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The prime objective of an arc welding power source is to deliver controllable welding current at a
voltage demanded by the welding process. The arc welding processes have different requirements
with respect to the controls necessary to give the required welding conditions and these in their turn
influence the design of the power source. In order to understand how the requirements of the
processes affect the design of the power source it is necessary to understand the interaction of the
power source and the arc characteristics.
If the voltage of a welding arc at varying arc lengths is plotted against the welding current the curves
illustrated in Fig. 1 are obtained. The highest voltage is the open circuit voltage of the power source.
Once the arc is struck the voltage rapidly falls as the gases in the arc gap become ionized and
electrically conductive, the electrode heats up and the size of the arc column increases. The welding
current increases as the voltage falls until a point is reached at which time the voltage/current
relationship becomes linear and begins to follow Ohms Law. What is important to note from Fig. 1 is
that as the arc length changes both the voltage and welding current also change – a longer arc giving
higher voltage but with a corresponding drop in welding current and vice versa. This characteristic of
the welding arc affects the design of the power source since large changes in welding current in
manual metallic arc (MMA) and TIG welding is undesirable but is essential for the MIG/MAG and flux
cored arc welding processes.
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MMA, TIG and submerged arc power sources are therefore designed with what is known as a drooping
output or constant current static characteristic, MIG/MAG and FCAW power sources with a flat or
constant voltage static characteristic. On most power sources the slope of the characteristic can be
changed either to flatten or make steeper the curves shown in Fig 2 and Fig. 3
Fig 2 shows drooping or constant current power source static characteristics, such as would be used
for the MMA or TIG process, superimposed on the arc characteristic curves. When manual welding is
taking place the arc length is continually changing as the welder cannot maintain a constant arc
length. With a constant current power source as the arc length changes due to the welder’s
manipulation of the welding torch there is only a small change in the welding current – the steeper the
curve the smaller the change in current so there will be no current surges and a stable welding
condition is achieved. Since it is primarily the welding current that determines such features as the
penetration and electrode consumption this means that the arc length is less critical, making the
welder’s task easier in achieving sound defect free welds. Typically, a ±5volt change would result in
around a ±8 amp change at 150amp welding current.
In some situations – for example when welding in the overhead position or when the welder is faced
with variable root gaps - it is an advantage if the welder has rather more control over deposition rates
by enabling him to vary the rate by changing the arc length. In such a situation a flatter power source
characteristic will be of benefit.
Submerged arc welding also uses a drooping characteristic power source where the welding current
and the electrode feed rate are matched to the rate at which the wire is melted and transferred across
the arc and into the weld pool – the “burn-off rate”. This matching of parameters is carried out by a
monitoring system which uses the arc voltage to control the electrode feed speed – if the arc
length/voltage increases the wire feed speed is increased to restore equilibrium. The constant voltage
power source characteristic is illustrated in Fig. 3. This shows that as the arc length and hence the
voltage changes there is a large change in the welding current – as the arc lengthens the welding
current falls, as the arc shortens the current increases.
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welding current determining the rate at which the welding wire is melted and transferred across the
arc and into the weld pool – the “burn-off” rate. Therefore, as the current decreases the burn-off rate
also falls, less wire is melted and the wire tip approaches the weld pool. In doing so, the voltage
decreases, the welding current and hence the burn-off rate increase. Since the wire feed speed is
constant there is a surplus of burn-off over wire feed such that the desired arc length, voltage and
current are re-established. The converse also occurs – a shortening of the arc causes a reduction in
voltage, the current rises, the burn-off rate increases, causing the arc to lengthen, the voltage to
increase and the welding current to fall until the pre-set welding conditions are re-established. Again,
a typical figure for the change in welding current for a constant voltage power source would be in the
region of ±40amps for a change in arc length of ±5volts. This feature gives us what is known as a
“self-adjusting arc” where changes in arc length, voltage and current are automatically returned to the
required values, producing stable welding conditions. This makes the welder’s task somewhat easier
when compared with MMA or TIG welding. Although in principle it may be possible to use a constant
voltage characteristic power source for MMA welding it is far more difficult for the welder to judge
burn-off rate than arc length so arc instability results and the method is not practicable.
