
hydrostatic pressure.
PI PI
Hydraulic
Umbilical Pilot Hose 1/4"
Supply
3 Way P
Hand
Valve Umbilical Supply Hose 1/2"
Control Panel
Subsea
Tree
Valve
The objective is that the (preferably) large bore hose that is required to flow the volume of the
actuator is continually pressurised from the hydraulic power unit. Therefore on valve actuation
there is no delay whilst this hose is pressurised.
The small pilot hose is operated using a three way panel mounted valve supplied from the
hydraulic power unit in a similar manner to the direct hydraulic system. The difference
between the systems is that although the hose will expand under pressurisation, the smaller
hose requires less expansion. Secondly, the hydraulic pilot volume to actuate the pilot valve
is very small and hence there is very little volume flow required to energise the pilot valve and
to open the subsea valve. The result is that the valve actuation time is improved.
The valve closure is the reverse procedure. When the three way valve in the control panel is
moved into the closed position, the pilot line starts to depressurise into the hydraulic
reservoir. The volume in the pilot hose is small, and the pilot return spring can be designed to
snap action closed at a higher pressure than is possible from the valve actuator in the direct
hydraulic system.
The snap action closed of the pilot valve connects the subsea valve actuator to sea, and the
return closed action of the subsea valve spring pushes the actuator volume to sea. As the
subsea valve actuator volume does not have to flow along the length of the umbilical, valve
closure time is also significantly reduced.
For multiple subsea valve applications such as on a Xmas tree, there is a requirement for a
pilot hose for each valve, but the larger supply hose can be used as a common supply feeder
to all of the pilot functions.
Vent
PI PI
P
Control Panel
3000 PSI
A typical system is shown in the diagram, with the first valve in the sequence opening at
1,500 psi (103.5 bar) and each subsequent valve opening at 500 psi (34.5 bar) pressure
increments. In order to keep sufficient differential between valve actuations to prevent
spurious opening, and to keep the system hydraulic working pressure within normal system
design working pressures, the number of valve actuations in a sequence is limited.
Closure of the valves is by reverse sequence where the valves close in sequence by
reversing the system hydraulic pressure using the regulator.
The two main advantages of this type of system are the improvement in response time and
that theoretically, only one hose is required in the umbilical. A disadvantage is that a pressure
regulator is required to operate the valves and these can be unreliable when operating
against a closed system with no flow. A further disadvantage is that the valves can only be
opened and closed in the same sequence. This may be acceptable for well opening and
closing for production requirements, but does not allow any flexibility for procedures such as
well servicing or chemical injection batching.
Also the basic system format is without remote sensing for data and diagnostics.
A variation of this system exists in which an additional single supply line is used to supply the
fluid that operates all the actuators, and the pilot line merely controls the sequence as
described above. With this system, the pilot line can be of smaller diameter and the pressure
variations due to the opening of the actuators no longer affect the pilot system.
4.3.1 Electro-Hydraulic
The electro-hydraulic principle is similar to the piloted hydraulic system. The difference is that
the pilot valve adjacent to the Xmas tree valve is replaced by a solenoid valve.
The following figure shows the electro-hydraulic principle with an electrical switch in the
topsides panel being made to energise the solenoid coil, which then energises the valve
shuttle and connects the hydraulic supply through the umbilical to the valve actuator to open
the valve. Closing is the reverse, by de-energising the solenoid the shuttle moves to the
closed position by spring pressure and the supply is blocked and the actuator is connected to
the vent for closure.
Hydraulic
Umbilical Hose 1/2"
Supply
Subsea
Tree
Valve
With the system as shown above, a cable pair has been introduced into the umbilical for one
function only. Therefore for each additional function using this system another cable would be
required in the umbilical. A standard solenoid has to be continually energised to stay open
and to hold the subsea valve open. The solenoids may have a low power requirement, but
voltage drops in the cable over long offset distances dictates a reasonable size cable
conductor will be required.
Also if further signal pairs are added to the configuration, the umbilical will grow in diameter
adding to the cost and also making it more difficult to handle during manufacture and during
load out and installation.
Signal PT
TT Transducers
Power S FT
PT
Hydraulic
Supply
PT
Vent
S
Production Subsea Xmas
PT Wing Valve Tree Valves
S
Production
PT Master Valve
Annulus
Control Pod
Master Valve
The subsea power is provided via the Electrical Power Unit (EPU: described in chapter 10),
and the hydraulic supply is from the Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU; see chapter 12), the same
as for the other control system types.
For deep-water applications where flow assurance and reservoir management are required,
the electro-hydraulic control system provides benefits that the other systems cannot.
5.1 Reliability
The remote location and the lack of (or expense of) access to any subsea equipment is a
major consideration in system design. There are many components and interfaces on a
subsea control system that can fail.
There are many reasons for failure. The list below is indicative rather than all encompassing:
Direct Failures: Corrosion, joint failure, splice failure, sensor failure, solenoid valve
failure, water creep, SEM failure (power supply, modem, solenoid driver,
microprocessor, etc), hydraulic coupling leak, hose failure, weld failure,
dynamic umbilical fatigue, electrical connection failure.
Indirect Failures: Dropped object, umbilical dragged by anchor chain or trawl board, wax or
hydrate blocking sensor port,
Reliability can be improved by proper burn-in of electronics, and testing, such as shock and
vibration. Minor details such as hydraulic coupling seal compatibility should not be
overlooked. Electronic components sourced by manufacturers can vary from full 'military'
specification, through 'industrial' high or low grade to 'commercial' (household quality) with
little visibility or control by the purchaser.
The reliability of any single component that could fail and shut in a field should be questioned.
If the component cannot be replaced with a better component, then there should be an
alternative redundant path designed into the control system in case of component failure.
Reliability analysis can be a complex task and setting specific reliability targets is often
misleading and difficult to verify, requiring clear definition of the sub-systems and the failure
modes to be included in the analysis, and the resulting reliability models. A reliability analysis
is a statistic analysis of the probability of survival of the system, but it is important to
recognise the mathematical basis to this analysis and the meaning of the terms employed,
which are sometimes misconstrued to be some form of guarantee that the equipment will
survive. For example, the probability of survival Ps of a system over a time it is defined as
Ps(t) = e -Ȝt
Pf(t) = 1 - e-Ȝt
Where the parameter MTBF can be defined (for the exponential distribution) as that time at
which 36.79% of a given population can be expected to survive, or, alternatively, an individual
component has a 36.79% probability of surviving until that time.
MTBF = 1/Ȝ
Analysing the models requires the use of established databases, such as MIL-HDBK-217 to
obtain the failure rate (Ȝ); these databases, however, are comprehensive for electronic
components, but less useful for mechanical and hydraulic components, making a complete
analysis difficult to quantify. Setting specific 'minimum component MTTFs ' is therefore
impractical.
A more realistic approach is to ensure all components used are to a suitably high
specification, for example, electronic components used should be to at least 'industrial' grade,
rather than 'commercial'. This latter grade, as well as assuring a higher QA level during
manufacture, also sets the ambient temperature over which the device operates and a
'commercial' level component may well not be suitable for the temperatures experienced in a
system, particularly during land-testing or even when operating inside an enclosure. In
addition, the likely physical failure mode of a component or sub-system should be considered
(if possible), to ensure the overall system fails in a 'safe' manner.
A more useful figure is that of 'Availability' of the system, which is defined as:
MTBF
MTBF+MTTR
It can be seen from this equation that the shorter the MTTR, the better the overall availability
of the system, and it is this parameter which is a far better target of attention during the
system design (the value of MTBF is thus not quite so relevant, for example if MTBF is 1000
hours, a 1-hour MTTR gives an availability of 99.9% and an MTBF of 100 hours with the
same MTTR gives 99.01%, whereas a 10-hour MTTR gives 99.00% and 90.9% respectively).
It can be improved by arranging for a modular design, adequate tooling to facilitate retrieval
and replacement, maintaining a reserve of spare modules etc.
A mathematical (statistical) analysis can be employed to calculate the number of spares of
any particular sub-element of the system , but in practice this is more influenced by
commercial and contractual issues than an analysis, and it is more usual to choose a
'practical' level of spares or instigate a "TVM" (Total Vendor Management) style support
contract (to avoid purchasing a large number of spares that may never be utilised).
5.2 Redundancy
The usual method employed to improve the reliability figure is to duplicate those parts of the
system considered to be at high risk - i.e. by adding 'redundancy'.
Redundancy has to be considered in terms of complexity and cost. The implementation of
dual systems improves the (mathematical) reliability but it should be noted that all systems
must eventually be consolidated at some single physical point (e.g. at the Tree Valve
actuator, or at a solenoid pilot valve in an SCM) and the failure mode of this consolidation
point can sometimes degrades the overall integrity of the system, as in practice a failure at
this point might prevent both dual-redundant paths from operating. (A reliability analysis often
assumes this single mode has a zero failure rate).
For example, a shuttle valve required for a dual hydraulic system can be stationary at one of
its two positions and when called to activate due to a hose failure, the shuttle can jam in
position or its o-ring seals can have set in their deformed position and moving the shuttle
causes seal failure.
The normal level of a dual redundant control system is as follows:
Some manufacturers supply dual electronics as standard to justify the standard of electronic
components used.
Some Operators require higher levels of redundancy. Items such as Dual SEMs are specified
for deepwater, and Dual umbilicals are sometimes specified.
The provision of total dual system redundancy, also brings corresponding system complexity
and increased cost. However system consolidation must end in a single point somewhere, for
example at a Xmas tree actuator.
For multi-well systems single point failures in control systems should be eliminated,
particularly for 'key' valves that can influence Production, such as Manifold Valves. Whilst the
failure of one Well in a multi-well system could be acceptable in terms of loss of production,
the inability to operate a Manifold Valve could prevent the whole field from producing.
Such critical application valves are often operated by two separate Subsea Control Modules.
Even adopting such a philosophy, the consolidation method must be examined to avoid
common-mode failures. Diverse redundancy has been used in the past, for example an
electro-hydraulic system with sequenced hydraulic backup, but these are much less common
now that the use of subsea electronics has proven itself over the years.
A particular factor in the selection of fluid is that of the downhole temperature. Care must be
taken to select a fluid suitable for the expected temperature. "Ordinary" water-based fluids
have an upper temperature of typically 85 degree Centigrade and alternative formulations are
available for higher temperatures to about 150 degrees.
7 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
7.1 General
There are many considerations as to the selection of a control system type and of the system
architecture. The options and ultimate choice and the recommendation of the system type
can be a fundamental decision to an engineer with system experience, or a difficult task to an
engineer with little or no system design, installation and commissioning experience.
The actual surface location at the mud-line of the wells is the principle factor in determining
the field architecture and hence the subsea control system architecture.
• Wells may be pre-drilled and suspended for later tie back, or a well may be drilled
vertically as a satellite well for tie back at a long offset to an existing platform.
• There may be a requirement for a long term production flowing test or extended
well test requiring down-hole well data. If the well test was to prove additional
reserves there could be the requirement to build in the flexibility to tie in a second
well at some time in the future.
• Another option is to drill a number of highly deviated wells in a cluster at the
surface for tie back to a surface facility such as an FPSO.
• A well could be drilled and completed in shallow water at a remote location requiring a
simple control system design that can be maintained with low technical skills.
• A well could be drilled and completed in deepwater requiring installation and hook
up of the subsea control system by ROV, and with the requirement to control a
smart completion.
• The Topsides location may be a manned or unmanned Platform, or Floating
Production, Storage & Offtake vessel (FPSO) or semi-sub.
The above are just a few of the scenarios for a subsea control system field development
study. Each option requires a different solution.
7.2 Subsea
The subsea control equipment can be located on the Xmas Tree or other subsea structure
that can be a manifold or template. For deepwater applications it is common for the SCM to
be located on the Xmas tree for running and retrieval with the Xmas tree, or for running and
retrieving on its own.
7.7 Earthing
Earthing continuity is an important consideration in ensuring that all metal component parts
are bonded to the rest of the adjacent structure to ensure adequate 'cathodic protection'.
For example, stabplate-mounted connectors and couplings should be strapped to the
stabplate themselves and the SCM Mounting Base should be strapped to the Xmas Tree.
Couplings on jumper hoses may require earth straps if there is any risk that they might be at
some disconnected from their (cathodically protected) connection points.
8 SYSTEM OUTLINE
8.1 General
A subsea control system can be divided into three main sections:
8.2 Topsides
The topsides equipment has a Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU) for all systems. The electro-
hydraulic control system also has a Master Control Station (MCS), and an Electrical Power
Unit (EPU).
8.3 Umbilical
The control umbilical interfaces with the topsides umbilical termination via the Topsides
Umbilical Termination Unit (TUTU) and the Subsea Umbilical Termination Unit (SUTU) at the
subsea termination.
The various types of Umbilical required are discussed in the Umbilical Chapter of the
Reference Book.
8.4 Subsea
The Subsea Distribution Unit (SDU) can also be directly attached to the umbilical, but is often
a separate unit especially where an umbilical weak link is required.
The SDU distributes the hydraulic supplies and electrical power and signals to each of the
locations where there is a requirement for a subsea control module (SCM)
Electrical and Hydraulic Jumpers connect the SUTU to the SDU (possibly via a weak-link),
and the SDU to the Subsea Control Module Mounting Base (SCMMB). These can be diver or
ROV installable.
The Subsea Control Module Mounting Base (SCMMB), which is usually mounted onto the
Xmas tree of the subsea well, is the interface with the subsea control module. The SCMMB
connects the outputs from the SDU into the SCM, and the Xmas tree hydraulic functions and
monitoring sensors into the SCM.
For a diverless (deepwater) system, the SCMMB usually has upward facing hydraulic and
electrical connections to mate with the downward connection of the SCM during installation.
In a diver-assisted system, the SCMMB may merely act as a 'parking' position for diver-
installed stabplates and connectors.
The Xmas tree valve actuators are usually connected to the SCMMB using stainless steel
tubing. The sensors are usually flange mounted (via double block & bleed valves to allow
removal) and secured to the Xmas tree by stud bolts and nuts. The sensors are connected to
the SCMMB by jumper cables.
Sensors may, however, be flush-mounted to limit hydrate blockage, in which case they
cannot be mounted using double block and bleed valves; they therefore cannot be removed
without depressurisation of the pipework on which they are mounted, and this will have
TOPSIDES
VDU
INTERFACE Modems Master
CONTROL/ESD Control
WEAK LINK ASSEMBLY
Computer Station
A (MCS)
Computer
B
TUTU
VDU
Umbilical SDB
UTA
UPS EPU
TOPSIDES
POWER
SUPPLIES
HPU JUMPERS SCM 4 SCM 5 SCM 6
SCMMB SCMMB SCMMB
TOPSIDES
AIR SUPPLIES
Chemical
XMAS TREE
Injection Skid
FUNCTIONS
9.1 Introduction
Any electro-hydraulic multiplexed subsea control system requires a topsides unit to provide
the necessary interface between the Operator and the subsea equipment. As the system
operates using electronic messages between the surface and Subsea Control Modules (see
also SCM Chapter 21), some form of communications sub-system is required to perform this
function. In addition, an interface with the Topsides Operator and/or Topsides Supervisory
Control System and ESD system will also be required.
The Master Control Station is the generic name usually given to the suite of equipment that
performs this function. It will usually comprise of one or more racks of computer and interface
equipment, (located in an Equipment Room), and an Operator Console located in the Central
Control Room.
Power to the subsea system is provided by a separate unit, the Electrical Power Unit (EPU),
which is described in its own section, chapter 10, but is sometimes incorporated within the
MCS suite of cabinets.
9.2 Components
9.2.1 Computer
The heart of the MCS is inevitably a computer, or more often two computers operating in a
master-slave configuration in order to provide a high availability.
The computers used were originally often a proprietary unit manufactured by the Supplier,
however in recent years commercially available machines have been used as confidence in
their reliability has improved. Nevertheless, the use of commercial PC-based computers is
still mostly restricted to test equipment, or to proprietary industrialised-PC equipment. The
advantage of using such equipment is evidently the availability of support software and
corresponding economy of cost.
The importance of regular data from the subsea system and the need for high availability of
Emergency Shutdown capabilities, tends to dictate at least a dual-redundant system. With
this, two computers are operated simultaneously, continually exchanging data such that, if
one fails, the other can immediately take over without significant loss of data or (more
importantly) without causing an unwanted interruption of production or inadvertent
shutdowns.
A ‘watchdog’ circuit monitors the correct operation of each computer and switches to the
other if one fails; this is usually a sub-system using signals from both the hardware (power
supplies, temperature sensors etc) and software (signals issued once per software loop) and
can therefore be quite sophisticated. It must also allow manual selection of each computer for
maintenance purposes but should also prevent a faulty MCS from gaining control of the
system. Usually, a three-position keyswitch is provided with Computer ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘auto’
positions.
9.2.2 Cabinet
The MCS computer and associated input/output circuitry and hardware are usually housed in
a 2 or 3-bay standard rack. At least one of these bays is taken up with the input/output
terminals (typically ‘KlipponTM’ terminals), which may incorporate zener∗-diode safety barriers
where signals are connected to higher risk areas. The cabinets may also include a small VDU
and keyboard, for maintenance purposes (which may also double as a standby control
console). Fan assemblies provide localised forced-air cooling. The racks also contain the
Watchdog circuit (for a dual-computer system) plus local controls.
Some Suppliers also incorporate the subsea power supply (EPU) in these racks, particularly
where their modular design allows stacking, and where only a small number is required for
the size of Field concerned.
It is usual to allow for a degree of expansion in the system, as the MCS computer and
telecommunications system can usually operate a large number of wells, (albeit with a
reduced field scan time).
It is usually only necessary to add additional Power Supplies and modem units to expand the
field (as far as the MCS is concerned, although there may be far greater impact elsewhere in
the form of additional umbilicals, subsea jumpers etc), so the racking hardware usually has
some spare slots available, concealed by blank panels.
The design of the rack is also influenced by its installation location – if it must be mounted
against a wall, then rear-access is not available and the racks must be designed for front
access, usually involving swing-out card-frames, which makes the racks larger than otherwise
required. Similarly, the method of access for all the cabling must be taken into account, as
top-entry and bottom-entry cabinets affect the layout of the internal components.
∗ A semiconductor device that limits the energy that can be transferred from a Safe Area to a Hazardous
Area even under fault conditions; a zener barrier does not itself make a circuit intrinsically safe, it merely
protects the integrity of an Intrinsically Safe circuit in the event of a fault.
Rev. 0 SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEMS Page 33
30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
A single VDU is also acceptable if there is also a data link to other Topsides computers, such
as to the main SCADA/DCS, allowing subsea data to be displayed elsewhere and (often)
control of the subsea system itself.
A separate 'Status Panel' is sometimes incorporated into the Console or the MCS Rack itself,
to provide hardware control of the Master/Slave Computers and house indicator lamps
showing the status of the MCS (online/offline etc.). Hardware ESD buttons may also be
incorporated.
9.2.4 Printer
An MCS is usually provided with an Events/Reports Printer, usually a standard dot-matrix or
Laser printer, which prints events, alarms, control actions etc in real-time, thus providing a
hard copy of all actions and readings.
The same printer can also double as a report printer; the format of the reports being as
selected during the design stage but typically comprise a summary of alarms and events over
the previous 24 hours.
Care must be taken during system design to ensure this Printer does not print unnecessary
fine detail, as there is a large amount of data within a typical system and the printouts can
very soon become very copious, to the extent that they become ignored, or the paper runs
out, or it becomes difficult to find the event which actually triggered other events. Defining the
type of event to be printed, or ensuring that finer detail can be recalled if necessary, also
requires careful system design.
All data should be stored within a buffer in memory so that it is available for later printing if the
printer is unavailable due to lack of paper, off-line etc. Other management utilities should be
available to select the data required, clear a full buffer, stop un-required printouts etc.
9.3 Interfaces
• analogue
• digital
9.3.1.2 Analogue
'Analogue' means to convey information such that the voltage or current is in direct proportion
to the value of the signal - this is the method most frequently used to obtain information from,
say, a sensor, typically using a "4 to 20mA" loop in which the value of the current varies
between 4mA and 20mA according to 0% to 100% of the full-scale reading. However, one
pair of wires is required per sensor. This is adequate where only one sensor is involved but
for a complete subsea control system comprising perhaps 5 sensors per SCM and 20 SCMs,
this is clearly impractical.
In an analogue system, the carrier is the voltage or current in the wire and the value of that
voltage or current conveys the information.
9.3.1.3 Digital
A "Digital" system converts these analogue signals into digital form, i.e. a sequence of binary
'data bits' where, say, 0000 (0 in decimal) represents zero and 1111 (15 in decimal)
represents full scale, so a 1-bit change would represent 100/16 = 6.25% of full-scale (say,
312.5 psi for a 5000 psi sensor). In practice, a better resolution is obtained using more bits
(typically 12 to 16). In order to achieve even greater resolution from Downhole Pressure
Gauges, often 20+ bits are used, but for the majority of ‘normal’ sensors 12 bits (range of
4096) suffices, as there is little point in obtaining a fine resolution if the accuracy of the gauge
itself does not match.
In addition, a digital interface allows instructions to be sent between the topsides and subsea
systems, as well as data. A suitable 'protocol' must therefore be selected such that each unit
'knows' when the binary information is meant to be 'data' or 'instructions'. A very simple uplink
protocol (SEM to MCS) could be:
In this protocol, the receiver sees the first 4 '0's and recognises it as the start of a message.
The next 4 bits are an 'address' and if the receiver has the same address, it will continue to
expect data for itself. The next three sets of information are readings from sensors 1, 2 and 3.
The final bits are a 'checksum', which are calculated by the Transmitter and appended to the
message.
The Receiver also calculates what it expects the Checksum to be and if they agree, accepts
the whole message. Once the Receiver has recognised a command intended for it, it will
reply with the data requested, or with a message confirming the requested action. This latter
method is termed ‘check-before-operate’ and is used as a double-check that the SEM does
not select and activate the wrong valve when commanded to open or close a valve (see SCM
section 8 for more details of ‘check-before-operate’)
So a typical downlink command (from MCS to SEM) and uplink response (SEM to MCS)
might be as follows, where the shaded cells represent a long digital message, typically
comprising:
This is a very simple example and in practice, longer and more complex message strings are
used, but the principle remains the same. The protocols are sometimes also designed to
match the particular Subsea Control Module hardware design, and may allow further error-
checking, redundancy and sometimes error-correction.
These protocols were developed over the years by each Supplier to suit its particular system
or to meet a specified requirement.
A typical message cycle for a whole field (of 3 SCMs in this example) might then be:
MCS Command
Request Request Request
Status Status Status
SCM 1 SCM 2 SCM 3
SEM Reply
Status Status Status
SCM 1 SCM 2 SCM 3
In practice, this ‘scanning’ for the parameters of a complete system can take a certain amount
of time, as only one SEM can be addressed (and can reply) at a time. A typical scan of a 10-
well subsea system can take about two minutes, but this is very dependent on the Supplier’s
telemetry system, protocol, number of SCMs involved etc, so this can only be a ‘rule of
thumb’
This type of message exchange system is termed ‘half-duplex’, as an SEM only replies when
it receives a message intended for it, and the MCS waits to receive a reply from subsea once
it has sent a command, thus there is traffic on the telecommunications link in one direction
only at any time.
With modern telecommunications methods, full-duplex (i.e. traffic in both directions
simultaneously) is perfectly possible but is not usual in subsea systems, as a typical subsea
system is never required to operate at such a high speed, or do many things simultaneously.
In practice, the Operator will perhaps operate one valve only, then wait for pressures and
temperatures to stabilise before proceeding to perform the next valve operation.
Similarly, high speed datalinks are also not usual for the same reason, and the above
protocols typically operate at 1200 - 9600 bits per second, which is very slow by modern
standards (a typical PC modem to the Internet can now operate at 56,000 bits per second, by
way of comparison).
Faster datalinks require more sophisticated circuitry and careful attention to cable technology,
shielding, impedance matching etc, so are not really necessary unless the system is required
to handle fast control loops or video data. In the former case, for, say, subsea pump control
logic, it is not necessary (or desirable) to include the MCS in the control loop when the SEM
itself is already a microprocessor and can therefore handle local subsea control.
This method is used in some systems, but consideration must be made for the length of the
umbilical between the Transmitter and Receiver, as dc signals are easily attenuated by the
cable, and 'cross-talk' between different cores in the same umbilical can cause reception
problems. The shape of the digital pulses becomes altered by these umbilical characteristics,
(as a square pulse actually requires a very wide bandwidth to be accurately transmitted) and
there is then a limitation to the frequency (bit-rate) that can be achieved.
It is often tempting to use this type of carrier when large diameter copper cores are already
being used in the umbilical for other purposes (such as downhole pumps), but again, such
equipment can cause severe interference (voltage spikes) on the cores and hence impair
reception.
9.4.1 General
A Subsea System requires a carefully designed Emergency Shutdown System (ESD). The
telemetry sub-system described above can only 'talk' with one SCM at a time. Moreover, the
SCM itself can only operate one valve at a time (see chapter on SCM, chapter 21). Therefore,
in order to close all the Tree and Manifold Valves in a subsea system, a string of commands
is required to be sent to each SCM in turn in a particular sequence.
In addition, the performance of the particular subsea system itself and of the valves
themselves, must be taken into account, such that any shutdown sequence operates in the
fastest but safest manner possible, that failure of valves to close does not prevent the rest of
the system from shutting down, and that any such failures are noted and taken care of by
alternative means.
It is not usual for SCMs to have ESD sequences 'built-in' to their hardware or software, as this
would be relatively inflexible if changes were required. This would also be a separate 'area' in
their system design which would not often be activated, and so would remain untested for
long periods, with the attendant concern that they might not work when required. It is more
usual that the MCS simply issues a sequence of commands as would be done individually for
normal valve operations, hence the circuitry used is the same and no special test functions
are required over and above those normally provided for normal operation (see SCM
section 21).
9.4.6 HIPPS
A subsea control system MCS is not usually designed as a HIPPS system (High-Integrity
Pressure-Protection System) as such a system must be:
a) highly available,
b) highly reliable, and be
c) fast-acting.
With suitable careful design of the subsea system and MCS software, an emulation of a HIPPS
system can possibly be achieved, but the correct implementation of such a system is via
dedicated equipment and/or dedicated software or hardware facilities within the SCM itself. The
subsea valves themselves must also be quick-acting and reliable. See HIPPS Chapter 30.
MCS to Rig
• ‘Enable’ Workover ESD capability
• ESD Acknowledge
Rig to MCS
• ESD signal
On the Rig, the interface with the Operator is usually several robust hand-held units that can
be positioned at the drill floor, Supervisor’s Office, Bridge etc and contain a shrouded
pushbutton. Provided the system is ‘enabled’ by the MCS (requires prior arrangement with
the Platform OIM/MCS Supervisor), an indicator lamp indicates the system is ‘available’ (i.e.
enabled and with radio telemetry operating) and if the button is pressed, a radio signal
causes the MCS to shutdown the Field (or local Wells, as per the system design).
The MCS then responds with an ‘acknowledge’ signal, which illuminates another lamp on the
Rig handsets. A ‘Test’ mode is usually available whereby the whole link is tested as if in
normal operation except that the MCS does not perform the shutdown.
PLATFORM MASTER TELEMETRY UNIT EQUIPMENT MODU REMOTE TELEMETRY UNIT EQUIPMENT
TELEMETRY TELEMETRY
UNIT UNIT
CH. "A" CH. "B" CH. "A" CH. "B"
INTERFACE RELAY +
Control Panel & IS BARRIERS
Signal Inhibit
UPS
PSU PSU
"A" "B" BATTERIES
MODU POWER
HPU MODU CONTROL SYSTEM
SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEM HPU ESD PANEL (x1)
SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEM HAZ. AREA ESD PANEL (x2)
The signals between EPU and MCS are usually discrete; it is not usual for a digital telemetry
interface to be used.
a) The Displays
b) 'Help' systems
c) ESD sequences
d) Trends/Historical Data Reporting
9.5.2 Displays
A well-designed display system will allow simple and rapid access to the main operating
displays.
Access to more specialised 'maintenance' functions is often also available via the main
Operator VDU, but protected by a 'password' system to prevent unauthorised access. These
will usually be at several levels of access:
• Operator
• Supervisor
• Maintenance
9.5.3 Operator
A variety of displays are available to operate the system, and may typically comprise:
However, the displays provided are system-specific and are usually carefully specified by the
Customer to match its existing CCR displays, colour-conventions, method of operating valves
etc.
A display 'page' on the VDU will typically be segregated into specific areas, which remain in
the same position on every page so that the Operator rapidly becomes familiar with the
layout. Modern computer-graphics now allow considerable sophistication in the way
information is presented and are often 'Windows TM - based' and considerable care must
therefore be taken to avoid overloading the Operator with information or complexity of
operation.
Alarms/Events
31 December 1999
Page 1 NAME OF THE SUBSEA FIELD
23:59:59
System messages
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9
Help O/view Template Wells ESD HPU EPU Well Alarms
Test
9.5.4 Supervisor
An Operator with Supervisor-level access rights will, in addition to the above functions, be
allowed access to the following functions:
• Changing Hi/Lo Alarm limits
• Cancelling or Pausing an ESD sequence
• Placing a Well into ‘Workover’ mode (see 9.7.6)
9.6 Maintenance
An Operator with ‘Maintenance’ level access rights will, in addition to the above, have access
to all aspects of the system software. This level of access requires detailed knowledge of the
system and is normally only given to maintenance engineers and the Supplier’s
representatives.
Typical items that are available under this access level are:
It can be seen from the above that allowing a ‘closed-loop’ operation whereby the MCS
continues pulsing the choke until the measured position corresponds with the desired position
could lead to uncertain operation at the extremes of choke travel. Similarly, if the choke
sensor fails, operation of the choke is then impossible and the system still then has to resort
to ‘open-loop’ if any form of control is to be achieved.
Sometimes the MCS is required to display ‘Flowrate’, as calculated from the differential
pressure across the choke and the choke position. This is a reasonably straightforward
calculation for fluids such as water, but gas flow is more complicated. In any event, the
software requires calibrations coefficients for the particular choke concerned, in order to apply
the necessary polynomial equations. The MCS must therefore store the coefficients for each
choke, as supplied by the manufacturer, for use in the equations. Access to these is via
‘Maintenance’ level.
9.7.4 Interlocks
In principle, the Operator is allowed to operate any valve he wishes. However, many Clients
ask for a degree of protection against inadvertent operations, by implementing various
‘interlocks’ within the MCS software.
Providing a certain condition can be uniquely and precisely defined, the software can then
check to ensure no other action is allowed whilst that condition persists, or can only allow an
action if a precise set of conditions is met.
For example, an interlock may be set up to prevent an Annulus Crossover valve being
opened if the Annulus Master is open. The interlock may merely take the form of an
interrogatory question, such as “Annulus Master is open – Continue Yes/No?” to which the
Operator can answer ‘Yes’ if required and the action will then be allowed.
The interlock may be a higher level one, whereby only the Supervisor can bypass it, such as
opening the Downhole Safety Valve when other Production Valves are open, risking wear on
the DHSV.
In an ESD sequence, the Operator is often given the choice whether to close the choke(s) or
not (as these are usually closed at the end of the sequence, when all other valves are shut
therefore there is no production flow; shutting the choke merely ‘tidies up’ the system in
preparation for restarting the wells later, but this operation usually takes a long time and can
therefore be avoided if desired).
