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Components of Sewer Sanitary Project Cost

The components of sewer sanity project cost such as design and construction cost are discussed
in the following sections.

Components of sewer sanitary project cost

Design Cost

This involves the cost of planning, studying various options, environmental evaluation,
geotechnical investigation, surveying, engineering design, permitting and review cost.

The cost of design is often make small portion of the project total cost. It is reported that, design
cost is less than 20% of the total project fee for reconstruction project whereas it is less than
10% for newly constructed project.

Construction Cost

Construction cost make up the majority of sewer sanitary project cost and it is divided into two
major components including direct construction cost and indirect construction cost.

t Construction Cost

Commonly, considerable amount of the budget used for the sewer sanitary construction is
allocated for direct construction cost. It composed of materials used, equipments, and labor costs.
Indirect Construction Costs

Indirect construction costs are the influences of sewer sanitary placements. Indirect construction
costs include:

Vehicular traffic disruption

There are two types of traffic disruption involves delay and detour. When sewer sanitary is
constructed on an existing street and the area is not closed for traffic, delays will probably occur
while materials are transported to the area and when the sewer is connected to an existing
system.

However, detour make drivers to take longer routes to reach their destination and eventually
greater fuel will be consumed.

Road and pavement damage

Road and pavement area located in constriction region will be damages during sewer sanitary
trenching. This deterioration is influenced by soil condition as well.

Damage to adjacent structure

There are two types of expenses caused by damages to neighboring structures. Firstly, the slow
progression of the construction work in confined area. Secondly, the cost and time needed to
reconstruct damaged structures.

Damage to adjacent utilities

When adjacent utilities for instance gas and telephone lines are not accurately specified on
construction area, they will likely to be damaged during the construction of sewer sanitary
system.

Repairing cost and disruption time make up the cost of utility damages. Site safety: The safety of
public should be maintained at project site. For example, adequate access should be provided for
emergency cars, pedestrians, and motorists.

So, it is necessary to have adequate access at construction site all the time.
Business and trade loss

Certainly, business along the construction site will suffer losses due to difficulties that customers
may subject to even though adequate access is maintained all the time.

Heavy construction and air pollution

Commonly, construction of sewer sanitary system is both dirty and noisy. Contractors might
consider measures to reduce detrimental effects and worker may get used to this condition.

However, residents around the construction area may be disturbed by the noise and pollutions
due to exhausting from operating machines may cause health problems.

It should be known that, the cost cannot be estimated but efforts should be made to decrease its
detrimental effects.

Pedestrian safety

Sometimes, it is required to create temporary pedestrian way through construction area


especially when large projects are constructed in confined cities. Added to that, it may be
necessary to move the walk way as the project is progressed along the streets.

Damage to detour road

When a detour road is constructed for the project, then it may subject to high traffic which leads
to damage the pavement.

Citizen complaints

Maintaining good relationship with public is a must and hence all complains if exist should be
tackled properly.

Environmental affects

There are cases in which sewer sanitary system need to be constructed in an area that is
sensitive from environmental point of view for instance area close to wetland, through or under
river.
In these situations, utmost care should be practiced to decline adverse effect on environment to
as minimum and possible and hence maintain natural landscape of the area.

Drains and Sewers Terms Definitions

Drains and Sewers Terms Definitions

Benching

A surface at the base of an inspection chamber or manhole to confine the flow of sewage to avoid
the accumulation of deposits and provide a safe working surface. The surface is sloped so that
any surcharge flow runs off it.

Blinding

Material that will fill interstices, irregularities and excavated soft spots in the exposed trench
bottom and, when adequately compacted, will create a firm uniform formation on which to place
the pipe bedding material.

Branch drain

A pipeline installed to discharge into a junction on another pipeline or at a point of access such as
an access junction, inspection chamber or manhole.

Branch vent

A ventilating pipe connected to one or more branch drains.

Cesspit

A pit formed of concrete or brickwork in which sewage is allowed to collect. The pit will be
periodically emptied using purpose-made hydraulic equipment.

Crown

Highest point of the external surface of a pipe at any cross section.


Deep manhole

A manhole of such depth that an access shaft is required in addition to the working chamber.

Drop-pipe connection

A vertical connection to or near to the invert level of a manhole from a sewer or drain at a higher
level.

Flexible pipe

Pipe that deforms to a significant extent before collapse, e.g. plastic.

Flexible pipeline of rigid pipes

A line of rigid pipes with flexible joints.

Formation

The finished level of the excavation at the bottom of a shaft, trench or heading, prepared to
receive the permanent work, such as the pipe bedding.

Foul Water

Water discharged after being used in households or in a process. Wastewater is now the
international definition.

Inspection chamber

A covered chamber constructed on a drain or sewer to provide access from the ground surface for
inspecting, testing or the clearance and removal of obstructions, and usually situated in areas
subjected to light loading only.

Invert

The lowest point of the internal surface of a drain, sewer or channel at any cross section.

Inverted siphon
A portion of a pipeline or other conduit in which sewage flows under pressure due to the soffit of
the sewer dropping below the hydraulic gradient and then rising again.

