1M171012-8 Chen, Yi-An

Religion and Culture in Japan: Final Paper

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IM171012-8
CHEN, YI-AN
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Religion and Culture in Japan: Final Paper
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A Comparison on Japanese and Chinese Funerals

 To begin with

One of the most unforgettable memories during my early teen is the funeral of my own father,
a traditional Chinese funeral where I played the most crucial role as the oldest daughter in the
family. Dealing with the school work, taking care of younger siblings, and preparing for the
funeral at the same time is never easy, and I suffered depression during the period. Fortunately, I
was able to talk to a Buddhist monk during the funeral, and the old monk asked me to burn
incense sticks and chant the Diamond Sutra to calm myself down and achieve peaceful feeling in
mind. Before the funeral experience, I used to believe that religions are irrational and considered
myself as a non-religious person. However, the moment when I suddenly found out that the
Diamond Sutra and the words of the monk are like the silent but tumbling ocean, which sounds
boring at the beginning but has the sacred power to give the miserable one a strong sense of
mental comfort and retain the control of facing adversities. Without a doubt, the intimate
experience of my father’s funeral not only forced me to understand the procedure of the funeral
but also a reflection on the meaning of death in our religion and culture.

This semester, I was able to join one of my closest Japanese friend’s family funeral of her
grate-grandmother. Since her grate-grandmother died in the age of 102, the burial was respectful
and dignified. After connecting two of my funeral experiences, I thought it would be interesting if
I do research on the comparison between traditional Japanese and Chinese funerals, and have a
deeper insight into the Buddhism elements. Through the discussion on the definition of death and
burial in Japanese and Chinese culture, the procedure of the funerals, the clothes that are worn,
and the taboos in the funeral, it is easier to find the similarities and differences between the two
funerals and how funerals influence people’s understanding about death.

 Death in Japanese and Chinese Culture

Buddhism strongly influences death in Japanese culture. Despite, Shinto plays a

comparatively important role in Japanese religion and culture, including other influential life
ceremonies such as coming-of-age ceremonies and Shinto wedding, the topic of ‘‘death’’ has less
element to be linked with Shinto, but emphasized more on the Buddhism influence. Since the local
Shinto in Japan has almost no assert on the concept of death and afterlife, when it comes to death,
Buddhism came to fill the blank. The expert of Japanese religion, Joseph Kitagawa, once said,
‘‘some people hold that Japan became a Buddhist country during the Heian period (794-1185)
when Buddhism in effect absorbed Shinto. Is it not equally true that Buddhism surrendered to the
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Religion and Culture in Japan: Final Paper
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ethos of that nebulous religion of Japan, which lay more in-depth than the visible religious
structure, commonly referred to as Shinto?1 (Kitagawa, 1990, p.85)”. In other words, the
underlying value of death in Japan is somehow related to Shinto, while also corresponded with the
Buddhism elements.

When it comes to Japanese view of death in the aspect of religion, the element of Tama and
Tamashii in Shinto and the belief in birth and rebirth in Buddhism exist simultaneously. First, the
belief of Tama and Tamashii is explained in Shinto’s philosophy of human life. Tama is not only
an innate power inside the kami but a symbol of religious activity which represents both violence
and peace. When a person is dead, the Tamashii which is a form of Tama that supports the human
body will depart from the body2 (Nitasha, 2015). However, the Tama power will remain in the
funeral as a stone or tree figure outside the shrine. Second, the belief of birth and rebirth in
Buddhism also influence the Japanese view of death. Since in Buddhism, it is considered that birth
is a pure and a beginning of life, death is not the ending, but a new beginning of the life cycle. In
other words, people will suffer rebirth after past life. In short, Shinto religion, which lays more
emphasis on this world, considering death to be the ultimate end, while Buddhism emphasizes
more on a cycle of birth and rebirth and also has a sincere belief in the existence of the other
world3 (Nitasha, 2015).