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In addition to this voltage control of the welding arc the speed at which the power source responds to
short circuiting is important - this is known as the power source dynamic characteristic. Short circuits
occur during arc striking and in MIG/MAG welding during dip transfer. As the voltage drops to zero
when a short circuit occurs the current rises. If this increase in the current is fast and uncontrolled
then the electrode tip blows like an electrical fuse resulting in excessive spatter – too slow a rise and
the electrode may stub into the weld pool and extinguish the arc. This is not too significant when using
the MMA process since the maximum current at zero voltage is controlled by the slope of the static
characteristic curve and the welder can easily establish an arc gap. It is, however, important in the
MIG/MAG process where a flat static characteristic power source is used and the current could rise to
an extremely high value, in particular when welding in the dip transfer or short circuiting condition.
An electrical component called an inductor is therefore introduced into the power source electrical
circuit. This device opposes changes in the welding current and hence slows the rate at which the
current increases during a short circuit. The inductance is variable and can be adjusted to give a
stable condition as shown in Fig. 4. Inductance in the welding circuit also results in fewer short circuits
per second and a longer arc-on time - this gives a smoother better shaped weld bead. Too much
inductance, however, may result in such a slow rise in the welding current that there is insufficient
time for the arc to re-establish and melt the wire tip so that the welding wire then stubs into the weld
pool. Inductance during spray transfer is also helpful in providing a better and less violent arc start.
Fig. 1. An example of how impact energy is affected by the welding thermal cycle
1. the cooling rate through the transformation temperature range of the steel in question.
The cooling rate is governed by the heat supplied during welding, and the heat sink, which is a
function of the initial temperature of the parts to be joined, their thickness and geometry. In arc
welding, the heat supplied during welding is characterised by the heat input, which is defined as
(see What is the difference between heat input and arc energy?)
Control over cooling rate in a particular fabrication (where steel composition and geometry are fixed)
is therefore achieved by varying heat input and preheat temperature.
The hardness generated in the steel at a given cooling rate is governed principally by its composition,
and a useful way of describing this is to assess the total contribution to it of all the elements that are
present. This is done by empirical formulae which define a carbon equivalent (CE) value and takes
account of the important elements which are known to affect hardenability. One formula used is:
Its calculation and use are described in detail in What is the difference between the various Carbon
Equivalent Formulae used in relation to hydrogen cracking?. The cooling rates which produce different
microstructures of different hardnesses are established by laboratory studies of each steel type, using
the cooling rates which the steel experiences during welding.
For carbon-manganese steels, a relationship between composition (CE value), cooling rate and
microstructural hardness level has been established. This relationship has been used in constructing
welding diagrams for these steels, in order to avoid fabrication hydrogen cracking of the heat affected
zone. These diagrams are given in reference[2] , and also in the Preheat Toolkit.
Low toughness may be experienced in HAZs due to the presence of inherently brittle microstructures,
including unusually coarse microstructures.
A low heat input leads to rapid cooling as the weld deposited is small in relation to the parent material
and the parent material acts as a heat sink. The toughness can be low in microstructures that have
arisen from rapid cooling rates. In general, very low heat inputs are to be avoided as they result in
hard, crack susceptible microstructures with poor toughness.
A high heat input gives slower cooling and the grain size in the HAZ can become very coarse if the
temperature is high enough to promote grain growth prior to transformation. Very large grain sizes
can have poor toughness even when the microstructure is soft.
Many other factors also contribute to HAZ toughness, however, and neither hardness nor
microstructure alone can be used as reliable indicators of toughness. See Local brittle zones in C-Mn
steel multipass welds.
In TMCP steels, a limit is often placed on heat input to avoid undue softening in the weld region,
(see Is there a restriction on the heat input that can be used for the welding of TMCP (Thermo-
Mechanically Controlled Processed) steels - if so, why?)
Reference
Karsten Madsen
FollowKarsten Madsen
Optimizing weld quality & productivity via OptiWELD
Preamble: this article has been published in the Oct 2017 issue of the
Canadian Welding Association's Welding Journal.
Some cynicism is intended in the title of this article as I have often seen
mistakes made or shortcuts taken in assessing the humble, everyday
fillet weld. I also intend to clarify with examples how to accurately
measure fillet welds with respect to their size and shape.