Junction

A fitting on a pipeline to receive a discharge from a branch drain.

Lamphole

A small shaft, constructed of pipes, for the purpose of lowering a lamp into the sewer to facilitate
inspection and to indicate change of direction in a sewer between manholes.

Main

Either a pipe or cable—a primary distribution system, normally located beneath an adaptable area
such as a footway or service zone.

Manhole

A working chamber with cover constructed on a drain or sewer within which a person may
inspect, test or clear and remove obstructions.

Nominal size (DN)

A numerical designation of the size of a pipe, bend or branch fitting. Confusingly it may refer to
either the internal or external diameter of the pipe according to the standard for the material.

igid pipe

Pipe that fractures before significant deformation occurs, e.g. clay-ware and concrete.

Rigid pipeline

A line of rigid pipes with rigid joints. Rarely laid now but found in drain and sewer construction
prior to the 1960s.

Semi-rigid pipe
Pipe that behaves either as a rigid or flexible pipe according to diameter and thickness, e.g. fibre
(asbestos)–cement, ductile iron and steel.

Septic tank

A purifier for sewage where no sewer is available. It is a tank through which sewage flows slowly
enough for it to decompose and be purified. It is divided into two or more chambers separately by
scum boards.

Service

A pipe or cable connection from the main to the building, usually within the curtilage of that
building.

Sewage

Water-borne human, domestic and farm waste. It may include trade effluent, subsoil or surface
water.

Sewerage

A system of sewers and ancillary works to convey sewage from its point of origin to a treatment
works or the place of disposal.

Shallow manhole

A manhole of such depth that an access shaft to the chamber is unnecessary.

Soffit

The highest point of the internal surface of a pipe or conduit at any cross-section.

Stormwater

Surface water from heavy rainfall combined with wastewater diverted from a sewer by a
stormwater overflow.

Storm overflow
A device, on a combined or partially separate sewerage system, introduced for the purpose of
relieving the system of flows in excess of a selected rate. The size of the sewers downstream of
the overflow can thus be kept within economical limits or the flow to a sewage treatment works
limited, the excess flow being discharged to a convenient watercourse.

Surface water

Water that flows over, or rests on, the surface of buildings, other structures or the ground.

Trade effluent

The fluid discharge, with or without matters in suspension, resulting wholly or in part from any

Special Construction of Sewer Sanitary Pipe


System -Methods and Considerations
There are certain conditions that may be encountered during sewer sanitary pipe system
construction. Construction consideration in these conditions, such as shown in Figure-1 and
Figure-2 where sanitary sewer crossing waterway does not fall into standard construction cases
and they need to be accounted for specifically.

In this article, various special construction of sewer sanitary system will be discussed.

Fig.1: Sanitary Sewer Pipe Crossing Underwater, The South Platte River, USA
Fig.2: Arial Crossing of Sanitary Sewer Pipe Over River Water

Special Construction Methods of Sewer Sanitary Pipe


System
Special construction that might come up during sanitary sewer system construction are:

 Sanitary sewer crossing railroad


 Sanitary sewer crossing Principal Traffic Arteries

 Sanitary sewer crossing under waterway

 Sanitary sewer crossing spanning waterway

Construction of Sanitary Sewer Crossing Railroad


Occasionally, sanitary sewer system need to cross under railroad track that may be on an existing
railroad viaduct, on a raised embankment above street grade, or at street level. The construction
of sanitary sewer system in these three cases would be explained in the following sections:

Construction of Sewer Sanitary Under Viaduct Railroad Tracks


Different methods can be applied for the construction of sewer sanitary system crossing under
viaduct railroad tracks. The selection of construction technique is based on some parameters like
nature of the soil at project site, sanitary sewer location in elevation and plan in relation to
viaduct footing, size of sanitary sewer system and type of viaduct footing.

It is recommended to utilize tunneling approach provided that the distance between sanitary
sewer and viaduct footing does not create problems and the soil in the area is stable. If such
conditions are met, then the selected construction technique would be both cost effective and
safe.

However, special methods of sheeting and bracing which prevents the failure of soil beneath
viaduct footing should be considered if the aforementioned conditions are not realized.

Sewer Sanitary Construction Under Tracks on Embankment or At Street


Level

There are various methods suitable for sewer sanitary construction under track on embankments
or at street level including tunneling, boring, jacking as illustrated in Figure-3, or the combination
of these techniques. By and large, pipe casing is placed in the excavated space after that sanitary
sewer pipe is installed.

Fig.3: Pipe Jacking

If the distance between sanitary sewer pipe and rail footing is less that a sewer pipe diameter,
then aforementioned methods are not applicable and open trench construction should be
employed. This can be carried out by either introducing support to track or removing tracks until
construction process is completed.

Construction of Sanitary Sewer Crossing Principal Traffic


Arteries
Sometimes sanitary sewer system crosses highways with substantially heavy traffics. The comfort
and convenience of travelers is a main concern in this case.

So, this concern should be considered when construction method is selected. The most preferable
construction method for such condition involves jacking and tunneling.