9.7.6 Workover
The hardware design of the subsea equipment usually allows access by a Workover system,
which can take direct hydraulic control of an individual Well from the Workover Vessel.
This is usually by disconnecting the hydraulic outputs of the SCM from where they connect to
the Tree. This means that the SCM can still operate a hydraulic output, but it will have no
effect, and as Tree Valve status is usually ‘inferred’ (see 9.7.1), the MCS cannot inherently
know that the valve has not operated.
For this reason, Workover operations must always involve the Platform Operators, who, upon
receiving advice that a well is to be put on Workover, will input this into the MCS after closing
all the Tree valves, which in turn will usually ‘grey out’ the Tree valves for that Well and also
prevent the Operator from trying to operate that Well. In practice, the Tree valves will be shut
when Workover operations have finished, so the display will revert to ‘all closed’ on removing
the ‘Workover’ mode. Closing the valves before Workover operations start ensures their
status is known, and also that the SCM does not keep pressure on the individual control lines,
which would cause the valves to open when the SCM output is reconnected to the Tree.
9.7.7 ESD
The ESD system of a subsea field can be quite complex, due to the number of different
modes of shutdown required, such as:
• Platform Shutdown
• Field Shutdown
• Manifold Shutdown
• Individual Well Shutdowns
• Workover Rig ESD Transceiver Shutdown
The operation of each of these will be defined in an ‘ESD Cause and Effects’ Chart at the
design phase and available in the system operating manual.
Certain ESDs will be activated by incoming contacts from the Platform’s ESD system; others
will be initiated by the MCS itself, either via an Operator command or in response to out-of-
limit parameters.
Each requires subsea commands to be sent to the subsea Tree Valves in a particular
sequence (to ensure the correct cessation of flow in the most timely and system-friendly
manner).
The sequences themselves can sometimes involve time delays, or allow operator-intervention
at particular points (and proceeding if none received within a certain time). Many sequences
allow the Operator to choose whether to close the Choke or not (as this is usually a time
consuming operation).
A well-designed MCS system will allow access via ergonomic editor software such that the
sequences can be modified if necessary or time-delays changed, etc.
A typical simple shutdown sequence could be:
• Close all Production Wing Valves (this will stop production flow)
• Close all Production Master Valves
• Close all Annulus Valves
• Close Downhole Safety Valves (Operator choice)
• Close all Chokes (Operator choice)
The software also must take into account the desired action, should any of the issued
commands fail to operate (usually, this will be to initiate a hydraulic shutdown via the HPU)
and must also take into account a system in which not all the Wells are yet installed. Different
sequences will be required for Water-Injection Wells, and for Production Wells that must have
Chemical Injection before fully closing them down.
9.7.10 Reports
An MCS is usually equipped with a variety of pre-defined Reports, which can be selected by
the Operator as required, or can be made to print automatically, say, every 24 hours.
Ideally, the MCS should be equipped with Operator-definable Reports, in which the Operator
can select the parameters to be printed, perform operators on them (such as ‘total’) and
design the format, but this does require quite a sophisticated editing program.
Alternatively, selected data can usually be output from the Historical Data System
(see 9.7.11) onto a floppy disc or similar, for later processing via third-party software. Usually
the regular ‘Daily Reports’ are produced by the higher-level Platform SCADA system, which
has access to topsides production and export data, so Reports from an MCS are not used
very often.
The Operator can select the start and stop date and time for the selected parameter – the
MCS will then retrieve the data from its hard disc and display it graphically, or a tabular
display is often available.
There are physical limitations to the amount of data that can be stored by any system, and
certain compromises may have to be accepted at the design phase in order to optimise the
system design between a practicable system capacity and the Clients’ requirements for data
storage.
In practice, an Operator is likely to need very detailed information stored for a short time (e.g.
when performing Well Tests) but less detailed information for long-term storage. It is also very
useful to be able to refer back over several months of data to find out, say, when a sensor
failed (and try to relate it to some other event such as Workover at the time), or what caused
a pressure to rise etc, in which case all ‘relevant’ events, such as Operator actions, need to
be retained, but ‘irrelevant’ event, such as those inevitably resulting from major event, are
candidates for being removed from the database (e.g. hundreds of alarms can result from the
one major event of switching off the EPU).
It is not particularly easy to adequately define such an ‘alarm hierarchy’ and the storage
limitations of the MCS mean that printouts or data-storage of the database must be
performed sooner rather than later when an event needs to be analysed.
The same system may be used to display the value of selected parameters in ‘real-time’, thus
providing ‘Trend’ information.
Downhole data-logging
Reservoir engineers may wish to analyse downhole pressure and temperature data,
particularly during shutdowns. Data logging to disk may be initiated manually or automatically,
sampling rates may also be set manually or automatically to suit the particular application.
Pseudo-leak detection
Pressure-sensors can be selected from which rate of change of pressure derivatives can be
set to initiate shut-in of wells when a set-point is exceeded.
10.1 General
Any electro-hydraulic multiplexed subsea control system requires a topsides unit to control
and provide the necessary power to the subsea equipment. (see section 9.1)
The Electric Power Unit (EPU) is the generic name usually given to the suite of equipment
that performs this function. It will usually comprise of one or more racks of equipment, located
in an Equipment Room.
The EPU is sometimes incorporated within the MCS suite of cabinets (see MCS section 9)
• Early systems used ‘inductive couplers’ which require high(er) frequency power for
efficient power transfer, typically 400Hz (being typically based on aviation technology).
• Even after conductive connectors began to be more widely used, Suppliers still
kept their existing designs of power supplies.
• Even where a normal 50/60Hz supply is required, the supply voltage may require
stepping-up to a higher level in order to supply the distant subsea field, to reduce
the I2R losses in the umbilical cable.
• Some supplier’s systems use direct current (dc) for power transmission, again at
high voltages to reduce cable losses.
• Most subsea systems require dual-channel power for redundancy reasons.
• Some systems communicate subsea by superimposing signals onto the power supply.
In addition to conditioning the available topsides power into the form required for transmission
subsea, certain other control and monitoring is required, such as:
• Overall on/off control of the power to the EPU and to the subsea system itself.
• Individual control of each power channel.
• Protection for over-current and over-voltage.
• Monitoring of the supply voltage, current and frequency.
• Monitoring of the quality of the insulation of the subsea umbilicals.
• Replication of the measured parameters back to the Master Control Station (MCS).
• Adjustment of the output voltages when more Subsea Control Modules (SCM) are
added to the system.
• A degree of regulation (stabilising, smoothing) of the incoming supply may be
required.
All of these requirements usually mean that an EPU becomes a self-contained unit, and is of
an appreciable size, weight and complexity.
It should be noted that, regardless of the type of power required by the subsea system, a
reliable supply is always required. This means that the system should ideally be supplied
from the Topsides Uninterruptible Power Supply system. In the absence of this, or where the
existing supply is inadequate, a separate UPS is often required. This is described separately
in section 17, as it does not usually form part of the EPU, due to its specialised nature and
size.
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the total power requirements, as does each additional external sensor. Systems employing
major power-consumers such as downhole pumps obviously have very particular
requirements. The EPU is usually required to be able to adjust the subsea supply voltage to
cater for the addition or removal of SCMs.
The system must also accommodate any expected fluctuations from the Platform Supply;
therefore the subsea system is usually fed from the Topsides UPS, or has its own. Transient
protection and phase-angle correction may be required.
Any over-current protection devices in the system must be co-ordinated, to ensure that only
the fuses/devices for a faulty SCM operate and do not trip the main supply for the rest of the
system.
10.2 Components
10.2.1 General
A typical EPU comprises the following components:
The LIM should be rated and / or compensated for use with subsea umbilicals of the
construction and length required for the application.
• Voltmeter (if the output supplies use 3 phase, the voltmeter should measure line to
line and be switchable between phases).
• Ammeter (for 3 phase, the ammeter should measure line current and be switchable).
• Frequency meter.
• Line insulation fault lamp.
• Output-on lamp.
• Output-tripped lamp.
• Line insulation resistance.
10.3 Testing
The EPU should be subjected to a witnessed Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) procedure. The
acceptance testing should include, but not be limited to:
10.4 Maintainability
EPUs are usually modular in design, allowing for access to all components for maintenance
or repair, and for isolation of individual power supplies.
Interlocks are often implemented on the access doors, such that internal power is switched
off when the doors are opened (over-rides are often available should it be necessary to
maintain subsea power).
11.1 Description
11.1.1 General
As referred to in the section on the Electric Power Unit (EPU section 10), any electro-
hydraulic multiplexed subsea control system requires a secure, reliable supply of electrical
power.
The Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is a unit which is often provided in the absence of a
suitable existing supply on the Platform / FPSO. It will usually comprise of one or more racks
of equipment, located in an Equipment Room.
11.2 Components
A UPS typically operates by rectifying and smoothing the incoming supply, converting it to
direct current (dc), which can then be used to charge associated batteries. The output from
the batteries is then converted back to alternating current (ac) ready for use to power the
subsea system. In case of failure of the main incoming supply, the output from the batteries is
quickly switched to power the dc to ac converter, thus ensuring a constant supply.
The technology behind modern UPS devices is varied and sophisticated, all aiming to
improving the electrical efficiency of the conversion from ac to dc and back again, and for
controlling the switchover from main power to standby power.
Constant-voltage battery chargers usually use thyristor* technology to ensure a high level of
reliability and switchmode rectifiers offer very high power to volume ratios. Designs are
usually modular to allow for expansion and redundancy with ‘hot swap’ capability, including
microprocessor control and remote power management with full system and battery
monitoring.
Usually the UPS is purchased from a specialist manufacture of such devices and is not built
by a subsea control system supplier. The UPS is often procured as part of the overall
Platform/FPSO supply and therefore not by those responsible for the control system.
The size of unit required depends on the existing and future field requirements and it is
important to agree at the FEED stage the required maximum output required, especially if
planning for future expansion. The field power requirement is never easy to predict and will
vary with the different control system suppliers. It should be noted that space on a Platform or
FPSO for such units is often at a premium, and adding a second unit later or additional
batteries often causes design and implementation problems.
The equipment must eliminate mains borne electrical noise, sags, surges and transient spike
and offer extremely reliable and economic computer grade power, else the specification of
the subsequent EPU will need to deal with these problems. The unit will also provide isolation
from the rest of the platform systems and should not contravene any EMC regulations nor
reflect electrical noise back into the Platform supply.
Modern units provide interfaces to the Platform SCADA system, and it is not usual for the
UPS to be controlled or monitored by the MCS in any way.
Models are available for single or three-phase outputs.
11.3 Testing
A UPS should be tested at all extremes of input and output power, temperature, and with
injected mains-borne electrical noise to simulate a real Platform environment. It is desirable to
test it with the EPU and remaining subsea system as part of an SIT if possible, although, as
mentioned above, it is often procured separately to the Control System and is therefore rarely
available until commissioned offshore.
* Thyristors are semiconductor components whose fast-acting switching characteristics allow the
construction of high-efficiency direct- to alternating-current converters, which are at the heart of UPS
designs, whereby the d.c. output of batteries is converted back to an alternating supply for the equipment
connected to it, as detailed in 11.2. Being either 'on' or 'off', there is (theoretically) no power dissipation
within the thyristor device itself.
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12.1 Introduction
The Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU) is a skid mounted unit designed to supply water based bio-
degradable or mineral oil hydraulic fluid to control the subsea facilities that control the subsea
valves.
A typical HPU has a supply reservoir and return reservoir, pumps for each pressure system
and a circulation pump for filling and flushing.
The reservoirs, tubing, and wetted parts of all components including hydraulic pumps, hand
valves and control valves will be of 316 stainless steel to prevent corrosion and contamination
in the hydraulic system.
The two hydraulic system pressures are low pressure (LP) for the Xmas tree valves and high
pressure (HP) for the sub-surface safety valve (SCSSV). Each system usually has duty and
standby pump systems for back up and maintenance purposes, although for some systems a
common back up pump is used.
For redundancy, dual systems usually have an electrical driven pump and an air driven pump
for each pressure system in a lead/lag configuration.
A bank of accumulator bottles with an internal bladder or piston and Nitrogen pre-charged
stores the energy from the pump discharge to prevent frequent cycling of the pumps.
The pressure pumps are gravity fed from the supply reservoir. Each pump pressure system
discharges through a dual filtration unit, charges a bank of accumulator bottles, and outlets
the skid into the umbilical system. There are hand valves for manual isolation and solenoid
valves for safety shutdown of the umbilical system.
The system can be an open hydraulic system where fully biodegradable spent hydraulic fluid
is dumped to sea, or a closed system where spent hydraulic fluid flows along the return line in
the umbilical to the return reservoir.
The return reservoir has multiple service duties. It receives the return hydraulic fluid from the
umbilical of a closed hydraulic system. It receives fluid from the manual or automatic vent of
the skid or accumulators, or from the system relief valves. It is also used for filling the system.
For closed systems with no leakage, there should be no requirement to refill the reservoir, but
open systems will require topping up from time to time. The frequency of topping up is
dependent on the frequency of operation of the subsea valves.
The final service of the return reservoir is for flushing and cleaning the hydraulic fluid to the
required system cleanliness before transferring to the supply reservoir.
A high flow multi-purpose circulation and transfer pump with filters is provided for flushing the
return reservoir, transferring of hydraulic fluid between reservoirs, and for filling from external
sources. The pump can also be used for flushing the supply reservoir if necessary.
The control of the system for the HPU can be local control with a remote warning alarm, or
can be operated remotely via the Platform DCS or the subsea system MCS, although this
latter method means that the HPU is then not a self-contained unit.
The HPU has a local control panel for indication of hydraulic system pressures, hand/off/auto
selectors for the pumps, and duty/standby selection for the pumps, and emergency stop
controls. The panel will also have a common alarm lamp, and an audible alarm horn. The
common alarm can also be provided at the Master Control Station or DCS.
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
12.2 Hydraulic Schematic
Return Supply
Tank Tank
LP Accumulator Bottles
Relief
Valve
Hand LP ESD
Selector Valve
Valve S
LP Hydraulic Supply to Umbilical
LP Pump 1
HP
Hand Accumulator
Selector Filter Bottles
Valve
Flushing & LP Pump 2
Fluid Fill HP ESD
Fill Pump
S
HP Hydraulic Supply to Umbilical
HP Pump 1
Filter
HP Pump 2
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The pumps have a common discharge into the LP header. The LP discharge header is fitted
with a 3-micron absolute dual filtration system duty/standby as a 'last chance' filter to prevent
contamination entering the umbilical.
Each filter housing has a pop-up indicator warning of filter clogging and a differential pressure
switch to provide a high differential pressure alarm either locally or remotely.
Each filter also has a bypass in case of total blockage. Downstream of each filter is a valve
for bleeding off fluid pressure during filter element changing, and for taking fluid samples for
hydraulic cleanliness checking.
The pumps are controlled either by pressure switches or a pressure controller. Control can
either be by local starter or alternatively local panel control using motor control relays or
PLCs. Remote control is also an option using the Master Control Station, or the process
control Distributed Control System (DCS), although this results in the HPU not being an
entirely self-contained unit and imposes its requirements onto the remote process control
system.
The pump discharge is connected to a bank of nitrogen pre-charged accumulator bottles. The
interface between the gas and the hydraulic oil can be either a synthetic rubber bladder or a
piston with seal rings. The number of bottles, the volume, and the nitrogen pre-charge volume
is determined by hydraulic analysis.
The accumulator discharge is based on the standard gas laws. The hydraulic analysis for the
accumulator sizing must also consider the hydraulic pump discharge volume and the
umbilical core sizing. The resistance to hydraulic flow over long offset distances even with
smooth bore hose liners can be considerable.
The objective of the accumulator is to store the hydraulic energy from the pump discharge by
compressing the nitrogen. When the pump reaches its high set point, it will stop. As the
umbilical hose pressure decays, the compressed nitrogen in the accumulator will expand and
force the hydraulic fluid at the flow rated allowed by the umbilical.
Panel mounted local pressure gauges will display the pump discharge pressures, and the
accumulator header pressure. Pressure transducers will also output a 4-20mA signal to
enable these pressures to be displayed on the Master Control Station or DCS VDU. These
signals may also be used to provide low pressure alarms.
The ESD cause/effect charts will usually determine that a total fail-safe vent hydraulic facility
is provided in the HPU which will enable the subsea facilities to fail safe closed if there is a
loss of subsea communications (i.e. failure to perform a 'commanded' ESD sequence) and/or
a hazardous situation. This is achieved by fitting one or two solenoid valves in the LP
Hydraulic discharge header from the HPU. The solenoid valves are three-way spring-return
fail-closed ESD solenoid pilot valves. The umbilical volume from the solenoid vent port flows
back to the return tank.
Following an ESD (where power has been removed from these solenoids), it is usually
necessary to manually reset these pilot valves from within the HPU. This prevents inadvertent
start up of the hydraulic subsea system when platform power is reapplied.
13.1 Introduction
This Chapter describes the Topsides Umbilical Termination Unit (TUTU), being the topsides
unit that routes hydraulic fluid from the HPU to the subsea umbilical.
13.2 Description
The umbilical carrying hydraulic fluid electrical power/signal, and chemicals, to the subsea
system is usually located on the cellar deck of a Platform, or at the edge of an anchored static
FPSO or the turret of a turret moored FPSO. This is usually a considerable distance from the
HPU/EPU. The umbilical itself must be terminated close to its hang-off point, so some form of
termination bulkhead and electrical junction box is required.
This usually takes the form of a Topsides Umbilical Termination Unit or TUTU.
The TUTU provides hose coupling points and an electrical junction box, but in addition
houses block and bleed valves for each hydraulic function.
The hydraulic supplies from the HPU are usually carried by Platform pipework to the TUTU.
The bleed valves allow this pipework to be filled, flushed and bled after construction.
Similarly, they also allow the umbilical to be bled down if required. The bleed valve outputs
are usually routed back to the HPU to avoid local spillage of fluid.
The block valves allow a definite isolation point for the subsea umbilical. The block valves can
be locked shut to prevent inadvertent pressurisation of the umbilical. This also allows the
HPU outputs to be tested without having any subsea effect. Naturally, these valves must be
open for normal operation and access to the TUTU is restricted by a lockable cabinet door. A
drain port ensures that any build-up of pressure inside the unit caused by leakage cannot
pressurise the unit.
The TUTU is usually constructed of stainless steel and is either safe area equipment or
certified for operation in a Zone 1 or Zone 2 hazardous area as dictated by the specified
hazardous area location.
The connections to the umbilical are usually arranged on the side of the unit, at an elevation
that allows a generous radius for connection of the umbilical pigtails. This often requires that
the TUTU itself be mounted at about 1 metre from deck level, so the unit may have a plinth.
If bottom entry is required, then a transition box is required to allow pull-in of the umbilical for
hang-off and to then terminate the hoses in the bottom of the box.
Provision is usually made for enclosing the pigtails from the umbilical hang-off inside a length of
protective conduit. Depending on the umbilical termination design, this may require one or two
such conduits to house both the hydraulic hoses and electric cables, and the TUTU mechanical
design must consider this. The electrical junction box is not usually located within the hydraulics
enclosure and should preferably be kept isolated. It is usually mounted on the side of the unit.
Typical
TUTU
One
Hydraulic
output
Shown Only
14 UMBILICAL
This section included for completeness, as part of Figure 8.1 page 30.
Umbilicals are detailed in the Deepwater Field Development Reference Book - Umbilicals.
16 WEAK LINK
However, the mechanical installation requirements for a deepwater application render the
design more complex, and in any event the disconnection forces still have to be made to act
in a straight line.
17.1 General
The Subsea Distribution Unit (SDU) is sometimes also known as the Subsea Distribution Box
(SDB). The SDU connects to the subsea umbilical through the Subsea Umbilical Termination
Unit (SUTU), and distributes hydraulic supplies, electrical power supplies, signals, and
injection chemicals to the subsea facilities. The facilities can be a subsea template, a satellite
well cluster, or a distribution to satellite wells.
17.2 Construction
The SDU frame is fabricated from carbon steel coated in accordance with a subsea paint
specification. The frame is designed for lifting and lowering onto a location on a subsea
production structure. Alternatively, the SDU can be located on a mudmat, simple protective
frame, or a mono-pile.
* Here 'diver' implies the use of a suitable deepwater diving suit such as 'JIM' or NEWT-suit.
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Fuses are not effective, as slow blow fuses are necessary in order to cater for the inrush
current whilst charging up the umbilical. This makes fuses ineffective in isolating a fault in the
distribution system without over-loading the remainder of distribution outlets, and generally, a
fuse would not blow before the line insulation fault trip in the EPU is activated.
Circuit breakers have been used subsea in EDUs, but are not commonly used as the circuit
breaker reset mechanism has to penetrate through the EDU housing using O-rings which
introduces a potential fault path.
The thermal re-setting devices are semiconductor devices and due to the technology
required, they are not available from all suppliers.
Other material that may be considered for the distribution piping or tubing is carbon steel for
the chemical injection system, or more exotic materials such as Duplex or Super Duplex
stainless steel.
To ensure correct mating of the respective parts, guide pins are used on stab plates, and
single connections may have different size quick-connect couplings or may be keyed.
18.1 Introduction
This Chapter describes the Subsea Accumulator Module (SAM), being the subsea unit that
stores hydraulic fluid such that adequate pressure is always available to the Subsea system
even when other valves are being operated.
18.2 Description
When a subsea system is required to operate a number of trees located along distance away
from the host Platform/FPSO, the hydraulic fluid from the Topsides HPU will take a
considerable time to reach the subsea equipment, particularly where small hoses are used in
the umbilical. This can result in a drop in pressure at the subsea tree when a valve is opened,
as the pressure cannot then be restored immediately via the umbilical.
If the pressure drops, other open tree valves may begin to close, before the pressure can be
restored.
If the pressure drops too much, the pilot valves in the Subsea Control Module will 'drop out'
i.e. close, causing one or more tree valves to close irrespective of whether pressure is then
restored via the umbilical.
In order to maintain an adequate level of pressure at the subsea location, some degree of
local accumulation may be required. This can be provided by individual accumulators on the
SCM itself, but more usually, a self-contained skid containing several Accumulator bottles is
often provided, this being termed a 'Subsea Accumulator Module' or SAM.
The SAM will house sufficient LP Accumulation to maintain pressure during valve operations.
In addition, it is also sized to hold sufficient fluid to perform a number of subsea control
operations, even if the supply from the surface no longer functions, thus giving a degree of
reserve power. A trade-off must be made against the size of skid required and the amount of
accumulation, and this is done via a Hydraulic Analysis performed by the Supplier against the
Client's Specifications. Sometimes the analysis will demonstrate that HP accumulation is also
required.
The requirement for an increased Nitrogen pre-charge pressure in deep water applications
will decrease the efficiency of subsea accumulation, which will increase the number of
accumulator bottles required.
18.3 Components
A SAM is a simple skid, primarily housing Accumulators. Nevertheless, it must be designed,
manufactured and tested as part of the overall system, and designed to be retrievable for
maintenance, as the accumulator pre-charges may periodically need replenishing.
The design may also incorporate a filter and block/bleed valves to allow flushing and testing.
Typical SAM
(LP only)
The SAM is usually a stand-alone skid, connected via a mounting base, which is connected
to the SDU or the hydraulic tubing supplying the subsea control modules. The SAM is run and
retrieved in a similar manner to the subsea control module. In order to allow the SAM to be
retrieved for maintenance, ROV operable block, vent, and bypass valves are sometimes
incorporated into the Manifold/Template tubing (where the hydraulic distribution is hard
piped). This valve will allow production to continue whilst the unit is replaced, but tree valves
should not be operated whilst the bypass is in operation, due to the risk of pressure-drop as
outlined above.
When block and vent valves are not used, the SAM can be retrieved by pulling off its
mounting base and relying on the self sealing quick connect hydraulic couplings sealing to
maintain the pressure in the hydraulic system.
Installation of the SAM is more difficult, as there is a large force required to mate the SAM
and SAMMB against the closed force exerted behind the closed hydraulic poppets. It is
essential that the hydraulic quick-connect couplings used in this application are fully
pressure-balanced to counteract the coupling mating forces, particularly in deepwater
applications.
A running tool is required to run and set the SAM onto the SAMMB in deepwater applications.
19 INTERCONNECTIONS
19.1 Introduction
Jumpers are required to connect between the fixed items and installed items in the subsea
system. The jumpers can be hydraulic, chemical, or electrical, or a combination of all three.
The jumpers connect between the umbilical SUTU and the SDU, the SDU and the SCMMBs
etc. A jumper can consist of a single hose or cable with ROV connection or can consist of a
stab plate assembly for multiple installation and hook up.
Stab plates can be guided and screwed into position or alternatively can be guided into
position and secured with a clamp hub arrangement.
Jumpers for hydraulic systems are constructed from hose with hydraulic sealing terminations.
For deepwater applications high collapse resistance hose (HCR) is required to prevent hose
collapse. Alternatively steel tube may be used for jumpers, which also provides resistance to
chemicals and eliminates chemical compatibility issues.
Electrical jumpers usually consist of a reinforced hose conduit outer sheath terminated to an
electrical connector at both ends. Inside the sheath, single insulated copper cores are
terminated to the conductor pins on the back of the connector water block and the conduit is
filled with a dielectric fluid for integrity and also to provide a pressure balanced system for
deepwater applications.
Jumpers can be hoses, steel tubes, steel tubes oversheathed, and cables bundled together,
or alternatively a jumper can be laid up and oversheathed in a similar manner to the outer
sheath of an umbilical.
The stabplate is populated with male hydraulic couplings and also electrical connectors if
required. There is a central receptacle for the entry of the lead screw arrangement for the
male stab. Also there will be a guide sleeve for the male guide pin insertion, which provides
the fine alignment of the plates prior to the mating of the couplers.
Figure 19.2 ROV Stabplate with lift handle, ROV Bucket & Locking Screw
The female conductor pins are enclosed in a pressure balanced dielectric oil filled controlled
environment. During make up the male connector pins pass through a wiper seal and through
dual redundant compensated barriers to ensure that final make up is within a totally oil filled
environment. After the connector is fully mated the ROV releases the grabber handle.
Removal is the reverse procedure.
It may be necessary to provide a jumper to connect several transducers into a multi-pin
connector at the bottom of a subsea control module mounting base. The illustration below
shows a jumper with a flange mounted termination with connections for three single
connectors which locates on a vertical face of a SCMMB, which has a cable conduit exit at
the rear, and the other jumper end terminates in a multi-core connector in the module
mounting base.
For deepwater applications a fully pressure balanced coupling is preferable. These are fairly
new concepts, but are available in single coupler pair design, and also the four coupler
hydraulic circuit HydraQuad™ design. The single pair is a resilient seal design with a porting
design that allows an inherent pressure balancing across the poppets, which provides a
pressure assistance to the spring closure force when the coupling is disconnected. The
HydraQuad™ design uses a combined metal and resilient seal arrangement acting in a shear
seal arrangement as the coupler mates and disconnects.
Both designs use the principle that the flow path is radial and hence produces no resultant
separation force.
It is important that there are adequate flow paths through hydraulic couplers to ensure that
adequate hydraulic response times are achievable. Also that the poppets are balanced to
prevent the poppets being driven hydraulically from the central open position and sealing
against one of the seal faces.
The female couplers are usually assembled into a hydraulic jumper stab plate in order that
they may be retrieved and the seals replaced if necessary. The female couplers are
assembled so that they are floating on the plate to allow for any manufacturing tolerances.
The back of the connectors have to be terminated to screw on hose termination couplers or
by screw seal or welded assemblies for the termination of steel tubing.
JIC hose terminations which swage inside the central core tube of a standard thermo-plastic
hose can only be used when the hose can be maintained full of fluid of a specific gravity
equal to or similar to the specific gravity of seawater. This is to prevent collapse of the hose in
deepwater applications.
Alternatively high collapse resistance hose (HCR) with a spiral flexible metal former under the
core tube must be used. The flexible inner core is designed to withstand the external
seawater pressure and to prevent the hose core from collapsing. The HCR hose requires a
different type of coupling which has a welded construction. The metal former inside the
coupler slides inside the spiral hose support and seals by swaging onto the outside of
thermo-plastic liner.
When stab plates are densely populated, it can be difficult to turn and orientate all of the
hoses through ninety degrees and into the hose/cable restraint. Right angled connectors are
used to orientate the hoses into the clamp. It may also be necessary to have these
connectors of stepped heights in order to allow hose make up and to avoid tight bends or
kinking of the hoses.
There are also fibre optic connectors available with penetrator feed thru’s for connecting to
down hole gauge cables.
20.1 General
The SCMMB is the interface between the control module and the Xmas tree or
manifold/template functions that it is controlling and the remote sensors.
20.2 Construction
The SCMMB is a welded construction, fabricated from carbon steel and painted to provide
corrosion protection. It is bolted and earth bonded to the protective structure.
21.1 General
The SCM is an electro-hydraulic device that responds to electronic commands from the MCS
(via the umbilical) and provides hydraulic control function outputs to the valve actuators on all
of the subsea valves.
The SCM will usually also interface with sensors and sometimes meters, located both on the
Xmas Tree and downhole. SCMs are often located on Manifolds/Templates for controlling
and monitoring manifold/template functions.
All vendors have standardised their designs for SCMs. Some vendors have more than one
standard design and other vendors have engineered a universal design in which the build
specification dictates the actual equipping of the module in terms of control and monitoring.
The design is suitable for use both on the production Xmas trees or water injection Xmas
trees, or to control template/manifold valve functions.
The SCM design is usually suitable for diver or ROV installation and retrieval using tools for
running and latching. The SCM can also be installed using guidelines, or alternatively
guideline-less, again requiring tools for latching.
21.2 Housing
The SCM housing is a fully fabricated welded construction in painted carbon steel. A lift
mandrel penetrates from the upper housing for lifting and installation purposes. A purpose
built running tool is required for installation as current SCMs are too large and heavy for an
ROV to free swim and install without added buoyancy.
21.4 Interfaces
There is a substantial force to overcome the mating force of self sealing hydraulic couplings
in deepwater, and pressure balanced couplings are used for this requirement.
The SCM will have 4-20mA driver circuits for monitoring external sensors for pressure,
temperature, and choke position on the Xmas trees.
Optional circuits provide inputs for downhole pressure / temperature gauge monitoring, by
installing the gauge in a mandrel in the production tubing string.
21.5 Connections
Additional monitoring functions can be provided for items such as Sand Monitors, Flow
Meters, or for functions such as Smart Well Completions.
The SCM baseplate is penetrated externally to its lower face by the electrical and hydraulic
connectors, and the guidance and locking mechanism.
The base plate can be a sandwich plate containing hydraulic galleries or it can be a passive
block for through connection to manifold blocks.
The ports of the DCVs are switched using a metal slide, which has metal to metal seals to the
valve body. The metal slide has a spring to fail safe closed. To open the valve the open
solenoid valve coil is energised and its hydraulic pilot directs fluid on the opening end of the
slider. The slide moves and compresses the return spring, and in the fully open position
connects the SCM incoming hydraulic supply to the subsea valve actuator causing the valve
to open. The output from the DCV has a self-latching circuit so that the valve will remain open
with the open coil de-energised.
The DCV will fail closed on loss of the hydraulic supply, or fail closed on energisation of the
close solenoid coil. Energising the close solenoid directs a pilot hydraulic supply into the
return spring cavity, and onto the closing end of the slider.