Different from Japan, despite following many of the Buddhism rules in funeral procedures,
Taoism and Confucianism have a substantial impact on people’s perception of death. ‘‘Death’’ is a
term that Chinese people are afraid to talk about and think about during their lifetime. Chinese
have a comparatively passive belief in death due to the ‘‘yin yang’’ theory in Taoism. In accent
China, people believe that death is common and inevitable4 (Fersko-Weiss, 2018). However, since
people generally believed in Taoism, which emphasizes the concept of ‘‘yang’’ and ‘‘yin’’, death
became something people often afraid of during their lives. Taoism believes that ‘‘yang’’
represents the bright part of Tai Chi, which also means our lives and the positive side of the world,
while ‘‘yin’’ is the dark part of Tai Chi that stands for the death and the opposite meaning of yang 5
(Religious, 2019). Therefore, suffering from the death of a family member, learning the news
about someone’s death, and seeing neighbor’s funeral, are all considered a part of ‘‘yin’’, which is
often believed to be dark and full of sadness.

Also, under the influence of Confucianism, people believed that death is something miserable
happened toward the family. Children were suggested to spend three years living next to their

1
Kitagawa, J. M. (1990). Religion in Japanese history. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
2
Nitasha, S. (2015, August). Perception of life and death in Japan - IOSR Journals.
3
Nitasha, S. (2015, August). Perception of life and death in Japan - IOSR Journals.
4
Fersko-Weiss, H. (2018, March 11). The Chinese Approach to Death and Dying.
5
Religions - Taoism: Concepts within Taoism. (2009, November 12).
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Religion and Culture in Japan: Final Paper
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parents’ tombs to show their respect to their ancestors6 (Kutcher, p.51). Confucius also said that if
someone in the neighbors passed away, people are not supposed to sing or show happiness 7
(Confucius). Therefore, death could not only be seen as a tragic sign in a family but also for all the
people involved, death itself represents extremely unfortunate, which people should show their
sympathy and respect. To sum up, though many funeral procedures follow the Buddhism rules,
under the influence of Taoism and Confucianism, Chinese people are generally afraid to talk about
death and have a comparatively passive view toward losing their loved ones.

 Thinking and Talking about Death

In Japan, due to the major believe of Shinto and Buddhism, people considered death as an
inevitable process that everyone would have to suffer eventually. Since Shinto believes in the
worship of Kami and natural gods, and Buddhism focuses more on the rebirth of the life and the
next, Japanese people do not consider it as a taboo to think about death. Instead, death toward
Japanese people is natural and is considered the end of the current life but a new start of the next.
However, Japanese people do believe that talking about things related to death will possibly bring
bad luck to one’s fortune. For example, due to the similar pronunciation of numbers and specific
phrases, Japanese consider the number 4 as a negative number and consider suicide as an
untellable thing. In short, although Japanese people generally believe that death is a natural
process of life, talking about certain phrases related to death is considered a taboo and will bring
misfortune.

On the other hand, thinking and talking about death in ancient Chinese society is considered a
huge taboo. One of the reasons is the belief to protect oneself from the misfortune brought by
death. For example, to protect younger children, many parents refrain from bringing up the
subject8 (Fan, 2018). Since ancient Chinese people are cautious about the use of language, saying
words which have the same pronunciations as the word ‘‘death’’ were seen as a taboo. For
instance, the number ‘‘4’’ sounds similar to the word death and thus was considered a taboo since
then. Many people nowadays would rather pay extra for cellphone and license plate numbers
without the digit 4. Another reason why general Chinese refuse to talk about death is the belief of
protecting oneself from being cursed. In Chinese culture, since death is considered as dark and
sorrow, if someone talks about the death of himself or others, it is considered damnation for the
person to die. Nowadays, the taboos are slightly different, though not as strict as ancient time,
people still tend to refuse directly pointing out the topic. The reason why few people in Chinese

6
Kutcher, N. A. (1999). Mourning in late imperial China: Filial piety and the state. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press.
7
Confucius, & Waley, A. (2013). The Analects of Confucius. Charleston, SC: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
8
Fan, Y. (2018, April 03). Dealing With Death, China's Biggest Taboo.
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society refuse to sign up for donating their organs could be seen as an example since it is
considered an imprecation to death when alive9 (Fan, 2018). All in all, due to the sense of
protecting themselves from tragedy and refuse from the curve, Chinese people considered it a big
taboo to think and talk about death.