However, streets with low traffics can be closed until the construction process is completed. It is
possible to permit restricted traffics according to the width of the trench; deck can be used for
medium to narrow trenches whereas momentary piling for the end support would be required if
the trench width is greater than 6.7m.

Construction of Sanitary Sewer Crossing Under Waterway


Sewer sanitary system crossing under waterway can be constructed in dry condition using
diversion channels or cofferdams or subaqueously.
Fig.4: Subaqueous Installation of Sewer Pipes

Trench excavation and sewer pipe installation can be carried out using barges and jointing
between pipes is commonly performed by divers. Ball jointing is assumed to be an efficient type
which can be used underwater.

If the depth of river crossing is not high, then soil embankment can be built and half of the sewer
sanitary system is constructed at a time. In this case, construction process must be planned
properly. The completed portion of the system shall withstand loads imposed due to overtopping
water.

Concrete encasement with minimum 9m intervals is advised to be provided along, if it is found to


be necessary with joint installation and it should coincide with sewer pipe joints.

Bags of dry batched mixed concrete commonly employed for construction of bulkheads in
subaqueous concrete placement is occasionally placed and graded and sewer pipes are fixed on
them.

Finally, sewer pipes installed under river water is shielded against erosion and hanging boat
anchor by providing a layer of rip rap to the pipe.

Fig.5: Half of the river was diverted at a time so the pipe could be constructed and
encased in concrete
Fig.6: Installation of sanitary sewer pipe across a river, earth embankment constructed
to dry the area and construct portion of sanitary sewer at a time

Construction of Sanitary Sewer Crossing Spanning


Waterway
There are several methods by which sanitary sewer pipes are spanned across waterway, for
example, hanging and fastening pipes to structural supports and construction of sewer pipe
beams.

If the width of waterway is not wide, then manholes or other supporting structure would be
installed on either side of the river and the pipe would be fixed on these supports.

However, if the width is considerably wide, then it would be necessary to provide intermediate
support to have safe spanning of sewer sanitary pipes.

Fig.7: Aerial crossing of pipes, supports are placed on either side of the river since the
width is not so wide
Fig.8: Sanitary Sewer Pipe

Spanning Across a River

Fig.9: Sanitary Sewer Pipe Fixed on Structural Support

Direct Design of Concrete Pipes for Sewer


Sanitary
There are three methods for the design of concrete pipes for use in sewer sanitary. Direct design
of method of concrete pipes, its applicability and criteria are discussed.

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Forget lack of confidence

Generally, there are three major approaches including standard installation direct design,
standard installation indirect design, and Marston-Spangler Theory of Loads and Supporting
Strength that can be used for the structural design of rigid pipe sewer sanitary system.

Certain methods are only employed for specific pipe materials while other approaches could be
used for almost all pipe materials.

In this article, direct design of sewer sanitary concrete pipe will be discussed briefly.
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Fig.1: Reinforced Concrete Pipe

Fig.2: Reinforced Concrete Sewer Pipe

Requirements for Design of Concrete Pipes


There are several criteria that required to be determined so as to be able to design the concrete
pipe.

For instance, the intension of the pipe utilization, inside diameter of the pipe, needed pipeline
plan and profile drawings with placement cross sections, design the height of backfill material
above the pipe, type of cement if it is different from pipe joint performance requirements, crack
width control criteria, design live and surcharge loading if present, permissible standard
installation type according to ASCE standard 15-38, soil data adequate to specify overfill weight
per volume and in situ situations for permissible ASCE standard installation, and finally design
internal hydrostatic pressure intermittently.

Direct Design of Sewer Sanitary Concrete Pipe


It is one of the techniques that can be utilized for the design of reinforced concrete sewer sanitary
pipe only. Standard Practice for Direct Design of Buried Precast Concrete Pipe Using Standard
Installations (15-98) provides necessary guidance on standard design installations of reinforced
precast concrete pipe.

This method employs two standard installation namely one in trenches as shown in Figure-3 and
one in embankments which can be seen in Figure-4, in addition to requirements of soil
classification and compaction requirements for four soil types. All of these are dependent on the
interaction between pipe and soil in combination with experience, procedure, equipment, and
construction practice evaluation.

Ang unang lunas ➡

Ang lahat ng kailangan mo upan

The design of reinforced concrete pipe for a specific standard installation type is dependent on the
hypothesis that the specified design bedding and filling requirements is obtained during the
installation construction.

Soil and compaction requirements for trench installation and embankments are provided in Table-
1 and Table-2 respectively.
Table-1: Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements

Table-2: Standard Embankment Installation Soils And Minimum Compaction


Requirements

Direct design of sewer sanitary sewer pipe approach takes the interaction between soil and the
pipe into account while loads and earth pressure imposed on the pipe is computed.
Both loads and pressures will be employed to estimate not only moment and shear and thrust in
the pipe walls but also reinforcement ratio for standard installation.

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It should be said that, concrete pipe structural design is dependent on the limit state design
procedure that takes both strength and serviceability criteria into consideration.