The commanded output functions from the Directional Control Valves exit via hydraulic
couplers. The surface commands energise the respective solenoid valve coils to open and
close the valves. Pressure transducers (4-20mA) mounted on the Directional Control Valves
detect pressure and confirm actuation back to the MCS.
21.8 Electronics
Inside the SEM has circuit boards for the power supplies and conditioners, modems for
communications, analogue drivers, solenoid valve drivers, and a ‘house-keeping’ monitoring
capability to ensure that the electronics is working properly and alarm to the surface if a
problem is detected.
If additional electronics is required for equipment such as downhole pressure and
temperature monitoring, this can be included in the SEM if there is sufficient space available,
or alternatively in a separate SEM housing.
21.9 Construction
The SCM is built up from the baseplate with the manifolds, DCVs, filters. The SEMs are
installed above on cradles, and wired to the incoming power and signal connectors and wired
to the internal transducers. The fabricated top cover bolts into place over the SEMs and seals
with the SCM baseplate, and the housing is then oil filled using dielectric oil. The housing is
pressure balanced for pressure compensation using compensation bladders.
22 SUBSEA TRANSDUCERS/SENSORS
22.1 Introduction
This Chapter describes the various subsea transducers/sensors available for measurement of
typical parameters.
22.2 General
Subsea sensors are specialised versions of surface-located devices and must evidently be
constructed to withstand the ambient pressure underwater. This results in particular aspects
of the sensors design, construction and interface as outlined in this section. Certain aspects
of their operation which personnel are familiar with for topsides operation are not available for
subsea devices, which means that their application and mode of operation require particular
attention during the design phase.
22.3 Construction
All subsea sensors have to be constructed from corrosion resistant materials - Stainless Steel
316L or Duplex being typically used, particularly for the interface flange. The devices need to
conform to relevant standards, such as API performance requirements and should be suitable
for the specified class of service.
The devices will typically be constructed using electron-beam and T.I.G weld construction to
ensure maintenance-free operation, all welds being helium leak tested during manufacture.
Parts of the unit in contact with process fluids should be constructed of materials to match the
conditions, such as Inconel 625. It is usual for at least double-barriers to exist between the
process fluid and the environment; this can be achieved in the construction of the device
itself, with secondary containment chambers being provided to withstand full process
pressure in the event of rupture of the measuring element. SI 289 defines requirements for
equipment installed on subsea manifolds and 'tertiary' pressure containment systems are
incorporated.
Interface flanges need to be standard designs, such as API 2 1/16" - 10,000 psi type 6BX
(API Spec 6A) and can be forged from Super Duplex stainless steel with the BX152 ring
groove.
22.4.1 SCM
All subsea sensors must be powered from, and relay their information to the Subsea Control
Module. It is not cost-effective to provide individual connections from each sensor back to the
surface and in any event, the SCM is a multiplexed telemetry system and is provided for this
very purpose.
The SCM provides a source of power for the sensors, typically 24 volts for a 4-20mA interface
and reads the signal from the sensor, digitises it via an analogue-to-digital converter, then
relays it to the surface via the telemetry system, usually in response to a request from the
MCS for data from that sensor.
Many SCM designs have the ability to switch off any particular sensor circuit. This safeguards
the rest of the system in case of a faulty sensor or damaged interface cable, which might
otherwise short-circuit the supply voltage. The drive electronics therefore also has to be
protected against short circuits, and individual supplies are preferable, so that the other
sensors are not affected if one fails.
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It is not usual to use this facility to switch off a sensor between readings. Whilst most modern
sensors have little or no warm-up time, they may still require 1-2 seconds to stabilise and if
the SCM had to wait for this period when reading each sensor, the overall system scan time
would be slowed down.
Furthermore, repeatedly switching an electronic component on and off reduces its reliability.
A formal reliability analysis does not consider this. An SCM typically reads all subsea sensors
as fast as the telemetry system allows, nominally every 2-3 minutes, and so there is little to
be gained by de-powering the sensors.
Similarly, the circuitry also should provide for clearing any digital readback value in case of
failure of the sensor. If this is not provided locally within the SCM itself, then the MCS will
usually change the displayed colour of a sensor reading to indicate fault, as well as displaying
any detected under or over range alarm.
Loop
Powered 24V
Transmitter Power
Supply
Sensing + +
Element -
-
-
Internal
Load Resistor
+
Measuring
Instrument
A current of less than 4 mA indicates an under-range reading, usually due to a fault in the
sensor. A current greater than 20mA indicates an over-range reading, again usually due to a
fault in the sensor.
22.4.2.2 Distance
This type of sensor can therefore operate over a distance, depending on the cable size
employed, which can assure the minimum operating voltage (typically down to 12 volts)
across the sensor at the maximum current required.
The connection of the cable harness to the sensor itself is a potential leak path and must be
tested during manufacture; they are sometimes not mated to each other until after delivery of
the sensor itself from the manufacturer, and should then be hyperbarically tested by the
Subsea System Supplier.
An alternative is an integral connector in the sensor itself, which can then be tested during
manufacture by the Sensor Supplier. In any event, the 'final' joint of the various sub-
assemblies must be tested under hyperbaric conditions.
Where there are a large number of sensors to be connected to an SCM, a Supplier will
sometimes provide a subsea junction box, which enables a single high-density connector to
be 'broken-out' to many individual sensors.
* A zener barrier is a semiconductor device that limits the energy that can be transferred from a Safe Area to
a Hazardous Area even under fault conditions. A zener barrier does not itself make a circuit intrinsically safe,
it merely protects the integrity of an Intrinsically Safe circuit in the event of a fault by limiting the current flow
to a safe level.
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22.4.5 RFI
Some sensors can be prone to Radio-Frequency Interference in that the sensing element and its
wires can pick up induced voltages from nearby radio sources such as walkie-talkies. Obviously
this is not a problem once installed subsea but it is preferable to take precautions in the SCM
design to avoid unsuspected problems during onshore (or offshore on-deck) commissioning,
22.4.6 Calibration
Once subsea, a sensor is not expected to have to be calibrated, and it is actually in a
reasonably benign environment as regards extremes of pressure/temperature/shock etc.
There is no easy way of detecting any drift in calibration and the manufacturer's specifications
for drift are the only practicable guide to this parameter. However, it is usual to test (again) all
sensors once they have been installed onto a Tree/Manifold/Template, as there is a high risk
that they have received severe physical shock/vibration or mishandling during this process
and sometime, over-pressurising during Manifold proof-pressure tests.
a) Potentiometers
b) Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)
c) Rotary Variable Differential Transformers (RVDT)
d) Magnetic flux gate sensors
The simplest is a potentiometer (voltage measuring device), but this involves contact of a
moving arm with a resistive material (wire, carbon, etc) which is prone to wear, electrical
noise and in the event of a wire-wound potentiometer, discrete steps in the output. Its
apparent output can be affected by the resistance of the wiring in the circuit. Some choke
manufacturers offer this as standard, being very suitable for topsides use, but requiring the
SCM Supplier to provide the necessary interface circuitry, albeit simple.
An LVDT or RVDT measures the change in inductance of a coil when an armature is moved
into it. This has no contacting parts and is very reliable. Proper electrical design can cancel
out the effect of variations in supplied voltage. Again, the SCM supplier must supply the
necessary energising voltage and detect the output variations and a special circuit is
required.
The SCM or MCS must then compute the choke position from the LVDT signal. A magnetic
fluxgate device is a recent addition to the available techniques. In this, a fixed magnet
connected to the rotating part of the choke actuator via a simple shaft causes electronic
variations in a sensing circuit.
All the electronics are contained within one small can, which can be bolted to the outside of
the choke and retrieved if necessary. The output is available in digital or standard 4-20mA
form, making interfacing with a SCM straightforward; no further computation within the SCM
is required. With all of these sensors, care must be taken to match the available accuracy,
hysteresis and resolution to the overall system requirements.
If the MCS is simply displaying choke position as a readout, then these are less important. If
'flowrate' is being calculated, whose value will depend on the Cv of the choke (i.e. position) as
well as differential pressure across it, then they are of more importance.
If the measured position is being used as part of a choke-position control algorithm, in which
the choke is moved until the measured position matches the desired position, then all of
these are significant (for example, if hysteresis or resolution is too great, the choke might
never actually reach the desired position, even when its direction of motion is reversed to
attempt to approach it from the other direction, so it could continually 'hunt' for the correct
position.
Systems that do suffer from this are obliged to put in an 'error-band', of +/- 1%, within which
the choke can approach the desired band before its movement is stopped. The system then
usually has to provide a means to 'single-step' the choke to allow the Operator to fine-tune its
position.
In addition, as there is more than one parameter to be relayed (as well as the device itself to
be powered), the data must be multiplexed in some manner on the core. One technique was
to operate the pressure and temperature elements in the sensor using alternately reversing
power supply voltage, the current then representing the selected parameter. More recent
techniques use a serial datalink, modulating the data onto the power supply.
Both methods require a special interface circuit within the SCM, together with correct data-
handling protocol in the telemetry system. Most Suppliers have interface cards for the various
makes of downhole sensor, but this is an area, which requires definition at the start of a
Project to avoid later interface problems.
Detecting sand in the produced fluids can therefore be an important part of a proactive
strategy for:
Sand detectors work either by ‘listening’ to the noise generated by sand impacts on a solid
surface (e.g. a bend), or by measuring the erosion damage of a target inserted into the flow.
Systems are available from a variety of suppliers, such as (listed in alphabetic order):
• Clamp On
• Cormon
• CorrOcean
• Fluenta
• Milltronics (Stresswave)
• Simrad
Acoustic sand probes are available as subsea instruments. As with downhole gauges, the
processing of their data requires a specialised interface within the SCM and relevant software
treatment.
Their suitability for a given application depends on:
22.5.7.2 Operation
The simplest sensor comprises a thin-walled tube which gives an alarm signal should the
production of sand cause significant erosion in the system. However, the sensor must be
replaced after it is activated and so is not suitable for subsea use.
Non-intrusive acoustic devices are available packaged for subsea use. The Fluenta SAM 400
SR is based on passive acoustic detection of sound created by particles in process flows.
The SAM 400 SR uses the signals generated when particles such as sand hit the pipe wall
(located downstream of a bend) to detect and quantify particle production. Digital filters and
the data processing unit remove flow-generated noise. An algorithm converts the noise
generated to a measure of the quantity of sand being produced.
A similar device can also be used for Pig Detection (see 22.5.8)
22.5.7.3 Installation
Installation can be carried out topside before deployment, or by ROV. The device is non-
intrusive, being clamped onto the production pipework in a suitable location.
Power and signals run through an oil-filled hose assembly with ROV connector or similar,
using standard twisted-pair cable. Being clamped-on, this design is suitable for retrofitting,
providing a 4-20mA interface to an SCM is available.
• Magnetic Detector
• Acoustic Detector
23 MATERIALS
The material sections are fabricated into frames and housings for containment installation
and pulling in. Where materials are designed for containment such as electrical distribution
units, they are oil filled and pressure balanced. Therefore, deepwater service does not cause
a problem.
To slow the rate of corrosion, carbon steel is coated (coating section 23.2). There are some
exceptions however, where areas are not coated in small areas where electrical earth
bonding is required for electrical connectors, or where a face seal makes up.
Hydraulic systems and connectors generally use 316 stainless steel as the main component
for its external corrosion resistance, and internal suitability with clean hydraulic systems.
Quick-connect / disconnect couplings are assembled from many components requiring
different materials. Monel is used for screw nuts to prevent galling, and for coupling self-
sealing poppets where a higher strength material is required. Material control is required to
eliminate problems with Hydrogen embrittlement.
Sometimes Nitronic is used for Quick connect couplings in deepwater applications. Nitronic
60 is used for the female couplings and Nitronic 50 for the male couplings. The Nitronic 50
provides a high strength material and the difference in hardness between the 60 and 50
grades provides anti-galling properties.
Springs have to be from a material with permanent spring properties that does not corrode.
Hastelloy is often used for this service, and Elgiloy is now being used.
The O-Ring seals for the female halves of the hydraulic quick connect / disconnect coupling
need to be compatible with the hydraulic or chemical fluid used and with seawater. Seals are
made from materials such as Nitrile, or Viton for hydraulic service, and Chemraz, Fluortrell or
Isolast for severe service such as chemicals. Backup seals to prevent O-Ring extrusion can
be of Teflon or Peek. For metal seal couplings, seal material such as Inconel 750 gold plated
is used.
Piece parts such as the SCMMB interface, the SCM base and mating stab plate assemblies
are all machined from 316 stainless steel.
Electrical Connectors are usually made using 316 stainless-steel bodies (TotalFina standard
is super-duplex e.g. Ferralium SD40 or Zeron 100) with water blocks of Ultem and the
conductive pins of gold plated copper. The pressure compensation diaphragms and the boot
seals for the cables are made from neoprene or synthetic rubber. The pressure containment
fluid is silicon based dielectric oil.
The directional control valves (DCVs) within the control modules are made from 316 stainless
steel bodies, with internals to seal with metal to metal shear seal action, and also to provide
sufficient wear capabilities. In deepwater applications, seawater has migrated into valves
causing corrosion problems and a new generation of valves with seawater tolerant internals
such as Inconel, MP35N, and ceramics being used.
The electronics assembly within the subsea control module is contained in a one-atmosphere
housing called a SEM housing. The SEM housings were always made of Aluminium for
lightness. For deepwater applications where greater strength is required to prevent the
housing collapsing, high strength steel or aviation strength aluminium is used.
Transducers are made from materials to suit interfaces. Choke position indicators housings
are made from 316 stainless steel, pressure transducers which interface with Xmas tree
flanges, ring grooves and gaskets are generally made from duplex stainless steel.
23.2 Coating
The noble materials such as stainless steel and Monel do not need coating. Neither does
Duplex stainless steel, although it often is coated to reduce the un-coated surface area used
in calculations of the amount of anodes for surface protection.
Carbon Steel is coated with a multi-coat epoxy designed for permanent use underwater. The
coating of carbon steel is time-consuming, taking several days to apply the coatings, but has
the advantage that high-visibility colours, such as white and yellow, can be used.
Suppliers providing Cathodic protection for their own equipment in isolation, and lack of
system engineering has led to an over-protection of subsea facilities with its own problems.
This has led to a change in philosophy so that subsea control equipment is protected under
the main structure e.g. an Xmas tree by earth bonding to the main structure Cathodic
protection system.
This provides the benefit during installation in deepwater of equipment such as subsea
control modules. SCMs without sacrificial anodes attached are lighter and do not have
additional protrusions that could prevent easy installation.
24 MARKINGS
In addition, all subsea valves and instruments are usually allocated a Tag Number, which
identifies their function and, again, enables them to be identified on an overall offshore -
installation database and on the overall P&ID.
It is important to define Equipment and Tag Numbers at an early stage in the project to
ensure all items and drawings use the same information, to avoid confusion.
Furthermore, hydraulic and electrical signals used throughout the system are usually
identified by the Manufacturer as part of its own overall System Block Diagram, to uniquely
identify each signal throughout the system For example, LPA, LPB, HPA, HPB to identify
low/high pressure dual-redundant channels. Where equipment such as the subsea control
module mounting base (SCMMB) requires hooking up to the Xmas tree actuator tubing by
third-party installation contractors or manufacturers, the hydraulic connections will have
hydraulic interface connections stamped onto the connection plate.
Module mounting bases need identification of the orientation for installation on the Xmas tree
or manifold structure, and identification of the connection faceplate for hook up by the ROV.
Subsea Distribution Units require identification of the hydraulic and electrical connections for
jumper hook up, as they are routed to a large number of SCMs. Any manual valves also need
to be identified with their service and open and closed directions. Block and bleed valves are
usually identified by colour coding on the handle and/or by the shape of the handle itself.
Jumpers require identification of the jumper service, and the connecting interface. This helps
with planning installation so that the jumpers can be laid out on the installation pallet for
deployment and hook up. Such identification markings need to be located at least at each
end of the jumper and at least once along the length.
These labels will be covered in marine growth in time, that must be brushed or jetted away
when returning to the site for intervention.
There are also subsea markers available with anti foul properties to inhibit marine growth,
although the use of these is sometimes restricted for environmental reasons.
Jumper hoses and cables are marked with cable markers with black lettering on a yellow
background. These are fixed to the jumper at each end with cable ties. To ensure that these
markers do not detach due to snagging during handling a clear heat shrink sleeve is applied
over the marker. They need to be large enough to ensure clear visibility.
25 QUALITY
25.1 Introduction
Early subsea control systems were born with the concept that Aerospace Quality was
essential for design and build of equipment for subsea applications. Aerospace hydraulic
valves were used for control functions, hydraulic systems were flushed to Aerospace
Standards, and electronic components used were Military (MIL) Specification. Dual Systems
were used to eliminate single point failure.
Components were subjected to Qualification Testing. This requirement was for life cycle
testing of valves for wear, leakage, and failure. Pressure Testing of components and
housings at pressures usually double working depth, burn in and cycling electronics for
temperature, shock and vibration. Testing hydraulic connectors for make up and leakage,
testing of electrical connectors for make up, continuity and Insulation Resistance.
Material compatibility was (and still is) a major issue. This can be due to electrical cells
between different metals in seawater, compatibility of seals in valves or hydraulic connectors,
or compensation bladders with hydraulic oils, dielectric oils, or chemicals.
Hydraulic tube connections were welded for Integrity. Weld Procedures and Welder
Qualifications are necessary for maintaining integrity in systems. Where welds are in
seawater the welds are over alloyed to provide a more noble material in the weld and heat
affected zone.
There was a great step change in policy and thinking from the requirements for the Oil Patch
to the requirements of subsea technology. The change was brought about due to the high
cost of failure for intervention, paralleled to the disastrous results of similar failures in the
aerospace industry. Modern Quality Assurance techniques and procedures have been refined
from the original aerospace applications and are now accepted as standard in the subsea
industry.
25.3 Manufacture
Following on from qualification testing, and demonstrating the reliability of system
components (some of them prototypes), there is the requirement to manufacture in
production quantities. Hydraulic components are commonly manufactured in materials that
are usually difficult to machine, to high tolerances. The requirement to miniaturise
components in order to make control modules smaller and easier to handle and install in
deep water has necessitated tighter tolerances and less room for error. Gun Drilling is
necessary for long hydraulic galleries, Cross drilling often leaves burrs at the point of
intersection, which have to be removed by laser de-burring and ultrasonic techniques.
25.4 Testing
Production testing of components, sub-assemblies, assemblies, and the system is necessary
to maintain quality and to ensure that the system will perform after installation to the design
criteria.
Factory Acceptance Testing (FAT) is fully covered in Section 27.
25.5 Inspection
A Supplier's Quality Assurance system (in conjunction with the allocated Project Manager)
will normally provide the control and documentation of all of the above aspects.
However, the Customer is recommended to mobilise its own inspectors to follow all stages of
a subsea control system contract in order to fully assure itself that each component is
correctly manufactured and tested. This also ensures the eventual data books delivered with
the system have already been witnessed by the Customer's representatives and avoids last-
minute delays due to uncertainty about any individual item.
25.6 Conclusion
The manufacture, testing, and long-term reliability of components and subsea systems is
facilitated by the application of the Quality Management System requirements of ISO 9001.
However, these systems are very complex with many components, sub-assemblies and
interfaces. Quality Objectives can only be achieved in practice by effective Project
Management and Control, with the emphasis on Management.
This has been recognised by the standards authority and the Current International Standard
ISO 9001: 1994, is to be revised and expected to be Issued by the end of year 2000. The
salient change will be to incorporate 'The Management of the Project Process’.
26 RUNNING TOOLS
26.1 Requirement
When running subsea equipment in deepwater, a running tool is required due to the size and
weight of the equipment, the forces required to force the mating parts together, and to latch
the equipment in place.
A major component such as the subsea control module requires such a running tool. This can
be a simple relatively low cost purpose built running tool for one particular application, or a
more complex and expensive tool called a Multi Mode Running Tool (MMRT). An MMRT can
run and retrieve subsea control modules and subsea accumulator modules, and can also be
designed and used for other activities such as running and retrieving subsea chokes, multi-
phase flow meters, etc.
A large work class ROV is required for this activity.
Alternatively, to eliminate a trip to the surface by the ROV, the MMRT can be lowered to the
seabed in a cage that carries the new replacement component and a second set of transfer
weights. The ROV docks onto the MMRT, and guide it onto the interface of the component to
be replaced. The SCM or SAM is retrieved by the tool, and the transfer weights are left at the
interface.
The ROV moves to the cage and deposits the SCM or SAM in bay 1 of the cage, and then
picks up the second set of transfer weights. The ROV then moves to bay 2, picks up the
replacement component and deposits the second set of transfer weights.
The ROV moves back to the job, docks at the interface and installs the replacement
component. The ROV then retrieves the first set of transfer weights back to the cage.
27.1 General
Every deliverable component of the Subsea Control System should be subjected to a formal
test procedure, before acceptance from the Supplier for shipment to the delivery location.
This type of test is usually termed a ‘Factory Acceptance Test’ or ‘FAT’.
The proposed test procedure should be written and submitted to the Purchaser for review and
approval. No test should be performed until the document has reached an acceptable status;
therefore, the first issue should be submitted to the Purchaser at least 6 weeks before the
test. A signed, approved copy of the test procedure should be used to perform the test and
the test procedure should not then be modified without written permission from the
Purchaser; in any event, a corrected document should be issued.
The Purchaser or its Engineering Representative should witness every FAT. Sole QC is
inadequate for this Engineering function which requires knowledge and understanding of the
system and system components to observe the system test and to note and question any
irregularities.
In order to achieve this, the Supplier must issue a Notice Of Readiness in sufficient time for
the Purchaser to mobilise its Representative, typically, 5 working days is required.
Care should therefore be taken in contractual documentation at the start of a project to
ensure these provisions are included, else the Purchaser will find that the last minute
changes of schedule and lack of readiness will cause considerable disruption to its other
project responsibilities. Similarly, where some tests require the presence of equipment
supplied by others, care should be taken to ensure the schedules coincide.
Other environmental testing should also be performed on at least one of every design of
deliverable equipment. This should include vibration and shock testing, load tests. This
"Qualification Testing" may form a separate part of the overall QA Plan and Contract; it
should only be granted a 'waiver' if the Supplier can demonstrate similar testing on identical
equipment from an earlier project.
27.3 Documentation
Before commencing the test, ensure that the latest, Customer-approved version of the Test
procedure is to be used.
Verify that the item to be tested has been correctly manufactured in accordance with the
Suppliers normal manufacturing procedures and documentation and is fully complete.
The results of the FAT procedure should be recorded in a Factory Acceptance Test Report
document, usually included as an Appendix to the FAT procedure itself. The Report
document should then be supplied with the Unit and in any event, it should form part of the
final project documentation.
It should be signed and dated by all witnessing parties.
The report should be written as concisely as possible, however, care should be taken that
actual test values are recorded, as well as a statement of PASS/FAIL for each test, so that
the document can be used to check differences between identical units, as evidence of drift in
parameters, or be used as reference values for other future tests.
All tests should be witnessed by the Supplier's QA department and test results 'stamped' as
official records of events.
Ideally, the Supplier should have performed each type of test procedure at least once, before
notifying the Purchaser to attend, so that errors in the procedure are detected at an early stage.
Parameters appearing outside of the specified test limits are cause for rejection of the
complete unit; a re-test should only be held once the problem has been found, corrected, and
a report made to, and accepted by the Purchaser.
This is then an incentive for a 'dry-run' test to be performed by the Supplier before notifying
the Purchaser. If so included in the Contract, a Purchaser may be entitled to reclaim its costs
of attendance following an aborted test, unless due to unforeseen events.
• Each display to be tested for correct system operation (e.g. EPU display shows all
necessary EPU/HPU parameters, can control all outputs etc, all maintenance displays
operational, 'help' files correctly installed.)
• All ESD inputs cause the correct ESD sequence.
• Interfaces to Platform SCADA system operate correctly.
• Date/time synchronisation with PCS.
• Subsea Telemetry matches its design specification, operates correctly with a 'real' SCM,
can detect all types of fault without loss of data to other operational SCMs. (Test
equipment should simulate a complete field, rather than just one SCM).
• All interlocks and overrides operate correctly and do not cause unexpected actions when
released.
• MCS operates correctly when 'fully-loaded' i.e. with a full subsea system attached,
interface to SCADA operational, ESD inputs activated.
• MCS operates correctly when some of the subsea SCMs are inoperative (faulty or removed).
• Of particular interest in testing an MCS is its ability to handle 'unexpected' events, such as
particular failure modes in the subsea telemetry, error-codes in the various serial
interfaces, unexpected key-presses during other operations, activation of a higher-priority
ESD signal during a lower-priority one etc.
• Where a dual-redundant system is employed, the changeover to the backup unit is
'bumpless' i.e. does not cause any unexpected actions, changes of state of digital
outputs, operation of any subsea valves etc. Similarly, the return to the main unit should
also be 'bumpless'.
• Historical data recording system operates correctly over a wide time period. Verify data
can be downloaded to disc/ other equipment as per specification.
• Operates correctly over full range of ambient temperature. A 'heat-soak' test should be
performed.
27.4.10 Transducers
27.4.10.1 General
• All transducers should be hyperbarically tested, complete with any third-party electrical
cable harness.
• Each transducer should be calibration tested. The serial number should be noted and a
certificate should accompany each unit. Care should be taken to track where each sensor
is eventually installed subsea. Transducers that require the MCS to perform calculations
to obtain the final value will be supplied with calibration coefficients. Again, these must be
tracked with each unit.
• Hysteresis test
• Speed of response test
• Test for correct operation over full range of supply voltage.
• Test for correct operation over full range of temperature.
• Mechanical verification, particularly of interface flange / fittings.
• Tests should be performed to verify that changes in one channel do not affect the other,
particularly when operating at the minimum supply voltage.
• Verify the amount of hysteresis when choke moves in open direction then back to closed
again - this can have significant effect if the subsea system is to operate in a 'closed-loop'
mode where the system moves the choke until the sensor displays the correct value. If the
sensor exhibits significant hysteresis, the system may continuously 'hunt' the correct
position but never achieve it.
• Ensure the sand-detection signal operates correctly per design specification, particularly
when later connected to the SCM/MCS.
• Verify correct operation of the device over the specified range of 'pig' velocities.
• Ensure the 'latching' of the 'detect' signal operates correctly per design specification,
particularly when later connected to the SCM.
• Where the device is a destructive, guillotine-type mechanism, ensure it can cleanly cut a
fully populated set of cables/hoses.
• Where the device is a self-contained disconnection device, ensure it cleanly disconnects
without hydraulic leakage. One side of the device may be specified to vent hydraulic fluid,
ensure this operates correctly. Electrical connectors must also operate without causing
line-insulation faults or short-circuits.
• Verification of shear-pin type testing.
28.1 General
Every deliverable component of the Subsea Control System should be tested together as a
system with all other deliverable items from the same Supplier, and if possible, with all other
items to which they will be attached when eventually installed subsea.
This type of test is usually termed a ‘System Integration Test’ or ‘SIT’. However, if the test is
restricted to equipment from the one Supplier (Controls) then it is sometimes referred to as a
'Final Factory Acceptance Test' (FFAT) to distinguish it from a later test with the rest of the
subsea equipment.
Effort should be made to ensure the availability in the project Schedule for access to at least
one subsea Xmas tree and the template / manifold, so that the overall operation of the
system can be verified. These are not always available at the correct time for 'acceptance
testing' of the subsea controls equipment.
The controls contract should therefore clearly state the definition of any required system
testing and should clarify at what point the equipment is considered 'accepted' from the
Supplier. Ideally, this should only be when overall operation of the complete system (including
trees, manifold etc) is proven, but this is often difficult to arrange, particularly if the individual
schedules are widely separated. In this event, a financial retention is sometimes made, to
ensure the eventual testing is performed. In any event, a Warranty Period will cover problems
with system operation, but the incentive to correct them in a timely manner must be
maintained.
A Client will sometimes place high importance on testing a Xmas tree with the subsea
system. This is also a form of Integration Test, but it should be noted that this does not test
the full operation of the system, particularly if the system will normally operate more than one
tree and/or a manifold or template. There is only limited value in testing a tree with more than
just the SCM, as there is little difference between this test and an FAT of the SCM, or of the
Tree itself. The SIT is intended to test the system in a 'fully-loaded' condition, where more
than one unit is involved.
The Client or its Representative should witness the SIT. In order to achieve this, the Supplier
must issue a Notice Of Readiness in sufficient time for the Client to mobilise its
Representatives, typically, 10-15 working days is required to mobilise all interested parties for
an SIT.
Care should therefore be taken in contractual documentation at the start of a project to
ensure these provisions are included, else the Client will find that the last minute changes of
schedule and lack of readiness will cause considerable disruption to its other project
responsibilities. Similarly, where some tests require the presence of equipment supplied by
others, care should be taken to ensure the schedules coincide.
The SIT is the only opportunity for a Client, its partners, the eventual system Operators and
the Installation Contractor, to see all the equipment operating as it should, prior to being
installed subsea. Therefore, significant importance should be placed on the event and the
witnessing thereof. Photographs and video records of all aspects of the equipment should be
made. All drawings should be checked and marked-up for 'as-built' at this time, as full and
correct records will be invaluable once installation commences and for the life of the system.
ROV operators in particular should use the opportunity to familiarise their operators with the
equipment.
An SIT is usually performed at the manifold / template fabricator's site, or tree supplier, and
provision must be made in the respective contracts for access by the controls supplier etc to
perform these tests without disruption to the formers' contractual schedule.
Where equipment is missing from the SIT, Simulators should be employed; care should be
taken that these have themselves previously been tested as both functional and fully
representative of the unit they are simulating.
28.3 Documentation
The proposed test procedure should be written and submitted to the Client for review and
approval. No test should be performed until the document has reached an acceptable status;
therefore, the first issue should be submitted to the Client at least 6 weeks before the test. A
signed, approved copy of the test procedure should be used to perform the test and the test
procedure should not then be modified without written permission from the Client; in any
event, a corrected document should be issued.
Previous FAT Results should be available.
The results of the SIT procedure should be recorded in a System Acceptance Test Report
document, usually included as an Appendix to the SIT procedure itself. The Report document
should then be supplied with the final project documentation.
It should be signed and dated by all witnessing parties.
The report should be written as concisely as possible. However, care should be taken that
actual test values are recorded, as well as a statement of PASS/FAIL for each test, so that
the document can be used to check differences between identical units, as evidence of drift in
parameters, or be used as reference values for other future tests.
All tests should be witnessed by the Supplier's QA department and test results 'stamped' as
official records of events.
Ideally, the Supplier should have performed each test procedure at least once, before
notifying the Client to attend, so that errors in the procedure are detected at an early stage.
• All manual valves set to correct position for installation and/or operation.
• All sensor block valves set to correct position (usually 'open').
• All alarm limits returned to nominal values (for process parameters) or to correct
value for subsea system equipment as specified by the Supplier (HPU, EPU,
SCM).
• Equipment re-packed in offshore transport crates (sealed, protected) if not being
immediately installed.
• No equipment left on manifold / template unless scheduled for installation with it -
if so, all hydraulic & electrical connectors to be fixed on their 'parking' plates or
suitably protected/greased/fixed down.
29.1 Introduction
The primary factors affecting the control system design are the Field architecture and offset
distances (refer to section 7), and for most cases, an electro-hydraulic multiplexed control
system is suitable.