When using the standard fillet weld set, the weld should first be visually
examined and if it appears to be flat or convex, it should be assessed
based on leg length only as shown below. The image below shows a
fillet weld being inspected to verify the specified 3/8" leg size. If the
fillet instead appears to be concave, the weld should instead be assessed
using the side of the gauge with the centre tab which would need to
touch the face of the weld.
Concavity
In the next scenario, the measured leg length is again 3/8" but the weld
should be rejected as undersize due to its concave profile resulting in an
effective weld size of only 1/4" as shown on the right below. The black
lines you see on the gauge points to the effective toe of the imaginary
triangular fillet.
Convexity
While the above example illustrates how concave fillet profiles should
be scrutinized, fillets that are convex may also be rejected due to profile
or shape. At first glance, this fillet appears to be acceptable based on a
specified leg length of 1/4". In examining its profile however, noticeable
convexity is evident. Listed below the image is convexity criteria from
one structural welding code which should be used to assess this weld.
Gaps
One last thing … that in fact, should have been the first thing the
inspector did prior to welding. If there is a gap between members being
joined, the measurement methods already mentioned may not state the
effective weld size. Listed below is criteria from one structural welding
code that places limitation on gaps between parts being joined via fillet
welds. In some cases the measured gap would be subtracted from the
measured fillet leg while gaps in excess of 3/16 may cause outright
rejection.
In the case of the fillet weld measured with a 1/4" leg length as shown
on the left below, the weld would be rejected as undersize based on the
criteria listed above. Based on the measured gap of 5/64" a measured leg
of 21/64" would be result in an effective fillet size of 1/4".
In my next article, I will look more closely at how fillet welds can be
assessed based on throat dimension and emphasize important benefits
this can provide. In the meantime, make sure you have fresh batteries in
your flashlight, a proper suite of gauges in your inspection kit and a
diligent mindset as you tackle your inspection chores.
The ASME Code has essential variables directly related to the GMAW-S mode of welding
Defects/imperfections in welds - reheat cracking
Job Knowledge 48
The characteristic features and principal causes of reheat cracking are described. General guidelines
on best practice are given so that welders can minimise the risk of reheat cracking in welded
fabrications.
Identification
Visual appearance
Reheat cracking may occur in low alloy steels containing alloying additions of chromium and
molybdenum or chromium, molybdenum and vanadium when the welded component is being
subjected to post weld heat treatment, such as stress relief heat treatment, or has been subjected to
high temperature service (typically in the range 350 to 550°C).
Cracking is almost exclusively found in the coarse grained regions of the heat affected zone (HAZ)
beneath the weld, or cladding, and in the coarse grained regions within the weld metal. The cracks can
often be seen visually, usually associated with areas of stress concentration such as the weld toe.
(Fig. 1a). Cracking is always intergranular along the prior austenite grain boundaries (Fig. 1b). Macro-
cracks in the weld metal can be oriented either longitudinal or transverse to the direction of welding.
Cracks in the HAZ, however, are always parallel to the direction of welding.
Fig.1a. Cracking associated with the coarse grained heat affected zone
Micro-cracking can also be found both in the HAZ and within the weld metal. Micro-cracks in multipass
welds will be found associated with the grain coarsened regions which have not been refined by
subsequent passes.
Causes
The principal cause is that when heat treating susceptible steels, the grain interior becomes
strengthened by carbide precipitation, forcing the relaxation of residual stresses by creep deformation
at the grain boundaries.
The presence of impurities which segregate to the grain boundaries and promote temper
embrittlement, e.g. antimony, arsenic, tin, sulphur and phosphorus, will increase the susceptibility to
reheat cracking.
The joint design can increase the risk of cracking. For example, joints likely to contain stress
concentration, such as partial penetration welds, are more liable to initiate cracks.
The welding procedure also has an influence. Large weld beads are undesirable, as they produce
coarse columnar grains within the weld metal and a coarse grained HAZ which is less likely to be
refined by the subsequent pass, and therefore will be more susceptible to reheat cracking.
The risk of reheat cracking can be reduced through the choice of steel, specifying the maximum
impurity level and by adopting a more tolerant welding procedure / technique.
