Relativism is the view that truth is a matter of opinion.

There are two types:

 Subjectivism is the view that truth is a matter of individual opinion

 Cultural relativism. This is the view that truth is a matter of social or cultural opinion

Moral subjectivism is the view that what is morally right and good for an individual, A, is whatever A
believes is morally right and good.
Cultural moral relativism, the view that what is morally right and good for an individual, A, is whatever
A’s society or culture believes is morally right and good

Self-interested thinking is the tendency to accept and defend beliefs that harmonize with one’s self-
interest.
Self-serving bias is the tendency to overrate oneself—to see oneself as better in some respect than one
actually is.

Sociocentrism is group-centered thinking

Group bias is the tendency to see one’s own group (nation, tribe, sect, peer group, and the like) as being
inherently better than others
Conformism refers to our tendency to follow the crowd
Imperative sentences are not statements if they are intended as orders, suggestions, proposals, or
exhortations. They are statements if they are intended as pieces of advice or value judgments about what
someone ought or ought not to do.

When statements aren’t there:

 Reports (When author is simply stating another author he’s not making a statement.)
 Unsupported assertions (Speaker doesn’t present evidence to support)
 Conditional statements (if-then case, after if=antecedent, after then= consequent)

(However, if-then statements can be part of argument e.g if he fails math he’ll be put on prob,
he’ll fail math so he will be put on prob) This is a chain argument.
 Illustrations (mostly for example, for instance is used to provide example rather than to prove a
claim)
 Explanation

Explanations have two parts. The statement that is explained is the explanandum. The statement
that does the explaining is the explanans.
Test to distinguish explanations from arguments:
1. The common knowledge test (If CK then not an argument)
2. Past event test (If happened in past not an argument)
3. Author’s intent test
4. Principle of charity test

A rhetorical question is a sentence that has the grammatical form of a question but is meant to be
understood as a statement.

An ought imperative, that is, a sentence that has the form of an imperative or command but is intended
to assert a value or ought judgment about what is good or bad or right or wrong.
Deductive arguments: try to prove their conclusions with rigorous, inescapable logic.
A deductive argument that moves not from general premises to a particular conclusion but from
particular premises to a general conclusion:
Lincoln was president from 1861 to 1865. (Particular premise)
So, all persons born during Lincoln’s presidency were born in the nineteenth century. (General conclusion)

Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent): If A then B. A. Therefore, B (Paris, France Example)

If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

The conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.
The premises provide logically conclusive grounds for the truth of the conclusion.
It is logically inconsistent to assert all the premises as true and deny the conclusion.

Hypothetical Syllogism: If-then premise,

Denying Antecedent: If A then B. Not A. Therefore not B
Modus Tollens (denying consequent): If A then B. Not B. Therefore not A
Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent): If A then B. A. Therefore, B (Paris, France Example)
Chain Arguments: If A then B. If B then C. Therefore if A then C.

Categorical Syllogism: All 3 statements have all, some or no

Argument by Elimination:
Either Joe walked to the library or he drove.
But Joe didn’t drive to the library.
Therefore, Joe walked to the library

Argument Based on Mathematics:

Eight is greater than four.
Four is greater than two.
Therefore, eight is greater than two.

Arguments from Definition:

Janelle is a cardiologist. Therefore, Janelle is a doctor

Inductive arguments try to show that their conclusions are plausible or likely given the premise
An example of an inductive argument that moves from general premises to a particular conclusion:
All of Stephen King’s previous novels have been good. (General premise)
Therefore, Stephen King’s next novel will probably be good. (Particular conclusion)

Strong inductive argument is an argument in which the following conditions apply:

If the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true.
The premises provide probable, but not logically conclusive, grounds for the truth of the conclusion.
The premises, if true, make the conclusion likely.
Inductive Generalization:
All dinosaur bones so far discovered have been more than sixty-fi ve million years old.
Therefore, probably all dinosaur bones are more than sixty-fi ve million years old.

Predictive Argument:
Most U.S. presidents have been tall.
Therefore, probably the next U.S. president will be tall.

Argument from Authority:

There are bears in these woods. My neighbor Frank said he saw one last week.

Whatever the Bible teaches is true.

The Bible teaches that we should love our neighbors.
Therefore, we should love our neighbors.
Because the conclusion of this argument follows necessarily from the premises, the argument is
deductive.

Causal Argument:
I can’t log on. The network must be down.

Deductive:
Whenever iron is exposed to oxygen, it rusts.
This iron pipe has been exposed to oxygen.
Therefore, it will rust.