However, the offset distance from the subsea production equipment to the host facility
platform or the onshore facility may dictate that other solutions are considered. The installed
cost of a long or complex composite electro-hydraulic umbilical carrying power and signal
cables, hoses for low pressure and high pressure hydraulic systems, and the additional
chemical injection hose requirement for services such as corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibitor,
wax inhibitor, or methanol for start up, can significantly reduce the overall field economics.
There are two options for eliminating long length umbilicals in this situation. They are:
• buoy based systems where all of the control requirements are located at the
surface.
• autonomous subsea systems where all of the control requirements are located on
the seabed.
A major issue is personnel safety. Maintenance personnel need to be able to safely get on
and off the buoy for maintenance and bunkering of utility fluids.
There is a need for air-handling systems, fire-detection systems and fire dampers, emergency
access ways, etc. In addition, there is a need for food and fresh water, and temporary
accommodation in case it is not possible to get off the buoy due to bad weather.
29.3.1 Introduction
To dispense with the subsea umbilical there is a requirement for electrical supply, hydraulic
power supplies, solenoid valves, control and monitoring, and acoustic communications – all
subsea. These are the elements of the autonomous control system.
Whilst electricity can be stored in batteries (and some battery storage is always necessary),
there is the requirement for subsea power generation. The batteries need to be sized to
withstand production and planned annual shutdown requirements, and to be able to supply a
peak load for start up requirements. Battery technology is continually improving and an
optimum battery can be selected at the time of use.
The criteria for battery selection are minimum gas production, minimum maintenance, reliable
battery performance, final voltage as high as possible, and capability for partial charge and
discharge.
• A direct path
• No direct path, but one or more bounces via the surface to the seabed
• Zero signal transfer
In addition to the variability of the main path, there are multipath signals that arrive with
variable delays, amplitude and phase, causing interference with the main signal.
For a permanent installation between a wellhead and a platform, the link must be capable of
operating in all conditions. This is achieved by having one or more transducers deployed at
different depths on the platform jacket structure.
Data rates are fairly slow and 300 baud is typical, and can be lower in difficult conditions. For
this reason, the control system itself has to have autonomy for emergency shutdown
situations.
Communication distances of 10km are practically achieved using low frequency transmission,
typically in the 15-17 KHz range. Telemetry system designs of between 20 km and 30 km are
claimed.
SURFACE FACILITY
OPERATOR INTERFACE
MODEM
SEAWATER INTERFACE
ACOUSTIC
TRANSPONDER ACOUSTIC
TRANSPONDER
DATA &
HYDRAULIC
CONTROL
POWER SENSORS
MONITORING
UNIT ELECTRONICS
THERMO- ELECTRICAL
VALVE
ELECTRIC POWER ACTUATORS
CONTROL
GENERATOR STORAGE
SUBSEA EQUIPMENT
29.3.5 HAPAC
The principles of the autonomous control system have been studied and proto-type tested by
TOTAL in the Hunter Autonomous Power Generation and Acoustic Control Project (HAPAC).
The Thermo-Electric Power Generator (THEG) was built using Bismuth Telluride p-type and
Bismuth Telluride n-type as the two dissimilar semiconducting metals which can operate at up
to 200ºC. Using THEGS with 6 rows in parallel and 56 plates in series, laid in a hexagonal
configuration around the pipe spool, a maximum power output of 130 Watt was achieved with
an internal water temperature of 120ºC and external water temperature of 4ºC.
The subsea control system used had been developed by Kvaerner FSSL for the SPARCS
Project, and was updated for use on HAPAC. The system was modified to be used with
Simrad and Sonardyne acoustic systems. A single pressure 207 barg hydraulic supply was
used for the test.
The target acoustic range for the test was 10km subject to acoustic propagation conditions
and platform noise levels. A high transmission level of 214db (reference to 1 micropascal
pressure) was selected.
An operating frequency of 15-18 kHz was selected to prevent interference with other
commonly used acoustic systems. It was also a good compromise between low attenuation
for operation to 10km or greater and the ability to produce directional transducer arrays that
were not too large.
A three element transducer array was used to provide a ±7.5º vertical beam with a broader
horizontal beam of ±30º to compensate for the easier alignment of the arrays in the vertical
plane relative to the horizontal plane when installed.
The transmitted source level was adjustable in 6db increments from 196db to 214db, and the
data rate from 10 baud to 300 baud to enable optimum performance to be achieved, and to
cope with seasonal variations in the propagation conditions.
An acoustic propagation study was conducted using ray path trace analysis for sound
velocity/depth profile data over a range of 5.2km and in a water depth of 130m. Ray paths
were computed for each month over a 12 month period to establish the seasonal variation.
The results of the analysis are summarised below:
• Over the summer months, there is always a direct path from the platform to the
subsea well site.
• As the summer progresses, a thermocline develops which gets steadily deeper
and thereby prevents acoustic communication at transducer depths shallower than
100m in September.
• In winter there is no direct path but there is always a path with a single bounce
from the surface.
• The optimum depth for the platform transducer was 100m.
The Total Exploration Production HAPAC Final Technical Report was issued in April 1999.
29.4.1 Introduction
This section discusses the application of recent technology to subsea control systems,
whereby a system may be improved, or made more cheaply, by benefiting from advances in
compatible techniques.
Multimode
Advantages:
• Large core tolerates connector misalignment
• Low cost transmitters - LED technology, short wavelengths
Disadvantages:
• High attenuation – 3dB/km @850nm, 1.5dB/km @1300nm
• ‘Low’ bandwidth – 500MHz.km
Singlemode
Advantages
• High bandwidth >2000MHz.km
• Low attenuation – 0.5dB/km @1310nm, 0.3dB/km @ 1550nm
Disadvantages
• Small core sensitive to connector misalignment
• More expensive transmitters – Laser technology, long wavelengths
In both Singlemode and Multimode fibre the attenuation is caused by light travelling down the
fibre is scattered out of the fibre and absorbed by the fibre.
50µm
Multimode fibre
125µm
8µm
Singlemode fibre
125µm
The high communications bandwidth on Singlemode fibre supports increased sensing and
control facilities. The bandwidth is limited by the transmission system and not by the fibres
themselves or the connectors. Modems are readily available developed and used in the
telecomms industry and wet-mateable fibre-optic connectors have been in use since around
1997 as a controlled-environment type connector.
The connector brings together two shaped and polished fibre ends with a
misalignment of less than two microns to achieve a connector loss of less than 0.5dB.
The misalignment may be axial, angular or longitudinal causing loss due to light being
reflected by the end of the fibre and scattered as it leaves the fibre. This reduces the
amount of light entering the mating fibre.
The increased bandwidth can be achieved with a reduction in size from a single electrical-
conductor pair, and hence a reduction in umbilical cross-sectional area, and hence umbilical
cost.
The move towards subsea processing will require different types of electrical equipment on
the seabed. For example, for long offsets, there may be a requirement for high voltage
cabling. It would not generally be cost effective or economic to install a separate power and
communications cables, and hence signals running over long distances next to high voltage
power conductors need to be noise tolerant. Optical fibre offers complete immunity from
signal corruption caused by exposure to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Fibre optics can also provide secure and uncorrupted communications. Where a subsea field
might be tied back to another Operator’s host facilities, digitally encrypted signals can be
used to keep data secure.
This can be of particular interest when using a network such as the FibreWeb™ network in
the Gulf of Mexico, where fibre optic cable routes along the seabed from near Houston to
near New Orleans, routing around several rigs and platforms. The fibre cable is mainly for
voice communications as an alternative to radio or satellite, but the opportunity to tie-back
and control a subsea development or the possibility of 100 sensors in line on any one fibre
provides many opportunities for technology development.
Field acreage may have been previously drilled and reserves proven that may not be
economic to produce as a stand-alone development. These assets may be revisited as the
technology develops and the support infrastructure develops. Fibre optic based systems offer
the ability to communicate over distances of 100-200km with no subsea signal repeaters.
In addition to the above, fibre optics have provided an economic and reliable solution for
monitoring downhole pressure and temperature. Temperatures in excess of 1000ºC can be
measured which exceeds the survivable performance of all electronic gauge systems.
30.1 Introduction
Flowlines can be an expensive item due to their length and the wall thickness requirement for
pressure containment and an applied corrosion allowance. If the flowline is designed to
withstand the maximum Wellhead shut-in pressure at production start-up, the system will be
over designed as reservoir pressure falls later in field life. In addition, flowing pressures will
be significantly less than the shut-in pressure and hence the system will normally operate at
pressures well below the design.
Project feasibility should consider the economics of reducing the rated working pressure of a
flowline below the maximum Wellhead shut-in pressure of the well(s) feeding it, whilst at the
same time taking precautions to ensure the pressure in the flowline can never rise as high as
the Wellhead Shut-in pressure. A typical field study consideration is a gas field where the
reservoir shut in pressures may be high.
For a flowline to be rated lower than a pressure that could potentially be applied to it requires
considerable means to ensure this over pressure can never occur. If a barrier valve is placed
at the Manifold just before the flowline and is shut whenever the pressure rises, only the Tree
and manifold pipework need then be rated to the full shut in pressure.
To achieve this, a High Integrity Pressure Protection System (HIPPS) is required. The HIPPS
system is a high-availability emergency shutdown system to ensure the wells feeding the
flowline are isolated whenever the pressure in the flowline exceeds an alarm point, by closing
the Barrier Valves.
The consequences of any decision to de-rate the flowline and introduce a HIPPS are
considerable and the overall economics and safety issues including a safety case study must
be carefully evaluated before proceeding along this path. An intermediate approach is to rate
the flowline such that full Wellhead pressure does not cause it to rupture, but 'merely' to
exceed its plastic limit.
When considering the complexity of a HIPPS system and the dual/triple redundant equipment
on the seabed, it may be appropriate to be able to isolate the HIPPS system later in the field
life when the reservoir depletes and the well shut in pressure becomes lower.
There are several different abbreviations that have been used for overpressure protection
systems, such as HIPPS (High Integrity Pressure Protection System), HIPS (High Integrity
Protection Shutdown system) or OPPS (Overpressure Pipeline Protection System).
Implementation of a HIPPS
30.1.1 Requirements
The requirements are therefore for a system that detects a rising pressure in a flowline and
quickly shuts one or more isolation/barrier valves before the pressure can rise too high.
This requires:
• A very reliable and highly available system.
• A fast-acting system.
In its simplest form, a HIPPS barrier valve, installed in the fully rated pipework section of the
Process Manifold/Template, is controlled by local logic monitoring a downstream Pressure
Transmitter. HIPPS control logic monitors the Transmitter and closes the HIPPS barrier valve
in the event that excessive pressure is detected.
Usually the implementation of a HIPPS system subsea gives rise to many other
considerations during detailed design, and hazard and operability studies. This is due to the
amount of dual/triple redundant equipment on the seabed, adequate system isolation, and
consideration of keeping critical instrumentation hydrate free. Thus the ability to isolate the
HIPPS system later in the field life should also be considered during the design phase.
SUBSEA MANIFOLD
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
HIPPS
VOTING
XMAS TREE
PRODUCTION
ZI FIC
STRING
S.P.
PWV
PMV
FCV ZT
ZT
PT PT PT PT PT
HIPPS HIPPS
BARRIER SDV SDV BARRIER
VALVE 1 VALVE 2
Page 132
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
The actual HIPPS implementation is more complex in order to assure the reliability,
availability and speed, and to power and test the system. Topsides equipment will need to
supply the necessary electrical and hydraulic power, which will be transmitted to the subsea
equipment via an umbilical. Subsea equipment located adjacent to the Barrier Valves will
provide the actual detection and actuation mechanisms. A second HIPPS barrier valve, is
also monitored either side by Pressure Transmitters, which provides redundancy in case of
failure or leakage of the first valve.
Standard subsea hardware can be used for non-critical control functions, but specially
designed equipment will be required for the rest of the system.
These components are described below in more detail.
that all such events are reflected back to the subsea control system (only major ones such as
Platform Shutdowns) so it is feasible that the inadvertent closure of a topsides block valve
could trigger the HIPPS, unless all such events are immediately followed by closure of
Tree/Manifold valves and chokes.
This requires a better integration of the topsides and subsea facilities and in practice can be
difficult to implement, particularly where a topsides system already exists when a new subsea
field is connected to an existing Platform. It is very easy to manually close a topsides riser or
separator valve, without prior subsea action, and the system effects of this, including the
'water-hammer' effect, may well cause the pipeline pressure to be exceeded.
Pressure-testing of a pipeline would also activate the HIPPS, which should therefore be taken
into account when planning such operations - again, only an override would permit such
testing past the Barrier Valve(s) themselves.
30.4 Summary
A HIPPS flowline protection system is readily achievable using existing proven technology,
but there are consequences to the overall subsea and topsides control system designs in
implementing such a system.
The need for overall Project commitment to a HIPPS system is mandatory, as there are far-
reaching consequences in taking this route to all aspects of developing a new field,
particularly when being tied-back to an existing Platform.
The total cost of ownership must be fully accounted for in determining the feasibility of having
a low-pressure rated pipeline, and a number of areas have been highlighted which will, in
practice, add to the development cost and reduce the advantage of lowering the pipeline
design pressure. The effects of adding a HIPPS system depend also on the nature of the
Field Development Project itself, and unless being implemented at the start of a completely
new Development, will have cost implications on existing systems which may be
unacceptable or difficult to implement.
Further precautions can be implemented using technology within existing designs of Subsea
Control System. A dedicated HIPPS module can then be added to the control system, sharing
the power / hydraulics / communications (albeit with certain provisos), to provide overall
protection via a dedicated HIPPS Barrier Valve, should the well control system fail to maintain
pressure in the safe region.
Nevertheless, it is evident that a simple commercial decision to economise on pipeline costs
results in a considerable and complex outlay for a system to adequately and reliably prevent
the pipeline being over pressured.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 4
1.1 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 REGULATIONS, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS .............................................. 4
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. 5
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 6
1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ 6
2 DEEPWATER INSTALLATION TASKS......................................................................... 7
2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 7
2.2 INSTALLATION TASKS .................................................................................................. 7
2.3 LIFTING REQUIREMENT ............................................................................................... 7
2.4 LAYING REQUIREMENT................................................................................................ 8
3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT........................................................................................ 9
3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 9
3.2 STORAGE AND LAYING OF PRODUCTS .......................................................................... 9
3.2.1 General .........................................................................................................................9
3.2.2 Product Safe Handling..................................................................................................9
3.2.3 Installation and Laying Parameters ............................................................................10
3.2.4 Clamping Pressure .....................................................................................................10
3.2.5 Load Matrix .................................................................................................................11
3.2.6 Laying Accuracy, Monitoring & Control ......................................................................12
3.3 LIFTING & INSTALLATION OF STRUCTURES ................................................................. 13
3.3.1 General .......................................................................................................................13
3.3.2 Subsea Structures Safe Handling ..............................................................................13
3.3.3 Installation Accuracy, Monitoring & Control................................................................14
3.4 REMOTELY OPERATED VEHICLES .............................................................................. 14
4 LAY ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................... 16
4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 16
4.2 PIPELINE BUCKLING DESIGN ..................................................................................... 16
4.3 DEEPWATER PIPELAY METHOD ................................................................................. 17
4.3.1 General .......................................................................................................................17
4.3.2 S-Lay...........................................................................................................................17
4.3.3 Steep S-Lay ................................................................................................................17
4.3.4 J-Lay ...........................................................................................................................18
4.3.5 Reel-Lay......................................................................................................................18
4.4 S-LAY VERSUS J-LAY ............................................................................................... 19
4.5 STEEP S-LAY STRAIN ............................................................................................... 21
4.6 REEL-LAY STRAIN .................................................................................................... 22
4.7 DEEPWATER J-LAY PARAMETERS (RIGID PIPE, FLEXIBLE & UMBILICAL) ....................... 24
4.7.1 Rigid Pipe....................................................................................................................24
4.7.2 Flexible Lines ..............................................................................................................27
4.7.3 Umbilical Lines............................................................................................................28
4.8 INSTALLATION METHOD LIMITATIONS ......................................................................... 29
5 DYNAMIC POSITIONING EQUIPMENT & CLASS ...................................................... 30
5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 30
5.2 DP FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT ................................................................................ 30
5.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................30
5.2.2 Power System.............................................................................................................31
5.2.3 Thruster System..........................................................................................................31
5.2.4 DP References and Control System...........................................................................31
5.3 DP CAPABILITY DEFINITION (& PLOTS) ...................................................................... 33
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
As offshore oilfields are discovered in increasingly deeper waters, the capabilities of existing
installation and pipelay vessels are being exceeded. The offshore industry is faced with the
need to improve the operating capabilities of existing vessels or undertake the construction of
new vessels specially designed for operation in very deep water.
The scope of this study is to review the existing and the new built or converted deepwater
installation vessels and to cover the key issues such as :
• the typical deepwater installation tasks and related constraints, as further described
in chapter 2
• the recent offshore accidents in the Gulf of Mexico just highlight the importance of
interface engineering that is needed to properly load and install a product (flowlines
or umbilical) or structure with the adequate means (cranes, winches, tensioner, lay
ramp, etc.) as further analysed in chapter 3
• the different lay techniques (Steep S-lay, J-lay, Reel-lay) are further analysed in
chapter 4 with its constraints, limitations, advantages and disadvantages
• because of the water depth and the scattering of FPS mooring lines, wells,
flowlines, umbilical and other subsea structures, deepwater installation vessels
must be equipped and operated in 'dynamically positioned', exclusively by means
of propeller and thruster forces. The dynamic positioning system and DP class type
are further detailed in chapter 5
• the installation means and the laying equipment are further described in chapter 6
• and the subsequent chapter 7 will provide a general description of the existing and
new or converted deepwater installation vessels (i.e. heavy lift vessels, deepwater
pipelay vessels, and deepwater flexible pipes and umbilical lay vessels)
• finally the annexes will provide the detailed technical description of the available
deepwater installation vessels, along with the addresses of the deepwater
installation contractors.
1.4 References
1. Offshore technology conference papers from 1969 to 1998
2. In-house technical offshore vessel database
3. In-house experience in deepwater operations and installation vessel management
4. Marine Contractor Vessel leaflets
5. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Tie-in Methods”
6. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Sealines”
7. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Riser Systems”
8. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Umbilicals”
9. Deepwater Field Development – Reference Book – “Deepwater ROV & TOOLS”
1.5 Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with courtesy of
technical information and photographs of their products.
2.1 Introduction
Floating Production Systems (FPS) is widely considered as the most practical and
commercially attractive solution for the development of deepwater (1000 m) and ultra
deepwater (2000 - 3000 m) oil and gas reserves.
Depending on the hydrocarbon reservoir characteristics, the X-mas trees can be either in
surface (“dry” configuration) or subsea installed.
In general FPS such as TLP, SPAR and Deep Draft Semi-submersible Structures (DDSS) will
serve the 'dry' configuration alternative, with the remaining systems such as FPSO and Semi-
submersible Structures to remotely control the subsea trees from the floater.
3 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT
3.1 Introduction
The main interface requirements in the deepwater installation of subsea components and/or
structures are related to:
3.2.1 General
The storage and subsea installation of products are to be performed in a timely and safe
manner, taking into account all site limitations, typically:
• weather conditions
• seabed soil conditions and visibility
• other site constraints (mooring lines, other subsea structures, etc.).
For this purpose the storage and laying equipment must be designed, built and operated to
suit the conditions in which they are to perform, taking account of the products properties,
installation constraints and emergency situation as defined by the HAZOP/HAZID sessions.
For all offshore activities or tasks, laying and installation detailed procedures must be
provided and weather limitations identified (waves, winds, currents, etc) in relation to vessel
heading.
Reversal of all operations (e.g. laying) must be possible and related procedures should also
be provided.
The products must be handled, stored, seafastened, transported and installed in a safe
manner and according to the specified requirements (e.g. product properties/load capacities)
and procedures.
For each product, the installation or laying parameters (dynamic mode) and product load
capacities must be calculated and analyzed against the vessel and equipment performance
and capabilities.
A formal FMECA study for the laying and installation equipment (e.g. including all ancillaries
such as abandonment & recovery means) is to be performed.
The objectives being to demonstrate that the product will not be damaged by the installation
or laying equipment during normal operation and back-up procedure exists, in case of
emergency situation arising from environmental condition changes or vessel equipment
failures.
The product bending radius and tension must be accurately controlled (i.e. compression
avoidance through monitoring of tension and product departure angle on lay vessel) during
handling and laying operation; in particular during critical operations such as line initiation,
over boarding of intermediate pipe fittings, lay-down of end termination, cross-hauled and
pull-in operations.
• nominal and maximum dynamic lay tensions for empty product in submerged
conditions
• maximum hold-back tension in case of product 'wet buckle' (flooded condition)
• minimum bending radius vs. applied dynamic tension (combined with bending)
• touch down point distance from lay vessel
• sag bend radius
• maximum stress level
• accumulated strain and maximum residual as-laid strain
The above installation and laying parameters must form the basis for the laying & installation
procedures.
As a result of the HAZOP/HAZID sessions, an emergency & contingency procedures must be
provided for all identified hazardous activities.
Crushing
Product crushing resistance is to be checked against laying equipment characteristics during
product handling, such as reeling, packing, passes through straightener, tensioner, roller,
gutter, hang-off or hold-back clamps, etc.
Excessive Pull
Actual tension combined with other loads (e.g. bending, torsion) is to be compared against
product axial resistance load.
Excessive Bending
Special care shall be taken to avoid excessive bending during product overboarding with
intermediate connections, PLIM, PLEM, subsea splice, buoyancy modules, clamps, etc.
Tearing
Sharp edges and abrasive surfaces shall be avoided and the clamping force properly
selected.
If the product passes a gutter/chute, it shall be verified that the friction (products vs. gutter)
will not damage the outer sheath.
Excessive Twist
The product allowable twist (angle°/m) must be specified and excessive twist avoided during
the installation phase (e.g. during riser cross-haul to floater or fixed structures).
Collapse/Compression
The laying parameters and procedures must carefully avoid exposure of the products to local
loads superior to the maximum design loads.
To ensure that the installation will be carried out in such a way that the different product
design capacities are not exceeded, all relevant loads (dynamic mode) and their
combinations are to be considered.
A load matrix (load cases and loads) are to be established based on the selected installation
method, vessel & equipment and specified environmental conditions.
The load matrix must be used to verify if all relevant load combinations have been considered
and the product design capacities are not exceeded when being handled by the installation or
laying equipment.
Laying Tensioner Max. tension vs. Crushing, Tearing For laying this includes normal, far and close
clamping pressure at position of vessel to touch-down-point
weather limits
Sag bend & Min. tension at Excessive Bending, Further Product abandonment & recovery is to
touch-down weather limit inducing Twist, Compression be considered
compression at
bending
Pull-in Bellmouth, J-tube Max. tension and Excessive Bending, For cross-haul of Riser, twist angle is to be
bending at contact Crushing, considered
radius and weather Ovalisation and
limits Tearing
Docking Riser structure & Min. radius & Max. Excessive Bending, For laying this include normal, far and close
base tension inducing Tearing, position of vessel to touch-down-point
bending, compression Compression
at weather limits
(induce heave)
Hydrotest All applicable Max. pressure & Crushing, Tearing, Any weather limitation during riser pressure
positions tension, Min. bending Leakage, Burst, test is to be considered
Yield in pipe/tube
The tension applied to the line must be continuously controlled and recorded in order to avoid
sudden changes in line tension, and to ensure line routing within the specified laying tolerances.
A protocol & control system between the vessel DP and the laying equipment will allow the
continuous and safe product laying within a pre-determined track with or without turning points.
At completion of installation or laying operations the line end shall be lowered onto the
seabed under controlled conditions and abandoned in its target area within a specified
heading.
3.3.1 General
Lifting and installation of topside process modules, or subsea structures must be performed in
a timely and safe manner, taking into account all site limitations (see section 3.2.1).
For this purpose the dedicated lifting and installation equipment (cranes, winches) must be
designed, built and operated to suit the conditions in which they are to perform. More
specifically taking account of the structures installation criteria and constraints, as specified
by the designer/manufacturers and national codes/certifying authority rules (e.g. Det Norske
Veritas [DnV], American Petroleum Institute [API], Lloyds Register of Shipping [LRS]).
For all offshore activities or tasks, lifting and installation detailed procedures must be provided
and weather limitations identified (waves, winds, currents, etc) in relation to vessel heading.
The subsea structures must be handled, stored, sea-fastened, transported, offshore lifted and
installed in a safe manner all in accordance with the specified requirements (e.g. SPS's
manufacturer) and procedures.
For each structure, the lifting and installation parameters (dynamic mode) must be calculated
and analysed against the vessel and equipment performance and capabilities. Reversal of
the installation operations must be possible.
The deck handling system and the lifting devices must be designed to control and prevent the
pendulum movements of the subsea structures between leaving the deck storage area,
passing through the splash zone and safely landing on the seabed.
The landing criteria (speed, energy) must be defined through the SPS manufacturer interface
activities. The following landing criteria are to be considered as typical for deepwater
installation (preliminary data for further evaluation):
A formal FMECA study for the handling, lifting and installation of equipment is to be
performed.
The objectives being to demonstrate that the subsea structures will not be damaged during
normal operation and back-up procedure exists, in case of emergency situation arising from
environmental condition changes or vessel equipment failures.
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For deepwater operations, special attention shall be paid to the ROV umbilical and tether
management system in terms of design and operating procedures.
Due to the ROV water depth descent & ascent times and system redundancy requirement,
the following table 2 sets the basic and typical number & type of ROV spreads:
Pull-in, Cross-haul 1 1
Tie-Ins 2 1
Hydrotest 2
The proposed ROV number & type for each dedicated vessel shall be analysed and
documented on this basis.
The ROV vehicle will be launched using the over-the-side method or through the moonpool
and will require a dedicated Launch & Recovery System to control the pendulum movements
on deck and through the splash-zone. Such handling system shall be designed, built and
operated to suit the conditions in which they are to perform.
On a DP vessel the position for the safe launching and recovery of ROV vehicles shall be
evaluated, based on vessel motions and thruster positions.
As a minimum, the ROV deck equipment will include :
Please refer to the document “Deepwater ROV and TOOLS” (Reference 9) of Deepwater
Field Development – Reference Book, for further details on ROV technology, capabilities and
requirements.
4 LAY ANALYSIS
4.1 General
The physical scale of deepwater pipeline installation possesses the biggest challenge to
offshore contractors in being able to provide bigger and stronger equipment (& vessel) to
handle installation at such depths (2000-3000 m) in an economic manner.
Important parameters in pipeline design are (1) steel material, (2) diameter and (3) wall
thickness.
The pipeline material will be dictated by the produced fluid or gas corrosion properties and
the diameter is chosen to suit particular maximum flow of the wells it is serving.
The wall thickness often needs to be chosen with particular care, as the weight of pipe
suspended directly from the lay vessel will influence the amount of tension required to hold
the pipe during the laying operation. At such depth a few millimetres of additional pipe wall
thickness can make the operation beyond existing vessel lay capabilities. Thicker wall pipe
will also have a costly impact on material cost, transportation and installation, as longer
offshore welding time will be required.
Several pipelay methods from a vessel (barges, ships, semi-submersibles) can be considered :
S-Lay, J-Lay and Reel-Lay.
The following sections will further analyse the above pipe design considerations and the laying
configuration constraints.
4.3.1 General
4.3.2 S-Lay
Traditionally pipelay is carried out from a purpose built barge or vessel and in an S-lay
configuration. The lay barge allows the pipe to be welded, controlled and coated in a
continuous production system based on different workstations (i.e. 5-7 stations) to form a
'firing line'. This leads to a fast production process even when dealing with large diameter
pipes (e.g. 36”), typical lay rates from 2 km/day and up to 6 km/day (on occasion) can be
achieved.
However, because the pipe is assembled in the horizontal position it needs to be laid off the
back of the vessel in an S-shaped catenary and supported by a stinger to prevent the pipe
from buckling.
Because of the pipe departure angle at the stinger tip (30-40 degree range from horizontal,
depending on water depth and pipe diameter), S-lay intrinsically requires much higher
tensions (than J-lay) to control the pipe curvatures (see next section 4.4). Furthermore the
long lay back distance of pipe touch down point in deepwater with S-lay is also problematic
and restricts its ability to lay around a curve.
The deepest S-lay has been performed by SAIPEM Castoro Sei (20" diameter) at a depth of
615 m in the Strait of Sicily.
4.3.4 J-Lay
This is the second configuration for laying of pipe, where the pipe departs from the lay vessel
at a near vertical angle (e.g. 85°-87°). There is no over-bend to maintain as in the above
case. The pipe hangs in catenary and curves towards the horizontal as it approaches the
seabed (i.e. sag bend radius).
A smaller tension is necessary to maintain a satisfactory curvature at the sag bend. To
control the stresses and prevent buckling, the major part of the tension requirement is simply
to hold the submerged weight of the pipe.
Residual axial tension on pipe laid by J-lay is significantly less than with the S-lay method
(see next sections 4.4 and 4.7).
Since the pipe is departing from the vessel in the near vertical position, this implies that the
welding should be done in the near vertical as well. Since it is not practical to have a vertical
'firing line' as in the S-lay, the pipe is assembled (welded) by stalk of 2, 4 or 6 joints. A 6 joint
stalk is considered to be the current practical limit for up-righting (i.e. Heerema Balder J-lay
equipment).
The pre-fabricated stalk of joints is up-righted from the horizontal position to the vertical lay
ramp, where it is welded at a single station. This makes the production process much slower
than for S-lay. Typically, 1 km/day to 2 km/day can be achieved depending on the pipe
diameter and wall thickness.
The pipe needs to be held (in the vertical position) while welding of the stalk joint is taking
placed; three alternatives can be adopted : (1) tensioners, (2) pipe collar or (3) hang-off
friction clamp.
The current deepest J-lay has been performed by J.Ray Mc Dermott DB50 (18"diameter) at a
depth of 950 m on Shell Mars (Gulf of Mexico).
Because the pipe lay (in 'J' configuration) is without residual strain, it is the preferred method
for laying steel catenary riser :
• Shell Auger TLP, 2x12" oil & gas export risers in 870 m
• Petrobras Marlim 10" gas-export from P26 to P18 semi-submersibles in 910 m water
depth.
4.3.5 Reel-Lay
The third method for laying deepwater pipelines is by the reel lay ship. This installation
technique can be considered as similar to the J-lay approach, with however a main difference
as the pipe is continually fed down an adjustable lay ramp from a large storage reel mounted
on the ship (see section 4.6).
Prefabricated pipe lengths (e.g. 500 m to 1000 m) are welded together and spooled onto the
ship reel at an onshore fabrication yard (spoolbase), thus minimising the offshore time or field
duration required for pipelay operations. A typical lay speed of some 12 km/day can be
achieved, however the ship limited in pipe carrying capacity would necessitate multiple trips
between the offshore field and the spoolbase to collect more pipe, or to replace the empty
reel with a pre-loaded reel by means of heavy lift crane vessel. In this process the pipeline
needs to be abandoned and recovered for each loading trip.
The pipe is departing from the vessel in the near vertical position (as for the J-lay) and the
pipe load is controlled by both tensioners (mounted on the J-lay ramp) and the storage reel.
During pipelay, the pipe is unspooled from the reel and guided via an aligner to a straightener
on the lay ramp. The pipe then passes through the straightener, down the ramp, through the
tensioners and overboards the ship (see section 4.6).
The main advantage of the reel lay method are high lay speed (i.e. short offshore operation
time) but requires a near onshore spoolbase. The current reel lay method is limited in
diameter and requires an optimum pipe thickness for reelability (i.e. D/t ratio in the range of
12 to 15). It is believed that reel lay capabilities will be extended as follows:
The spooling and unspooling process will introduce an elasto-plastic bending with maximum
cumulative strain in order of 2 % - 5% ranges. However there should not be any residual
strain (unlike the 'Steep S-lay') as the straightener will exert a reverse bending moment which
would result in a near zero residual curvature (see section 4.6).
The maximum equivalent stress (von Mises expression) has been fixed to 350MPa (i.e. about
0.8 x SMYS) for both lay methods. The results bring the following remarks:
• during S-lay, the stinger tip is a "sensible" location where the pipe endures high
stress due to the vessel motions
• higher horizontal tension to be retained by the vessel DP is required during S-lay
to control the pipe departure angle at stinger tip
• S-lay induces higher (than J-lay) tension and stress variations.
The S-lay method is then limited by the vessel DP capabilities (which have to counteract the
pipe horizontal tension) to water depths about 500-600m (depending on the pipe diameter);
the J-lay method is then preferred for the following considerations:
Moment
C
at stinger
B
Residual Curvature
O
G Curvature
D
E
off stinger
H F
• as the pipe is spooled onto the reel beyond the yield stress, the elasto-plastic
strain follow the path OA
• as the stress is decreased during the first unspooled phase between the reel and
the aligner, the pipe recovers along the path AB
• when the pipe passes over the aligner curvature, a new stress-strain elasto-
plastic deformation is experienced along the path BCD
• a new stress relief is obtained when the pipe passes between the aligner and the
straightener, as per the path DE
• finally a reverse bending is applied in the straightener (negative strain) until point
F is reached, after which recovery should result in zero residual strain
As stated previously, the total cumulative strain experienced by the pipe will be in the 2%-5%
range.
Stress Stress
A aligner D
spooling
O O C
Strain Strain
unspooling straightener
B F B, E
ALIGNER
REEL
Straightener
Reel
Tensioner
Aligner
The following pipe effective tensions, horizontal tensions and pipe sag-bend radii have been
determined for respectively 85° (see figure 5) and 87° (see figure 6) laying angle.
1000
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
450
400
horizontal tension (kN )
350
Pipe 6"
300 Pipe 8"
100
50
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
300
sagbend radius (m)
250
Pipe 6"
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
5000
Horizontal Tension
1000
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
250
horizontal tension (kN)
Pipe 6"
200
Pipe8"
Pipe 10"
150
Pipe 12"
Pipe 14"
100 Pipe 16"
50
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
200
sagbend radius (m)
Pipe 6"
Pipe 8"
150
Pipe 10"
Pipe 12"
100
Pipe 14"
Pipe 16"
50
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Note: The various laying parameters concerning the 16" rigid pipe are not indicated for water depths lower
than 2000m as the bending moment at sag bend exceeds the allowable value.
3500
6" Flexible
2500
8" Flexible
2000 10" Flexible
12" Flexible
1500 14" Flexible
16" Flexible
1000
500
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
4" Flexible
140
6" Flexible
120 8" Flexible
100 10" Flexible
80 12" Flexible
14" Flexible
60
16" Flexible
40
20
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Note : For large diameter flexible, the lay tension are water depth limited due to the flexible product
limitation: 12” (3000m), 14” (2000m) and 16” (1600m).
1400
1200 114mm OD Umbilical
138mm OD Umbilical
1000
146mm OD Umbilical
800 180mm OD Umbilical
600
400
200
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
70
60 114mm OD Umbilical
138mm OD Umbilical
50
146mm OD Umbilical
40 180mm OD Umbilical
30
20
10
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
water depth (m)
Note: At report date, Allseas Solitaire DP Vessel has been awarded the Shell Malampaya pipelay which
includes a 16” diameter carbon steel incoloy 825 clad pipe at 850m WD.
5.1 General
The DP system, encompassing all equipment, sub-systems, control, power, engines, thruster,
etc, that directly or indirectly effects the position keeping ability of the vessel, must be
designed with built-in redundancy and reliability to meet with or exceed the DP System
Class 2 requirement.
All components in a DP system should be designed, constructed and tested in accordance with
international standards recognized by the International Marine Contractor Association (IMCA).
For DP equipment class 2, loss of position shall not occur from a single fault of an active
component or system such as generators, thruster, switchboards, remote controlled valves,
etc, or from a single inadvertent act by any person on board the DP vessel (but may occur
after failure of a static component such as cables, piping, manual valves, etc.).
For DP equipment class 3, loss of position should not occur from any single failure (as for DP
class 2 above) including any static component, and a completely burnt fire sub-division or
flood watertight compartment.
For equipment class 2 and 3, redundancy of all active components is required.
The following sections define the basic and minimum requirements of the DP system.
5.2.1 Introduction
A fully operational dynamic positioning system shall reliably keep a vessel in pre-determined
positions or tracks, such that the maximum excursion from vessel motions (e.g. surge, sway,
yaw) and position control system accuracy shall be less than the critical excursion for the
work being performed :
The DP systems comprise three areas defined as Power, Control and References :
Redundant components and systems must be immediately available and with such capacity
that the DP operation can be continued for such a period that the work in progress can be
terminated safely.
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5.2.4.1 References
The position references have two functions, these are to provide (i) stable position
information and (ii) sufficiently accurate positioning data for the work being carried out.
For DP operations at least two (2) independent references should be on line and of different
types (e.g. DGPS, hydro-acoustic, radio or surface positioning).
When using similar reference sensors, they should be checked for complete redundancy and
without common failure modes.
The position reference systems on-line to the DP control should provide the DP operator with
information to assist with decision making about individual reference system performance and
malfunction.
Typical reference accuracy are summarised as follows:
Bus-tie breaker 1 2
Figure 8 – DP Footprint
The above should be presented in polar plot form for various current speeds, i.e. 0, 1, 2 and 3
knots, co-incident with wind and associated wave loads from a fully developed sea.
A realistic allowance shall be made for thrust losses from, interaction, tunnel length, control
system response, etc.
The purpose is to provide the DP operators with information so that they can assess whether
safe working limits have been exceeded from intact power and thrust usage.
For product laying operations, the DP capability plots shall be provided after the subtraction
of the mean tension required for the highest pipe tension load combination (of heaviest pipe,
deepest water, etc).
5.4.1 Introduction
DP safe working limits must be determined for each geographical location and type of task to
be performed.
As a minimum, two types of risk assessment shall be performed :
• Failure Modes Effects & Criticality Analysis, which are equipment specific (e.g.
DP Systems, laying & installation equipment, etc)
• HAZOP/HAZID Analysis, which are more "Job" specific
• the consequences of sudden failure of the tension load (e.g. tensioner failure)
• limits of heading capability in beam environmental conditions
6.1 General
The equipment required on board the installation vessel for the laying of flexible lines,
umbilical cables, rigid or reeled pipe are summarized in the following two tables 7 and 8:
STORAGE FACILITY
P Flexible X X X X
R line
O Umbilical X X X X
cable
D
U Reeled X X
Pipe
C
Rigid pipe X
INSTALLATION EQUIPMENT
Vertical Lay J-Lay Ramp & J-Lay Ramp & Tensioners & Tensioners
Spread Tensioners Hang-off High & Lay chute
Collar Departure
Stinger
P Flexible X X X
R line
O Umbilical X X X
cable
D
U Reeled X X
Pipe
C
Rigid pipe X X X
Typical load capacity and general description of the above equipment are presented in the
following sections.
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As stated in chapter 2, the offshore topside heavy lift industry is well established and hence
this topic does not require any further comments.
For the subsea lift, holding a subsea structure weighing some 300T plus the lifting cable own
weight of 130T (i.e. cable wire of OD 122mm, with linear weight of 65kg/m at 2000m water
depth) will impose loads that a standard winch cannot cope with.
New handling equipment such as linear winches or capstan winches must be designed with
the use of lighter cable (e.g. synthetic rope) with anti-twist property to fulfil the requirement of
deepwater lifting and lowering of subsea structures. (section 6.4 Abandonment and Recovery
equipment)
Spooling arm
Carousel
It comprises a structure which will rotate on a vertical axis, and which is supported and run on
typically double circular roller track.
Rotation is achieved by a chain transmission fixed to the outer periphery of the carousel
base. There is also a central king pin for centralization.
The main components of a basket storage carousel system are listed below:
• carousel structure
• transmission drive
• AC motor drive controller unit
• supporting roller groups & king pin
• spooling arm and chute system
• control equipment
The basket storage carousel is equipped with an articulated spooling arm & chute system to
correctly spool in the pipe during the load-out and extract the pipe from the basket during lay-
down operations.
Typical technical specifications of a 1600T basket carousel system are described below:
Spooling system
Horizontal powered reel
Umbilical
Aligner
The horizontal powered reel is also used to lay reeled rigid pipe from a reel lay vessel on
which it is installed temporary or permanently.
The horizontal powered reel comprises one rotating vertical axis reel around which the
product is stored using laying ramp and straightener/spooler system which is mounted on the
deck for the control of the spooling operation.
During spooling, the pipe string passes up the ramp and then wraps around the reel in a
counter-clockwise direction. Before being wrapped around the reel, the pipe passes over an
alignment shoe that adjusts vertically allowing the pipe to level wind onto the reel. The
process is reversed during installation.
A straightener mounted aft of the aligner is used during installation of rigid lines (reeled pipe,
rigid umbilical, integrated service/production umbilical) to remove any residual pipe curvature
resulting from the reeling process. Note that the aligner is designed to bend the pipeline in the
reverse direction before it enters the straightener. By reversing the pipe curvature, it ensures
that the residual curvature of the pipe entering the straightener is constant and independent
of the amount of pipe remaining on the reel.
Rotation of the reel supported by a base frame with a double circular roller track is achieved
by a chain transmission fixed to the outer periphery of the lower reel flange. The replacement
of the drive chain by a flame cut ring gear and pinion is an alternative solution to increase reel
tension. There is also a central king pin for centralization.
The system consists of the following main components:
• base frame
• horizontal reel structure
• transmission drive
• AC motor drive controller unit
• supporting roller groups & king pin
• straightener/spooler
• control cabin
Typical technical specifications of a 1000T horizontal reel system are described below:
Vertical reel
Drive tower
Flexible
Level winder
The powered reel can be split into two drive towers and the interchangeable drum. The lift
beam is capable of lifting the base and reel together or separately.
It is worth noting that this system can be used for spooling of small pipeline or coil tubing.
The powered reel system is composed of:
• base frame
• winch system
• reel
• AC motor drive controllers box
• control equipment
• level winder.
Reeled
pipe
Vertical
powered
reel
Lay ramp
The pipe laying tension is entirely controlled by the tensioning system within the J-Lay ramp
where the storage reel only takes the minimum back tension required for correct spooling of
the pipe onto the reel.
When laying pipe, the reel is running in "drag mode", the reel torque is adjusted accordingly
to the required tension.
When spooling on pipe, during loadout operation, the reel is running in traction mode and the
reel torque is adjusted according to the required back tension of the pipe stack.
A 5000T reel storage dimensions are as follows:
Control container
Rollers
Motorized rollers
Support frame
The dolly base could be used for spooling the flexible lines onto the reel.
A level winder can be provided to control the fleet angle of the flexible during spooling.
It is composed of a base frame supporting four (4) rollers. The dolly base has a SWL capacity
equal to reel plus product weight and can withstand the dynamic forces due to vessel
motions.
The dolly base system is composed of:
• base framework
• drive system
• AC motor drive controllers box
• control console
• set of seafastening devices
• lifting beam and sling set.
6.3.1 Tensioner
A typical tensioner, designed to hold back tension induced by weight of heavy products
during installation phase, is composed of three or four track units mounted in a steel frame
and driven by either electrical or hydraulic power system (see figure 13).
Clamping cylinder
Track unit
Pads
Support frame
The track units, able to spread the clamping force over the circumference of the line, provide
an even compression load over the full contact length. The current typical tensioner contact
length is in the range of 1200mm to 3500mm (per track unit). Each of the track unit includes
caterpillar chain and low friction chain rollers, and contains all tensioner functions which are:
• Chain drive
• Clamping function
• Opening function to allow passage of end fittings
• Load cell for tension monitoring
These track units are mounted in a closed frame, which can occasionally be opened to allow
passage of large objects.
The tensioner can be controlled either in speed mode or in tension mode. In the first case the
tensioner maintains a certain speed which is dependent on the tension value. The tensioner
can also be given a tension set-point. In this case the unit maintains a certain amount of
tension independently of the speed.
The typical technical specifications of a 135 Te tensioner are as follows:
Overboarding chute
When fitted with a low friction chain, it permits safe transfer of lines from the horizontal
position to the vertical position. The overboarding chute frame is fixed on the side or at the
stern of the laying vessel.
y A near vertical departure angle for true J-lay with a low horizontal tension
y A fixed truss design rigidly connected to the barge to reduce pipe strains in the
overbend
y 2-piece construction stinger with a removable tip section for vertical pipelay
y Closely spaced supports to limit pipe strains due to local bending on the supports.
Tensioner
Steep S stinger
Horizontal
powered reel
Pipe
Tip Straightener/
section Spooler
The stinger is rigidly attached to the lay barge with an angle of approximately 45 degrees,
instead of being hinged and free floating like a conventional stinger, because it must support
the large pipe loads produced by the steep departure angle and high pipe tension required in
deep waters. It is not practical to build a floating structure that is capable of supporting these
loads.
The rigidly attached stinger also provides greater control of the pipe curvature in the
overbend. Because its position is fixed relative to the barge, it can use a smaller radius of
curvature and still achieve the same actual maximum pipe strain in the overbend as the
hinged floating stinger with a larger radius and greater length.
The high departure angle stinger is constructed in two pieces. The first, larger section is
approximately 34m in length. At its minimum 42m radius, this section provides a departure
angle of approximately 65 degrees and can be used alone to lay pipelines up to 6-inch in
diameter in water depths from 610m to 915m. A second, removable tip section can be used
to provide a near vertical (90 degree) departure angle for stabbing directly into subsea
connectors.
The stinger has a variable radius with a range of adjustment of approximately 42m to 68m.
This range of radii accomodates pipe diameters up to 12-inch. To minimize the stinger length
and maximize the departure angle, the stinger is designed to use a smaller radius of
curvature and produce higher bending strains in the overbend than the conventional stingers
utilized in shallow water. Its 42m minimum radius corresponds to a nominal bending strain of
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0.2 percent for 6-inch pipe. Pipe strains of this magnitude can be accommodated by the high
yield strength, low D/t ratio pipelines laid in deep waters.
To keep the pipe strains on the stinger as low as possible, the pipe is supported in the
overbend by a series of closely spaced pipe supports which have an average separation
between rollers of less than 1.5m.
Travelling assembly
Travelling assembly
Gutter
Gutter
J Lay tower
Tilting
system Loading arm
Tensioners
Pipe string
Working platform
The main requirements for a typical 2000m water depth J-Lay ramp are listed below:
The J-Lay Ramp System includes the following main assemblies and subassemblies :
• J-Lay tower used as a foundation for the equipment required for laying flexible
and rigid lines. The J-Lay tower is connected to the vessel main deck with a
hinged connection at the lower end
• Tilting system served to raise the tower at a particular angle from 45° to 96° in
working conditions and to store the tower in lowest position (e.g. 12°) in survival
conditions
• Travelling assembly, running on a double guides and designed to lower pipe
string handled by a hydraulic elevator upon completion of welding process. This
assembly will also integrate the Internal Line-Up Clamp and X-Ray Tube with its
umbilical winch
• Tensioners (3 off) mounted on sliding ramp will be moved from their storage
position to pipeline lay axis for flexible lay operation
• Retractable gutter, located at mid height of the J-Lay tower and mounted on skid,
will be moved in position for flexible lay operations
• Retractable A&R sheave for abandonment and recovery of lines will be positioned
on the loading arm in such a way that it will be above the PLEM upper position
when the loading arm is upended in the J-Lay tower
• Working platform located at the base of the J-Lay tower to support assembling
station and welding equipment
• Hang off clamp for both flexible and rigid pipe, positioned at the working platform,
to hang the pipeline during welding operation
• Active roller box system composed of upper and lower guiding roller sets to
control pipe departure movements
• Loading arm system to transfer pipe string from horizontal position at the firing
line or storage area to various position of the J-lay tower. In addition the loading
arm includes a line-up device for the performance of pipeline alignment prior to
welding.
Main and
Welding station
Piggy back
chutes
Tensioner
and
straightener
Exit roller box
Vertical reel
and
monitoring system
Level wind
y Main chute
y Piggy back chute
y Main and Piggyback straightener
y 120Te tensioner
y Pipe alignment cylinders
y 200Te hang-off clamp
y A&R sheaves
y Exit roller box
y Exit monitoring system
The ramp pipelay system is controlled and operated from a central control station located in
the Pipe Lay Control Cabin.
Upending ramp
Stinger
Line up tool
Tensioners
Welding station
Coating station
Pipe departure
y Upend ramp: This 110m long ramp upends the 72m long pipe strings from
horizontal to the stinger angle by means of a tackle system located at the top of
the stinger. The upend ramp also supports the line-up tool which is hung down
inside the pipe.
y Stinger: This is hinged over the stern of the vessel and its angle can vary from 20
to 100 degrees. It contains the line-up tools, welding/inspection/coating station,
pipe tensioners and monitors.
y Line-up tool: The external line up tool serves to take over the 72m pipe string
from the pipe ramp after upending, then lower the pipe string to meet with the pipe
line, and provide a provisional line-up between the pipe string and the pipe line.
Final line up is achieved by means of an internal line-up tool.
y Weld station: The weld station is located in the upper section of the stinger. It is
mounted on a tilting platform to accommodate the J-lay range of inclinations. This
platform provides floor space for the crew for line-up, welding and NDT. It also
supports all equipment required for pipe line-up, re-beveling, welding and non-
destructive testing. The station is weather protected.
Travel block
Strongback
Working
Pipe bin unloading
station
cranes
Tower
Stinger A-frame
Pedestal
Pipe departure
y Tower: Pinned at its base to the tower support structure, the tower provides the
structural support for the major J-lay system pipe joint handling and pipeline
lowering components. The tower provides guide rails for the raising and lowering
of the strongback and travel block. Located at the base of the tower is the fully
enclosed work area where all welding, NDT and field joint coating operations are
conducted. Located on top of the 61m tower are a set of sheave assemblies
facilitating the routing of the rigging utilized for pipeline abandonment and recovery
operations.
y Stinger: Pinned to the tower support structure, the stinger extends approximately
15m below the water surface and supports three (3) hydraulically operated,
retractable full encirclement roller assemblies designed to support the upper
portion of the pipeline during pipeline welding operations. Video cameras located
adjacent to each stinger roller assembly assist the J-lay system operators to
sequentially open and close each roller assembly in order to facilitate the passage
of the J-lay collars and anodes during pipeline lowering operations. Five additional
underwater video cameras located at the lower elevation of the stinger provide the
means by which engineering personnel can visually observe and measure pipeline
deflections required to maintain pipeline bending strains within allowable limits.
The lower portion of the stinger is also designed to be retracted by extending two
large hydraulic cylinders mounted to the upper (or fixed) portion of the stinger
framing in order to facilitate pipeline abandonment and recovery operations
y Ready rack: The ready rack, located immediately astern of the A-frame and
foundation and centered on the pipeline centerline, provides guide rails for the
strongback that tie-in by means of interchangeable tower angle transition rails to
the strongback guide rails located in the tower. Four retractable horizontal roller
assemblies located on the ready rack support each quadruple joint prior to being
elevated into the tower for welding operations.
y Strongback: Designed to travel along the guide rails located in the ready rack and
tower by means of double roller assemblies located fore and aft, the strongback
provides the means by which each quadruple joint is raised from the ready rack up
into the tower for pipeline alignment and welding operations. Measuring
approximately 51m, the strongback is equipped with four hydraulically operated
multi-purpose pipe handling clamps designed to retrieve each quadruple joint
while in the horizontal position from the ready rack and to assist in welding
alignment operations when supporting quadruple joints in the vertical or near-
vertical position in the tower.
y Travel block: Designed to travel along the guide rails located in the tower, the
travel block is an open face split block designed to engage the under side of the J-
lay collar flange and is used to lower each quadruple joint onto the pedestal after
welding and NDT operations are completed. The travel block houses two four-inch
thick retractable slide plates which, when closed together under the flange of the
J-lay collar, support the entire weight of the pipeline during lowering operations.
Transfer crane
A & R winch
Gutter
Tensioner
Flexible
Working platform
The working table is designed to support the full catenary load and is composed of
hydraulically operated movable parts and can clamp the line fitting and hold the catenary
tension allowing the connection of two line sections or special items such as PLEM in a
vertical configuration.
The system also allows the passage of pre-installed intermediate connections and the
opening of the table for the passage of large pre-installed accessories.
The top module transfer system, permits the holding of the tension of the line and transfer of
the end fitting throughout the tensioners, whilst they are open.
A safety collar is available for securing the line tension at the working table in the event of a
major tensioner break down.
Several multipurpose tugger winches are available in the working table area.
The vertical laying spread is operated from the deck operation control room.
The technical specifications of a 270T flexible vertical laying system for 2000m water depth
are presented hereunder:
6.4.1 General
For deepwater lowering and recovery operations (e.g; beyond 1000 - 1500 msw) the standard
powered winches with steel wire cable are not adapted due to the high load requirement of
some 400 tons capacity.
Three alternative A&R winches are being used with its own advantages and disadvantages :
y linear traction winch with steel wire cable stored on a separated reel
y capstan friction winch with cable stored on a separated reel
y 'flexible pipe follower' using existing flexible pipe tensioner device and stored on
dedicated powered reel
The adequate length of steel wire are stored on a large powered reel, with the load tension
provided by a linear winch. The linear winch features double jaw devices, one static and one
moveable part activated by hydraulic rams providing a step-by-step displacement of the steel
wire cable at each stroke (see figure 20).
Jacking cylinders
2 half grippers
Support frame
This technique which can provide very high tension (more than 1000 tons) has a major
drawback related to its very low lowering speed and is therefore used only for installation of
very large subsea templates or foundation structures.
VLS (Vertical
Dolly bases loaded Laying System)
with flexibles
6.5.1 General
The essential feature in offshore pipelaying is that economic pipe string production for a
sufficient pipelay rate can be achieved only by partitioning the welding procedure in a series
of single jobs at multiple welding stations using one or a combination of the following
conventional processes :
Since the laying of pipelines in deep and ultra deep waters using the J-lay method requires
single station welding, a long welding time would be needed to perform the entire weld at a
single station using conventional techniques for pipe wall thickness up to 40mm. This
problem has led to the development of a system of fast welding at a single station. Several
welding processes (currently still at R&D stage) are to be considered:
For small diameters (up to 10" – 12"), the rates obtained with threaded pipes or by a
conventional welding method can be used at a pace that J-curve laying technique is
economically feasible.
However, as regards the joining of heavy walled (1" to 2"), large diameter (12" to 36") pipes,
the problem becomes totally different since the high rate of laying (1 joint every 15minutes)
required for economic reasons can only be reached if the welding operation is carried out in
less than 5 minutes. None of the conventional welding processes can produce this type of
weld in such a short time.
Mechanized shielded arc welding methods have been developed which have largely replaced
manual welding with cellulose electrodes in offshore pipelaying because of improved weld
quality and efficiency.
The estimated manual welding times for various pipe diameters are depicted in Table 9 for a
constant D/t ratio of 20:
Note: Time estimated excludes inspection and coating and allows for increasing number of welders as
diameter permits.
As shown, the time required increases rapidly for diameters greater than 16-inches. Material
grade is also a factor in total welding time. Pipe wall thickness up to 1-inch for API 5L X65
(1.25-inch for X60 and 1.375 for X52) are expected to be suitable for welding with normal
weld control procedures. Greater wall thickness will require specialised metallurgy control.
If the necessary pipe metallurgy cannot be achieved and post heat treatment becomes a
requirement, a severe time penalty will be imposed. The heat must be maintained for a length
of time sufficient to allow diffusion of hydrogen and elimination of Martensite. Indicative of
industry practice is one hour of post weld heat treatment per inch of wall thickness.
The estimated mechanised welding times for various pipe diameters are depicted in Table 10
for a constant D/t ratio of 20:
Note: Time estimated excludes inspection and coating and allows for increasing number of welding heads
as diameter permits.
The mechanized welding system is an automatic orbital welding robot designed to produce
high quality girth welds using either the dual torch welding head or the single torch welding
head combined with the following welding process:
- The welding torches are accurately guided on the center line of the
groove,
- The computerized system drives all operations such as torch
positioning, torch start-stop to the selected cycle sequence and other
welding parameters which are pre-set for each pass.
Pipe
Wire
Welding head
Figure 24 – SATURNE 8T
The operator has no influence over the welding operations. He only concentrates
on positioning the machine, watching the molten pool and selecting the automatic
cycle and general safety.
The light weight bugs carrying the welding torches can be handled easily by the
operator.
No need to touch the welding carriage when welding, they are fully automatic
except for the welding torch tracking relative to the joint bevel. This can be
adjusted by remote control if necessary with a trigger on a small handset.
The electronic control units contain welding programs and safety devices.
A SATURNAX system with double dual torch welding heads is also available in
the industry.
• Single torch welding head using GTAW: The welding system is composed of a
self propelled carriage guided on a pre set ring around the joint and supporting a
single torch welding head, and a fully integrated module with DC power sources
and Electronic Control Units (see figure 26).
Wire feeder
Welding torch
Welding head
Pipe
Preset ring
The welding head is computer controlled and is pre-programmed with the welding
procedures for root, hot, fill and cap passes. The power supply is also a computer
controlled with full control of pulse parameters, including pulse peak currents,
pulse "on-time", pulse "off-time", pulse frequency, back ground current and
average voltage as a function of wire speed.
Note: The welding procedure used for J-Lay is a narrow gap technique depositing an external
root against a copper back-up. The copper back-up is integral to the internal line-up clamp.
The design of the back-up bar is a circumferential row of 1-inch by 2-inch wide copper
segments. Each segment has a spring mounted on each end so that the segment could pivot
and adjust to any high low on the pipe inside diameter.
y Very short welding operations, since welds are made in a single run in the
horizontal position, even for heavy thickness;
y In these conditions it is possible to weld high yield strength steels without a
postweld heat treatment;
y It is possible to fully automate the welding operation, thus increasing its reliability.
The electron beam welding process consists of two guns moving around the pipes to be
welded in a chamber in a primary vacuum (10-2 Torr). The vacuum tightness is ensured on
the inside and on the outside by seals placed directly on the pipes (see figure 27).
Upper pipe
Seal
Weld joint
Lower pipe
The adoption of this technology applying mobile high power electron guns working in a
primary vacuum does nevertheless require that a certain number of problems are solved:
A wide clearance seal made of reinforced elastomer has made possible the creation of a
vacuum around the pipe in a matter of seconds and then maintained it at 10-2 Torr throughout
the welding operation.
An accurate positioning of the beam on the joint is one of the requirements of electron beam
welding because the very high power density required to produce the weld is obtained by
concentrating a focal spot of 1 mm in diameter onto the joint. Therefore, the tolerances
concerning the positioning of the beam on the joint, as well as the maximum permissible
clearance between edges are below 1 mm. This creates a problem when the pipe strings are
long and large in diameter weighting over 10Te.
The machine containing electron guns is protected against the harmful effect of weathering
and marine environment by a welding chamber divided into two parts: (1) an external
chamber and (2) a pressure lock.
A primary vacuum is constantly maintained in the external chamber, thus limiting
communication with the marine atmosphere to maintenance operations, which is very limited
in number since the guns have long lifetime cathodes.
This external chamber in which a vacuum is always maintained houses the guns and nearly
all mechanisms of the machine, thus protecting them against the harmful effect of the marine
environment.
The pressure lock, however, is brought back to atmospheric pressure at every cycle.
The electron beam welding technique is capable to weld in 3 minutes a 1.25-inch thick, 24-
inch pipe.
The technical data of the machine for welding X 60 pipes of 30" diameter and 40mm wall
thickness is as follows:
The first phase of the flash butt welding method for pipes involves closing the gap between
the two pipes while impressing high current and low voltage. At the points of contact the
material is fused by the high current density and vaporises generating high pressure. By this
the fused metal is ejected outward and the admission of oxygen to the weld is avoided. After
a certain period of flashing the ends of the pipes are forced or upset together.
The success of a flash butt welding machine depends substantially on obtaining a uniform
heating-up profile (as free of oxides as possible) at the moment of upsetting. This
presupposed that sufficient electrical and mechanical powers are provided. The larger the
cross sections welded together, the more difficult is establishing that condition. To meet these
requirements, first an inductive preheating is connected in series before the flash butt
welding. The pipe ends to be welded together are heated up to 950 °C. Then in the flashing
process sufficient welding temperature can be achieved in a very short period of time
because of preheating.
An even current distribution over the entire pipe radius is also established by proportionate
arrangement of several electrodes at the pipe within small distances from the transformers.
The procedure of the flashing process is computer controlled so that it is reproducible
concerning all important data: flashing speed, flashing acceleration, welding voltage, flashing
current, etc.
After achieving an optimal heat profile the upsetting process is brought into action, as
determined by the upsetting force, speed and distance.
After the upsetting and the cooling down of the weld there is a coarse-grain structure in the
weld because of flashing with high heat input in the weld area. That structure does not nearly
have the ductility and deformation resistance quality of the unaffected material. Therefore an
inductive normalizing of the weld area is connected after cooling down to temperatures less
than 300 centigrades. By this provision a fine grain structure in the weld is achieved, meeting
the requirements of offshore pipelining.
Having finished the post weld heat treatment, the rough edges inside and outside are
sheared off. Inside a special cutting pig system is used, while outside a rotating milling cutter
is used.
The welding parameters of X52 pipe having dimensions 16-inch OD x 12.7mm wall thickness
are as follows:
Mandrel
Consumable
ring Pipe with end beveled Consumable ring
A heat resistant mandrel is expanded inside the pipe bore at the weld location. This mandrel
serves to align the abutting pipes and to apply the radial welding pressure. The close fit of the
mandrel prevents flash ingress into the bore leaving a smooth internal profile to the weld.
A solid ring of the same material as the pipe is machined on the inside diameter to a sharper
angle than the angle between the bevelled ends of the abutting pipes. The ring is gripped with
the jaws of the radial compression unit and rotation and compression is started so that the
ring is progressively forced into the V-shaped preparation.
Friction heat sufficient for welding is produced and after a suitable metal displacement,
rotation is ceased and the radial pressure maintained to consolidate the weld (see figure 30).
After welding
Radial friction welding is a solid phase joining process and is therefore suitable for a wide
range of materials including many which are unsuitable for, or cannot be welded economically
by fusion welding.
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Radial friction welding machine covers flowlines in the size range from 6" to 12.75" O.D.
7.5mm to 30mm wall thickness, and is able to weld in cycle times of typically 20 seconds or
less the following material types:
y API 5L X42-X70
y Duplex Stainless Steel
y Martensitic stainless steel
y Titanium alloys
y Internally CRA clad pipe
Radial friction welding is suited to flowline laying due to the following main benefits:
Unlike conventional arc welding which relies heavily on welder skill and post weld non-
destructive examination (NDE) for quality control, radial friction welding is an automated
process which produces a solid phase weld i.e. without fusion of the pipes or consumable
ring. The primary measure in assuring weld quality is therefore the monitoring of machine
parameters during the weld cycle to ensure that settings such as speed, force and
displacement have been kept within predetermined tolerances. The more traditional quality
control checks can then be performed on the finished welds using visual and NDE
techniques.
Subsea pipeline construction by lowering free-flooding 72m long string pipes has already
been used in the North Sea to form the 24” BP Harding pipelines. A seabed hydraulic crawler
connected the strings with «Merlin» snap and lock connectors.
However insufficient field proven records might prevent the mechanical connector technology
to be adopted for pipe-lay operation.
6.6.1 Introduction
The inspection of butt welds in offshore pipeline production can be performed either by
radiographic testing or ultrasonic testing. These two inspection techniques are described in
the following sections.
Conventional film radiography refers to the inspection process in which a film media is
exposed to X or Gamma radiation, chemically developed to form an image, and then
interpreted to help ascertain weld acceptability (see figure 31).
darkroom facility
Internal mechanical crawler
(houses unexposed
provides x- or gamma ray
sources and developed film,
chemicals, high speed
film dryer, and high
intensity light viewer)
The radiation source is provided by an internal crawler when internal shots are made.
The basic consideration in the use of radiographic testing is the qualification of the image
against a specified standard. Using a given exposure geometry or technique, an image must
be qualified before it is interpreted. Qualified images meet sensitivity and density
requirements; they are also properly identified for purposes of traceability.
Sensitivity of the film is assured with the use of properly placed image quality indicators
(IQI's). Placed next to the weld at specified increments, image quality indicators assure the
inspector that image contrast sensitivity and resolution are adequate to visibly detect
discontinuities in accordance with the governing standard. In the United States, the standard
API 1104 or ASME hole penetrameter is the image quality indicator. "2%-2T" sensitivity is a
common requirement of the film images. The penetrameters are chosen with regard to pipe
wall thickness and weld reinforcement. "2%" refers to the thickness of the penetrameter as
related to the thickness of the steel that the radiation must penetrate. When "2T" is specified,
it is required that the "2T" hole in the penetrameter appears in the radiographic image.
In Europe, wire "DIN" image quality indicators are the standard. The ability to resolve wires of
decreasing diameter on a given specimen relates directly to increasing image sensitivity. A
lesser known image quality indicator is called the CERL IQI. It is composed of three parts; the
first part is a flexible step wedge which is used to measure thickness sensitivity. The second
and third part are metal wires which are closely spaced and dimensionally graded in
geometric progression. The unsharpness of the image is measured by the least discernable
spacing between two wires.
The density or relative darkness of an image is a second consideration in qualifying a
radiograph. Density is measured on a scale called Hurter-Dreffield (H&D) units. Lighter film
obtains lower valued H&D units while darker film obtains higher values. For film radiography,
the range of acceptable density falls approximately between 1.8 and 4.0.
Most specifications require that identification of weld images appear on the radiograph so that
the image can be traced back to the weld. Improper identification can be cause for rejection
of the radiograph. Currently, lead numbers and flashing are the primary means for identifying
radiographs.
The inspection cycle time is the time commencing with the arrival of the pipe at the inspection
station and ending with the final interpretation decision on weld quality. In conventional film
radiography, the following sequence of events occur during the cycle time:
The minimum cycle time for conventional radiography on pipeline operations is four minutes
to read film wet and four and one-half minutes to read film dry. These numbers represent the
physical minimum times using hot chemicals and high speed dryers while not sacrificing
image quality.
Mechanical and human operations are the main parameters which govern the operating
reliability of conventional radiographic systems. Operating personnel control such functions
as exposure time, chemical temperatures, placement of film in cassettes, lead shielding,
record keeping, and interpretation. Exposure time is currently regulated manually and
controlled with a timer. Film development has become almost fully automated and less
subject to human variability. Shielding must sometimes be replaced to avoid scratches
appearing on the radiographic images. Film is interpreted on a high intensity light viewer
screens.
For safety reason, the current total time of radiation exposure is calculated and safety areas
are delimited so that personnel will not be overexposed. The total time for exposure at a
given radiographic station on the laybarge during one day usually will not exceed two hours if
180 joints per day (4 minute cycle time) is assumed. This also assumes a 20 second
exposure. Radiation safety zones are determined by marking off an area outside of which
exposure will be limited to two milliroentgen per hour (2mR).
Note: The inside pipe diameter is a limitation in Radiographic testing using an internal crawler as radiation
source. The minimum inside pipe diameter is 6-inch. For smaller pipe diameter, the radiation source is
positioned on the weld joint in the opposite side from the film.
Scanning head
Control
station
Weld joint
Control
monitor
Transducers Processing
Umbilical to
system
control station
Preset band
Every pipe size, wall thickness and welding procedure requires a different ultrasonic
configuration.
Prior to the inspection process, a section of pipe is selected from project material for
construction of the calibration standard, so that the standard has similar metallurgical
properties and the same method of manufacture as the project pipe. The weld profile is
analyzed and segregated into planes based on the geometry of the profile and desired
resolution necessary for the acceptance criteria. A machine drawing is then generated
providing reflectors in positions simulating the weld profile.
For each designated plane, a transducer angle is determined. Focal lengths and beam sizes
are then plotted and optimised to the intended target. For each transducer angle, a velocity
measurement is required to accurately determine wedge angles necessary to produce the
desired refracted angle in the test material.
Each transducer in the transducer array is then applied to the calibration standard to confirm
theoretical calculations for stand-off positioning. Optimized distance settings were then
recorded and the transducers mounted in the ultrasonic scanner.
Prior to welding, a line is scribed on the pipe surface at a preset distance from the end
preparation. This provided a reference point for application of the scanner band. Each
transducer was then positioned at its operating distance away from the weld centerline on the
calibration standard and adjusted to provide a peak signal from its target reflector in the
transducer inspection zone. The peak response is then adjusted to 80% of full screen height
for each channel. This is the primary reference level. Volumetric zones required additional
gain to detect and characterize indications in their respective zones. A calibration scan is
performed after each weld.
The ultrasonic scanner employs the same drive band used for welding, so that only a minor
change is required for correct scanner positioning. Immediately after welding, a cooling
apparatus was applied around the weld to reduce surface temperature to below 90°C, to
protect against damage to the transducers caused by excessive heat. The scanner is then
latched to band and the zero point set to the weld button. The operator initialized the
inspection interface and proceeded with the one pass weld scan. Repair welds are examined
in a similar fashion.
The ultrasonic system provides a proprietary software interface for correlation and display of
the inspection data. The software is designed with a number of features which provided
assistance to the operator for characterization, sizing and disposition of indications. These
features included variable color spectrum ranges for rapid identification of both amplitude and
transit distance. A data mapping module is included which combined both indication severity
and position in a single display. The Graphical User Interface also included a convenient
method for calculating defect lengths and electronic marking of these areas. Weld
imperfection indications are evaluated by the ultrasonic operator based on the established
acceptance criteria and immediately after scanning and weld disposition, copies of the
ultrasonic inspection process are written to magnetic media along with a graphical print of the
inspection run.
The average cycle time of ultrasonic inspection is 4 minutes for a 14-inch pipeline.
6.6.4 Remarks
Methods of Non Destructive Testing are to be chosen with due regards to the conditions
influencing the sensitivity of the methods. The method's ability to detect imperfections is to be
considered for the material, joint geometry and welding process used.
Since the NDT methods differ in their limitations and/or sensitivities it may be required to
combine two or more methods to ensure optimum probability of detection of harmful defects.
For detection of internal imperfections either ultrasonic and/or radiographic testing is to be
used. Radiographic testing is generally preferred for detection of volume imperfections.
Ultrasonic testing is generally preferred for detection of planar imperfections. Whenever
determination of the imperfection height is necessary, ultrasonic testing is required.
OTHER SSCVs:
Ships, Barges FDS Solitaire Lorelay Falcon Apache CSO DPV DB 50 DB 16 Norlift Chicasaw Hercules Fennica
Operating W.Africa North Sea North Sea North Sea North Sea North Sea GOM GOM North Sea GOM GOM North Sea
areas S.Atlantic S. Atlantic S.Atlantic S.Atlantic S.Atlantic S.Atlantic Brazil
Operators SaiBos Allseas Allseas SCS CSO CSO JRMcD JRMcD ETPM Global Global DSND
Built (converted) 2 000 1972-1998 1 986 1 995 1979-1993 2 000 1986-1991 1 996 1992-1995 1 970 1975-1998 1992-1997
LOA (m) 157,5 298,5 182 149 123 195 152 122 98 84 122 116
Breadth (m) 30 40,6 26 21 23,34 30 46 30 25 24 43 26
Operating Draft (m) 7 8,5 7 8 5,6 7,5 6 5 6 2,9-3,7 5 8
Depth maindeck (m) 12,4 24 16 13 8,69 13,5 13 9 7 6 8 13
Displacement (t) 25 265 ? ? 30 000 ? ? ? ? ? ?
GRT (t) ? ? ? 10 385 7 280 ? 29 722 7 684 5 497 ? ? 8 600
DWT (t) 10 500 125 000 ? ? ? ? ? ? 4 604 ? ? 4 870
Deckload (t) 4 000 4000+ 2 000 2 000 7 000 10000+ ? 3 000 3 000 ? 3 000
Payload (t) 5 600 14 600 4 000 5 000 2 500 7 000 10000+ ? 3 000 3 000 ? 3 000
Deckspace (m²) 3000 (10t/m²) ? 2 120 2 400 235 (5t/m²) 800 2935-10t/m² ? 1 200 1 800 2 137 1050-10t/m²
DP Class 3 (AUTRO) 3 3 (AUTRO) 2 2 (AUTR) 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 (AUTRO)
Power (KW) 25 000 48 000 18 240 13 200 9 720 20 000 13 550 8 000 10 000 2 500 20 000 21 000
Bollard pull (t) 100 450 100 ? 85 70 100? 80 ? 80 35 70 200
Headsea (knt) 60 60 ? 60 50 60 ? ? 50 ? ? 60
Beamsea (knt) 35 45 ? 30-35 20-25 30 ? ? 20-25 ? ? 20-25
Bunkers (m3) 2 500 ? 3 000 2 800 900 ? 1 800 ? 1 320 227 2 574 1 580
Consumption (t/d) 20-32 ? 30 20-32 ? 30 ? ? 16-30 ? ? 15-30
Speed (knot) 14 14 13 13 11 14 9 6 10 5 11 13
Pipelay type J-Lay (4FJ) S-Lay S-lay J-lay 25m VReel 2x34m VReel J-Lay (4FJ) 18m VReel 18m Reel 24m HReel 34m HReel Ver.reel
Stinger, Ramp angle (°) 12°-96° 110m radius 60 m radius 21°-90° 18°-70° 16°-90° 30°-87° 30°-87° 30°-87° 30m radius 100m radius 30°-90°
Water depth (m) 2000-2500 3 000 1 650 1 000 1 800 2 500 2 000 1 000 1 000 900-1800 2 440 2000 ?
Pipe Tension (t) 400 400 135 75 160 550 170 125 125 67 555 120
Max pipeload (t) 4000+ 14 000 4000 + 3 000 2 000 5 000 1 250 1 250 1 250 2 268 7 000 1 100
Length (km) vs ID 6" 107 375 107 80 65 140 42 42 42 31 190 40
ID 8" 62 217 62 45 30 80 22 22 22 18 110 20
ID 10" 40 140 40 30 24 60 15 15 15 14 70 15
ID 12" 30 105 30 20 16 45 11 11 11 6 50 10
ID 14" 25 88 25 no 12 37 ? no no no 50 no
ID 16" 20 70 20 no 8 25 ? no no no 40 no
ID 18" 15 53 15 no no 18 ? no no no 30 no
Average lay speed (m/d) 1 500 4 000 2 500 1 500 12 000 12 000 1 500 10 000 12 000 12 000 12 000 12 000
Piggy Back 6"(300t) no no 6" (400t) 8" (320t) 4"(320t) no no no 6" (160t) 8" (320t) 6" (160t)
Flexlay type tensioner no no tensioner reel+tens. reel+tens reel+tens. reel+tens reel+tens. Hor.reel reel+tens reel+tens.
Storage (t) 4 100 3 000 2 470 7 000 1 250 1 250 1 250 2 268 7 000 1 100
Tension (t) 270 135 197 550 170 125 120 67 555 120
Umbilical lay reel+tens. no no tensioner reel+tens. reel+tens reel+tens. reel+tens reel+tens. Hor.reel reel+tens reel+tens.
Storage(t) 4 100 3 000 2 470 7 000 1 250 1 250 1 250 2 268 3 000 1 600
Tension (t) 80 30 30-120 60-120 30-120 30-100 30-80 67 120 30-80
WOROV 2x150 hp ? 2x100hp 2x50hp 2 x 100hp 2 x 100hp 2x100hp 2x100hp ? 2x75hp 2x150hp 2x100hp
OBSROV no ? achille no no ? ? ? no ? ?
Saturation diving option no ? no no no - - 16p no 9p no
Accommodation (p) 200 420 216 105 100 ? 237 147 80 65 191 82
Crane (t) 600t-30m no 300t-14m 30t-10m 27t-10m 30t-20m 4000t 600t-23m 300t-12m 116t-16m 2000t 15t-14,5m
Boom (m) 100 no 37m 30 24m ? 105m 85m 50m 40m 70m 20m
Aux.Crane 2x30t-38m 2x25t-33m no 2x30t-10m no ? ? no no 90t-20m no
Pipe davit (t) no no no no 4x10t no no no no no no A-frame120t
MHS (t) 100t-2000m no no 30t hc no no no no no no no no
Rev. 0 DEEPWATER INSTALLATION VESSELS
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DGEP/SCR/ED/TA Page 88
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
Table 3 - FLEXIBLE AND UMBILICAL LAY VESSEL SUMMARY TABLE
Ship Condor Eagle Installer Flexservice 1 Sunrise Wellservice GSV Lochanar K3000
Operating North Sea Asia North Sea Brazil Brazil North Sea North Sea Brazil Brazil
areas S.Atlantic Pacific W.A. ?
Operators SCS SCS CSO CSO CSO CSO Rockwater DSND DSND
Built (converted) 1 994 1994-1997 1983-1989 1976-1990 1984-1995 1987-1995 1 998 1992-1998 1992-1999
LOA (m) 101 138 102 129,69 136 111 114 120 120
Breadth (m) 23 19,5 20 17,37 30 23 22 20 20
Operating Draft (m) 6 8 5 7 6 7 7 5 5
Depth maindeck (m) 11 11 7 10,21 10 11 10 7 7
Displacement (t) 18 885 ? ?
GRT (t) 6 046 ? 4 603 8 060 10 648 9 158 ? ? ?
DWT (t) ? 8 250 ? ? ? 4 626 6 850 ? ?
Deckload (t) 1 860 2 000 2 500 3 000 5 000 1 140 4 500 3 500 3 500
Payload (t) 2 000 3000-6000 3 000 2 600 5 000 - 3 400 3 000 3 000
Deckspace (m²) 1 110 1 300 1000-10t/m² ? 3000-15t/m² 970 1590-5t/m² ? ?
DP Class 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 (AUTRO) 3 3
Power (KW) 7 740 10 700 10 000 7 000 14 000 13 440 10 720 10 000 10 000
Bollard pull (t) 60 120 80 30 65 100 70 80 80
Headsea (knt) 50 50 40 ? 50 70 60 ? ?
Beamsea (knt) 20-25 30 20-25 ? 20-25 35 35 ? ?
Bunkers (m3) 1 320 1 610 963 895 2 179 2 388 1 400 ? ?
Consumption (t/d) 10-25 10-25 10-25 15-25 16-30 19-30 10-25 15-25 15-25
Speed (knot) 11 13 12 11 12 12 14 14 14
Flexible lay Hor.reel tensioner VLS tensioner VLS VLS FLS tensioner tensioner
Overboarding 12m radius 6m radius verttical 6m radius 6m radius vertical vertical 6m radius 6m radius
Water depth (m) 1 650 1 000 350 1 000 2 500 450 1 500 1 000 1 000
Tension (t) 12 75 125-250 100 270 125 140 100 100
Max storage (t) 400-1250 3 000 4 000 2 600 3 800 1 200 3 400 3 000 3 000
Length (km) vs ID 4" 22 55 84 50 80 24 75 55 55
ID 6" 15 30 42 30 38 12 34 30 30
ID 8" - 22 26 20 24 8 20 22 22
ID 10" - 16 18 15 16 6 15 16 16
ID 12" - 13 16 10 15 5 14 13 13
ID 14" - 10 14 - 10 4 10 10 10
ID 16" - 6 6 - 6 2 6 6 6
Umbilical lay reel tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner tensioner
Storage(t) 1 250 3 000 3 000 2 600 3 800 1 200 3 400 3 000 3 000
Tension (t) 40 30 30 25 38 30 30 25 25
WOROV 2x100hp 2x100hp 2x75hp 1x75hp 2x150hp 2x100hp 2x100hp 2x100hp 2x100hp
OBSROV sprint achille yes achille no no no no no
Saturation diving 6p 6p no 6p no 18p no no no
Accommodation 100 98 60 85 72 149 102 90 90
Crane (t) 65t-15m 100t-10m 25t-19m 20t-13m 75t-15m 2x65t-26m 100t-13m ? ?
Boom (m) 24m 25m 20m 20m 30m 30m 30m
Aux.Crane 5t-15m 30t-15m 30t-15m
Pipe davit (t) no no no no 15t-15m no A-frame 150t
MHS (t) 50t hc no no no no no no
Rev. 0
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DGEP/SCR/ED/TA DEEPWATER INSTALLATION VESSELS Page 89
DEEPWATER FIELD DEVELOPMENT
REFERENCE BOOK
TIE-IN METHODS
Rev. 0 Page 1
30/09/2000
DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 4
1.1 SCOPE...................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 REGULATION, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS ................................................. 5
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. 6
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 6
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT....................................................................................... 7
2.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEM ................................................................................... 8
2.3 FLOWLINE OR UMBILICAL TERMINATION ....................................................................... 9
2.4 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES ...................................................................................... 9
2.5 SUBSEA FIELD DEVELOPMENT PLAN .......................................................................... 10
2.6 VESSEL .................................................................................................................. 10
2.7 CONNECTION TOOL ................................................................................................. 10
2.8 ROV ...................................................................................................................... 11
3 CONNECTOR TECHNOLOGY AND MANUFACTURER REVIEW ............................. 12
3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 12
3.2 COLLET CONNECTOR ............................................................................................... 13
3.3 CLAMP CONNECTOR ................................................................................................ 14
3.4 PETROBRAS TRIPLE LINE CONNECTOR ...................................................................... 17
3.5 MERLIN CONNECTOR ............................................................................................... 19
3.6 ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR......................................................................................... 20
4 TIE-IN TOOL TECHNOLOGY REVIEW ...................................................................... 21
4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 21
4.2 REMOTELY OPERATED TOOLS .................................................................................. 22
4.3 ROV-MOUNTED PULL-IN AND CONNECTION SYSTEMS ................................................. 26
4.4 ROV-MOUNTED CONNECTION SYSTEMS .................................................................... 33
4.5 4.5 "MATIS" API FLANGE TIE-IN TOOL...................................................................... 35
5 TIE-IN METHODS ....................................................................................................... 36
5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 36
5.2 LAY-DOWN & PULL-IN .............................................................................................. 37
5.2.1 Description .................................................................................................................37
5.2.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................38
5.2.3 Utilisation and limitations ...........................................................................................39
5.3 DIRECT PULL-IN ....................................................................................................... 40
5.3.1 Description .................................................................................................................40
5.3.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................41
5.3.3 Utilisation and limitations ...........................................................................................41
5.4 DEFLECT-TO-CONNECT ............................................................................................ 42
5.4.1 Description .................................................................................................................42
5.4.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................43
5.4.3 Utilisation and limitations ...........................................................................................43
5.5 VERTICAL STAB, HINGE-OVER & LAY-AWAY ............................................................... 44
5.5.1 Description .................................................................................................................44
5.5.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................45
5.5.3 Utilisation and limitations ...........................................................................................45
5.6 SURFACE TIE-IN, LAY-AWAY & LAY-TO....................................................................... 46
5.6.1 Description .................................................................................................................46
5.6.2 Tie-in procedure.........................................................................................................47
5.6.3 Utilisation and limitations ...........................................................................................48
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
As the impact of a tie-in operation on the overall installation cost of a project growths with the
water depth, a better understanding of available connection techniques, a judicious choice
and an early integration of the tie-in method in the engineering studies are keys to
successfully control the whole cost of a deepwater installation project.
Performing tie-in in deepwater involves to use diverless and guidelineless methods, with
adapted subsea connectors and remotely operated tools.
With these aims in view, this document reviews the currently available tie-in methods for
deepwater applications. It deals firstly with the interface requirements for a tie-in operation;
knowing that tie-in methods and connector hardware are closely related. The main connector
systems are then described, prior to reviewing deepwater tie-in methods and their installation
performance.
In the following chapter 3, the existing connector technologies are reviewed and the main
manufacturers are listed.
With the connector, special tie-in tools are required, either ROV mounted tools or dedicated
tools which are remotely operated from the surface tie-in vessel. These tie-in tool
technologies are further investigated in chapter 4.
The key topics of tie-in methods are thereafter detailed in chapter 5 in terms of operational
procedures with its application limits and based on the selection of following deepwater
applicable techniques:
In chapter 6, the main advantages and disadvantages for each above tie-in methods are
presented in a tabular form.
The subsea metrology is also an important feature, especially in the case of the rigid steel
jumpers. This subject is further detailed in chapter 7.
Finally, in chapter 8, times estimated for deepwater tie-in operation are discussed.
1.4 References
This study is based on the following sources
Reference is made to the documents "Umbilicals" and "Sealines", part of the deepwater field
development reference book.
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT
2.1 General
The following chart depicts the main interfaces of a tie-in operation, which are then further
explained in the following subparagraphs. This clearly shows the importance of an early
integration of the tie-in method and connector type in a development project as they interfere
with several items such as the subsea structure or installation vessel choice.
Subsea Field
Development Plan
Subsea Production
Subsea Flowlines
System
TIE-IN METHOD
CONNECTOR
Tie-in Tool(s)
ROV(s)
Tie-in Vessel(s)
• space/dimension provision for the selected connector, the tie-in tools and ROV
operations.
• tie-in aid equipment such as guiding devices, latching systems, etc.
• equipped with an inboard hub adapted to the future flowline connector
• connection/reaction loads which vary with the tie-in method
• resist to the in-service load conditions such as temperature, slugging, etc.
INBOARD
HUB
CONNECTOR
• the total number of connections, for the initial and future field development
phases
• the chronological integration of tie-in operations in the whole project
• the interference or not with other surface units (drilling rig, production floater, etc.)
and other subsea structures during the connection.
This has an impact on the tie-in method choice as it determines the available means (tie-in
support vessels, tools, vessel coordination, etc.) and sometimes involves some critical
phases in the operational methodology such as abandonment of lines prior to their recovery
after the arrival of the production floater.
2.6 Vessel
One or several ships of the following types can be involved in a tie-in operation:
• Laying vessel
• Drilling/completion rig
• ROV-support vessel
The vessel and tie-in method choices are intimately related. Some tie-in methods require the
presence of two vessels (e.g. the Lay-away tie-in method, see "5.6. Surface tie-in,
lay-away and lay-to", which requires the simultaneous presence of the laying ship and the
drilling rig), this interface can have a costly repercussion on the project.
Launching and recovery of both the ROVs and the ROTs can also be defined as an interface
item as its performance have a direct impact on the time (hence the cost) of a tie-in
operation.
In the early 80's, tie-in methods were based on two remotely operated tools (ROT), one pull-
in tool and one connection tool which were run separately. These tools were later in the 80's
combined in one Pull-In & Connection Tool (PICT) with cable storage drum installed on tie-in
vessel. Recently the industry has introduced the ROV based pull-in and connection tool,
which is mounted below the ROV.
The connection tool design depends on the connector type (which determinates the required
functions: hydraulic supply, torque tool, integrated seal plate handling and replacement tool,
etc.) and varies with each SPS manufacturers.
2.8 ROV
For the ROT/tie-in method, the ROV is used primarily as a visual control during the ROT
landing and recovery, and to connect the pull-in wire (see "5.2 Lay-down and pull-in"). Its
secondary function is to override some of the ROT main functions in case of an ROT
mechanical failure.
With regard to the ROV mounted pull-in and connection tool, the interface requirements are
much more stringent and could referred to "Interface Engineering" encompassing the full
scheme, such as:
3.1 General
Deepwater tie-ins imply the use of diverless subsea connectors. Their implementation
requires precise alignment (and orientation in the case of multibore connection) that is
generally performed in two stages: (1) rough alignment during the hub's approach by the pull-
in tool or by means of guiding funnel placed on the subsea structure and (2) precise
alignment, when the two hubs mate, by the connection tool.
This chapter aims to describe the connector technologies available to perform a tie-in
operation and to identify the main manufacturers.
Two main fluid connection systems are currently available on the market:
• Collet connector
• Clamp connector
These systems allow both monobore and multibore connections as only hubs and seal plates
(fitted with guiding pins to perform precise orientation in the case of multibore connector)
have to be adapted; thus they can be used to connect flowlines or umbilicals (chemicals,
hydraulic supply). The running tool can be either an ROV-mounted tool or a Remotely
Operated Tool (ROT) with ROV override functions.
An insulation coating can be added at the latest stage on the connection point if required,
using for example a doghouse (i.e. an insulated box with an open bottom and horseshoe cut-
out front and back to allow its landing on the connection prior to its closing).
The above mechanical connectors are widely used in deepwater field development, with a
large application of collet connectors in the Gulf of Mexico.
Other mechanical connectors are available, however with low utilisation (to nil) in deepwater
application:
• Merlin connector
• API flange with "MATIS" ROT
Concerning the low and high power subsea electrical connectors, the prevailing concept
since the 1980's is the fluid filled connector concept which removes seawater from contact
with the critical components. The electrical connectors can be plugged by ROV and are
currently available rated up to 11kV at 400A (Tronic connector).
The electrical connector cannot accept any mechanical load either during installation or in-
service conditions.
COLLETS
COLLET
STAB HUB
METAL SEAL
A collet connector basically consists of two mating hubs: a stab (inboard) hub and a receiver
(outboard) hub which supports the collets, the actuator ring, the locking springs and the
hydraulic cylinders. The metal seal may be retained in either the stab or the receiver hub,
maintained in position by mechanical adjustement.
The functions of each component and operations of the collet connector may be described
as follows:
• The first step of a connection operation is the stabbing: the two hubs are brought
into approximate contact (by a stroking tool). Few degrees misalignment,
depending on the diameter of the line, can be corrected by the collets (e.g. +/-2°
angular misalignment and +/-35mm axial offset satisfy most applications).
• Locking is then performed by the collets. This is done by applying hydraulic
pressure to the cylinders, which transmit a force in the axial direction to the
actuator ring; the actuator ring then moves axially and forces the collets radially
inward.
• The collet connector is maintained closed by the locking springs; this preload
keeps the two hubs and the metal seal in tight contact and determines the
bending strength of the connector. The metal seal integrity can be externally
tested.
Typical size and pressure rating values of collet connectors range from 3" API 10000 to 36",
ANSI 900 class (i.e. 900psi in ambient temperature conditions).
The collet connector is probably the most cost-effective connector and has been extensively
used in the Gulf of Mexico deepwater developments; it is manufactured by:
• Oil States/Hydrotech
• Cameron
• Kongsberg Offshore (FMC)
Alignment
Hydraulic &
pins
chemical lines
Floating
jaws
Jacking
screw
This system consists of a clamp assembly, a seal plate and two mating hubs. The clamp
assembly may be a two jacking screw type (and consists of upper and lower clamp halves) or
a single jacking screw type (see the above Kvaerner's clamp connector with a multibore seal
plate, fitted with guiding pins for precise alignment, and the leak test port, passing through
the clamp, which also plays the role of seal plate retainer).
The two hubs are welded to the line extremity sections; their bodies are machined to receive
the yoke assemblies of the connection tool and a male/female tapered entrance profile on
the two hub faces provides the final precise hub alignment in preparation for clamp make up.
The seal plate geometry is adapted to mate the two hubs and eventually equipped with
guiding pins if the connection is a multibore connection in order to perform precise alignment.
Figure 3.5 depicted the clamp connector principle; it consists in applying a radial force via the
clamp (by tightening the clamp bolt(s) ) on the two hubs which hence mate (due to the clamp
hub interface shape) and tighten the seal ring.
• mating the hubs and the seal plate with a stroking system. If the connection is
made-up with an ROV-mounted tool system, the clamp assembly is deployed with
the subsea module and the seal plate is inserted by ROV tool; if the connection is
made-up by an ROT, both clamp and seal plate are deployed together with the
connection tool.
• closing the clamp by tightening the screw(s) with a torque tool. Torque force and
number of turns are monitored.
• performing the seal test. A stab provides a pressure test line into the seal
annulus.
Test port
Bolts
The clamp connector is the main connector used in all major deepwater oil regions (i.e. North
Sea, Brazil, Gulf of Mexico, West Africa, etc.) due to its robust construction and reliability.
20" rigid pipeline connections have already been performed in the North Sea using clamp
connectors. Clamp connector can be provided for almost any diameter in accordance with
the API 5L specifications and up to 5000psi (if required).
Running tool
Connection
Service line
Control umbilical
Guide pin
TOP VIEW
Flowline
Torpedo (final guiding)
The vertical connection method allow the tie-in of flexible flowline up to 12", service line up to
6". The vertical connection flowline hub weights about 2T.
The hub includes a torpedo which is used as a guiding device and the subsea structure (i.e.
production adapter base cradle, which receive the hub and the X-mas tree) is equipped with
the corresponding funnel (receptacle, see following figure 3.7) which includes an helicoidal
guiding device to orientate properly the hub. The upper part of the X-mas tree is equipped
with the corresponding connector which is latched on the line hub during the X-mas tree
landing operation.
Connector
X-mas tree (upper part with
X-mas tree)
Location for
future vertical
connector (see
Production adapter figure 3.6)
base craddle
Receptacle
funnel (for
torpedo guide)
Permanent guide
base
This tie-in method has a small drawback, i.e. the X-mas tree must be recovered should an
intervention be required on the vertical connection flowline hub.
The Merlin connector is available from 8" to 36". It has been used by Subsea Offshore Ltd.
on the BP Harding field to fabricate a rigid pipeline: the pipe strings were laid on the seabed
and then assembled by means of Merlin connector.
The prevailing concept for low and high power connectors since the 1980's is the fluid filled
connector principle. Basically, the controlled environment (CE) plug concept removes
seawater from contact with the critical components:
• the electrical socket (female contact) is protected by its own oil bath, which in turn
is protected by a primary oil filled chamber. The whole assembly is pressure
balanced to minimise stress.
• a shuttle pin prevents both water ingress and loss of oil when the connector is
unmated.
• during the connection, the male contact pushes on the shuttle and penetrates the
oil filled chamber, being thus wiped clean of water twice before making contact
with the electrical socket.