The design of sanitary sewer pipe using standard installation direct design can be carried out
employing hand calculation, but the need to analyze several states make the application of
computer program desirable.

PIPECAR is a program that employ standard installation direct design method to design concrete
sewer sanitary pipe.

Fig.3: Standard Trench Installation of Concrete Pipe


Fig.4: Standard Embankment Installation of Concrete Pipe

How to Set Up Sewer Sanitary System Layout?


Sewer sanitary system consists of network of pipelines to carry wastewater from houses to
wastewater treatment system. Setting up layout for sewer sanitary system with procedure is
discussed.

Natatanging teknolohiya
Taba + 17cm!
Fig.1: Sewer Sanitary System Layout

Requirements for Sewer Sanitary System Layout Setup


Following are the several parameters or requirements that should be specified by the design
before setting up layout for sewer sanitary system:
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Если начнешь играть, то не сможешь остановиться! ❯

 Specify an outlet for sewer sanitary system which is based on the conditions of the project.
So, the system might discharge into pumping station, treatment plant, or trunk or main
sanitary sewer.
 Estimating tributary area.

 Positioning main sewers and trunk.

 Decide whether pumping station is required or not.

 Specify the location of the pump station, if needed.

Setting Up Sanitary Sewer System Layout


The initial layout of sewer sanitary system is set up based on the topography of the area and
related information. The slope of the sewer system is dependent on the gradient of the area as
shown in Figure-2.

The slope of the sewer system is joined by trunk or main sewers but the exact location is
influenced by number of factor such as position of utilities, type and extent of pavement that
might be encountered, availability of right of way and traffic conditions.

Fig.2: Sewer Sanitary Gradient in the Same Direction as Ground Surface or Street
Sewer system drainage district border is governed by separated area, water drainage basin,
ridgelines or high points. Sub-district boundaries located in a district is controlled by topography,
economy of sewer sanitary layout or any other practical factor that needs considered.

It should be known that, the need for main, trunk and intercepting sewer sanitary system is not
only dependent on the topographical limitations but also construction restrictions. Main, trunk and
intercepting sewer sanitary system should be positioned at a lower elevation in a specific area as
shown in Figure-3.

PAHABAIN ang ari mo nang 8 cm!


Titi pagpapalaki � ❗
Fig.3: Sanitary Sewer Main Location

Sanitary sewer system should be designed in such a way that it takes the future requirements
into consideration unless economic restriction prevents the execution of such considerations.

Regarding the location of sewer sanitary system in relation of public water supplies, almost all
codes and state standard specified certain distance between sanitary sewer mains and water
mains both horizontally and vertically.

For example, face to face horizontal distance between water mains and sewer mains should be
minimum 3m and vertical distance should be less than 0.45m, and water mains should be located
above sewer mains.

If sewer mains are close to public water supplies, then it is required to take measures into
account regarding sewer mains, such as, pressure type sewer pipe should be employed and
concrete encasement of sewer pipe should be considered.
As far as the location of manholes are concerned, they are commonly positioned at sewer sanitary
junctions, at any variations in grade, size of the sewer pipe as shown in Figure-4, alignments
apart from curved alignment and at locations which are provided to offer access to sanitary sewer
system for maintenance and emergency purposes as can be observed in Figure-5.

Fig.4: Provision of Manholes for Sewer Sanitary System due to Changes in Pipe Sizes

Ang lahat ng kailangan mo upan


Titi pagpapalaki � ❗
Fig.5: Provision of Manhole for Maintenance, Inspection and Emergency Purposes

There are recommendations regarding manhole intervals which can be considered for the
determination of manhole positions while sewer sanitary system is established. These
recommendation is based on the diameter of the sewer pipe. For instance, 120m and 150m
spacing can be adopted for sewer pipe diameter of 37.5cm and 75cm respectively and larger
spacing can be employed for greater pipe diameter.

This trend of adopting greater spacing cannot be used based on sewer size only because the
ability of available cleaning equipment should also be considered and cleaning crew should be
consulted in this regard.

Another consideration about manhole placement determination is the prevention of manhole


installation at low positions otherwise excessive inflow would occur due to water flow
concentration over the top of the manhole.

This measure might lead to construction of large number of manholes. If manholes are
constructed at low locations, then it should be waterproofed and prevented against floatation.

Manholes which are not needed in the future should be placed at street right of way instead of
street intersection pavement to decrease problems while possible pavement rehabilitation is
conducted in the future.

The location of terminal manhole at the upper of sewer sanitary system should be within street
right of way to ease accessibility of manhole and sewer for emergency and maintenance reasons.
However, such manholes may be placed at street intersection pavements if necessary measures
are taken to ease manhole accessibility.

When the location of manhole is such that surface water penetration is permitted, then either the
location of the manhole should be changed or waterproofed manhole cover must be utilized.

Marston-Spangler Load Analysis Theory for


Sewer Sanitary System
Marston-Spangler theory for analysis of loads on sewer sanitary system pipe is established by
Marston and it is applicable for most of the loading conditions that may encountered in site.
Not only does this analysis approach based on the theory but also on experiments, and it is
considered to be substantially reliable but conservative.

Marston-Spangler theory for analysis of loads on sewer sanitary pipe is explored in this article.

Marston-Spangler Load Analysis Theory for Sewer


Sanitary System
Following topics regarding load analysis for sewer sanitary system is discussed:

 Marston-Spangler theory and assumptions


 Types of loading conditions

Marston-Spangler Load Analysis Theory and Assumptions


The theory states that the load on the installed sewer sanitary pipe is equal to the weight of soil
prism, which is termed as interior prism, on the pipe minus or plus the frictional shearing force
transferred to the soil over the pipe by the trench wall side or exterior soil prisms on either side of
interior prism.

The direction and magnitude of the frictional force is dependent on the settlement of the prism
over the pipe in relation to the neighboring soil prisms.

Assumptions considered in this theory is that, the computed load equal to the load developed
when maximum settlement is realized and Rankine theory is used to calculate lateral pressure
which generates shearing force between the soil prism over the pipe and adjacent soil prisms.

Finally, the general form of the equation of Marston-Spangler load analysis theory can be seen
below:

W=CwB2 ->Equation-1

Where:

W: vertical load per unit length acting on sewer pipe due to gravity soil loads
C: dimensionless coefficient that combine the influence of the height of fill to trench width ratio,
shearing force between interior prism and adjacent prisms and the direction and magnitude of
interior prism settlement in relation to the adjacent prisms for embankment conditions.

w: soil unit weight

B: sanitary sewer trench breadth

Types of Loading Conditions on Sewer Sanitary System


Even though all factors required for the analysis of all types of sewer sanitary pipe placement
conditions are included in the general form of the equation of Marston-Spangler theory, it is more
suitable to categorize the placement conditions which may be encountered in the field, derive
specific form of equations and generate graphs and tables for each type of installation condition.

Trench, Negative-projecting embankment, Positive-projecting embankment and induced trench


condition, which is a specific installation condition, are types of sewer sanitary pipe placement
methods considered while Marston-Spangler loads analysis is conducted. These are explained in
the following sections separately:

Trench Installation Condition for Sewer Pipes

Trench condition is the case where the sanitary sewer pipe is placed in nearly narrow width trench
excavated in undisturbed soil and covered with backfill materials to the original ground level as
shown in Figure-1.
Fig.1: Loads Imposed on Sewer Pipes in Trench Condition

In the trench installation method, the imposed load consists of two components which includes
the load of the prism soil directly above the pipe and the shearing forces generated due to
relative settlement of soil prism above the pipe and adjacent prisms.

The direction of the shearing force created due to the relative settlement of interior prism in
relation to the adjacent undisturbed soil is upward and consequently decrease the load of the
prism to a certain degree. As a result, the force imposed on the pipe would be equal to the soil
prism load minus shearing force.

The weight of the prism is computed according to the following formula:

Wc=CdwBd2 -> Equation-2

Where:

Wc: soil prism load

w: backfill material density


Bd: trench width at the top of the pipe

Cd: is computed according to the following equation:

Where:

: friction coefficient between interior prism and adjacent undisturbed soil

H: height of backfill material above the pipe

k: Rankine’s ratio of active lateral unit pressure to vertical unit pressure, and it can be computed
using the following expression:

Where:

: coefficient of internal friction of backfill material and it is always equal or greater


than .

It should be known that equation-2 provides total load imposed on the sanitary sewer pipe. If the
pipe is rigid, then it will support all the load calculate using equation-2.

However, if the pipe is flexible and soil on both sides of the pipe is compacted to an extent that
experience deformation under vertical load, that is smaller than the load under which the pipe
itself is deformed, then backfill material on either side of the pipe are anticipated to support a
portion of the vertical load.

So, the equation used to estimate loads on the pipe would be as follow:

Wc=Cd wBc Bd -> Equation-5

Where the Bc is the outside width of the pipe.


Finally, it is recommended to estimate the transition width of the trench because if the trench
width is wider than the transition width for any reason, then it may be required to employ
sanitary sewer pipe with greater strength.

The transition width is the trench width at which the maximum vertical load is realized and the
extra increase of trench width would not influence the load.

Positive Projecting Embankment Condition for Sewer Pipes

In the case of positive projecting embankment condition, the pipe is covered above the original
ground surface or the trench width is so large that the influence of trench wall friction does not
exist and the top of the pipe is above the original ground surface.

The load exerted on sanitary sewer pipe in positive projecting embankment condition is equal to
the weight of soil prism above the pipe plus or minus the shearing force extended from the sewer
pipe side upward into the embankment.

When adequate embankment height is available, then it is likely that shearing force would not
reach the top of the embankment but rather ends at some distance above the top of the pipe. The
location at which shearing force ends is termed as plane of equal settlement as shown in Figure-
2.

Moreover, Figure-2 illustrates different types of settlements which involves settlement of natural
ground adjacent to the pipe (sg), sewer pipe deflection (dc), settlement at the bottom of the pipe
(sf), and compression of soil columns (sm) of height (pBc) that affect the load on the positive
projecting sewer pipe.

Furthermore, if the sanitary sewer pipe is pile supported in organic soil, it would be necessary to
take down drag loads into consideration and the load imposed on the pipe is larger than that of
interior prism over the pipe.
Fig.2: Settlement which affects the Load Imposed on Positive Projecting Sanitary Sewer
Pipe

Regarding fill loads which the pipe is subjected to in positive projecting embankment condition, it
may be estimated using the following expression:

Wc=Cc wBc2 ->Equation 6

Where:

Wc: load supported by sewer sanitary pipe

w: backfill material density


Bc: outside width of the pipe

Cc: can be estimated using one of the following expressions:

If plane of equal settlement ends at a distance above the pipe, the means H>He as can be
observed in Figure-2, then the following formula is used to compute (Cc)

Otherwise, the equation provided below should be applied to estimate (Cc):

To compute (He) in equation-7, the relationship between the deflection of the sewer sanitary pipe
and relative settlement between interior soil prism and neighboring soil prisms should be
considered. This relationship is called settlement ratio and may be evaluated as follow:

Settlement ration design values have been established and advised to employ. These values can
be found in Table-1.

Table-1: Design Value for Settlement Ratio


Sanitary sewer pipe type Soil condition Settlement ratio, rsd

Rigid Rock or unyielding foundation +1

Rigid Ordinary foundation +0.5 to +0.8

Rigid Yielding foundation 0 to +0.5

Rigid Negative projecting installation -0.3 to +0.5

Flexible Poorly compacted fills on either side of -0.4 to 0


pipe

Well compacted fill on either side of the


Flexible 0
pipe

The fill load exerted on the positive projecting pipe is affected by the multiplication of settlement
ratio (rsd) times projection ratio (p). The projection ratio is equal to the vertical distance that the
sanitary sewer pipe projects above the original ground surface divided by outside vertical height
of the pipe (Bc‘).

The value of (Cc) can be estimated for different values [(H/Bc) rsd] and projection ratio (p) using
Figure-3. It can be noticed that curved lines represent complete trench condition and projection
condition whereas straight lines represent incomplete trench condition and projection condition.

If the plane of equal settlement is located above the embankment, then the installation is termed
as complete trench condition or complete projection condition according to the direction of the
shearing force.

However, If the plane of equal settlement is within embankment as shown in Figure-2, then the
installation is incomplete trench condition or incomplete projection condition.
Fig.3: Determination of Cc Coefficient for Positive Projecting Sewer Pipes

Negative Projecting Embankment Condition for Sewer Pipes

In the case of negative embankment condition, the pipe is placed in a trench which is narrow
compared with pipe size and trench depth. In this installation condition, the top of the pipe is
below the original ground surface and the fill material over the pipe exceeds the original ground
level surface as shown in Figure-4.
Fig.4: Load on Negative Projection Sewer Pipes and Different Types of Settlement

When interior soil prism over the pipe experiences settlement, an upward shearing force is
created which decrease the load imposed on the pipe. As the backfill material compressibility and
negative projection ratio increases, the interior soil prism settlement increases.

That is why materials such as sawdust and other material with similar property are frequently
added to the soil directly above the sanitary sewer pipe to increase interior prism settlement.

The load of fill material on the negative projecting sewer pipe is calculated using the following
formula:

Wc=Cn wBd2 -> Equation-10


When the material inside sub-trench is compacted adequately, then equation-10 would be
expressed as follow:

Wc=Cn wBd Bd‘ -> Equation-11

Where:

Wc: load on the pipe

w: backfill material density

Bd: trench breadth

Bd‘: average of trench width and outside diameter of the pipe

Cn: can be estimated using one of the following expressions:

If H>He as shown in Figure-4, then the following formula is used to compute (Cn)

Otherwise, the equation provided below should be applied to estimate (Cn):

Similar to the positive projecting condition, it is required to specify the relationship between pipe
deflection and relative settlement between interior prism and exterior prisms so as to evaluate
(He). the relationship that is called settlement ratio is expressed as follow:

Where:
sd: the compression within the fill for the height of (p’Bd), where p’ negative projection ratio which
is equal to the vertical distance from the top of the pipe to the original ground surface at the time
of installation divided by trench width.

If the natural ground surface is not levelled, then it is required to consider average vertical
distance from the top of sanitary sewer pipe to the both side of the trench

Finally, table-1 provides recommended design values for settlement ratio for negative projecting
condition. The value of (Cn) can be estimated for different values (rsd) and projection ratio (p)
value of 0.5, 1. 1.5, and 2. Values falling between the provided projection ratio (p) should be
found by interpolation.

Fig.5: Cn values for Negative Projecting Condition Sewer Pipes


Induced Trench Condition for Sewer Pipes

As can be noticed from the Figure-5, induced trench sewer pipe is initially placed as positive
projecting sewer pipe. After that, an embankment, which is extended to a certain height above
the ground surface is constructed over the pipe and properly compacted.

Then, a trench is dug over the sewer pipe as shown in Figure-5, and filled with compressible
material. Finally. The remaining part of the embankment is completed.

The load on induced trench sewer pipe is estimated as follows:

Wc=Cn wBc2 -> Equation-15

Where:

Bc: is the width of infill which is the same as the width of the pipe

Cn: the same procedure used in the negative projecting condition is employed to estimate this
coefficient.
Fig.6: Induced Trench Sewer Pipe

Design and Construction of Flexible Sewer


Sanitary Pipes
There are various types of flexible pipes used in of sewer sanitary system such as ductile iron
pipe, acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene composite pipe and ABS solid wall pipe, polyvinyl chloride
pipe, polyethylene pipe, fiberglass reinforced plastic, reinforced plastic mortar pipe and coated
corrugated metal pipe.

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Titi pagpapalaki

A generic method for the design of flexible sewer sanitary system is discussed.

Flexible Sewer Sanitary Pipe Design


The capacity of flexible pipe to carry imposed loads is composed of pipe strength and passive soil
resistance when the pipe is deformed laterally against the backfill materials and vertically.

So, compaction of backfill material on either side of the pipe would affect the performance of the
pipe in the future. Flexile pipes fail due to considerable deflection, collapse, buckling,
delamination and cracking.
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GUSTO PA NG HIGIT?

Usually, the defection of flexible pipe measures the performance of the pipe and it is utilized as a
base for the design. The allowable deflection of the pipe is based on not only the project
limitations but also on the pipe material properties.

Pipe manufacturers usually provide empirical data regarding the long-term deflection of the pipe
in various placement conditions.

If such data is not available, then the long-term deflection of flexible sewer sanitary pipe can be
computed by employing the Modified Iowa expression:

Where:

: horizontal deflection of the pipe, mm

DL: deflection lag factor

Limitado ang alok!


Atlant gel

Kb: bedding factor

Wc: load, N/m

r: mean radius of flexible pipe, mm

E: modulus of tensile elasticity, N/m2

I: moment of inertia per length, in mm2/mm

E: modulus of soil reaction, N/mm2


If the deflection of the flexible pipe is smaller, then horizontal deflection estimated using
equation-1 is nearly equal to the vertical deflection. However, this is not the case if the ratio of
pipe stiffness to soil stiffness is low.

When the flexible pipe is encased with concrete, the pipe manufacturer recommendation should
be considered and the concrete encasement should be designed to carry to the entire vertical load
otherwise the concrete encasement should be prevented.

The passive resistance of soil which greatly influence the deflection of the pipe is expressed as
modulus of soil reaction. It is related to the type of soil and its degree of compaction.

The US Bureau of Reclamation have established a relationship between soil reaction modulus,
type of bedding material and the degree of compaction of bedding. Soil reaction modulus values
which may be used in the equation-1 are recommended and provided in Table-1 and soil
classification along with typical soil names and symbols can be found in Table-2.

Table-1: Average values of modulus of soil reaction (E’) for initial flexible
pipe deflection
Table-2: Soil Classification
Soil class Typical names Group symbol Comments

I Crushed stone Angular, 6-40mm

II Well-graded gravels GW

GP
Poorly graded gravels

SW
Well-graded sands
Poorly graded sands SP

Silty gravels GM

Clayey gravels GC

III
Silty sands SM

Clayey sands SC

Inorganic silts MH, ML


Not recommended for
IV bedding, haunching or initial
Inorganic clays CH, CL backfill

Organic silts and clays OL, OH


V
Peat PT

As far as deflection lag factor is concerned, it is a rectification factor for time soil consolidation
properties that may allow the deformation of flexible sewer pipe for a while after pipe placement.
The lighter the degree of compaction the greater the deflection lag factor.

If the fill material on both sides of the pipe is compacted adequately, the initial deflation would be
small and consequently the deflection lag factor would be larger. The recommended deflection lag
factor ranges from 1.25 to 1.5.

Regarding bedding requirements for flexible sewer pipe installation, it is dependent on the
breadth of sewer sanitary pipe bedding and recommended values for bedding constant can be
seen Table-3.

Table-3: Values of Bedding Factor


Bedding angle, in degrees Bedding factor,

0 0.11

30 0.108

45 0.105

60 0.102
90 0.096

120 0.090

180 0.083

The stiffness factor (EI) in equation-1 represent the influence of sewer sanitary pipe inherent
stiffness on deflection and the effect of passive pressure on the sides of sewer sanitary pipe is
represented in the equation-1 by the term 0.061E’.

One should be aware that the soil reaction modulus values provided in Table-1 are average and
hence there are fifty percent chance that calculated deflection is smaller than the actual
deflection. So, it is recommended to use 75% of the values provided in Table-1 to compute
maximum deflection.

It is mandatory to practice great care during bedding and initial backfill because the ability of the
pipe to maintain its original shape and integrity are dependent on the determination, placement,
and compaction of the soil around the sanitary sewer pipe.

It is recommended to choose cohesionless or granular material as a backfill material because it


provides satisfactory shear property. In contrary, cohesive material should be prevented since it
cannot be compacted properly due to space restrictions.

The occurrence of ground water table changes at soil-pipe envelope should be avoided, because it
leads to fine grain soil movement into the granular material and probably sidewall supports would
be endangered and possibly lost.

Loads on Flexible Plastic Pipe

Conservatively, the load on flexible pipes may be assumed to be the entire load of the prism over
the pipe and the following equation can be used to compute it:

Wd=HwBc -> Equation-2

The above design method for flexible sewer sanitary pipe is a general method. Different flexible
pipes have different specific properties. Therefore, each flexible pipe type may require more
design details which should be considered for the pipe under considerations.
So, design procedure for each sewer sanitary pipe type will be provided briefly in the following
sections:

Design of Thermoplastic Flexible Sewer Pipes


There are three types of thermoplastic pipes namely ABS, PE, and PVC which are all influenced by
temperature. Low temperature would increase thermoplastic pipe stiffness and brittleness as well
but high temperature declines rigidity of the pipe and increase the resistance against impacts.

Another factor to be considered is the pipe stress cracking due to concentrated oxidizing agents,
organic chemicals, and oils, fats, and waxes.

Therefore, thermoplastic pipes should be handled properly in low temperature environment and
its applications may be reviewed when chemical concentration is high.

Thermoplastic Pipe Stiffness

Pipe stiffness may be estimated using parallel plate loading test. The following equation is used to
calculate pipe stiffness:

Where:

F: force per unit length

: pipe deflection

E: elastic modulus

r: mean pipe radius

I=t3?12 ->Equation-4

Where: t is the pipe thickness


Pipe stiffness factor (SF), which is plugged into equation-1 to compute field deflection under earth
load, may be calculated using the following expression:

Thermoplastic Pipe Analysis Methods

In the analysis of thermoplastic pipes, it is necessary to examine and check values that involve
pipe deflection, pipe stiffness, hydrostatic wall buckling, wall crushing strength, wall strain
cracking and ring buckling strength.

Reinforced Thermosetting Resin or Fiberglass Pipe


It is designed according to the American National Standards Institute. The basis of the design is
that the pipe behavior conduit under internal pressure and external loading is like flexible.

There are certain conditions that should be specified prior to the structural design computations.

These conditions include pipe size, surge pressure, working pressure, soil conditions, pipe lying
conditions, cover depth, vehicular traffic load.

Methods of Setting Line and Grade in


Construction of Sewer Sanitary System
There are four techniques used to set grade and line in the construction of sanitary sewer system.
One of these methods or combination thereof may be used in the construction. These methods
are discussed in the following sections.

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Fig.1: Sanitary Sewer Line and Grade

Methods of Setting Line and Grade in Construction of


Sewer Sanitary System
1. Stakes or crosses installed on the surface on an offset from the centerline of sewer sanitary
2. Stakes are installed in the bottom of the trench on the sanitary sewer line as the rough
grade for the sanitary sewer is completed

3. Elevations given for the finished trench grade and sanitary sewer invert while sanitary
sewer construction progresses

4. A laser beam of light set in the manhole or a specified height above sanitary sewer flow line

1. Stakes or crosses installed on the surface on an offset from the


centerline of sewer sanitary
By and large, this technique is suitable for small diameter sewer sanitary system. Practically,
crosses, stakes, or spikes are placed at a uniform offset from sewer sanitary centerline. The
excavated soil material should at one side of the sewer sanitary trench and the stakes should be
placed at the other side.

In order to perform an accurate and satisfactory job, proper sheet shall be prepare on which
reference points of sanitary sewer stations, offset, and vertical distance from each reference point
from suggested sanitary sewer invert must be recorded.

Lastly, the line and grade of sewer sanitary is transferred to the bottom of the trench using tape
and plumb bob unit or tape and level.

2. Stakes are installed in the bottom of the trench on the sanitary sewer
line as the rough grade for the sanitary sewer is completed

This technique is suitable for large diameter sanitary sewer and for the sloped trench wall. In the
latter case, the top width of the trench would be considerably wide, and the utilization of short
offset would not be an option.

In this method, surface references are transferred to the stakes that placed at the bottom of
trench along sanitary sewer system. When stakes are installed at the trench bottom, string line
need to be drawn between at least three points. The string line should be checked similar to the
manner employed for batter boards.

3. Elevations given for the finished trench grade and sanitary sewer
invert while sanitary sewer construction progresses

This method is suitable for sanitary sewer system with large diameter. The line and grade for
each pipe length should be set using a transit and level at either the top or inside a completed
conduit.

When large diameter sewer sanitary is constructed in an open trench, it is possible to install both
line and grade close to or at the bottom of the trench.
4. A laser beam of light set in the manhole or a specified height above
sanitary sewer flow line

This method can be used to set the line and grade if all sizes of sanitary sewer system. In this
technique, a laser device, which directs a thin laser beam along sewer sanitary pipe centerline, is
used.

The device is installed in the invert of the manhole and adjusted horizontally. A required slope will
be established through laser device adjustment and then lunching the laser beam.

It is required to check whether the required slope is achieved by the light beam or not by
checking elevation at a distance of 30m from the manhole. When a laser device is used, one
should be aware that it is influenced by temperature.

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