 The Procedure of the Funeral

In Japan, the procedure of the funeral generally follows the Buddhism rules. When a person is
dead, his family will hire a monk to chant for the death spirit. After that, the descendants of the
death will put on the traditional black funeral clothes and follow the footstep of the monks to
undergo the encoffin process. When the death and family members are settled, a person called
‘‘okuribito’’ will clean the body of the death. Some Japanese people will clean the body of their
loved ones on their own to show their sorrow and respect10 (Perez, 2017). Younger generations of
the family will be asked to stay awake during the first night of the death to accompany the dead
spirit. Finally, the other day, the body will be burnt, and the remaining bones and ashes will be put
into a cinerary casket and buried in the grave. The process flow chart is presented below:

Different from the Japanese funeral procedure, Chinese family can choose to hold their
funeral either in their house or in the mortuary. No matter where the funeral is held, monks are
invited to chant for the dead spirit. It is believed that the dead one will receive peace and be bright
for the road after their death through the funeral process. Same as Japanese funeral, the body will
be cleaned by professional people or the kids of the death11 (Mack et al., 2019). During the week

9
Fan, Y. (2018, April 03). Dealing With Death, China's Biggest Taboo.
10
Perez, A. F. (2017, October 01). The Complicated Rituals of Japanese Funerals.
11
Mack, L., Mack, L., Girl, E., Newsweek International, & Chicago Tribune. Things to Know About Chinese Funerals.
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of the funeral, the children of the death should prepare breakfast and dinner to worship the dead
spirit. Also, family members are required to chant the Buddhist Sutras throughout the day.
Interestingly, according to traditional Chinese beliefs, the monk will help the family to choose the
right timing to burn and bury the body based on Chinese astrology. As soon as the body is burnt,
family members will line up and pick up the bones and collect them inside a cinerary casket. The
cinerary casket will be either buried in a family tomb or the house or temple. The flow chart is
presented below:

 The Clothes Worn in the Funeral

In Japan, one should have unless one set of formal clothes for the funerals. The basic funeral
clothes for women should be covered with dull black cloth. Some funerals will also ask women to
wear a pearl necklace, and the necklace should be made in one piece. Also, the socks and shoes
worn in the funeral should also be black without other bright colors12 (Guo et.al, 2010). When it
comes to men, black suit with plain necktie and black leather shoes are required.

Compared to Japan, Chinese funeral is less severe toward the wearing of clothes on
occasion. In funerals of ordinary people, wearing clothes in darker colors or black is required;
while in the funeral of celebrities and politicians, wearing a black suit and black accessories is
necessary. Due to the influence of Taoism, some people will borrow black traditional funeral
clothes to show filial piety to the dead elders. The following chart demonstrates the comparison of

12
Guo, L., Liu, X. (2010, January). The comparison between Taiwanese and Japanese funeral cultures.
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clothing worn in Japanese and Chinese funerals:

Countries and genres Japanese Funerals Chinese Funerals

Color Black Darker colors or black
Form Suit Casual clothes
Accessories Pearl necklace Not required

 Important Elements in the Funeral

In addition to the complicated funeral procedures and the clothes people worn to the funerals,
there are many other essential elements that people should be aware of. In Japanese funerals, two
white candles, videos of the death, and mourning wreath are all great decorations. Since Japanese
people believe that the color ‘‘white’’ represents pure, cotton and umbrellas are often prepared for
the death. Flowers are necessary when worshiping the dead spirit13 (Guo et.al, 2010). Family who
held the funeral should also prepare some small desserts and tea for the people who came and
mourn for their loved ones. One of the most interesting parts of Japanese funerals is that guests
who attend the funeral will receive a towel as returning gift. It is said that towels are used for
wiping tears and cutting all the painful feeling from losing the loved ones14 (Guo et.al, 2010). This
tradition also influenced many Japanese colonies, including Taiwan and South Korea.