The main electrical subsea mateable connector manufacturer is Tronic which has in
particular developed a 11kV, 400A rated connector; this connector has been tested as part of
the GEC Alsthom SPEED (subsea power electrical equipment distribution) project which
allowed to test a 1MVA subsea power station rated for 300m during seven months.
Electrical connectors are used for power, control and data transmission as further detailed in
document "Umbilicals" which is part of the deepwater field development reference book.
4.1 General
The pull-in and connection systems can be divided in two types:
Above types of tools reflect the historical evolution of the tie-in tool technology:
• the first generation was composed by two ROT system (one pull-in tool and one
connection tool)
• single tool ROT, combining both functions of pulling and connecting, were
designed as an evolution of the first generation
• ROV-mounted tools represent the latest improvement for deep to ultra deep
water depths.
All the connector types (as previously reviewed) can be potentially used with both ROV-
mounted tools and ROT.
• Kvaerner PICT
• Kongsberg UTIS, etc.
• Cameron DISPS and McPAC
• Hydrotech
The ROT system can be either two tools deployed independently, one for initial pull-in
operation and one for the connection phase, or one single tool combining both tie-in
sequence.
The design maximum operating depth of such type tie-in tool is about 500m. They are able to
handle both rigid and flexible lines.
• Cameron McPAC.
The McPAC two-tool pull-in and connection system uses a drillpipe deployed pull-
in tool to pull a flowline or umbilical onto a porch structure by means of a surface
winch cable, then the connection tool connects the line with a 2-bolt clamp and
seal plate assembly. The McPAC system has been used several times on
projects such as Shell/Esso UMC (UK North Sea), Placid's Green Canyon 29 and
Enserch's Mississippi Canyon 441.
Linear pull-
in winch
ROV
panel
Funnel
Clamp
Bull
nose
retrieval
Torque tool
for clamp
tie-in
• Kongsberg UTIS.
The Kongsberg Offshore Universal Tie-In System (UTIS) is a combined pull-in
and connection tool, designed to perform connections of steel lines of up to
14" OD and flexibles of up to 12" ID. It has successfully performed ten tie-ins of
flexible flowlines at Zaphiro field phase 2 (500m). It was also used for tie-ins on
Statoil Statfjord north and east or Saga petroleum Snorre fields.
They are able to handle flexible lines up to about 20" and small diameter rigid pipelines
(depending on the required pull-in force).
ROV
Services skid
Pull-in module
Cassette bay
Flexible
flowline
Flowline hub
• Subsea DMac.
The "Fuel Subsea Engineering & Costain" tie-in system is designed for 1500m water depth
and flowline sizes up to about 12". It consists in a ROV tool (including torque tools, seal plate
replacement tool, hot stab and pressure test tool), a line pull-in tool, interface skid and
connection porches mounted on subsea structure. It has been used for Foinaven's tie-ins.
• Kvaerner RTS
The ROV operated Tie-in System (RTS) consists of a pull-in and connection tool
mounted on a standard work class ROV via the ROV interface skid. This tool is
composed of the following main items:
ROV
Pull-in
module
Clamp
connector SPS guide
posts
The Kvaerner RTS have been used on Norsk Hydro Njord (1998) and planned for
Visund (1999).
• ABB Icarus
ABB has developed an ROV mounted pull-in and connection tool similar to the
above Kvaerner RTS.
The Icarus pull-in system is planned to connect the jumpers on the Chevron's
Kuito field in Angola.
Figure 4.14 further depicts the ROV-mounted connection tool operation (herein represented
with a clamp connector).
Connection Inboard
tool hub
The ROV mounted connection tools are available from the main SPS contractors such as:
• Cameron
• Kongsberg Offshore
• ABB offshore technology
and have been used mainly in GOM (BP Pompano, BP Troika, Shell Mensa).
This unique tool is designed to be deployed and controlled by ROV and to perform the tie-in
of 10" class 1500 bolted flanges. MATIS allows to load all bolts simultaneously and to check
the residual bolt load and distribution without diver intervention (design water depth: 1000m).
5 TIE-IN METHODS
5.1 General
This chapter will review the existing tie-in methods, which have been used, or could be used
in deepwater applications.
Basically all diverless and guidelineless connector systems (as reviewed in the previous
chapter) can be used to perform a connection. However the selection of a tie-in method must
be based on the following key topics:
• the field subsea architecture (number of tie-in points, manifold, PLEM, etc.)
• the water depth
• the seabed conditions (i.e. soil type, visibility, current, etc.)
• hydrocarbon product temperature, pressure and chemistry
• the connection technology (mechanical, electrical, monobore or multibore)
• the line type (i.e. rigid pipeline, flexible or umbilical) and its diameter
• availability and cost of the selected connector, tie-in tools, etc.
• the SPS manufacturer, which can propose its own connection tool, adapted to its
subsea production system and connector technology.
5.2.1 Description
The lay down and pull-in method consists in pulling in and connecting a flowline or umbilical,
pre-laid down on the seabed in a predetermined target area, to a subsea structure (X-mas
tree, manifold, riser base).
This method is effective for both first end and second end extremity connection of flowline to
subsea structure. Typical pull-in force expected for such an operation is about 5-10T,
depending on the line type and soil conditions (friction coefficient) and a pull-in distance to be
limited to less than 50m.
The lay down and pull-in operation can be divided in three phases:
1. The flowline or umbilical end extremity (first or second) is equipped with a pull-in
head. The termination head is laid on the seabed within a target area by a lay
vessel. Several laying configurations can be adopted near the connection point:
∗ line laid in curve near the structure (flexible or umbilical lines) in order to
decrease the pull-in tension.
2. The pull-in operation is then performed by a smaller vessel (i.e. tie-in vessel)
equipped either with (1) an ROV-mounted pull-in tool or (2) an ROT/pull-in system
remotely operated from surface tie-in vessel. The pull-in tool function is to place the
line's hub connector closed to the subsea structure's hub (it generally includes a
guiding device such as a funnel, to perform a rough alignment) and to prepare the
connection operation (the debris cap is retrieved, etc.):
∗ with an ROV-mounted tool: the tool package is fixed on ROV which then
attaches the pull-in rope on the subsea structure pull-in porch, clamps itself
on the pull-in head of the line and performs the pull-in operation. When the
head is closed to the connection point, ROV prepares the hubs (debris cap
removal, etc.) and performs the connection prior to the seal test performing.
∗ with a Remotely Operated Tool: the pull-in tool is lowered and fixed on the
subsea structure; ROV attaches the pull-in rope, then the line's head is
pulled toward the connection point and aligned at the final stage by guiding
devices on the tool. After the pull-in operation, the connection is performed
if the tool is a two-tool system, otherwise the pull-in tool is recovered
onboard and the connection system is lowered.
The lay-down and pull-in method has been extensively used in most oil provinces but mainly
for shallow water depth applications (200 - 400 msw). Petrobras has experienced this method
with no satisfactory results (i.e. near seabed ROV operation on soft soil).
The ROT based connection systems utilising a surface-operated winch become unsuited as
the water depth increases due to the number of lines running from surface (lifting line, pull-in
cable, umbilical).
For deepwater operation, the ROV-mounted tools (e.g. Flexconnect, RTS) are better
adapted.
The “lay down and pull-in” method requires good seabed conditions:
This tie-in method is therefore not recommended for deepwater connection in the case of
very soft soil conditions (i.e. 5-15kPa) and poor visibility near seabed.
5.3.1 Description
• either initiate the laying operation. The line is pulled off the laying vessel to the
subsea structure, latched and then the laying vessel continues the laying
operation. The connection is then performed when the laying sequence ends.
• or connect a flowline that has been towed from an onshore fabrication yard. the
pull-in is performed to help controlling the lowering of the line and allows to adjust
the first end position to perform the connection.
For the pull-in, a cable coming from a surface winch or subsea winch can be used and then
the connection is performed by a separated tool.
This method is effective for first end tie-in of umbilical, flexible and relatively small diameter
rigid line.
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2. Attachment of the pull-in cable which runs from the pull-in tool to the line to be
laid and connected.
3. Lay initiation of the line: the line is pulled towards the subsea structure while
being paid out from the laying vessel. The catenary curve is controlled by
monitoring the line pull-in head position, by means of transponders, and tension
in order to avoid any buckling problem.
4. When the line pull-in head arrives at the subsea structure, the pull-in tool latched
it, allowing to start the nominal laying mode.
This method is very effective for flowline initiation with however two main drawbacks (see
chapter 6 "Advantages and disadvantages"):
The “Direct pull-in” method is limited by the design maximum water depth operability of the
pull-in tool (i.e. about 300m-500m) and has been used on Nork Hydro TOGI for up to 24"
rigid sealine.
5.4 Deflect-to-connect
5.4.1 Description
This method consists in lifting a defined length of a pipeline (typically 500m – 800m) by
means of buoys, deflecting the line end near the structure with a vessel or subsea winches
and finally pulling the line to the subsea structure in order to perform the connection.
The deflect-to-connect method is effective for rigid pipeline tie-in to a subsea structure. The
pipeline must have been laid along an off-centred straight line near the structure prior to the
deflection (typical distance 100m – 200m).
A typical deflect-to-connect operation can be described as follows, the procedure starts when
the sealine is laid in the predefined configuration:
1. When the preparatory works are performed (survey of the seabed, check of the
equipment, etc.), air bags (or buoyancy elements) are fixed to pre-installed
collars (Troll Olje method) and inflated in order to lift the future deflected length of
pipeline (fixed by the required final curvature). Drag chains (installed during
pipelay operation) spread along the lifted length are used to control the height of
lifting and the pipeline curve during the deflect operation (by varying the chain
length friction with seabed and so controlling the drag forces at different points of
the deflected length of pipeline). The deflected length is also equipped with
transponders to check the elevation and the pipe curvature during the deflect
operation.
As an example, about 15 air bags and 5 transponders were spread along the 400m – 500m
of deflected pipeline on the Troll Olje project.
This is done by steps of approximately 10-20m until the pull-in head is in front of
the subsea structure; the pipeline curvature is checked at each step by means of
transponders and compared to the theoretical values (the minimum bending
radius and line tension must always be controlled to avoid any local buckling,
etc.).
3. When the pull-in head is in front of the subsea structure, a pull-in and connection
operation is performed by ROT:
• after the pull-in operation and once the pipe is secured inside the subsea
structure, the pipeline can be flooded
• on completion of pipe flooding, the connection can be performed
• on completion of the tie-in task, all installation riggings are recovered
(chain, buoyancy elements, etc.)
5.5.1 Description
This tie-in method is used to initiate flowline or umbilical first extremity by stabbing and
latching it (by means of a hinged torpedo) in a receptacle (i.e. funnel) mounted on the subsea
structure (manifold, tree, PLEM). The connection is performed after the laying operation by
means of an ROV-mounted connection tool (see chapter 4.4).
Prior the nominal laying operation, the line first extremity is lowered down and latched to the
subsea structure by the stab and hinge over method:
1. The stab and hinge over assembly is connected to the line (flowline or umbilical)
and a transponder is attached to position the line termination during initiation.
2. The assembly is lowered at the vertical position of the subsea structure receiver.
While setting up in DP over the tie-in point, the laying vessel continues to pay out
the line. The stabbing of the assembly into the receptacle funnel mounted on the
subsea structure is performed; the final approach is assisted by ROV. An
orientation helix in the receptacle rotates the head into the proper rotational
alignment for the hinge over.
3. When the assembly is fully engaged and locked in its receptacle, the laying
vessel moves ahead slowly while paying out the line until the line is correctly
landed on the seabed. The laying operation continues.
4. At completion of the laying operation (i.e. pipe flooded), the connection (by a tie-
in vessel) is performed by stroking out the hub or connector that is retracted
during the stab and hinge over operation and then connecting it to the subsea
structure (see chapter 4.4).
This method is probably the most cost effective solution to perform the fist end initiation and
tie-in for deepwater applications. No water depth limitation is expected (i.e. the only limiting
factor is the connection tool maximum water depth operability, which is today about 2500m).
The only limitation is with large diameter rigid pipeline due to potential high load on the
subsea structure during the stabbing and hinge-over phases, although passive heave
compensated tensioners would annihilate this limitation.
This method has for example been used to connect 6" flowlines and umbilicals to manifold on
the Shell's Mensa field (1620m); hydraulic connectors powered by ROV via an ROV interface
panel were used.
5.6.1 Description
This method, developed by Petrobras, was used up to 1992 and was then replaced by the
vertical connection method (see chapter 5.7).
The lay-away and lay-to surface tie-in method is effective to connect first or second end of a
flexible and umbilical line to a subsea tree.
This method consists in performing the connection between the line and the X-mas tree
onboard a drilling rig prior to the lowering of the assembly.
The lay-to or lay-away methods, which have been primarily developed by Petrobras to
improve existing pull-in methods, can be described as follows.
1. After arriving on location, the laying vessel positions itself approximately 30m
away from the drilling/completion rig. A cable is passed from the rig to the laying
vessel (e.g. by means of a messenger line) and attached to the flowline(s) (the
number of flowlines depends on the laying vessel capacity) first extremity
equipped with a pulling head.
2. Each flowline first extremity is transferred to the rig by paying out the line while
pulling the cable according to a predefined sequence.
3. When the predetermined catenary curve is achieved, each flowline first extremity
is connected to the subsea tree onboard the drilling rig. The assembly is fully
tested, allowing the eventual problems to be solved prior the laying operation.
4. The tree and the flowlines are then lowered simultaneously. The tree is landed
and connected.
5. When the connection is pressure tested, the nominal laying mode can start: the
flowlines are laid by the laying vessel towards the production floater.
1. While laying the flowline(s), the laying vessel arrives near the drilling/completion
rig. When the line(s) second extremity is fully secured on the working table of the
laying vessel, a transfer cable is passed from the rig (e.g. by means of a
messenger line) and attached to it. The flowline second extremity is transferred to
the rig by lowering it by means of an abandonment cable while pulling the transfer
cable according to a predefined sequence.
A second option is that the line is lowered by the laying vessel on the seabed in
an extended loop arrangement and later recovered by the rig by means of a lifting
cable attached to the flowline extremity by ROV. This method avoids the problem
of the simultaneous presence of the laying vessel and the rig.
2. The flowline(s) second extremity is then connected to the tree onboard the rig.
The assembly is fully tested, allowing the eventual problems to be solved prior
the lowering operation. A cable (from the laying vessel) is then attached at a
defined intermediate location on the flowline(s).
3. The drilling rig lowers the tree while the laying vessel retains the line(s).
As the drilling must be located at the vertical position of the well during the
operation (if guidelines are used to install the X-mas tree), a flowline overlength
(at least equal to the water depth) is required.
4. Once the tree is landed and tied-in, the vessel lays the loop on the seabed.
The main advantages of this method (see chapter 6 "Advantages and disadvantages") are
clearly to allow the connection and all tests to be performed in surface.
The lay-away method was a standard for diverless connections in Campos Basin up to 1992
where 57 lay-away operations, including 36 guidelineless operations, have been successfully
conducted in water depths ranging from 280m to 1030m. Then the vertical subsea
connection system (see section 5.7) was developed to overcome its drawbacks (mainly the
obligation of the presence of both drilling rig and laying vessel and also the fact that only
connections to subsea trees are possible).
5.7.1 Description
The vertical connection method was developed to overcome the drawbacks of the surface
tie-in, lay-away and lay-to method (see chapter 5.6).
The vertical connection was developed by Petrobras to allow connection of flexible lines to
any subsea structure with no requirement for the simultaneous presence of drilling rig and
laying vessel.
Initially the vertical connection was developed with a temporary abandonment base for the
first end termination, with the following operation sequences:
1. The laying vessel lays the line with its hub connected to a temporary
abandonment base on the seabed. The hub is positioned closed to the subsea
structure (tree or manifold) to be later connected. The laying vessel can leave the
site.
2. The drilling / completion rig retrieves the hub from the temporary abandonment
base and installs it onto the production adapter base cradle. Then, the tree is run
and locked simultaneously on the production base housing and flowline hub.
This vertical connection system has been used extensively since 1992 (more than 30
successful operations in Campos Basin), but the direct vertical connection system was then
developed to improve operational efficiency and to eliminate the need for a temporary
abandonment base, which implies additional installation costs.
Because the laying vessel lowers and directly locks the flowline hub to the structure (both
tree and manifold), the direct vertical connection system allows first end and second end
connections without using a temporary abandonment base. The flowline itself or an auxiliary
cable is used as string for the lowering operation, the principle of this method being to
perform the connection with the help of a torpedo mounted on the bottom of the line hub (see
previous section 3.4 ″Petrobras triple line connector″).
1. The laying vessel is positioned over the subsea structure. Transponder is fixed on
the lines (or bundle) first extremity equipped with vertical connection head.
2. The assembly is lowered over the tie-in point. While setting up in DP over the
subsea structure, the laying vessel continues to pay out the lines. The final
approach is assisted by ROV and consists in stabbing the torpedo into the
production adapter base cradle. The lines are orientated by the passive
orientation system included in the receptacle.
3. When the assembly is fully engaged and locked in its receptacle, the laying
vessel moves ahead slowly while paying out the lines until they are correctly
landed on the seabed. The laying operation continues.
4. The connection is then performed after the landing of the X-mas tree by the
drilling rig.
The direct vertical connection method allows the initiation of bundles; the average flowline
stabbing and locking time is 2-3 hours, which can be considered as excellent.
In 1996, the first direct vertical connection was performed on the Albacora manifold in 620m
water depth; up to now, more than twenty direct vertical connections (first end and second
end connections) were performed in the Campos Basin. This method allows simultaneous
laying of up to three lines (e.g. production line, service line and control umbilical) which are
connected to the structure by multibore hub and sealplate.
This vertical connection combined with the lay-away of bundles in one lay sequence
represent the most cost effective solution for deepwater la y operations. However in
the case of a second end connection requirement, some difficulties have been experienced
during the torpedo stabbing into the receptacle due to:
5.8.1 Description
The principle of this method is to perform the link between two subsea structures (tree and
manifold) or between a subsea structure and a line end termination (PLEM) by means of a
flexible jumper. The distance between the two connection points, and hence the length of the
jumper, is conventionally about 20m - 50m (i.e. within most medium size vessel lifting
capacity).
• with horizontal connector (either collet or clamp connector), the jumper is typically
laid down on the seabed in the connection area and then connected by the pull-in
method.
• With vertical connector (i.e. collet connector. cf. figure 5.7), the jumper can be
installed with a spreader bar and with upward facing mandrel vertical connectors
located on subsea structure.
• the stab and hinge over method can also be used; this type of tie-in was utilised
to perform the connection of flexible jumper for Shell's Rocky field: the first end
was equipped with a "Stab & hinge over" type hub and the second end included a
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vertical collet connector. After landing and locking of the first end, the second end
was connected.
This tie-in method is dependent on ROV operation for all phases from guiding, landing,
docking to connection and leak tests.
Flexible jumpers allow to withstand some imprecision in the position of line ends or subsea
structures (and the eventual flowline dilatation); thus there is no drastic requirements
concerning subsea metrology (unlike steel jumpers) and it is sufficient to position pipeline
termination head and/or subsea structure within less stringent target boxes.
Flexible jumper's diameter and water depth limitation are dictated by the flexible technology.
The use of flexible jumpers for deepwater applications would be limited mainly by economic
consideration.
5.9.1 Description
Steel jumpers are 20m to 50m long rigid spool piece which perform the connection between
a PLEM and a riser base or a subsea structure, or between two subsea structures. They are
typically U or inverted-U shaped, depending on the required flexibility (360° loops acting both
as expansion loop and spring could also be added in the jumper) and are either vertical or
horizontal connection types.
The main phases of a steel jumper fabrication and installation are described below; the
considered connection can be either between subsea structure(s) and/or flowline
termination(s):
1. When the subsea structures or flowline terminations have been laid over the
seabed, their position is determined using acoustic transponders in order to:
• check that they were laid within the target boxes (e.g. 5m x 5m)
• determinate an approximate jumper length for pre-fabrication. That allows,
if the jumper is fabricate offshore, to perform some cut and welds
operations during a non-critical period of vessel use (e.g. during flowline
hydrotest) and thus to reduce the final jumper fabrication time.
2. Accurate measurements of the jumper length and of the elevation differences
between the two connection points are performed. This can be done by one or
both of the following systems:
• Extra High Frequency (EHF) acoustic transponder and digital quartz depth
sensor
• measurement tool which consists of a taut line, winch and protractors
3. After conversion of the detailed measurements into cut points and lengths, the
final jumper fabrication can be performed either onshore or offshore (e.g.
onboard a barge).
Figure 5.9 - Steel jumper installation (Stab & hinge over method)
The main advantage (see chapter 6 "Advantages and disadvantages") of the steel jumper is
its economical aspect when combined with stringent heat insulation requirement. This point
suffices to explain its extensive use in the Gulf of Mexico deepwater developments.
Vetco aims to have a range of spools from 4-14in in 12m lengths with the maximum
assembled length of around 90m; the high-pressure and temperature applications are
targeted, as the product is rated up to 410bar and 150°C. The terminations would be welded
and the intention is to have a range of endfittings to make the spoolpieces compatible with
most pull-in systems.
The jumper can span between two subsea structures or lay on the seabed. There is no
foreseeable water depth limitation.
5.11.1 Description
This method consists in combining rigid and flexible line: a flexible tail is added to the rigid
pipeline to be able to manipulate more easily the extremities during the tie-in phase.
The philosophy can be considered similar to the flexible jumper method, as a flexible line is
used to perform the connection between a rigid flowline and a subsea structure, but the
flextail and the rigid flowline are connected in surface, simplifying this part of the tie-in
operation and allowing to perform external connection leak tests prior to the lowering of the
hybrid pipe.
This method has been used mainly by Coflexip Stena Offshore for Petrobras (Roncador) in
Brazil.
The flextail is used to perform the connection between a rigid pipeline and a subsea
structure. It can be installed as per one of the following methods:
1. The flextail can be installed as part of the rigid pipeline: at the end of the pipe
laying, the flextail is directly connected onboard the laying vessel and then:
∗ either the connection between the flextail and subsea structure or riser
termination is performed by the laying vessel.
∗ or the flextail is laid with the connector supported by an abandonment skid to
be later connected.
2. The rigid pipeline is abandoned on the seabed and later recovered to connect the
flextail prior to the connection between the flextail and the subsea structure or the
riser base structure.
• The rigid pipeline diameter is limited: flextail and rigid pipe must have the same
internal diameter (e.g. pigging operation).
• Flexible line must be designed for the considered water depth (i.e. reversed end
cap effect: collapse of the steel armour under hydrostatic pressure) and the
tension load induced by the rigid pipeline (air filled) during the abandonment
operation.
• Limitation is related to flexible line technology.
The following table is a list of the main advantages and drawbacks of each tie-in methods:
Lay-down and pull-in • Laying and connection • High pull-in loads may be
operations are necessary
(Flexible lines and independent
• Optimum seabed conditions
umbilicals) • First end and second end
• Limitations in flexible line
applications
diameter
• Complexity and size of tools
• ROV-mounted tools are
dependent on ROV reliability
Hybrid steel pipe & • High degree of flexibility • rigid pipeline recovery, if
flextail required, is a critical
• Low load transmitted to
operation
structure
• Water depth application is
• Only one subsea connector
limited by the flexible
is required
technology
The above summary table has clearly established that there is no obvious or simple tie-in
method that could be considered as the generic solution for deepwater applications.
There is good range of alternative tie-in methods and only a thorough evaluation of all
relevant field technical data, as further itemised in chapter 2 “Interface requirement”, can
provide the most cost effective tie-in method and technology to be selected for each project.
7 SUBSEA METROLOGY
7.1 General
Some subsea tie-in operations require accurate subsea measurements, especially steel
jumper installation because it is necessary to precisely determine distance and angles
between the two tie-in points prior to the final jumper fabrication. These measurements are
generally made using two measurement tools in order to check the values; both "Acoustic
Base Line" and "Taut Wire Metrology" described hereafter can be used as the primary
measurement means.
A premise for this method is that the subsea structures must be installed within the following
tolerances:
A long base line (LBL) acoustic array is deployed on the seabed by ROV in the area of the
jumper route. This array typically consists of up to six extreme high frequency (EHF)
transponders: two are deployed on the seabed and two are placed at each tie-in point (a dual
transponder arrangement at each tie-in point offers a better level of redundancy).
The array is calibrated after the determination of the sound velocity in water from
temperature / salinity measurements. Once the transponders are in position, the
programmable acoustic navigator interrogates transponders to measure all baselines. A least
squares analysis allows to determine the relative positions, orientations and distance of tie-in
points. The relative height difference is determined using the pressure sensors in the
transponders. To determine accurately the relative orientation between the tie-in points, the
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ROV can dock on the two points and measure the heading using a precision gyro (i.e. laser
based gyro).
This technique typically allows measuring better than +/- 5cm (over a 50m length) and 1° on
relative headings.
A taut wire measurement tool typically consists of a taut line, winch and protractors with dual
axis inclinometers. It is deployed and operated by ROV and a measurement operation
consists in:
The ROV video is used to document relative angles and distances between the two points.
The measurements are normally repeated to verify values and to help to assess accuracy.
The time required to perform a deepwater tie-in operation will depend greatly on key topics
such as:
• the choice of the tie-in method
• the number of tie-in operations that can be performed in one installation phase
(i.e. learning curve effect consideration)
• ROV and ROT reliability and availability when required
• experience and training of the ROVs and tie-in personnel
• the water depth in terms of launching and recovery time based on an average
descent and ascent speed of 800m - 1000m per hour
Albeit the above criteria, the benchmark for deepwater tie-in operation could be defined as
follows:
• 24 hours - 36 hours for a stand alone or single tie-in operation
• average of 6 hours to 12 hours per tie-in, in case of large number of tie-ins (e.g.
more than 10 tie-ins) being performed within an installation campaign.
The above timing is to be considered from spread arrival on site until completion of the tie-in
operation, ready for departure to other location and without any major downtimes (i.e.
technical and weather related).
ANNEX 1
Manufacturers and Contractors List
SONSUB Broadfold Rd
AB23 8EE
Aberdeen
Tel : 01224 706888
Fax : 01224 706705
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DGEP/SCR/ED/TA
TotalFinaElf DEEPWATER REFERENCE BOOK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 4
1.1 SCOPE................................................................................................................................4
1.2 REGULATION, CODES, STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS .........................................................5
1.3 DEFINITIONS & ABBREVIATIONS ...........................................................................................5
1.4 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................6
1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................6
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT....................................................................................... 7
2.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................7
2.2 INTERFACE WITH SUBSEA STRUCTURES ...............................................................................8
2.3 INTERFACES WITH SUPPORT VESSEL ..................................................................................10
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
Field development in deep waters typically involves the use of a floating production support in
combination with a flowline network, subsea wellheads and manifolds. Such a development
scheme results in numerous subsea intervention tasks that are out of the reach of the direct
human intervention, thus putting demands on Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) role and
reliability to a high level.
ROV's were introduced offshore in the early 80's, as an observation and safety means of
divers during their underwater interventions. With the acceptance of these new tools by the
diving personnel, these remotely operated robots were further equipped with arms (i.e.
manipulators) to perform more meaningful works than just observation tasks.
At the same period deeper water development at 300 - 500 meters were being contemplated
(mainly in the North Sea and in Brazil) as at that time exploration drilling was already deeper,
and it is the drilling industry who has provided the ROV industry with the unique opportunity
for further development. The incentives were twofold (1) ROV's are more cost effective than
manned intervention (e.g. saturation diving systems, submarines, one-atmosphere bells) (2)
safer operation as humans were not required in the hostile underwater environment.
With commercial diving limited by water depths (e.g. 180 - 250 meters in North Sea and
around 350 meters in Brazil), the ROV ability to work at extreme depths make it an essential
tool for the offshore deepwater exploration and production. ROV's are the "eyes and the
arms" of those who have remained in "surface".
Today there are ROV readily available for 3000m water depth from all main ROV Contractors
(e.g. CSO, SCS, Oceaneering, Sonsub, etc), and up to 6000m water depth (i.e. Ifremer).
This document will review the current state of art in ROV's technology, its capabilities and the
requirement for deepwater operations such as:
ROV subsea intervention effectiveness lay firstly with the adopted intervention philosophy, as
further depicted in enclosed chapter 3, follows by the evaluation of the impacts on the
Subsea Production System (SPS) design and ROV surface support vessel interface
requirements (see chapter 2).
Chapter 4 is dedicated to the general description of ROV system and the main technical
characteristics for different ROV vehicles (i.e. Drilling ROV, Construction ROV, Survey ROV).
Once the subsea tasks to be performed have been identified, the next phase is to establish
the intervention method. There are two primary methods of remote intervention on subsea
production systems, intervention by remotely operated tools (see chapter 5 – ROT) and
intervention by tools mounted onto the ROV vehicle as further detailed in chapter 6, ROV
Tools.
The technical characteristics of the available deepwater ROVs and the list and addresses of
the main ROV Contractors and Manufacturers provided in the annexes, will conclude this
document.
IMCA R 004: Guidance Note on the safe and efficient operation of Remote Operated
Vehicles (AODC 051 previously)
OLF-040: Recommended guides lines for ROV services
1.4 References
This study is based on the following sources:
1.5 Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the ROV manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with
courtesy of technical information and photographs of their products.
2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENT
2.1 General
A deepwater ROV system is basically composed of the following sub-systems:
• interface between the ROV vehicle, tools and SPS (Subsea Production Systems)
• interface between the ROV deck equipment and the surface support vessel
Defining the ROV operated systems, and hence evaluating the interface impacts on the SPS
design and support vessel deck layout, requires also to precisely evaluate the subsea tasks
to be performed. Such intervention philosophy and the functional requirements must be
defined and the external environmental conditions criteria acting on it.
Industry standard interfaces have been established for ROV intervention, to maximise the
potential use of standard equipment and design principles. In general such ROV interface
requirements and implementation lay mainly with the ROV Contractors. The purpose of
standard ROV interfaces is to re-use intervention tooling in the interests of minimizing life
cycle costs and to increase the use of proven interface tooling.
The ROV interfaces are generally located on the SPS in a manner that allows accessibility to
the ROV, tools (i.e. manipulator, TDU or tool skid mode) and ROT. This means that the
overall dimensions of the ROV and its tooling package (or the ROT) must be taken into
account in addition to the required space to manoeuvre. In the design of the SPS interfaces,
attention must be paid to the environmental conditions as significant current could
tremendously complicate the pilot task.
Component
Change-Out tool
landing units
ROV panel
SPS
Tool Deployment
Unit (TDU)
ROV
Interface between SPS and ROV are generally performed by ROV panel. It includes the
various interfaces for rotary torque tools and linear pushing tools for valve actuation, provides
inboard hubs of MQC or female receptacle for hydraulic intervention tool, etc. (see enclosed
chapter 6: "ROV tools"). It also provides docking points (if TDU method is used) or grasping
bars for ROV stabilisation (see chapter 3.2.3 for further details on the stabilisation methods).
Valve
state
markers
Female
MQC
"T" bar
SPS may be also equipped with landing units for landing and locking of ROT (e.g.
Component Change-out tool) if required. The functions of these units are to perform the final
alignment, to provide soft landing, to lock the ROT during the operation if required and to
support tool weight and eventual additional loads.
The SPS and the interface items must be able to support various loads induced by:
An adequate colour and marking system of SPS must be implemented to allow easy
identification of:
The colours generally used are yellow (most visible colour through a subsea camera), white
and orange in combination with black and grey.