Statistical Argument:
Eighty-three percent of St. Stephen’s students are Episcopalian.
Beatrice is a St. Stephen’s student.
So, Beatrice is probably Episcopalian.

Deductive:
If 65 percent of likely voters polled support Senator Beltway, then Senator
Beltway will win in a landslide.
Sixty-five percent of likely voters polled do support Senator Beltway.
Therefore, Senator Beltway will win in a landslide.

Argument from Analogy:

Hershey Park has a thrilling roller-coaster ride.
Dorney Park, like Hershey Park, is a great amusement park.

1. Automobiles cause thousands of deaths each year and produce noxious and offensive fumes.
2. Smoking causes thousands of deaths each year and produces noxious and offensive fumes.
3. Thus, if smoking is heavily regulated, automobiles should also be heavily regulated.
4. But automobiles shouldn’t be heavily regulated.
5. Therefore, smoking shouldn’t be heavily regulated, either.

This is an analogical argument because the main conclusion, statement 5, is claimed to depend on an
analogy between automobiles and smoking. Nevertheless, the argument is deductive because it would be
logically inconsistent to assert all the premises and deny the conclusion.

If an argument both is inductively strong and has all true premises, it is said to be a cogent argument.
If an inductive argument either is weak or has at least one false premise, it is an uncogent argument.
Indicator Word Test
Strict Necessity Test
Exception: when author wants to offer deductive but has no logic, Pattern of reasoning is the only thing
that implies it is deductive
Common Pattern Test
Principle of Charity Test: When not good, most charitable is to interpret as inductive.
 Language
Vagueness (Middle Age)
Over generality (When will you come back? Later)
Ambiguity (Two Meanings) (Margie Sold Out)
Ambiguities that result from uncertainty about the meaning of an individual word or phrase are called
semantic ambiguities.
Ambiguities that result from faulty grammar or word order are called syntactical ambiguities.
Verbal dispute, occurs when people appear to disagree on an issue but in actuality have simply not
resolved the ambiguity of a key term.
Factual dispute, occurs when opponents disagree not over the meanings of words but over the relevant
facts.

Types of Definitions
Stipulative Definitions: If you’ve ever created a new word or used an old word in an entirely new way,
Persuasive Definitions: usually contain emotional appeals and slanted terms and are often given in
arguments over highly charged political and social topics on which people have firm views. (Capital
punishment)
Lexical Definition: to state conventional, dictionary meaning of word.
Precising Definitions: is intended to make a vague word more precise so that the word’s meaning is not
left to the interpretation of the reader or listener. (Heavy smoker example)

Strategies for Defining

Ostensive Definitions: Simply pointing too or demonstrating the thing being defined. (Popping means
this, (and show dance steps))
Enumerative Definitions: Provide specific examples of what you mean. (Actor means Tom Cruise)
Definition by Subclass: assigns a meaning to a word by listing subclasses of the general class to which
the word refers.
Mammal means gorilla, horse, lion, whale, and so forth.
Etymological Definitions: tells what part of speech a word is, how it is commonly pronounced, and
whence it came—its ancestry, or etymology.
Synonymous Definition: assigns a meaning to a word by offering a synonym
Definition by genus and difference: assigns a meaning to a word by identifying a general class (genus)
to which things named by the word belong and then specifying a differentiating quality (difference) that
distinguishes those things from all other things in the class. (Buck means male deer)

Emotive language more overtly reveals a writer’s attitude and feelings toward the subject than precise,
neutral, and more objective language does; and it is intended to create in the reader the same attitude and
feelings toward the subject, rather than increase the reader’s knowledge about it.

Power comes from denotation or literal meaning (child is punched) and connotations (waterfall)=
beauty

Euphemism: Rightsizing
Opinion criteria:
1. Obligation
2. Ideal
3. Consequences

Temporality: Cause must precede effect

Conjoined: whenever there’s a cause, there’s effect.

Fact: 2+2=4
Value: Murder is wrong

Descriptive relativism: wrong to assume universal moral standard exist

Normative relativism: tolerate other cultural values even if we think they’re wrong.

Constructed truth: Braggadocios

Idols of the tribe: OPINION

Selective perception, imperfect memory, oversimplifying complex realities

Idols of cave: Biases against religion, gender, countries, race

Idols of the marketplace: Rhetoric in political speeches
Idols of theatre: Human tendency to comply with authority

Evaluation criteria for evidence: Relevance, origin, objectivity

From conclusive to premise: Abductive