In Chinese funerals, however, formal elegiac couplets are necessary elements when decorating
the funerals. Besides, since it is considered an essential process to clean body, face, and hands
before the funeral, Chinese washbasins and towels are often asked to prepare. Different from the
Japanese flower worshiping, five different flavors of cuisine is required 15 (Guo et.al, 2010). Also,
in many Chinese societies, it is common for the family of the death to cook all the guests a
delicious meal. The following chart shows the important elements in Japanese and Chinese
funerals:

Countries and the elements Japan China

Decorations White candles, videos, wreath Elegiac couplets
Necessary elements Cotton, umbrellas, flowers Washbasins and towels
Things for worshiping Flowers Cuisines
Gifts for the guests Towels, tea and small desserts A delicious meal

13
Guo, L., Liu, X. (2010, January). The Comparison between Taiwanese and Japanese funeral cultures.
14
Guo, L., Liu, X. (2010, January). The Comparison between Taiwanese and Japanese funeral cultures.
15
Guo, L., Liu, X. (2010, January). The Comparison between Taiwanese and Japanese funeral cultures.
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 The Taboos in the Funeral

In Japanese society, traditions related to funerals could be seen as a taboo that people do not
typically learn at school but from their own experiences. One of the things people should be aware
of during the funeral is that women should never wear a colorful necklace to the funerals. Since
pearl represents tears in Japanese belief, white pain pearl necklace shows respect toward the dead
one and his family. It is also believed that, since the pearl necklace is connected by one lace, it
represents people only have to experience sorrow for once and painful feelings will no longer last
after the funerals16 (Guo et al., 2010). Another funeral taboo in Japan is that when people see the
car carrying the dead body, they should make a fist, which they put the thumbs inside the other
four fingers. In Japanese culture, it is believed that the nail part of people’s thumbs are the place
where spirits come in and go out the body17 (Guo et al., 2010). Therefore, to refuse the dead spirit
from entering their body and bring misfortune or lead to ill health, it is essential to hide the
thumbs nail when the dead body passes by. In short, people should wear a pearl necklace to the
funerals and should hide their thumbs to protect oneself from misfortune during the funerals.

When it comes to the taboos related to death in Chinese society, funeral taboos could be one
of the most complicated parts which ordinary people refuse to talk about before facing it
themselves. The words spoken should be cautious. ‘‘Thank you’’ is considered unnecessary since
there is nothing to appreciate when people gathered to mourn a person’s death. Instead, Chinese
people would rather euphemistically express their emotional feeling toward the guests for
spending time with them. ‘‘Goodbye’’, compared to ‘‘thank you’’ is a serious taboo which people
should refuse to speak. Since the word goodbye also means ‘‘see you again’’ in Chinese, if one
said goodbye to the death, it is believed the spirit of death would come back to the person one
day18 (Goody, 2017). Therefore, people are recommended to speak as fewer words as they can to
protect themselves from being disrespectful to the family and avoid the taboo in Chinese funerals.
In short, speaking certain phrases such as ‘‘thank you,’’ and ‘‘goodbye’’ could be a taboo, which
people should always be aware of.

 Conclusion

In conclusion, through the understanding the definition of death in the two culture, the
procedure of the funerals, the clothes that are worn, and the taboos, it is easier to find the
similarities and differences between the two funerals and how funeral traditions effect Japanese
and Chinese people’s life. To begin with, when it comes to similarities, Buddhism plays a vital

16
Guo, L., Liu, X. (2010, January). The comparison between Taiwanese and Japanese funeral cultures.
17
Guo, L., Liu, X. (2010, January). The comparison between Taiwanese and Japanese funeral cultures.
18
Goody Feed Team (Ed.). (2017, April 15). 6 things you shouldn't do in a Chinese funeral.
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role in both Japanese and Chinese funerals. Though the way how people view death has something
to do with Shinto in Japan and Taoism and Confucianism in China, the mainstream of the funeral
procedures follow the Buddhism tradition. Due to the influence of Shinto and Taoism, people in
Japan and China hold a comparatively passive attitude toward the topic of death and funerals. In
Japan, people believe that although death is a natural process of life, talking about things and signs
related to the topic of death will possibly bring bad luck. In China, not only does talking about
death a big taboo but thinking about death is also an inauspicious action. When it comes to the
funeral procedure, both Japanese and Chinese funeral traditions include the process of descendants
helping the older dead one to clean their body in order to show the respect and mourn for the dead
spirit. Also, during the funeral, both Japanese and Chinese prefer to wear black clothes and shoes.
Last but not least, the family who held the funeral to mourn their loved ones, should prepare food
in return.

Despite some similarities, many differences could be seen when comparing Japanese and
Chinese funerals. Although both Japanese and Chinese funerals include many Buddhism elements,
the underlying values toward death are different. Due to the influence of Shinto, Japanese people
believe the system of Tama and Tamashii, while Chinese people stick with the ‘‘yin-yang’’ theory
in Taoism and Confucianism. Shinto forms a stronger believe between nature and the death spirit,
while Confucianism refers to how people should perceive death and their behavior toward death.
Furthermore, though both cultures considered it as a taboo to talk about death, Japanese people are
more willing to accept that death is a natural process, while Chinese people refuse almost
everything related to the topic. When it comes to the funeral procession, under the influence of
Shinto, though black is the only color can be used on clothing, accessories such as white pearl
necklace and white towels that are given to the guests present Japanese people’s approach to white
color that represents pure. On the other hand, in Chinese funeral procedure, the concept of filial
piety in Confucianism is a critical element. Besides cleaning body for the dead elder ones, it is
also essential to chant the Sutras and provide food for the dead spirit during the funerals. All of
these actions are showing respect toward the death and hope their spirit does not wander around
after leaving their body.

All in all, despite the similarities and differences in both Japanese and Chinese culture, there
is no denying that a person’s death and his funeral could be seen as one of the most crucial stages
of his life. Death and funeral, despite painful and sorrowful for some, the belief, the procedures,
and the taboos that laid behind have a profound and lasting influence on both Japanese and
Chinese people for thousand years.

 Different Aspect of Viewing Death

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Although many people still follow the traditional of death and the funeral rules, younger
generations gradually notice the importance of building a new value of death under the influence
of western culture. Besides trying not to be offensive or to go against the traditions,
philosophically, both Japanese and Chinese people tend to refuse the topic of death in order to
protect themselves from the pain going through the loss of their close ones. The habit of avoiding
the talk about funeral and death and thinking it as a painful process thus became culturally
influential from generation to generation. However, avoiding to talk about death will not prevent
people from being the main character in the funeral themselves someday. The main point to make
people feel true relief toward death is to think of death in another aspect. Nobody can escape from
death since it happens to everyone, everywhere, and every second. It is so natural that perhaps it
should not be seen as something sorrowful. In short, since refusing to talk about death and funeral
is considered a way of self-comforting, people gradually noticed that death is such a natural
process that perhaps should not be seen as a painful process.

Therefore, many people are working on seeking the different meaning of death and holding a
more positive attitude when facing the funerals. Some find the new meaning of death in Buddhist
teachings. In Buddhism, death is a form of an ending but also stands for a brand new beginning of
life19 (Bhikkhu, 2012). Many believe that nature is a big cycle, and so does life. Therefore,
thinking about death beforehand and prepare for it can be seen as preparing for the next stage of
life. There should not be too much grief and struggle when facing death; instead, death should be
peaceful, a peaceful ending for one’s life. Besides, some younger generations also believe that
understanding death make them feel more precious in life. Knowing that people are all going to
die someday make younger people grasp all the opportunities they have to cherish their time and
what they have. They also believe that being old and sick could be a torturing process to a person,
while death perhaps provides a sweet ending for relief. To sum up, Buddhist’s believe in death and
new birth and younger generation’s new perspectives of life, provide the society to view death in a
different angle and being more open-minded to death and funeral.

Overall, people all smile for the newborn babies, seeing them as one of the most beautiful
gifts from nature, a wonderful prelude of a sonata, then why see death and funeral as pain and
sorrow? Death is the majestic ending of the movement, and the funeral is an elegant way to tell the
end of the story. Despite having those taboos in our society, we should all try to give death a smile
for being a critical stage of our lives. (4260 words)

19
Bhikkhu, T. (2012). Contents.
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