Character sizing depends on the distance they should be read, depending on their role (i.e.
primary identifier for system location or secondary markers, such as those on ROV panels).
They can be from 5cm to 50cm height. Prevention of marine growth and cleaning (e.g.
jetting, brush) shall be provided for markers having operational functions for the field life
duration.
3.1 General
Working effectively in deep water demands more efficient subsea operations which start with
the ROV equipment capabilities, but lays mainly with the ROV personnel / operator skill and
training, and with the ROV Subsea Contractor culture and attitude for services and
performance.
With deepwater applications, reliability of the ROV system becomes much more a vital factor
for operation success and cost effectiveness. Priority is being given to increase the
endurance of equipment so that the vehicle does not have to be brought back on deck for
routine maintenance, as the round trip from/to 2000 m can take more than 4 hours. Although
such deployment time could be reduced with the use of traction winch capable of 100
m/minute launch & recovery speed.
Typical ROV breakdowns are related to the main and tether umbilical, electronic pods and
electrical connectors following a water ingress or condensation effect due to a much colder
water at seabed (e.g. 4°C, -2°C).
Today an ROV working rate of up to 98% is achievable, when the ROV design is based on
the "degraded mode of operation" philosophy. This implies that high risk ROV sub-systems
are provided with built-in backup systems in the event of failures of the primary system. In
most cases, the ROV will be able to continue the mission but at a reduced performance. The
most well known high risk sub-systems which are to be provided in dual mode are: dual HPU,
dual motors, dual depth sensors, dual navigation compasses, multiple cameras, dual seven-
function manipulators, multiple fibre optic data transmission, etc.
The establishment of an intervention philosophy at an early stage of ROV system design for
particular application allows defining the required types of ROV, the eventual ROTs, the
associated equipment (i.e. ROV tools) and then to manage the interfaces (i.e. with SPS,
deck layout, etc.). Such intervention philosophy must be defined as early as possible and
should address:
• the various tasks to be carried out (survey, drill support, SPS installation, IMR)
• the type of support vessel (drilling rig, construction vessel)
• the intervention methods (ROV, ROT)
• the required types of tools (torque tools, hot-stab, etc.)
• operators skill and eventual specific training
• ROV stabilisation method (e.g. docking panel, working platform)
• SPS accessibility requirements (versus ROV dimensions, manipulator envelope)
Remote subsea operation can be conducted either by ROV or ROT (with ROV used for
backup function).
The functional requirements are performance oriented and should define the minimum
criteria which must be satisfied in order to meet with stated objectives (e.g. to provide reliable
ROV support to ensure cost effective and safe operation):
ROV is a compliant system that allows to perform various subsea tasks such as those quoted
in previous section. Deepwater ROV design shall provide adequate equipment / tooling and
the capacity to interface with the SPS design, with sufficient power (i.e. for tool
implementation and propulsion adapted to the subsea conditions), depth capacity, etc.
Three main ROV configurations can be adopted to perform these subsea tasks :
The ROV spread shall be designed, based on the modular concept for ease of
transportation, handling, mobilisation and transfer onto alternative support vessel.
ROV are typically grouped into about five categories, classified by role and/or size.
AODC 051 gives the following classification:
Observation ROV are employed for visual inspection / monitoring and diver assistance.
These systems are typically fitted with light sensors, probes and a simple grabber but carry
little or no payload.
Class II ROV is used for tasks ranging from inspection, observation and assistance during
drilling operations and light subsea tasks (e.g. 150-200 kg). They can carry one or two
cameras, sonar and a single manipulator arm; they are able to carry light payload tasks.
Work ROVs are employed for various tasks such as drill support, construction and repair
tasks, platform cleaning, subsea tool deployment and operations (e.g. up to 500 kg). They
feature higher hydraulic power and payload capacity, more sensor channels and are
generally fitted with either a grabber and a seven-function manipulator arm (e.g. for drill
support) or two seven-function manipulator arms (e.g. for construction tasks).
The WROV spread shall be based on the same design as the drilling support ROV, and as
much as possible using the same components, control systems, equipment, etc for the
purpose of ROV's pilot / technician training, familiarisation and maintenance aspects (e.g.
same spare parts).
Towed or bottom crawling are typically purpose built to a particular intervention task (e.g.
subsea trenching or pipeline repair).
Each ROV must accommodate a wide variety of tooling, work equipment and sensor
systems. Standardisation efforts on the equipment are performed, leading in particular to the
ISO recommendations.
• suction cups
• grabber
• docking device
• working platform
Suction cups fixed on the end of an arm and activated by the ROV allow to anchor it by
suction effect when in contact with the structure. This system allows to perform some
manipulative operations, such as cleaning, valve activation or inspection, but it requires flat
and relatively clean surface near the work area. This stabilisation method is adopted for
subsea intervention tasks on subsea structures which have not been prepared for ROV
operations at the design stage.
ROV can grasp bars on the structure by means of a manipulator / grabber arm with parallel
or pincer jaw. Adequate standard bars must be fitted onto the subsea structure, which shall
resist the loads applied by the ROV (ISO recommends to design grasping intervention
interfaces to resist a force of about 225kg applied from any direction).
Docking is generally used in combination with TDU (see chapter 6), but it can also be used
during manipulator operations. It is convenient when effort transmission to the working
interface must be avoided (e.g. during operation involving hot stabs) or when heavy loads are
handled (e.g. stab plate connection). Docking provides stable and accurate positioning of the
ROV; it is performed by stabbing one or two docking probes in docking receptacle(s). The
docking probe is an hydraulically operated device with locking dogs at its extremity, as
depicted on figure 3.2.
Docking probe
Docking face
(SPS/ROV panel)
Docking
probe
ROV
tooling
Locking dogs
TDU
A working platform can be used in replacement or in combination with one of the previous
stabilisation methods. It can be composed of bars or gratings.
This implies that ROV operations should not be subject to weather downtime in milder areas
(than North Sea) such as West of Africa, Brazil or Gulf of Mexico (excluding during hurricane
period), and providing that such diving operations are performed from a suitable surface
support vessel.
• one supervisor, whose role is to prepare the operations and to interface with the
support vessel operation superintendent
• one senior pilot / technician
• one pilot, helping the senior pilot by manipulating the arm, the TMS, the LARS,
etc.
The above 3 men crew are generally sufficient during most of the drilling campaign, however
2 additional pilot/technician will be required for a continuous 24 hour coverage during the
high activity periods such as re-entries, well completions.
For subsea construction activities (e.g. flowline tie-ins) a much higher workload will be
required from the WROV spreads, in general a minimum of 2 WROVs and 12 men crew (i.e.
6 men crew/12 hrs shift) are needed.
IMCA are putting together a competence scheme for ROV personnel, which hopefully carry
City & Guilds accreditation. This will involve the keeping of log books, recording of vehicles
and tools used.
Following the latest computer technology improvements, some subsea contractors now offer
to use digital video interface, converting all video received from the ROV into a digital format
and hence allowing a broad range of utilisation and modification (image insertion in the
reports, addition of graphs to the images, etc).
The ROV report from the subsea operation includes as minimum the ROV procedures, the
dive log and a short video version of the operation.
4.1 General
Deepwater ROV systems are composed of the following main items:
• vehicle
• tether management system (TMS)
• umbilical and winch
• launching and recovery system (LARS) and associated equipment
• telemetry and control system
• fibre optic system
• control and maintenance cabins
• power generator
• spares
Additional equipment and tools are then added, depending on the subsea tasks to be
performed and the ROV intervention mode (e.g. with TDU, tool skid, etc.).
Some ROVs feature up to 200 hp, but in general 100 hp are sufficient for most purposes and
separated in two units of 2 x 50 hp for redundancy and degraded operation philosophy.
For deeper waters than those currently envisaged (i.e. more than 1500 m), most ROV
manufacturers will just uprate an existing model, which is largely a case of ensuring that the
electronics are adequately housed, the vehicle's buoyancy, lights and cameras are designed
for the planned water depths.
The following sections further describe the ROV vehicle, control system, LARS and TMS as
common part of all the (deepwater) ROV systems. The different types of deepwater ROVs
are then depicted.
Umbilical tether
Thrusters Flotation modules
Grabber
Electric/electronic
1 atm. pods
The ROV vehicle structure is a welded open frame, made generally from aluminium alloy with
stainless steel fixtures and designed to:
The open configuration keeps clear waterways for thrusters water flow. The frame is
protected against corrosion (e.g. sandblasting) and fitted with anodes for corrosion control.
Flotation modules
Grabber (5F)
Deepwater ROV vehicles are equipped with syntactic foam flotation modules, which provide
adequate trim and allow the ROV to be slightly buoyant or nearly neutral.
The syntactic foam is preferred to materials such as polyurethane or copolymer foams due to
its deepwater pressure resistance capacity. Syntactic foam is composed of hollow glass
microspheres (typical diameter of about 100 – 150 microns) dispersed within a base polymer;
hollow macrospheres (typical diameter of 5cm) can be added to reduce the foam density. A
2500m water depth rated composite syntactic foam typically has a density between 450 –
500 kg/m3.
The ROV vehicle is generally powered by two hydraulic power units (e.g. 2 x 50 hp), each
being able, if required, to independently operate the system at reduced power hence
providing more reliability.
Each HPU is composed of the following main items:
The hydraulic power is distributed by means of valve manifolds to the various ROV sub-
systems, which are mainly:
• thrusters
• manipulators
• camera pan and tilt unit
• tools
ROV is typically equipped with 6 – 8 fixed thrusters allowing manoeuvres in all directions.
Thrusters are controlled by servo valves, which supply them with hydraulic power. Each of
them is able to provide typically about 250 – 300 kg of thrust.
Camera function is to provide visual support to the ROV pilots to manoeuvre the vehicle and
perform the various subsea tasks.
Two types of cameras are generally fitted on ROV:
SIT camera is primarily used by the ROV pilot during the vehicle's manoeuvres. It provides a
wide angle of vision and the best viewing in poor visibility conditions, allowing discerning the
eventual obstacles (e.g. cable or rope). The low light viewing capabilities of the SIT camera
allow locating a target from a greater distance than a CCD camera.
CCD camera is generally used for close in work or inspection tasks. It can be for example
mounted on a manipulator to view tooling functions.
The cameras can be located:
• on a fix location on the ROV (still camera) to be used as a reference camera for
ROV manoeuvres.
• on a pan and tilt unit, allowing to orientate the cameras for observation, reading
of gauges, etc.
• on manipulator or tool frame as tool operation support cameras
A camera positioned at the rear of the vehicle allows not only to perform manoeuvres but
also to check the tether position. Another camera can also be fitted on the TMS to allow
viewing of the tether winch, various gauges located on TMS (e.g. hydraulic gauges of HPU,
which provides power to the tether drum) and the whole vehicle deployment and recovery
process.
A sufficient lighting system must be fitted on the ROV to provide the required video coverage.
About four to five 250Watt lights (e.g. dry quartz halogen lamp) are typically mounted on the
ROV vehicle, on the pan and tilt unit, at the front and rear of the ROV to provide the uniform,
balanced lighting required for video coverage.
Connectors are generally used on external components to facilitate control and maintenance.
All the connectors are pressure balanced to avoid water ingress by means of an oil-filled,
pressure compensated tubing. A junction box is used to centralise the main connections,
minimise the risk of leaking and ease the maintenance.
The state of art is a 'six degrees of freedom' plus claw, master / slave system for underwater
applications. Higher dexterity is achieved by the use of rotary-vane actuators at the joints,
thereby eliminating the envelope restrictions imposed by hydraulic rams (i.e. Slingsby
HYDRUS).
The typical characteristics of five-function and seven-function manipulators are hereafter
described:
The manipulator arms may be fitted with miniature cameras, installed on manipulator ‘wrest’
to further improve the operator views.
• a pilot's console, with all joysticks, switches, trackball and computer graphics
user-interface components.
• a navigator's console, including video tape recorders, a sonar processor and
monitors.
Pilot's console
Sonar processor
Navigator's console
A video overlay on the pilot's monitor allows to display one or a combination of the following
data: date / time, depth / depth history, heading and auto heading set point, altitude, pitch
and roll, hydraulic data (i.e. pressure, temperature, fluid level), motor current and voltage
status, thrusters status, alarms, etc.
Direct communication and telephone links between the ROV control cabin and the "DP"
control room must be provided to allow full subsea intervention co-ordination.
The electrical power distribution is generally enclosed in the control cabin (but separated
from the control room by wall for safety reasons), providing power to the ROV system HPU
motors, electronic hardware on the ROV and the control and maintenance cabins.
The telemetry and control system is the ‘heart’ of the ROV technology, it provides high speed
serial communications, utilising topside computer, and a bottomside microchip (e.g. Intel
Pentium) control system in the ROV vehicle/cage.
Through the use of standard industrial computer components and ‘custom’ designed
software, the control system is flexible, reliable and easily maintained. The control logic for
various vehicle functions, any added specialized tooling could be updated or reprogrammed
to suit subsea tasks specific needs and applications.
• handling frame
• umbilical winch
• on-deck hydraulic power unit (HPU)
A-frame
Umbilical winch
Docking head
ROV
TMS
(side entry cage)
The handling frame can be based on either an A-frame (see figure 4.7) or a crane (knuckle-
boom or telescopic boom, see figure 4.8). Its primary function is to perform the overboarding
of the TMS, which is hanged on the docking head and supports the ROV, and to position
both TMS and ROV at the sea water level as far as possible of the floater hull (i.e. typically
an overboarding reach of about 5m) in order to avoid contacts due to environmental loads
and pendulum movement. The handling frame shall withstand the weight of the TMS, the
ROV, plus its maximum payload (corresponding to an eventual added tool package); it shall
be able to perform its task in severe conditions.
Umbilical
Docking
head
TMS
(Top-hat design)
The umbilical winch can be fitted with active heave compensation, thus ensuring safer and
simpler docking of the ROV in rough weather conditions. The umbilical winch determines the
deployment / recovery speed of the ROV, which is typically about 30m/min. Speed is an
important characteristic of a LARS for deepwater applications as launching and recovery
times increased with depth, thus resulting in enormous expenditure. For deepwater and ultra-
deepwater operations, the umbilical winch should provide at least a deployment / recovery
speed of 50m/min.
1 2
Position: Position:
resting overboarding
3 4
Position: Position:
working working
extreme close
Mobil, who was particularly concerned with this problem in the West of Shetlands with the
drilling semi-submersible "Jack Bates", awarded Subsea the design and fabrication of a ROV
system deepwater / harsh environment. Subsea developed the "Clansman" ROV system,
including not only a deepwater ROV (rated to 2000m) but also a heavy weather LARS. The
Clansman LARS is based on the use of four guide wires and a cursor frame which guide the
ROV cage from the main deck down to submerged pontoon level of the semi. It allows
launching and recovery of the ROV in sea state 8 (i.e. significant waves of up to 10m) and its
high speed umbilical winch is able to lower the ROV at a maximum speed of about
140m/min.
The umbilical is usually the weak element of a ROV system, particularly for deepwater
applications due to the umbilical increasing length and weight. The main lift umbilical
experiences maximum working loads during launching and recovery of the ROV at the splash
zone, with TMS and vehicle freely suspended in water. A failure of a winch or an umbilical
statistically results in the longest ROV system downtime period. Efforts are made by
ROV/umbilical manufacturers to:
Deepwater main lift umbilical are typically composed of power conductors and fibre optics
internally installed in helical arrangement to reduce load stress (fibre optics can also be
surrounded by a protective gel to minimise friction with other components). The umbilical
allows the transmission of power, data, telemetry and video between the TMS and the
surface. The umbilical electrical components should be isolated and checked for possible
interference between power and data/video transmission.
The use of fibre optics can improve the umbilical size and weight; this allows to reduce the
drag loads (i.e. the current induce offset) and to minimise the size (and the cost) of the
LARS. But fibre optics forbid any repair as it can not be welded offshore. Standardisation is
hence important to allow an optimisation of spare umbilical.
The typical main characteristics of both systems for deepwater applications are as follows:
Both cage and top-hat are equally used by the manufacturers / contractors as each of the
two systems has the opposite advantages and drawbacks.
The two main problems encountered with a "top-hat" designed TMS are:
• due to the top position of the TMS and the low submerged weight of the ROV, a
turning moment is applied on the ROV-TMS combination when lowered into the
water (i.e. the centre of gravity rises above the centre of buoyancy), thus applying
large lateral loads on the umbilical termination.
• It is relatively easy to pinch the tether when the ROV docks the TMS.
A side entry cage has the inherent advantage of providing protection to the ROV during
Tether
launching and recovery (useful in bad weather conditions to avoid direct clashes on the
floater hull), but its main drawbacks is to be less versatile: the size of tools and work
packages to be added on the ROV is limited by the cage dimensions.
Figure 4.14 - "Perry Tritech Viper observation and light work ROV"
The main characteristics of a typical deepwater class II observation ROV are as follows:
The enclosed Annex 1 provides further technical characteristics of the main class II OBSROV
for deepwater applications.
• General observation
∗ observing spudding of well
∗ watching for fluid and cement returns to seabed
∗ observing and advising rig about guidance of bit or casing into well
∗ observing landing of equipment (e.g. guide base, BOP) at seabed
∗ observing and reporting currents
• Manipulation tasks
∗ position beacons on seabed and/or on subsea equipment
∗ insert hydraulic stab onto BOP, tree, tubing spool and pressurise
(e.g. 210bar) to function/pressure test with sea water
∗ install and remove environmental gasket onto/from wellhead
∗ actuate retaining rods on BOP connector to release
∗ cut hydraulic line
∗ clean (mechanical and hydraulic) external and internal wellhead housing
(seal surface)
∗ manipulation of needle valves on BOP control panel
∗ connect/disconnect lift wires to/from subsea equipment
∗ remove small debris
∗ remove/clean cement and cuttings from guide base
∗ operate manual (ROV) gate valves
∗ override hydraulically actuated tree valves
∗ carry and install tree cap
∗ pressure control and methanol injection in tree cap
∗ connect/disconnect electrical subsea connections
Drilling ROVs are class III deepwater ROV. The main characteristics of a typical deepwater
drilling support ROV are as follows:
The drill support ROV, shall be able to be trimmed neutral buoyant (or slightly positive) when
carrying special tools.
The ROV shall be capable of a through frame lift of 500 kg (in air).
The ROV hydraulic power packs shall have spare valves to be able to operate two functions
bi-directional at an operating pressure of 210 bar (e.g. x-mas tree valves override operation).
Toolskid
• ROV tools :
∗ hydraulic cable cutter
∗ hydraulic actuated wrench for 2" sockets
∗ water jetting & dredging tools
The working ROV, shall be able to be trimmed neutral buoyant (or slightly positive) when
carrying special tools or equipment (such as tree-jumper tie-in tools, tool basket, etc).
The ROV shall be capable of a through frame lift of 2000 kg (in air).
The ROV hydraulic power pack shall have spare valves to be able to operate two functions
bi-directional at an operating pressure of 210 bar.
• high video capacity. Survey ROV must be equipped with several high resolution
colour cameras, powerful lighting system and great capacity of data transmission.
• great propulsion capacity to be able to rapidly perform the survey of large areas
(e.g. 5-6 knots during pipeline as-laid survey).
• trench profiler
• bathymetric system
• boom cameras
• cathodic protection detection systems
• pipe tracker, holiday detector (insulation coating defects)
• side-can sonar (e.g. free-span measurement), etc
5.1 General
ROT are tool systems either actuated from the surface (with ROV for backup functions) or
operated by ROV. They are preferred to free-flying ROVs when high lifting or pulling
capacities are required.
ROT are generally used for the following subsea tasks:
ROTs are deployed and lowered by means of LARS, lift wires and umbilical, with either
dedicated thrusters or ROV assistance for lateral guidance (guideline method is excluded for
deepwater applications).
Interfaces of ROT remain the same as the interfaces defined in chapter 2 for ROV systems.
Swivel
Hydraulic
cylinder for soft
landing
Orientation device
(steel bar)
Module
protection
cover
An example of CCO can be the Kongsberg Module Replacement Tool (MRT). The MRT is a
ROV operated tool deployed by means of lift wire; an orientation device provides attachment
point to ROV manipulator and allows the ROV to guide and perform rough alignment. The
launching of the MRT is similar to a ROV launching (i.e. by means of LARS). Connection and
disconnection of modules is carried out using an ROV operated torque tool. Its main
characteristics are:
• the first generation was composed by two-ROT system (one pull-in tool and one
connection tool)
• single tool ROT, combining both functions of pulling and connecting, were
designed as an evolution of the first generation
• ROV-mounted tools (by means of tool skid, see chapter 6) represent the latest
improvement for deep to ultra deep water depths.
Linear pull-
in winch
ROV panel
Torque tool
for clamp
Guiding
tie-in
funnel
These tools include all necessary functions to perform their task; ROV is only used to help
during the deployment (i.e. to guide the ROT to the connection location and align it), to attach
the pull-in cable at the flowline extremity and eventually to activate back-up functions. ROT(s)
(one single or two tools for a tie-in operation) particularly include:
• guiding device (e.g. funnel) to perform rough alignment of the outboard hub
during the pull-in sequence
• either a subsea winch or a linear winch with cable coming from surface, to
perform the pull-in operation
• dedicated tools to retrieve protection cap and clean the hubs
• connector and sealplate
• dedicated tools to perform the connection (i.e. positioning of the connector,
tightening of screw in case of a clamp connector or hydraulic activation in case of
a collet connector, etc.)
• external seal testing system
The design maximum operating depth of tie-in ROTs is about 500m, for practical reasons
related to the encumbrance of lifting wire and umbilical deployment from the surface support
vessel. For deeper water an ROV mounted tie-in tool is the preferred alternative.
6 ROV TOOLS
6.1 General
This chapter aims to describe the main ROV tools (i.e. descriptions and functions). The list is
not exhaustive and the description remains general as various tools exist and some of them
can be custom-made for special applications.
Additional tools are added, depending on the tasks to be performed by the ROV. Such ROV
tools (interface tooling), so far as possible, should be designed to operate with a range of
ROVs and not limited in application to one type of ROV (i.e. tool dimensions, payload, power
supply, etc).
All the deepwater ROV tools and equipment shall be rated to the adequate water depth.
Manipulator arm is a flexible way to perform subsea tasks, either directly using the
manipulator gripper or a manipulator held tool. Deepwater ROV manipulator is typically either
five-function arm, which mainly plays the role of grabber, or seven-function arm with high
versatility. In return of this operational flexibility, attention must be paid to:
The Tool Deployment Unit (TDU) is a tooling package comprising one or two docking probes
and a tool mounted on a cartesian carriage arrangement. The TDU is installed at the front (or
the rear) of the ROV in addition to or in replacement of the manipulators. The docking
point(s) provide stability and accurate positioning while the one-, two- or three-degree of
freedom carriage arrangement allows the tool head to access one or several intervention
interfaces.
Tool head
(1 degree of freedom)
Tool head
(3 degree of freedom)
Docking probe
A tool skid can be installed under the ROV vehicle in order to perform:
• either the installation of component (such as control pods and chokes)
• or the installation and connection of flowlines or umbilical (hydraulic or electric
connections).
• dredging or pumping skid, etc
Tool skid can be either surface connected to the ROV vehicle, involving a dual LARS
deployment (ROV through frame lift capability), or integrated at the seabed level (e.g. ROV
flying and docking onto the tool skid).
Hydraulic
ports
The rotary interface is standardised by the ISO-13628 (Part 8) for low torque and high
torque:
• low torque (i.e. up to 75Nm) interface on SPS consists of a "T" bar or paddle
enclosed in a tubular housing
• high torque (up to 7000Nm) interface consists in a square drive stem enclosed in
a tubular housing
Reaction fins
The design principle of the high torque tools involves no transmission of loads to the ROV:
reaction against the torque produced is provided by a pair of reaction fins mounted on the
tool and mating the female receptacle.
Reaction fin
receptacle
• length: 650mm
• diameter: 310mm
• weight in air: 50kg
• maximum torque: 2700Nm (typical)
• output speed: 0.7 – 1.9 rpm
ROV Handle
Hydraulic Jack
4
2
6
0
1
5
Hydraulic Pump
Cutting Blade
Guiding Blades ( Qty 2 ) Hydraulic Jack
3" OD cable
1. deploying the ROV fitted with the seal replacement tool (SRT). The deficient
connector has been previously opened and stroked back.
2. once ROV is docked, the SRT is lowered, by means of a tool elevator, in front of
the sealplate.
3. the SRT grips the sealplate and pulls it.
4. the ROV, the SRT and the sealplate are recovered. The sealplate is inspected.
5. in parallel with the inspection of the sealplate, the flowline hub cleaning tool is
deployed by ROV and performs the cleaning of the inboard hub, which was
containing the sealplate.
6. the sealplate fitted with new seals is lowered, positioned and re-installed by the
SRT.
7. the connection is then performed and tested.
Depth sensors are housed in each transponder. Once both pairs are installed (two other
transponders can be positioned on the seabed for more accuracy), the relative position and
orientation of the two subsea structure can be determined by measuring the distances
between each transponders and fixing their relative depth.
This technique typically allows for accuracy better than +/- 5cm (over a 50m length) and 1°
on relative headings. The typical characteristics of a hydro-acoustic measurement tool are:
Main
assembly Measurement
cable
Subsea structures
A taut wire measurement tool consists in two assemblies installed by the ROV on the two
subsea structures, of which the relative position must be determined.
Each of the two assemblies is fitted with guiding pins to accurately position it on a known
location on the subsea structure. Once installed, the ROV deployed a cable between them,
which is tensed by a winch part of the main assembly (i.e. containing the cable, the winch,
the measuring wheel, etc.).
The measurements are performed using the ROV video to read the various gauges on the
tool:
• The vertical elevation difference and angular misalignment between the two tie-in
points is determined by means of the protractors and dual axis inclinometers.
A resolution of 1° can be achieved.
• The distance between the two points is determined from the length of the taut
line. This length is measured from a calibrated measuring wheel mounted near
the winch. This counter can achieved an accuracy of +/-3cm (over a 50m length)
with correction of the wire catenary shape.
ROV
Tool
skid
ANNEX 1
Deepwater ROV
SUPPORT FUNCTIONS
Payload kgp 170 204 50 90 80-100 80
Through Frame Lift kgp 680 454 500 600
Unit MAGNUM MILLENIUMEXAMINER CLANSMAN TRITON XL MRV OLYMPIAN DEMON INNOVATOR HYSUB 150 SEALION II SEA SERPENT
GENERAL DIABLO MK II
Manufacturer Oceaneering Oceaneering Subsea Off. Subsea Off. Perry Tritech SEL Slingsby SEL Slingsby Hydrovision Sonsub Int. ISE Racal TTI Racal TTI
Type Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III Class III
Operating depth m 2 500 3000 + 2 000 2000-3000 2 000-6 000 2 000 3 000 2 000 3 000 2 500 1 000 2 500
Total Power hp 100 150 100 120 100 - 150 200 120 150-200 150 100 160
Built today ea 50+ 15+ 5 20+ 10+ 1 5 5 26 1
DIMENSIONS
Length m 2,54 3,00 2,00 2,00 3,09 3,37 3,37 2,95 2,97 3,40 2,20
Width m 1,47 1,50 1,95 1,70 1,52 1,50 1,50 1,84 1,53 2,10 1,40
Height m 1,60 1,70 1,80 1,80 1,85 1,88 1,88 2,00 1,95 2,10 1,60
Weight tons 1,60 1,90 1,70 2,20 3,30 4,20 4,70 3 4,77 4,70 1,80
HP & PROPULSION
Power hp 2 x 50 2 x 75 75 120 100 100 200 2 x 75 100 2 x 80
Thtusters ea 4V-4H 4V-4H 4V-4H 2V-4H 3V-4H 4V-4H 4V-4H 3V-4H 3V-4H 4V-4H 2V-4H 4V-4H
Forward thrust kgf 520 520 560 704 660 550 550 700 920 700 700
Lateral thrust kgf 475 475 560 704 500 550 550 700 920 700
Vertical thrust kgf 395 395 560 250 580 300 480 300
Speed forward knots 3 3 3,25 2-3 3,25 3,25 3,10 3,5 3,75
Speed lateral knots 2 2 2,40 2 2,40 2,40 2,25
Speed vertical knots 2 2 2,40 1 2,40 2,40
INSTRUMENTATION
Camera SIT system Simrad Simrad Osprey Insite Gemini Osprey Osprey ROS Gemini Osprey
Camera CCD system Simrad Simrad Osprey Insite Orion Osprey Osprey ROS Apollo Osprey
Navigation sonar Mesotech Mesotech Imagenex UDI UDI UDI Tritech Tritech Mesotech Mesotech Mesotech
Sensor system gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass optic gyro gyrocompass gyrocompass gyrocompass
Data transmission fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics fiber optics
Auto heading ° yes yes +/- 2 +/- 1 +/- 1 yes +/- 1° +/- 1,5 +/- 1,5
Auto depth cm yes yes +/- 15 +/- 8 +/- 8 yes +/- 15 +/- 10 +/- 10
Auto altitude cm yes yes +/- 15 +/- 10 +/- 10 yes yes +/- 10 +/- 10
MANIPULATORS Schilling Schilling Kraft Slingsby Slingsby Hydrovision Schilling ISE
7F master/slave manipulator ea 2 x Conan 2 x Conan 1 2 2 x Predator 2 x TA40 1 X Hydrus 1 x RTL 7 1 x Titan III 2 x Magnum 2 2
Load capacity kg 170 170 210 114 120 50 50
Reach m 1,7 1,7 2 1,5 1,6 1,6
Torque Nm 400 1 120 108 108
5F Grabber ea no no 1 no no no 1 x TA9 1 x RTL 5 Rigmaster no no no
SUPPORT FUNCTIONS
Payload kgp 160 160 50 250 250 500 300 500 200-300 200-300
Through Frame Lift kgp 910 910 3 000 3 700 3 700 3 000 2 000 5 000 5 000 5 000
HPU hp 2x50 2x75 40 100 75 75 50 150 2 x 75
Pressure psi 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 2 500 3 000 3 000
Flow l/mn 155 155 80 166 112 112 10 265
LAUNCH SYSTEM Dynacon Dynacon Hydralift Hydralift Dynacon
TMS (vehicle entry) side entry side entry side entry top hat top hat top-hat top hat top hat side entry both both
Cage weight tons 2,00 2,00 3,0 2,81 2,30 2,9 1,80
Launch speed m/mn 150 30 30 - 60 50
Thrustered cage hp 50 50 no no no no no no
Main Umbilical OD mm 40 40 46 48 45 33 36
Umbilical submerged weight kg/m 4,5 4,1 3,22 2,9
Umbilical working load tons 16 16 25 16,75 8,5 9 28,8 25
Tether length m 180 200 200 300 200 230 200 - 600 250 - 1000 200 200 200
SHIPBOARD SUPPLY 200
Power required KVA 200 250 250 180 240 250 250
Frequency Hz 60 60 60 60 60 50-60 50-60
ANNEX 2
ROV Contractors and Manufacturers
ROCKWATER LIMITED
Wellheads Crescent
Wellheads Industrial Estate
Aberdeen AB2 0GA, Scotland
Tel : 44 1224 777000
Fax : 44 1224 777731
HYDROVISION LTD
Howe Moss Avenue
Kirkhill Industrial Estate
Dyce, Aberdeen AB21 DGP, Scotland
Tel : 44 1224 772150
Fax : 44 1224 772166