Steel choice
If possible, avoid welding steels known to be susceptible to reheat cracking. For example, A 508 Class
2 is known to be particularly susceptible to reheat cracking, whereas cracking associated with welding
and cladding in A508 Class 3 is largely unknown. The two steels have similar mechanical properties,
but A508 Class 3 has a lower Cr content and a higher manganese content.
Similarly, in the higher strength, creep-resistant steels, an approximate ranking of their crack
susceptibility is as follows:
0.5Mo B ↓
Thus, in selecting a creep-resistant, chromium molybdenum steel, 0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V steel is known
to be susceptible to reheat cracking but the 2.25Cr 1Mo which has a similar creep resistance, is
significantly less susceptible.
Unfortunately, although some knowledge has been gained on the susceptibility of certain steels, the
risk of cracking cannot be reliably predicted from the chemical composition. Various indices, including
ΔG1, PSR and Rs, have been used to indicate the susceptibility of steel to reheat cracking. Steels which
have a value of ΔG1 of less than 2, PSRless than zero or Rs less than 0.03, are less susceptible to
reheat cracking
Irrespective of the steel type, it is important to purchase steels specified to have low levels of impurity
elements (antimony, arsenic, tin, bismuth, sulphur and phosphorus). To avoid weld metal reheat
cracking, it is necessary to ensure that welding consumables deposit weld metal with appropriately low
levels of these impurities, and preferably to avoid coarse columnar grains. Following several instances
of weld metal reheat cracking in thick-wall 2.25%Cr-1%Mo-0.25%V reactor vessels, impurities in the
flux were identified as being responsible for the cracking, and an equation given for the desired upper
limit of these additional impurities.
K = Pb + Bi + 0.03Sb (ppm)
The compositional factor K must be less than 1.5 to achieve freedom from this form of cracking.
Welding procedure and technique
The welding procedure can be used to minimise the risk of reheat cracking by
The procedure should aim to refine the coarse grained HAZ by subsequent passes. In butt welds,
maximum refinement can be achieved by using a steep-sided joint preparation with a low angle of
attack to minimise penetration into the side-wall, ( Fig 2a). In comparison, a larger angle V
preparation produces a wider HAZ, limiting the amount of refinement achieved by subsequent passes,
( Fig 2b). Narrow joint preparations, however, are more difficult to weld, due to the increased risk of
lack of side-wall fusion.
Refinement of the HAZ can be promoted by first buttering the surface of the susceptible plate with a
thin weld metal layer using a small diameter (3.2mm) electrode. The joint is then completed using a
larger diameter (4 - 4.8mm) electrode, which is intended to generate sufficient heat to refine any
remaining coarse grained HAZ under the buttered layer.
The degree of austenite grain growth can be restricted by using a low heat input. However,
precautionary measures may be necessary to avoid the risk of hydrogen-assisted cracking and lack-of-
fusion defects. For example, reducing the heat input will almost certainly require a higher preheat
temperature to avoid hydrogen-assisted cracking.
The joint design and welding technique adopted should ensure that the weld is free from localised
stress concentrations which can arise from the presence of notches. Stress concentrations may be
produced in the following situations:
the weld has a poor surface profile, especially sharp weld toes
The weld toes of the capping pass are particularly vulnerable, as the coarse grained HAZ may not
have been refined by subsequent passes. In susceptible steel, the last pass should never be deposited
on the parent material, but always on the weld metal, so that it will refine the HAZ.
Grinding the weld toes with the preheat maintained has been successfully used to reduce the risk of
cracking in 0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V steels.
This Job Knowledge article was originally published in Connect, July 2000. It has been updated so the
web page no longer reflects exactly the printed version.
Film Viewer Intensity in Accordance with AS2177
March 15, 2011ndtblogLeave a commentGo to comments
AS2177- 2006 requires that the output of a film viewer be such that brightness of an illuminated
radiograph shall not be less then 30 cd/m2 and shall preferably be greater than 100 cd/m2.
Since the density of a film directly effects the transmission of light it is important to understand the
relationship between Film Density and Viewer Brightness. Refer to Table 1.
Example 2: What would be the recommended maximum film density viewable, with a viewer with
an output of 48000 cd/m2.
Density = Log10 (48000/100)
Recommended Maximum Density Viewable = 2.68
Measurement of Output
Confirmation of output is required annually and can be performed in a variety of ways including: