CHAPTER 1 - Introduction to Computer Science and Information

Technology

Chapter Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the learner will be able to:
 Recognize the relationship and difference between Information Technology, computer
science.
 Conceptualize the terms data, information and data processing.
 identify components of Information Technology
 Describe the history of computers.
 Identify different types of computers

Introduction
The goal of this chapter is to familiarize the learner with the disciplines of computer science,
Information Technology. Data, information and the relation ship between the two will also be
covered in the chapter. In this chapter we will also see history and generations of computer.

1.1 Computer Science Vs. Information Technology

Section Objectives:
After completing this section, students should be able to:
o describe the differences and similarities between computer science and Information
Technology
o identify components of Information Technology
o discuss characteristics of computers

What is Computer Science?

Computer Science is a science concerned with information, that is, representation, storage,
manipulation or processing and presentation of information. Like any other science, which uses
different devices and lab equipment, Computer Science uses a special device called COMPUTER.

Computer science has different fields of specialization or sub-disciplines. Some of the sub
disciplines include:

Software engineering: Concerned with how to use and apply scientific and basic
engineering principles to solve problems faced by programmers and to select the best way
so that to produce high quality software or program.

Computer engineering (Architecture): deals with studying, analyzing and designing of

computer hardware (organization and interconnection of computer system components)
and its working principle.

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 Artificial Intelligence: important and recent sub-discipline concerned with how to design
and program machine to solve problems or carried out tasks that appear to require human
imagination or intelligence.

What is Information Technology?

Information Technology is the use of modern technology to aid the capture, processing, storage
and retrieval, and communication of information, whether in the form of numerical data, text,
sound, or image. It can also be defined as the study of information handling and its use in society
by means of modern technology. This includes the acquisition, processing, storage and
communication of information in any form by appropriate means. It is more about the use of
computers to solve human/business problems. You study some programming, databases,
applications, etc.

Components of Information Technology

Information technology has three primary components. These are
A. Computers,
B. Communications networks, and
C. Know-how.

Activity 1:
Do you think that there is similarity /difference between computer science and Information
technology? Explain your reason.

A. Computers
Any calculating device or machine, which is electronic, mechanical or electromechanical can be
called a Computer.. But that doesn’t mean that computers perform only calculation. The name
computer comes from a Latin word computre, meaning “to reckon” or “to compute” and can be
applied to abacus or any adding machine as to the modern computer. However, the term
“Computer” has come to mean a special electronic device having certain definite characteristics.

Characteristics of Computers
The characteristics of a computer show the capabilities and the potentials of the computer for
processing data. Computers have five basic characteristics:

Speed - The most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computers perform their
operations step by step. Their speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry
out a basic operation. Computer speed measured in terms of microsecond (10-6 one millionths),
nanosecond (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10-12 one trillionths).

Storage - You can imagine how much space data of a census on papers need. Not only the space,
also the time it took to get or retrieve specific information from such vast amount of data is not
negligible. But a computer can store such amount of information in a few numbers of disks. And

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the time it took to retrieve or process single information is not more than a micro or nanoseconds.
In general a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of information in organized
manner so that accessing information is very fast.

Accuracy - Nowadays computers are being used for surgical purposes, which need almost a
hundred percent accuracy. From this we can understand that computers are accurate and consistent.
Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program the computer processes with a very
high accuracy.

Automatic - Once necessary information and program is fed, the computer performs processing
without human intervention.

Versatility - Computers have the potential to perform or solve varieties of tasks and problems, as
long as the problem or the task can be put or reduced in the form of logical steps.

B. Communications Network
An integral part of Information Technology is the ability to communicate: to send and receive data
and information over a communication network. A communications network is the connection of
stations at different locations through a medium that enables people to send and receive data and
information. Telephone wires and cables are common communication media.

C. Know-how
Although computers and data communication are very important parts of Information Technology,
an equally critical part of Information Technology is the ability to draw on the power of
Information Technology to solve problems and to take advantages of the opportunities it creates.
Therefore, Information Technology requires or implies know-how, knowing how to do something
well.

Know- how includes

 Familiarity with the tools of Information Technology
 The skills needed to use these tools
 Understanding when to use Information Technology to solve a problem

Activity:
Can you show the usefulness of Information Technology for business organizations using
examples?

1.2 Data and Information

What is data?
There is a difference between the terms data and information. Data is an individual fact /multiple
facts, or a value/a set of values, but is not significant to a business in itself. For example, the
following are values with structure but they aren't useful to anyone until given context:
February 15, 1993
D13193
Data values without business context

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Giving data context, or meaning, turns it into information. Without this context the data is
useless to the business.
For example, the above numbers are more useful with the added context:

Business context Data value

What is the date of the meeting about the fee increases? February 15, 1993
What was the license plate number of the car that hit you? D13193

Formal definition:
a) Data are raw facts or figures.
b) Data is the product of symbols or representations of an event (e.g. buying book) or
facts about the world (e.g. number of continents), like number, letter, pictures, lines,
graphs, etc
c) Data is representation of facts or figures obtained from experiments or surveys, used as
basis for making calculations or drawing conclusions.

In and of itself, data has no meaning. If I count the number of cars that stop at a stop sign per hour
for a week, that's data. It may be useful or not, depending on the context. It has no meaning until
it is placed in a context. It is like an event out of context, without a meaningful relation to other
things. It doesn't have a meaning of itself and simply it exists and has no significance beyond its
existence.
If we are given a certain data, we can associate it to different things and give it different meanings.
Example: If we take number "5", it can be associated with:
 Cardinal number and has one meaning, and
 A number greater than 4 and less than 6 with another meaning
Therefore: Data without a context has no meaning. But this doesn't mean that data are useless.
They are the elements that are inputted, stored and manipulated by the computer. The validity of
a data (how far they reflect the reality or represent the real world) is very important. They are
valid as far as they accurately represent the real world.

Information

Definition:
a) Information is data with context. Therefore, information is context dependent.
b) Information is data that has been given a meaning by way of relational connection. This
relational connection converts data in to information. In computer system, for instance,
a relational database makes information from the data stored within it.

When does data become information?

When a whole lot of data, which is related to one subject, put together, it yields information. E.g.
Take a telephone book, it is developed by bringing different data together (Name, Address and
Telephone number). In other words:
Sets of data + relational connection among data sets = information
Let's say I want to buy a car. I can collect a lot of data about makes of cars, performance ratings,
prices and so on. Once I do that, I have a lot of information about cars and the car market. Unless

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we think of this collection of data and put it in context (car/car market), it has no meaning.What
we perceive or understand is the relationship between pieces of data, or between pieces of data
and other information.
Therefore,
Data + understanding of relationship = information
Examples:
 The temperature dropped to 15 degrees and then it started raining. The data are:
o 15 degrees, and
o It is raining
 If we put data on people's smoking habits together with data on lung cancer, we can
produce information about the risk of smoking.

It is the cause and effect relationship between the two that provides information.

Activity:

Give some examples of data and show how the data is converted (processed) to become
information.

1.3 History and Development of Computers

Objective:

At the end of this section the learner will be able to:

 state and explain each of the generations of computer.

 identify the different technological advancements of computers

Introduction:

The history of digital computers start in the 1940s where the first electronic general purpose
digital computer was manufactured at the University of Pennsylvania by two American
scientists. The name of this computer was ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer). Even though, this machine has several drawbacks its invention was a great break
through to the computer industry. Ever since then the industry has shown a very big
advancement in different aspects.

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations
of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, and more powerful, and more efficient and reliable devices. Each generation and
the developments that led to the current devices that we use today are discussed below.

1.4.1 Generations of computers

I First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

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The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often huge, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using
a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First
generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve
one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed
on printouts.

The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) and ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer). are examples of first-generation computing devices. ENIAC had a mean breakdown
interval of 12 minutes. Moreover, it weighs 30 tones and covers 20,000 square feet of area. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau
in 1951.

II Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The
transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though
the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a
vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched
cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages,

which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages
were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

III Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the characteristic of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors. It is in this generation that users started to interact to the computer through
operating systems. This allowed the computer to run many different applications at one time with
a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a
mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

IV Fourth Generation – 1971 - Present: Microprocessors

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The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now
fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of
the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single
chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

V Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Activity 4

Can you identify the main differences between the different generations of computers?

1.4 Types of Computers

Section Objectives:
After completing this section the learner should be able to:
 Identify the criteria used to categorize computers
 Explain the different types of computers and their differences

As discussed in the previous section any computing device can be called a computer. Considering
this definition, computers can be classified into different categories based on different
characteristics.

1. Based on type of data they process

Based on the type of data they process computers can be classified as:

Analog
Analog computers operate by measuring physical properties. They deal with continuous
variables; they don’t compute directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring
physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples: Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer

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Digital
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than
measuring. They operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters,
or other special symbols.
Examples: Abacus, Desk & pocket calculators, general purpose computers

Hybrid
Hybrid computers inherit the best features of both analog and digital computers. Usually
the Input is continuous data (analog). Since Digital Processing is more accurate, processing
takes place digitally. The processed information – the output – could be either digital or
analog, depending on the user preference or the type of application.
Examples: digital camera, health monitoring machines in some hospitals,

2. Based on Size and Capacity

Size and capacity are also the other characteristics of computers that can be used to categorize
computers. Based on this characteristics computers can be classified as:

Super computer
The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely powerful
computer designed for high-speed processing. A supercomputer is generally characterized
as being the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer.
Generally, Supercomputers are:
• The largest and the most efficient computers
• Very expensive
• very fast and
• Supports hundreds of users at different locations

Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros
and minis and usually have processors with faster instruction processing speeds. For
example, they may be able to process from 10 to 200 million instructions per second
(MIPS). Mainframe computers also support multiple users and are expensive.

Minicomputer
Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than most
microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer systems.
Minicomputers are being used for a large number of business and scientific applications.
They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research centers, universities and
colleges, engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control, etc.

Microcomputers
The smallest computers ever produced in the history of computers are microcomputers.
Since they are designed to be used by a single user, they have the least capacity as
compared to the other types of computers. They are also the least expensive of all types.

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 There two different types of microcomputers are desktop computers and portable
computers (laptops, notebook computers and palmtops)

Activity:

Compare and contrast each type of computer based on their size speed, and cost.

CHAPTER 2 - Information Systems

Chapter Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

 Define information system

 Define data processing
 Define computer systems and its components
 Identify and give examples of categories of computer hardware
 Identify types of software and differentiate between software and hardware

2.1 Introduction
System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a
coordinated fashion to achieve a common objective.

Information system is an organized combination of people, hardware, software, communications

networks and a data resource that collects, transforms, and disseminates information in an
organization. People rely on information systems to communicate with each other using a variety
of physical devices (hardware), information processing instructions (software), and
communication channels (network). In general, an information system has five major parts: people,
procedures, software, hardware, and data.

People: trained information systems personnel are required to run most information systems.

Procedure: procedures are rules or guidelines for people to follow when using software, hardware,
and data. These procedures are documented in manuals written by computer specialists. Software
and hardware manufacturers provide manuals with their products.

Software: software consists of step by step instructions that tell the computer how to do its work.
The purpose of software is to convert data (unprocessed fact) into information (processed facts).

Hardware: is physical part of the computer that processes data to create information based on
instructions of software. It is controlled by the software.

Data: data consists of raw, unprocessed facts, including text, numbers, images, sounds, etc. When
it is processed using computers, it becomes information.

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Data processing
Data processing is any computer process that converts data into information. The processing is
usually assumed to be automated and running on a computer. Because data are most useful when
well-presented and actually informative, data-processing systems are often referred to as
information systems to emphasize their practicality. Nevertheless, both terms are roughly
synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate raw
data into information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce
information as output.

2.2 Computer System

Section Objectives
After successful completion of this section students shall be able to:
o describe components of computer systems
o identify computer hardware based on their function
o identify computer software and their category

A computer system is the combination of hardware and software. A typical computer system
utilizes a computer that uses programmable devices to store, retrieve, and process data. The
personal computer or PC is an example of a computer system. An Automatic Teller Machine
(ATM1) is another example of a computer system. Even the simplest computer classifies as a
computer system, because at least two components (hardware and software) have to work together.
But the real meaning of "computer system" comes with interconnection. Many computer systems
can interconnect, that is, join to become a bigger system.

Computer – is an electronic device that accepts, stores and processes data to

provide useful information as an output.

Generally, a computer system is composed of two main components:

 Computer hardware and
 Computer software

Activity 1:
Can you describe the basic components of Information Systems?

2.2.1 Computer Hardware

Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer system that can be seen and felt. The
hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacted physical parts. E.g.
keyboard, mouse, CPU

1 Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) are machines that allow bank account holders to make financial
transactions automatically without going to banks by making use of a card that contains details of the
account.

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2.2.1.1 Types of Computer Hardware
The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting physical parts based
on the need of the information flow. Information flows in the computer hardware. There are several
criteria by which computer hardware can be categorized. Based on information processing, we can
divide computer hardware into four:

1) Input Devices
2) Storage Devices
3) Output Devices
4) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2.2.1.1.1 Input Devices

Input devices are used to enter information into computer. They convert the data we give them into
the form that can be manipulated in the computer (electronic format).

Keyboard
Keyboard is an input device consisting of a set of typewriter-like keys that enable one to enter data
into a computer. The keys on the keyboard are often classified as follows
 Alphanumeric keys - Letters and numbers
 Punctuation keys - comma, period, semicolon, etc.
 Special keys- function keys, control keys, arrow keys, caps lock, etc.

In detail the following are descriptions of the keys of keyboard.

Escape key - Generally used to abort system actions.

Function keys – their function varies from program to program. For example F1 is used to get
help most of the times
Enter key - used to enter commands or to return to the beginning of new lines in a document.
Backspace key - used to move the cursor backwards, deleting a character backward.
Delete keys - used to delete characters to the right.
Tab key - used to move the insertion point forward.
Caps lock key – used to write small or capital letters.
Shift key - used to produce upper case or lower case letters and to insert the upper character if
the key has two characters.
Control (Ctrl) key & Alt key - commonly used in combination with other keys to enter
commands example ctrl + P in Microsoft Word opens the print dialog box.
Insert key - used to toggle between insert and overwrite modes of typing.

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Arrow keys - used to move the cursor2 around the display screen.
Num lock keys - used to activate/deactivate the numeric keypad3.
Print screen keys - used to print the contents of the screen.

The arrangement of the keys on the keyboard may differ. The most common in English- speaking
countries is the QWERTY keyboard. It is called QWERTY keyboard because the first five keys
on the top row of letters spell Q, W, E, R, T, and Y. The arrangement of keys in this case is based
on typewriter (alphabets and punctuation) and calculator (numeric pad). This is to make data entry
easy.

The other type of keyboard layout is the DVORAK Keyboard. In this layout, the most commonly
used letters are placed in the most accessible places. The home keys are the five English vowel
letters A, O, E, U, I (for the left hand) & the five most often used consonants (D, H, T, N, S) are
the home keys for the right hand. The next most frequently used letters are on the keys one row
up, the next easier position to reach.

Mouse
Mouse is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display
screen. It is a small object that can be rolled along a rough flat surface.

Mouse can have as many as three buttons whose function depends on what program is running:
– Left-button: for left click. Example, selecting text
– Right-button: for right click. Example, see property of file
– Middle button: for scrolling purpose. This button is sometimes missing.

Most mice are connected to the system unit by a cable or cord. There are also mouse that are not
connected to system unit by a cable/cord. They are called cordless mouse (wireless mouse). They
communicate with system unit using infrared light, similar technology used in remote controls, or
radio waves. Mouse has roller ball at the bottom. The roller ball converts mouse movements into
electronic signals.

Optical Recognition Systems

Optical recognition system uses light to read characters, codes, and marks, and convert them into
computer understandable format. There many types of optical recognition systems:
 OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
 OMR (Optical Mark recognition)
 Barcode Reader
 Image scanner

I) Optical Character Recognizers (OCR)

OCR are scanners that read typewritten, computer printed, and in some cases hand printed characters
from ordinary documents. They scan the shape of character and compare it with predefined font shapes
found in memory. Based on the comparison, they can convert the characters into computer code.

2
Cursor is a blinking symbol on the screen that indicates the place where the next character typed appears
3
numeric keypad is the set of numeric keys found at the right hand side of the keyboard

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Use:
Enter documents found on paper into computer without the need to type it using keyboard. This makes
the job easy.

II) OMR
OMR senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil marks. It doesn’t utilize letters of the
alphabet. Instead, with the use of electronic scanners, marks and symbols are converted into
appropriate electronic signals. It is used to process questionnaires or exams using computer. The read
mark is interpreted and matched against previously entered answer key. Example, the ESLCE is
corrected using this device.

III) Bar Code Reader

Bar code reader is a peripheral that reads bar codes printed on products. Bar code uses a pattern
or symbols to represent data. It consists of vertical lines and spaces of different width. There are
different kinds of bar codes; the most commonly used is called UPC (Universal Product Code). It
is used to identify product manufacturer, product number, price, etc.

Barcode and Barcode reader

Use:
 Used in supermarkets, groceries etc to identify products and their price.

IV) Image Scanner

We sometimes want to use our previously taken images into computer. In such cases, we need a
device that converts the image on paper into computer format. This device is called image scanner.

Speech Recognition Systems

Speech recognition is the ability of computers to recognize human speech. We use microphone to
enter the speech into computer. The computer then processes the speech and performs the action
ordered by speech. This is the latest technology and is still under research.

Light Pen
Light pen is a light sensitive pen like device that is used in conjunction with computer monitor. It
is used by touching the screen with this device to create or modify graphics. A light cell in the tip
of the pen senses light from the screen to determine the pen’s location on the screen.

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Touch Screen
Touch screen allow you to use fingers instead of mouse or related input device. It lets you to enter
data or command (e.g. button click) by touching areas of the screen. It enables you perform
activities you perform with mouse using your finger. It is not used to enter large amounts of data.

Activity 2:

Can you identify other Input devices that can be used with computers? What common
characteristics do they have

2.2.1.2 Central Processing Unit

It is also called microprocessors or processors. A microprocessor is a semiconductor device consisting
mostly software controlled LSI (Large Scale Integrated) chip which performs the functions of automatic
data processing. Processors are not optimized to perform complex numerical calculations and other
special tasks (graphics manipulations). For this purpose specialized coprocessors which are also
called math-coprocessors have been developed to increase the processing capability of a computer
and speed up complex mathematical floating-point calculations. The coprocessors operate in parallel
with CPUs.

CPU executes instructions and performs the computer's processing activities. It is also known as
processor or microprocessor. It functions the same purpose as the human brain for human being.
It is called the brain of the computer.

One of the basic features of a computer that affects its entire performance is the CPU speed. CPU
speed is measured in Hertz (Hz). Hertz is the number of cycles per second. 1Hz=1cycle per second.
Larger units are KHz (Kilo Hertz), MHz (Mega Hertz), GHz(Giga Hertz), etc.
1 KHz = 1000 Hz
1 MHz = 1000 KHz
1 GHz = 1000MHZ

Current CPUs are as fast as 2-3GHz (2-3 billion cycles per second)

CPU has three sub-components:

 Control Unit (CU)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Memory

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 Fig Components of Central Processing Unit

The three sub components are connected by a cable like device called bus. It facilitates
communication between the parts. It is used to transfer data between these sub components.

Control Unit
As human brain controls the body, control unit controls the computer hardware. Control Unit does
not execute instruction by itself, i.e. does not carry out instruction processing, but it directs other
processing elements to execute instructions.

It retrieves instruction from memory and this process is called fetch instruction. After fetching
instruction, it translates that instruction into computer understandable format and sends signals to
other computer hardware units to carry out the instruction. This process (the process of translating
instruction) is called decoding.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The purpose of ALU is to execute instruction. It performs two operations:
 Arithmetic operation
 Logic Operation
Arithmetic operation: this includes mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc. If you give your computer the instruction 2+3, this will be included
in arithmetic operation and it is executed by Arithmetic Unit.
Logical Operation: this is concerned with the comparison of data and it is called logical operation.
It includes operators like less than, greater than, equal to, less or equal to, greater or equal to,
different from, etc. e.g. if mark>80, grade is 'A'.

Registers
When instruction is loaded from main memory into the CPU, it is placed first in registers to wait
instruction from control unit. Registers are temporary storage location for data prior to execution
in ALU. There are different types of registers. E.g. data register, program counter, address register,
etc.

Activity 3:
Can you define the function of Central processing Unit and its components?

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2.2.1.3 Output Devices
Output devices are used to get data out of a computer so that it can be examined, analyzed or
distributed to others. It converts information from machine-understandable form to a human
understandable form. The outputs are of two types: Softcopy: displayed on monitor, projector, or
similar devices and Hardcopy: printed on paper

Examples
 The Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor or screen
 Printers (dot matrix, daisy wheel, laser printers)
 Plotters
 Voice (audio) response unit
 Disk drives

Monitors
Monitor is the most frequent type of output device. It consists of a display surface called screen
which displays output to the user. Image is displayed on monitors using pattern of lighted dots.
Each of these lighted dots is called pixel a short form of picture element.

There are three types of monitor:

1) CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
3) Plasma display

CRT Monitor
CRT is similar in size and technology to televisions. It uses electron guns that emit electrons. These
electrons are directed towards phosphorous coated screen. The phosphorous coat glows (emits
light) when hit by electron from electron guns, thus creating visible things that we see. The
monitors of most desktop computers are CRT monitors. The main disadvantages of CRT monitors
are their large size and high power consumption

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors

Crystal display is most commonly used in digital watches, clocks, calculators, etc. In computers,
they are commonly used for portable computers E.g., laptops. Liquid crystal uses liquid crystal for
display purpose, not electron guns. The liquid crystal is deposited between sheets of polarizing
material which allows or blocks light to display information. Advantage over CRT: they are
smaller in size which makes it easy to transport and consumes less power which makes it suitable
for laptop.

Gas Plasma
Gas plasma substitutes neon gas for liquid crystal. The neon gas glows and produces pixels that
form picture. It is used for portable computers. Advantage: better display quality than LCD but
more expensive than LCD

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Printers

Printer is a device that enables us to produce a hardcopy of data/information. They have varying
speeds, capabilities, and printing methods. Based on the way they print, printers are divided into
two:
 Impact printers
 Non-impact printer

Impact printers
Impact printers transfer printable material onto paper by striking paper, ribbon, and character
together. Most of such printers take continuous form of paper. The most commonly used impact
printers are dot-matrix printers. The combination of small dots printed closely forms a character.
Example: Epson printers

Non-Impact Printers
They print without having a mechanism that strikes a paper. They print by spraying ink or by using
heat and pressure to fuse black powder onto paper. The various types of non-impact printer include:

Inkjet Printers - An inkjet printer sprays tiny drops of ink onto paper. The print head of such
printers contains a nozzle which has many holes. Ink is propelled by heat or pressure through the
nozzle holes and form character or image on the paper.
 Produce high quality print
 Quiet because the paper is not struck
 Heavy weight paper is recommended

Laser Printer - They work similarly to photocopying machine. They convert data from computer
into a laser beam (kind of light), why they are called laser printer. They use mirrors to direct light
onto a drum which in turn produce characters on paper. The drum is light sensitive material that
becomes charged when it is hit by light. The charged area of the drum attracts ink from toner and
the ink is transferred onto paper. A heating material heats the ink and attaches it onto the paper. It
produces high quality print.

Thermal printers - Thermal printers use heat to transfer inks from ink sheets onto printing surface.
They produce high-quality print. Because of this, they are used to produce high quality color
artwork and text. They can use plain paper but produce best result on chemically treated papers.

Plotters
Plotters are used to produce high-quality drawings such as bar charts, maps, architectural
drawings, and three-dimensional drawings.
 Can produce high quality multi-color documents
 Can print on large size papers, which most printers can’t handle.

Activity:
Can you identify any other output devices? What similarities do they have?

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2.2.1.4 Storage Devices
One of the unique features of computers is storage. Data can be stored on different storage media
temporarily or permanently. Storage devices can be categorized into to as:
 Primary storage device
 Secondary storage device

1. Primary Memory / Main Memory

Primary memory, also called Main memory, refers to integrated circuit that stores program
instructions and data. The CPU closely works with the main memory to perform its activities.
Memory stores three things:
 Operation system software instructions
 Application software instruction
 Data that is being processed

Depending on the type of information they store and the technology used, the primary memory
can be categorized into three:
RAM (Random Access Memory)
ROM (Read Only Memory)
CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
RAM
RAM is temporary storage i.e. the data is lost when the computer is off unlike secondary storage.
Because of this it is called volatile memory. Why is it volatile? It uses electric power to store data.
When you write anything on your computer, first it is stored on RAM. When you save the file, it
is transferred into secondary storage. RAM has differing capacity, the common ones being 128,
256, and 512.

It is directly accessible by CPU. It is called RAM because each memory location can be accessed
randomly using memory address. Each unit in RAM has memory address by which it can be easily
accessed/referenced.

ROM
ROM stores data and programs that are permanently required by the computer. They have
programs built into them at the factory and that program could not be changed or erased by the
user, but read. It is non-volatile, read-only (not changeable) memory. Read-only means data can't
be altered or erased but read.

ROM contains special instruction called BIOS that the computer uses when it is turned on. E.g,
instruction that starts the computer, instruction that displays information on screen, etc. The
technological advancement in ROM design has resulted in three other types of ROM:
 PROM (Programmable ROM)
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)

PROM: this kind of ROM can be written by user once. But, you can't erase or write to it more
than once; you can only read from.

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EPROM: this kinds of ROM can be written to or erased as many times as the user wants. It is
like CD-RW.

EEPROM: similar to EPROM, it can be re-written to or erased. But we use electrical power to
erase the contents here.

CMOS
CMOS contains essential information that is required when the computer is turned on. E.g. RAM
size, type of mouse, etc. It is non-volatile, but modifiable to incorporate changes. It is powered by
battery when computer is off.

2. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage (also called auxiliary storage) supplements the primary memory. It takes many
forms. It includes punched cards, punched paper tape, magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk.
Based on information access, secondary storage devices are divided into two:

 Sequential Access: information is accessed sequentially. To access information on such media,

we start from the beginning and read through to the end. Jumping to some part is not possible.
E.g. tape recorder cassette
 Random Access: information can be accessed in any order. You can access the first or the last
part of information by jumping others. E.g. floppy disk

Sequential Access Media

1) Punched Cards
Punched cards are one of the oldest and most familiar data storage devices. There are two types of
punched cards, 80 columns and 96 columns, and the first one is a standard punched card. Data is
stored on punched cards by cutting parts of the paper out and leaving other parts intact. The cut part (hole)
may represent binary 1 and the intact part represents binary 0.

2) Magnetic Tapes

During 1950s and 1960s, magnetic tape was the primary method of storing large amount of data.
Today they are used primarily for back up purposes. It consists of thin ribbon plastic called tape.
One side of the tape is coated with iron-oxide, a material that can be magnetized. By magnetizing
and demagnetizing the tape, computer stores data on it.
Disadvantage:
 Sequential access
Advantage:
 Store more data on a small area
Magnetic tapes are not used with desktop computers. However, because of their advantage,
magnetic tapes are used to take backup of data. Backup is data that is stored in a different place
than the original computer where data is used. This is to avoid the danger of data loss due to
disasters. If the original data is lost, the copy will be used.

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Random Access Storage Media

A. Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disk is the most widely used storage medium on all computers. It consists of a round piece
of plastic or metal the surface of which is covered with magnetic material. Magnetic disks offer:
 High storage capacity
 Reliability
 Fast date access during reading or writing to disk.

Magnetic disks are metals or plastic platters coated with ferrous oxide, an easily magnetically
material. They allow for random access of information and overcome the slow access time commonly
found in tape files.
Examples: floppy disk, hard disk

1) Floppy Disks. They are also called diskette. It is made up of thin Mylar plastic which is coated
with metal oxide. Data is stored as electromagnetic charges on the plastic coat. It stores data by
means of magnetizing and demagnetizing the metal oxide.

Floppy is an easily removable storage used to transport data from one computer to another. It is
used to store programs and data for a longer period outside the computer system. Often used with mini
and micro computers. Data is stored in concentric circles called tracks.

Sector and Track of a floppy disk

Each track is further divided into sectors. A sector stores the amount of information that can be read
or written in single operation. The most widely used type of floppy disks is the 5.25 inch and the 3.5
inch wide floppy disks. Each has two different storage capacity.
31/2 inch: -can store 1.44MB of data on double side high density
-can store 720kb of data on single side low density
51/4 inch: -can store 1.2MB of data on double side high density
-can store 360kb of data on single side low density

Density refers to the number of bits that can be recorded on one-inch of track.
High density: increased storage capacity
Low density: low storage capacity

Rules for handling Floppy Disks

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Floppy disks are magnetic devices which stores data on them. Improper handing of floppy disks may
result in loosing the data stored on the disk. It is therefore necessary to know the following rules to
protect your disks and/or your data on it from damage.

 Never place the disk near magnetic devices, keep the disk away from your telephone since
telephone boxes contain magnetic units.
 Always place disks back into their envelope when you are not using them.
 Never touch your floppy disk media.
 Never smoke near floppy disks.
 Store your floppies in a safe location.
Keep at room temperature in the range of 10 to 50oc
Always make a backup copy of your floppy disk.

2) Hard Disk. A high capacity magnetic disk made up of metal which can be fixed in the system
unit of the computer. It serves as a secondary storage and it enables very fast accessibility of data.
Accessing data from hard disk is faster than from floppy disks.

The disks, which are usually grouped together into a disk pack are separated by small air spaces to
allow access for read-write head. Each disk is subdivided into tracks and sectors on which
information is stored. The disk pack is mounted on a magnetic disk drive which rotates the disk at
speed up to 1,000 revolutions per second.

Hard disk

Platters are grouped together to form hard disk. The amount of time it takes to retrieve (or store)
data from (or to) disk is called the disk access time. It rotates at high speed and this is measured in
terms of revolutions per second.

Data is stored on hard disks by magnetizing and demagnetizing the surface each cylinder. They
store data on both sides of the cylinder i.e two sided. It is read-write head that reads or writes data
from hard disk.

B. Optical Disk
Optical disks use laser light to read or write data from optical disk. Laser - Light Amplified
Stimulated Emission of Rays. Optical disks use high powered laser light to burn microscopic holes

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on the surface of the disk to store data. Burned out part is called pit, and the non-burnt part is called
land. Land may represent binary 0 and pit binary 1.

CD pit and land

Optical disks use low powered laser to read data. There are two most common types of optical
disks:
 CD (Compact Disc)
 DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)

CD (Compact Disc)
CD can store 700BM of information. Data is stored only on one side of the disc. There are three
basic types of CDs:
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory) - This kind of is read only i.e. you can’t
write data to such CDs or you can’t erase from them. Data is only accessed/read from
these CDs.
2. CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable) - It is also called WORM (Write Once and Read
Many). These CDs can be written on once. But then after, you can’t rewrite on it or erase
data from it. After you first wrote data on such discs, then only thing you can do to read
data from them.
3. CD-RW (Compact Disc Read-Write) - They are also called erasable optical discs. You
can write data as many times as you want on such CDs. You can also erase the content of
such CDs.
DVD
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. But some people mistakenly call it Digital Video Disc. It
is a relatively new technology that is introduced recently. It is similar to CD except that it can store
large amounts of data and it has narrow tracks than CD. It can store 4 -17GB of information.

Another possible categorization is based on the significance of the devices – System Unit and
Peripheral Devices.

Disk drive: is part of a computer system which reads from and writes data on a disk.

Activity:
What are the four activities that computers do? What are the hardware components responsible
for these activities?

Components of computers – Based on their location

1. The system Unit

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A system unit, also known as a base unit, is the main body of a desktop computer. It typically
consists of a metal or (rarely) plastic enclosure containing the motherboard, power supply, cooling
fans, internal disk drives, and memory and expansion cards that are plugged into the motherboard,
such as video and network cards.

Components of System Unit

System unit contains: case, motherboard, power supply and disk drives.

Case: A computer case (also known as the computer chassis, cabinet, tower, box or housing) is
the enclosure that contains the main components of a computer. Cases are usually constructed from
steel, aluminum, or plastic.

Power Supply: The PC power supply converts 120/240 volts Alternating Current (AC) into 5 and
12 volts Direct Current (DC) used by the PC. The PC power supplies have built-in power on/off
switches and power connectors for the motherboard and the disk drives.

Motherboard: A motherboard, also known as a system board, is the central or primary circuit
board making up a complex electronic system.

A typical computer is built with the microprocessor(CPU), main memory(RAM), and other basic
components on the motherboard. Other components of the computer such as external storage,
control circuits for video display and sound, and peripheral devices are typically attached to the
motherboard via ribbon cables, other cables, and power connectors. Motherboard contains ports,
expansion slots, CPU slots, RAM slots, etc

Ports and Connectors

A port is a socket used to connect the peripheral devices to system unit. It serves as an interface
between the computer and other computers or peripherals in the form of an electrically wired outlet
into which a plug or cable connects. They have different physical shapes such as male, female,
round, rectangular, square, oblong, etc. There is some standardization to physical properties and
function.

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Hardware ports can be divided into two groups:
Serial ports: serial port transmits or receives data one bit at a time. They are very good to send
information over long distance. Devices like keyboard, mouse, modem, etc all use serial ports to
connect to system unit of computer.
A newer type of Serial port is the USB(Universal Serial Bus). It is faster and it allows one USB
port to be used to connect several devices to the system unit.

USB connector and its icon

Parallel ports: Parallel ports transfer and receive multiple bits of information at a time. They send
eight bits of data simultaneously across eight parallel wires. Parallel ports are mostly used to
connect devices that send or receive large amounts of data such as printers, disk drives, tape drives,
etc. They are used for short distance communication.

Parallel port (Printer port)

Expansion Slots and Cards

An expansion slot is a socket designed to hold circuit boards called cards. Expansion cards add
capability to your computer like playing sound (sound card), watching TV (TV card), connecting
computers together (network card) or to the internet (modem), etc. These cards are plugged into
the expansion slot of the motherboard.

Drives: drives are devices that read data from or write data onto storage devices. Examples of
drives include hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, CD drive, DVD drive, etc. Drives have some sort
of motors that rotate the storage devices from which data is read or onto which data is stored. (For
more information read about storage devices).

2. The peripherals
A peripheral is any device connected to the system unit. These are keyboards, monitors, mice,
printers, scanners, microphones, speakers, cameras, to list just the most familiar ones.

Activity:
Classify the components in the system unit as input, output, storage, processing and other
devices.

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2.2.2 Computer Software
Computer hardware is directed by a set of instructions. Without these instructions, computers can
do nothing. These set of instructions are called software (also called programs). We use
programming languages to write these instructions. Examples of programming languages include
C, C++, Visual Basic, Java, etc.

Software are categorized into two:

 System Software
 Application Software

2.2.2.1 System Software

System software consists of programs that are related to controlling the actual operations of the
computer equipment/resource. There are three types of system software:
 Operating System
 Utility Software
 Language translators

Operating system manage resources, provides a user interface, and run application software. It
organizes resources such as keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, etc. It also presents GUI (Graphical
User Interface) to the user for easy use of computer. It makes complex hardware more user friendly
i.e. it acts between the user and hardware.

A) Operating system
Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer. An operating system
has four major functions.

I. Process management
In operating system terms, a process is a program or part of a program that can be executed
separately. The operating system does the task of managing these processes that are being executed
and waiting to be executed.

II. Input/output Management

The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside world, flow of data to
the display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and from the key board or other
input devices. It also handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management) and
the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing task of a file.

III. Memory Management

During processing, some areas of memory are used to store the operating system instructions,
application program instructions, and data to be processed. It is the task of operating system to
allocate or assign each of these items to a memory area.

IV. System Administration

Operating system as a system administrator manages the performance of the system (e.g response
time), system security (username and password), and storage device management (deleting files,
renaming files, formatting disks, creating directories, etc).

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Types of Operating System
o Based on the number of programs they can run a time, operating systems are divided into
two:

Single tasking operating systems: on such system, only one program can be run on the
computer at a time. To run another program, you have to close the first program and load
another program. For example, if you are working on Microsoft Word and in addition if you
want to open Microsoft Excel, first you have to close Word first because you can’t open two
programs at the same time. Then you can open Excel. Single tasking operating system can’t
handle more than one program at a time. Examples of such operating systems are MS-DOS,
and PC-DOS which were used in 1980s.

Multi-tasking operating systems: on such systems you can run as many programs as you like.
You can work on Word and Excel at the same time. Such systems can handle more than one
program at a time. Examples include Windows 2000, Windows XP, Macintosh, etc.

o Based on the number of users they can serve at a time, we divide operating systems into two:

Single User: they can serve only one user at a time. E.g. Windows 95, Windows 98/XP, etc

Multi User: lets more than one user to access the computer at one time. E.g., UNIX. This is
done via network that connects terminals to the multi user computer.

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B) Utility Programs
Utilities are programs that make computing easier. They perform specific tasks related to
managing computer resources or files. There are different utility programs:
i) Troubleshooting programs: enable us to recognize and correct computer problems before
they become serious.
ii) Anti-virus programs: they protect your computer against viruses or other malicious
programs that damage computer. E.g MacAfee, Sophos, Norton, etc.
iii) File compression programs: are used to reduce the size of files or data so that it takes less
storage space or network band. E.g WinZip, WinRAR, etc.
iv) Uninstall programs: these software enable us to safely and completely remove unneeded
programs/software from your computer.
v) Back up software: with the help of this software, we can make copies of files to be used
in case of the original data is lost/damaged. This copy is called back up.
vi) Screen savers: helps to prevent your work from being seen by others if you leave your
computer idle for some time.

C) Language translators
Language translators are used to convert the programming instruction written by users into binary
code that the computer can understand. They are written for specific programming languages and
computer system.

2.2.2.2 Application Software

Application software performs useful work for the user. These useful works could be:
 Word processing-document creation
 Spreadsheet-electronic calculation
 Email/communicating-email sending and reading
Users use these software to perform different activities like calculation, video editing, word
processing, presentation, etc. Some of the uses of application software:

i) Word Processing
This is the most widely used computer application. Word processing is the use of computer to
produce documents that consist primarily of text. Such documents can also contain pictures,
drawing, photograph, etc.
Used for:
 Writing letter
 Writing memos
 Producing reports
Some of the software used for word processing include:
 Microsoft word
 Corel WordPerfect
 Lotus WordPro
 WordStar
ii) Spreadsheet Software
Spreadsheet software is used to organize, manipulate, and graph numeric information. It
enables us to do financial analysis, and other complicated mathematical calculation
electronically. E.g., interest rate, payroll, etc.

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 Some of the software used for this purpose include:
 Lotus 1-2-3
 Microsoft Excel
 Quatropro

iii) Database Management system (DBMS)

Database is a collection of related data that is stored in computer. DBMS organizes the
collection of data so that information can be retrieved easily. Database software allow you to
create a database and to retrieve, manipulate, and update the data. Database may contain one
or more tables. The following table and other related tables together form database.

Name ID DOB Department Salary

1
2
3

Example of an Employee table

Software that are used for DBMS:
 Microsoft Access
 Oracle
 MySQL and Microsoft SQL Server
 FoxPro
 Dbase IV

iv) Presentation Graphics

Presentation graphics helps you to create professional and exciting presentations that could be
used in meeting, group discussion, etc. Such software enable you to incorporate charts,
graphics, sound, etc in your presentation. Software used for this purpose include:
 Microsoft PowerPoint
 Lotus Freelance Graphics
 Corel Presentations

v) Accounting software
Accounting software enables companies to record and report their financial transactions.
Tasks done by these software include:
 Invoicing
 Accounts Receivable
 Accounts Payable
 Payroll

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  Inventory
 General Ledger
 Purchase orders, etc
Software used for this purpose:
 Peachtree accounting
 Intuit QuickBooks

vi) Computer Aided Design

It is used to create design for products, new buildings, etc. They are used by engineers.
Example of software used for this purpose include: AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Parametric

Vii) Communication
They are used to transfer data from one computer to another. They enable computers to send
and receive data of any kind such as text, graphics, fax documents, etc.
Some of the software used for this purpose are:
 Netscape Navigator-to work on internet
 Internet Explorer-to work on internet

Activity:
Can you name some application software? To which category do they belong?

2.2.2.3 Viruses, Trojan Horses and Worms

Virus
Virus is a malicious (destructive) program/software that damages computer. It copies itself on
to other programs and spreads through multiple computer system. They may damage the files
on that computer or attack the system in general. Some of actions performed by virus include:
 Duplicating themselves on your computer to consume storage space your computer
runs out of memory.
 Delete or modify your files(documents)
 Damage your software
 Damage your hardware, etc.
Worm
Worm is a malicious program like virus. But it does not need help to move from one computer to
another which viruses can’t do. Virus need help to move from one computer to another. For
example, when a user copies a file from an infected floppy disk to a computer, the virus may get a
chance to copy itself on to the computer. However, worms just spread themselves through
computer networks. It destroys the computer system like virus.

Trojan horse
Trojan horses are software that seems to perform useful activity but which has malicious programs
in it. It may damage files, and perform other harmful actions on your computer. It does not replicate
itself. For example, you may think that the program is a computer game and you start playing it.
While you are playing, the game starts to affect your computer inside.

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Chapter 3

Data Representation and Boolean Algebra

Introduction
The goal of this chapter is to familiarize you with the basic fundamentals of number system, some
of the commonly used number system by computer professionals and the relationship between
them in converting one number system to the other. In this chapter we will also see how binary
numbers are coded to represent characters in computers memory.

Objective
At the end of this chapter the learner will be expected to:
 Understand the basics of number system
 Recognize binary arithmetic
 Conceptualize the different ways of representing data
 Understand Boolean algebra
 Visualize logic gates and circuits

2.3 Number System

Objective
At the end of this topic the learner will be able to:

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  Define number system
 Determine different number system

A number system is a set of symbols used for counting. The number systems which are of a particular
interest in information technology are Decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal number system.
Number systems are basically of two types: non positional and positional
Definition:
Non-positional number system is a number system in which case each symbol
represents the same value regardless of its position in the number and the symbols are
added to find out the value of particular number.
Example: Counting of fingers, stones, sticks etc.

Positional number system is a number system in which a value of a number depends

on the position of the digits. The number 123 has a different value than the number
321, although the same digits are used in both numbers.

The value of each digit in such a number is determined by three considerations:

1 The digit itself

2 The position of the number
3 The base of the number system

For the purpose of understanding how data are represented, stored and processed in computer,
we will discuss Number Systems that are commonly used by computer designers.

Although 123 and 321 have the same digit, their values are deffirent. Can you explain the
reason?

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is called decimal number system. In this
system the base is equal to 10 because there are altogether ten symbols or digits
(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) used in the system. The successive positions to the left of the decimal point
represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.

Binary Number System

The binary numeral system (base 2 numerals) represents numeric values using two symbols,
typically 0 and 1. More specifically, binary is a positional notation with a radix of two. Owing to
its relatively straightforward implementation in electronic circuitry, the binary system is used
internally by virtually all modern computers.

Each position in a binary number represents a power of the base (2). As such in this system the
right most position is the units (20) the second position to the right is the 2`s (21) position
proceeding in this way we have 4`s (22), 8`s (23) etc.

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Example

The decimal equivalent of the binary number 10101 (written as 10101 2) is

1*24+ 0*23 +1*22+0*21+1*20

=16+0+4+0+1=2

Octal Number System

In octal number system the base is 8. so, in this system there are only eight symbols or
digits(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7).

The 8 symbols of the octal number system are:

01234567

The next number after 7 is 10 (there is no symbol for 8).

Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal system uses base 16. Thus, it has 16 possible digit symbols. It uses the
digits 0 through 9 plus the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F as the 16 digit symbols. Numbers
in base 16 need 16 symbols. The letters A-F are used to give 16 symbols.

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Decimal, binary and hexadecimal representations of the numbers 1 to 24 are shown below.

2 10 2 14 1110 E
3 11 3 15 1111 F
4 100 4 16 1 0000 10
5 101 5 17 1 0001 11
6 110 6 18 1 0010 12
7 111 7 19 1 0011 13
8 1000 8 20 1 0100 14
9 1001 9 21 1 0101 15
10 1010 A 22 1 0110 16
11 1011 B 23 1 0111 17
12 1100 C 24 1 1000 18

Activity

1. How many symbol digits do number systems in base 4, 6,10,9 can have?

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2. What is a single maximum value in each of the bases?

Note:

 In all number systems the value of the base determines the total number of
different symbols of digits available in the number system.
 The first of these choices is always zero and the maximum value of a single digit
is always equal to one less than the value of the base

2.4 Number System Conversions

Objective
At the end of this topic the learner will be able to:
 Convert from base ten to another base
 Convert form other base to another base other than base ten.

I Binary-To-Decimal Conversion

Any binary number can be converted to its decimal equivalent simply by summing
together the weights of the various positions in the binary number, which contain a 1.

Example:

Convert 1 1 0 1 1 2 (binary) to its decimal equivalent

Solution:
24+23+0+21+20
= 16+8+0+2+1
= 2710 (decimal)

You should notice that the method finds the weights (i.e., powers of 2) for
each bit position that contains a 1, and then to add them up.

II Decimal-To-Binary Conversion

This method uses repeated division by 2.

Example:
Convert 2510 to binary
25/ 2 = 12+ remainder of 1 1 (Least Significant Bit)
12/ 2 = 6 + remainder of 0 0
6/2 = 3 + remainder of 0 0

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 3/2 = 1 + remainder of 1 1
1/2 = 0 + remainder of 1 1 (Most Significant Bit)
Result 2510 = 1 1 0 0 12

The Flow chart for repeated-division method is as follow:

III Oct al To Decimal Conversion

Any octal number can be converted to its decimal equivalent simply by summing
together the weights of the various positions in the octal number

Example
24.68 = 2 x (81) + 4 x (80) + 6 x (8-1) = 20.7510
Activity:
1: How many bits (1 and 0) are needed to represent each octal digit?
2: How many bits (1 and 0) are needed to represent each hexadecimal digit
Note:
Any decimal number in the range 0 to 2n-1 can be represented in the binary
form as an n-bit number.

Octal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary Equivalent 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Each Octal digit is represented by three bits of binary digit.
IV Binary-To-Octal (short cut method)

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 Steps:

1: divide the binary digit into group of three (starting from the right)

2: convert each group of three binary digit to one octal digit.

Example

100 111 0102 = (100) (111) (010) 2 = 4 7 28

V Octal-To-Binary Conversion (short cut method)

Steps:

1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each octal digit to three-bit binary number.

2: combine all the resulting binary groups in to a single octal digit.

Note

Observe that since there are only 8 digits in the octal number system , so 3 bits(23=8) are
sufficient to represent any octal number in binary.

VI. Decimal-To-Octal Conversion (Repeat Division method)

This method uses repeated division by 8.

Example.

Convert 17710 to octal and binary:

177/8 = 22+ remainder of 1 1 (Least Significant Bit)

22/ 8 = 2 + remainder of 6 6
2/8 = 0 + remainder of 2 2 (Most Significant Bit)
Result 17710 = 2618
Convert to Binary = 0101100012

VI Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

Example

2AF16 = 2 x (162) + 10 x (161) + 15 x (160) = 68710

VII Decimal to hexadecimal

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This method uses repeated division by 16.

Example

Convert 37810 to hexadecimal

378/16 = 23+ remainder of 10 A (Least Significant Bit)

23/ 16 = 1 + remainder of 7 7
1 / 16 = 0 + remainder of 1 1 (Most Significant Bit)
Result 37810 = 17A8

VIII. Binary-To-Hexadecimal (short cut method)

Steps:

1: divide the binary digit into group of four (starting from the right)

2: convert each group of four binary digit to one hexadecimal digit.

Example
1011 0010 11112 = (1011) (0010) (1111) 2 = B 2 F16

IX. Hexadecimal-To-Binary Conversion (short cut method)

Steps:

1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each hexadecimal digit to four binary digits.

2: combine all the resulting binary groups in to a single digit

Activity:

What is the binary equivalent of the hexadecimal digits 1, 2, 3, E?

Hexadecimal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary Equivalent 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hexadecimal Digit 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary Equivalent 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Note:

Each Hexadecimal digit is represented by four bits of binary digit

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X. Octal-To-Hexadecimal Conversion

Steps

1) Convert Octal to Binary first.

2) Regroup the binary number in 4 bits group starting from the LSB

XI. Hexadecimal-To-Octal Conversion

1) Convert Hexadecimal to Binary first.

2) Regroup the binary number in 3 bits group (a group starts from the Lowest Significant
Bit)

Example

Convert 5A816 to Octal.

5A816= 0101 1010 1000 (Binary)

= 2 6 5 0 (Octal)

2.5 Binary Arithmetic

Objective:

At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

 Define binary arithmetic

 Add and subtract binary numbers
 Define complement and convert binary number to its complement
 Subtract binary numbers using complement method

2.5.1 Binary Addition

Binary Addition is very similar to the longhand addition of decimal numbers. As with decimal
numbers, you start by adding the bits (digits) one column, or place weight, at a time, from right
to left. Unlike decimal addition, there is little to memorize in the way of rules for the addition of
binary bits:

Rules of Binary Addition

 0+0=0
 0+1=1
 1+0=1
 1 + 1 = 0, and carry 1 to the next more significant bit

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Example

00011010 + 00001100

11 carries

0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 = 26(base 10)

+ 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 = 12(base 10)

0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 = 38(base 10)

2.5.2 Binary Subtraction

We can subtract one binary number from another by using the standard techniques adapted for
decimal numbers (subtraction of each bit pair, right to left, "borrowing" as needed from bits to
the left).

Rules of Binary Subtraction

 0-0=0
 0 - 1 = 1, and borrow 1 from the next more significant bit
 1-0=1
 1-1=0

Example,

00100101 - 00010001 = 00010100 0 borrows

1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 = 37(base 10)
-0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 17(base 10)

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 20(base 10)

As we just learned, we can represent negative binary numbers by using the "two's complement"
method and a negative place-weight bit. Here, we'll use those negative binary numbers to
subtract through addition.

Additive Method of Subtraction

When subtraction is implemented by means of digital computers, the direct method of subtraction
is found to be less efficient than the Additive Method Of Subtraction. The method of subtraction
by an additive approach is known as complementary subtraction.

In order to understand complementary subtraction it is necessary to know what is meant by the

complement of a number.
Definition:

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 For a number which has n digits a complement of the number is the difference
between the number and the base raised to the nth power minus one.
Example:
Find the complement of 3710
Solution
Since the number has 2 digits and the value of the base is 10, so (base) n-1 = 102-1=99
Now 99-37=62
Thus the complement of 3710=62
But in case of binary number, it is not necessary to go through the usual process of obtaining
complement. To obtain the complement of binary number transform all its 0`s to 1`s and all its
1`s to 0`s.
Example
The complement of 1011010 is 0100101.
Since we have seen how to obtain complement of a number, we will now see how subtraction is
performed using complement.
In subtracting binary number using complement method the following steps are useful.
Steps:
1 fined complement of the number (subtrahend)
2 add the complement to the number from which you are taking away (minuend)

3 if there is a carry of one add it to obtain the result; if there is no carry, re-complement the sum
and attach a negative sign to obtain the result.
Example:
Subtract 01110002 from 10111002
Solution
1011100
+
1000111(complement of 0111000)

1 0100011
1 add the carry of 1

0100100

2.6 Computer Networks

Section Objectives
After completing this section the learner should be able to:
o define computer networks
o identify components of computer networks
o classify networks based on the area they cover
o define network topology
o identify the advantages and disadvantages of different topologies

When a computer system is processing data all by itself, without any interaction or interconnection
with any other computer system, it is called a stand-alone computer system. A Network System is

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a system of two or more computers that are connected to each other for the purpose of data
communication and sharing of resources.

A network also consists of communication channels that are responsible for connecting devices
with each other and transmitting information.

Some of the most important advantages of a computer network system are:

Data sharing between different users of computers with certain amount of data security
and access control.
Sharing of software application systems – software applications installed on remote
computers can be used from any other computer on the network
Distribution of computing load – a task that has to be processed will be divided among
different computers to reduce the load of a single computer.
Sharing of high power computing resources situated at a central location on a need basis.
Sharing of costly special devices by several computer users.

2.6.1 Types of Networks

Based on the geographic span of coverage, computer networks are broadly classified into three
major categories.
 Local Area Network
 Metropolitan Network
 Wide Area Network
2.6.1.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
 LAN is a computer network that connects computers and other devices located within
close physical proximity (like in a building).
 Since all equipment is located within a single establishment, LAN’s are normally
installed and maintained by an organization. Hence, they are also referred to as private
data networks.
 Example: The computer network installed in Jimma University

2.6.1.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 A larger version of a LAN
 May span several corporate offices or an entire city

2.6.1.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 WAN covers a large geographical area. The devices could exist in different sites and
even different continents. The connection could be through telephone lines,
microwaves, and satellites.
 May span a country, a continent or the entire globe.
 Example: The Internet

2.6.2 Network Topology

The way in which devices on the network are connected is called the topology of the network.
Network topology specifically refers to the physical layout of the network, especially the locations
of the devices and how the cable is run between them. It is important to select the right topology
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for how the network will be used. Each topology has its own strengths and weaknesses. Four of
the most common topologies are bus, star, ring, and mesh.

2.6.2.1 The Star Topology

The Star type topology has a controller (hub) at its centre that is connected in a star shape to stations
via dedicated transmission lines. The controller or hub is the focal point of the star, and all network
traffic must pass through the hub as the centre controls all communications between stations.
Accordingly, as and when the central controller fails, the entire network communication will be
disabled.

Advantages:
1. Cable layouts are easy to modify
2. Workstations can be added to the network easily
3. Centralized control/problem diagnosis resulting from defective communication lines is
easily identified.
Disadvantages:
1. Large amounts of cable are required
2. More cable means greater expense
3. A centralized hub means a single point for potential for network failure

Wor ks tation

Wor ks tation

Central Ser ver

Hub Wor ks tation

Wor ks tation

Wor ks tation Wor ks tation

Wor ks tation

Star Topology Network

2.6.2.2 The Ring Topology

The ring type consists of a network configuration that connects nodes at certain intervals on a ring-
shaped, high-speed data transmission line. All nodes share the ring - the ring is connected separately
to the transmitting and receiving sections of each node. Data placed on the ring by a station makes
its round on the ring. Each node receives the data and checks to see if the data is addressed to it.
When the data is received by the node to which it is addressed, the node accepts and responds
accordingly. Otherwise, the node reproduces and repeats the data for transmission to the next node.

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 Workstation

Laser printer

Token-ring

Workstation Server

A SCII Printer

Workstation

Ring Topology Network

Token ring access method can be described as follows:

• An idle token rotates around the ring
• A sending computer takes the token and attaches the message to be sent on it
• The token passes to the neighboring computer and so forth
• The receiving computer takes the token and copies the message and leaves the token to
rotate
• The sender again takes the token and removes the massage from the token to make the
token empty

The token ring technology creates opportunity for acknowledging receipt of messages by the
receivers.
Advantages:
1. The overall cable length is short
2. The shorter cable means lower cabling costs
3. No wiring closet space is required
Disadvantages:
1. A single node failure causes network failure
2. It is more difficult to diagnose faults
3. Network modifications/recognition is more difficult and disrupts network
operation.

2.6.2.3 Bus Topology

The bus type topology is a network configuration that has a single high-speed data transmission line
(called a bus) shared by nodes and stations. In this type of network, data transmitted by a station
through its node is "broadcast" bi-directionally. All nodes receive the signals. One of the nodes,
recognizing that the signal is addressed to it, accepts the data and forwards it to the station attached.
All signals set bi-directionally are properly terminated at both ends of the bus, and one failed node
will not affect the communication capability of other stations. Unlike the ring topology, the data
travels by the nodes and does not have to go through each node.

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 Workstation Workstation Workstation

Workstation Workstation

Bus Topology Network

Advantages:
1. It uses the least amount of cable
2. The wiring layout is simple
3. It has a resilient architecture; its simplicity makes it very reliable
4. It is very easy to extend
Disadvantages:
1. Fault diagnosis and isolation is difficult

By modifying and combining some of the characteristics of these “pure” network topologies,
“hybrid” topologies result that can often provide greater efficiency.

2.6.2.4 The Star-Wired Ring

 The star-wired ring combines the attributes of both the star and ring topologies. In
essence, the hub of this topology, referred to as a wiring center, constitutes a ring.
 This wiring center can be in one location or several locations throughout the network
and must make a complete physical connection.
 If the ring of the wiring center is broken, the network fails. Workstations are attached
to this ring, radiating outward from the ring’s wiring center.
 The radiating workstations constitute the star section of this star-wired topology.

Advantages:
1. Fault diagnosis and isolation are relatively easy
2. The modular design results in a network that is easy to expand

Disadvantages:
1. Network configuration can be technically complicated
2. The cabling system is complicated

2.6.2.5 The Extended star

 Made of a number of star networks, whose centers are connected together by another
central device.
 Used to minimize network traffic among two different networks
 Typical of today’s networks

Advantages
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 1. It is easy to extend
2. It simplifies fault isolation
3. simplifies network management
Disadvantages
1. The structure is dependent on the root; if primary root fails then the whole network will
fail.

2.6.2.6 The Mesh topology

 Every node connected to every other node
 This is when we use the three networks together.
 No center of network

2.7 The Internet

Section objectives
After completing this section learners should be able to:
o define the Internet
o discuss the use of Internet
o identify services provided over the Internet
o define Internet protocols and addressing

 The Internet is a term used to describe a worldwide network of computer networks connecting
millions of computers around the world.
 The Internet is one of the largest, most widely used network (in fact, a network of networks) that
has evolved and grown overtime. It is a group of two or more networks that are
o Interconnected physically
o Capable of communicating and sharing data with each other
o Able to act together as a single network.
 The Internet connects millions of computers globally and provides worldwide communications
to businesses, homes, schools, and governments.

Chapter MS-DOS

An operating system is a layer of software, which takes care of technical aspects of a

computer's operation. It shields the user of the machine from the low-level details of the
machine's operation and provides frequently needed facilities. There is no universal definition
of what an operating system consists of. You can think of it as being the software, which is
already installed on a machine, before you add anything of your own. Normally the operating
system has a number of key elements:

(i) A technical layer of software for driving the hardware of the computer, like disk drives, the
keyboard and the screen;

(ii) A file system which provides a way of organizing files logically, and

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 (iii) A simple command language, which enables users to run their own programs and to
manipulate their files in a simple way. Some operating systems also provide text editors,
compilers, debuggers and a variety of other tools. Since the operating system (OS) is in charge of
a computer, all requests to use its resources and devices need to go through the OS. An OS
therefore provides Legal entry points into its code for performing basic operations like writing to
devices.

Operating systems may be classified by both how many tasks they can perform `simultaneously'
and by how many users can be using the system `simultaneously'. That is: single-task or multi-
tasking and single-user or multi-user. A multi-user system must clearly be multi-tasking. The
table below shows some examples.

OS Users Tasks
MS/PC DOS S S
Windows 3x S QM
Macintosh System 7.* S QM
Windows 9x S M*
UNIX M M
NT S/M M
Windows 2000 M M

Where S stands for single and M stands for multi

2.8 Difference between DOS and Windows Programs

Ultimately, the difference between these types of programs is who has control over the computer.
DOS programs generally expect themselves to be the only program running on your computer,
so they will directly manipulate the hardware, such as writing to the disk or displaying graphics
on the screen. They may also be dependent on timing, since the computer won't be doing
anything else to slow them down. Many games fall into this category.

Windows programs, on the other hand, realize that they must share your computer with other
Windows programs. Actually, did you know that Windows 3.x itself is a DOS program? What
this means is that Windows has control of the computer's hardware, and in turn it shares parts of
the computer's resources with Windows programs. The obvious advantage to this arrangement is
that you can do several things at once; for example, you could play Dave, start downloading a
file from a www.ju.edu.et site, then look at your checking account and use a Calculator to check
the balance all at the same time. Another advantage is that you can share data between programs;
for example, copying a spreadsheet summary into a work processor document.

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The important thing here is that many DOS programs will run poorly or not at all in Windows.
For example, if you try to run Microsoft System Diagnostics (MSD) while you are in Windows,
you will get the message:

You are running Microsoft Windows.

MSD can only report information specified by it's associated Windows Program Information File
(.PIF). Therefore information presented may be less accurate or complete than if MSD is run
outside of Windows. For more accurate information please exit Windows and run MSD from the
MS-DOS prompt.

Some areas may be affected while MSD is run under Windows: Memory values and types will
reflect what Windows provides by itself, and through the associated .PIF file; IRQ values may be
reported differently; and the visual memory map in Memory, Memory Block Display, and
Memory Browser may show different results. Other areas that may be affected include Video,
OS Version, Mouse, Disk Drives, and COM Ports.

So how do you know whether a program is made for DOS or Windows? Nearly all Windows

programs bear the Microsoft Windows logo , while DOS programs do not. If you're still
not sure, try running the program from the DOS prompt first. For example, type calc at a DOS
prompt; you will get the message:

This program requires Microsoft Windows.

MSDOS:

It is most widely used operating system and it stands for Microsoft Disk operating system. The
operating system’s components reside on disk and are brought into computer memory as needed.
DOS is a single-user, single tasking operating system.becouse of this limitation we use DOS on a
stand-alone computers.

Basic MS-DOS components

It has a number of programs to perform different tasks of which the following are the basic
components:

 Control program
This component is responsible to facilitate the control and coordination activities of the
computer. The program that performs the listed activity is known by the file name MSDOS.SYS

 Input output management

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It facilitates the utilization of the different input and output devices. Here the file that is
responsible for the stated task is called IO.SYS

 Command interpreter
It interprets the commands typed by the user at the system prompt into computer function. The
interpretation by done by the file called COMMAND.COM

The listed file along with other program files constitutes ms-dos. They will enable you:

 Manage your files

 Deal with peripheral devices such as keyboard, mouse, printers and others
 Control and optimize your system

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