WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

Part 2 - Irrigation

Name: Date Due:

II: PRACTICAL DISCUSSION:

1. If a wealthy land owner in Cebu retained your services as an engineer for the purpose of planning
and locating an irrigation system in his property,

 What are the components/hydraulic structures to be used if the source of water is a river
which is 2 kilometers from his land. Give a brief illustration or just discuss how to install them.
a. River Diversion Dam
Methods:
1. Develop riprap/aggregate rock source
2. Install temporary water supply system
3. Perform general excavation and construct new stream channel
4. Install 3000 CY of apron rock in river channel, grout apron rock, and place
lean concrete fill
5. Install large special placement rock
6. Install riprap and drain gravel
7. Construct new concrete retaining wall, intake chute, and screen galley structure
8. Construct new concrete dam crest
9. Install sluiceway pneumatic gates, intake screen, and stop log assembly
10. Connect water supply piping, install power supply, install security gates, install drain and
sanitary lines
11. Disassemble and remove temporary water supply
12. Construct new concrete boat ramp
 Enumerate the important factors to be considered during the investigation and survey for a
proposed irrigation system.

a.Soil
Suitability of a land for irrigated agriculture depends on soil characteristics, soil
profile, geological deposits, and surface texture. Certain soil conditions are needed
for profitable, diversified crop production under sustained irrigation. These include
the following:
1. Adequate moisture holding capacity for the proposed irrigation and cropping pattern
2. Adequate infiltration rate to facilitate replenishment of soil-water lost through
evapotranspiration, to minimize erosion, to prevent excessive deep percolation under the
proposed method
3. Adequate internal drainage through the root zone for proper aeration, replenishment of soil-
water reservoir, and leaching of salts
4. Sufficient depth of suitable soil profile to allow necessary development and provide adequate
storage of moisture and plant nutrients
5. Suitable texture, structure, and consistency to permit necessary field operations
in time
6. Absence of hazardous amount of acidity, sodicity, salinity, or any other toxic elements
b. Climate
Crops have their optimum climatic requirements for normal growth and development, and
fruiting. Beyond the desired limit, crops cannot grow properly and produce flower. Some of the
important climatic elements are maximum temperature, minimum temperature, night
temperature, and day length. Atmospheric water demand or crop evapotranspiration should also
be taken into account for irrigation planning.
c. Topography
Topography, vegetation, biological activity, and time give a soil its characteristics or soil profile.
Suitability of a land for irrigated agriculture depends largely on its topography as it determines
the choice of irrigation method. It can also affect labor requirement, irrigation efficiency,
drainage, erosion, size and shape of fields, range of possible crops, and land development.
Operational expenses increase with the surface feature, field size, stoniness or bush/tree cover,
and surface drainage requirement.
d. Water source
In planning and developing an irrigation project, source(s) of water should be identified so as to
ensure continuous water supply. In water resource development, harmonization of the different
demands for water, establishment of irrigation priority rights between upstream and
downstream users, and consideration of the rights of the existing users of water from flood,
which may be modified by dams, is essential. It requires a formal institutional approach based on
local experience. If the project is based on groundwater resource, sustainability of the resource
should be considered.

e. Crop(s) to be cultivated
Depending on the crop type, the water requirement varies. Hence, water resources should be
planned on the basis of the major crop(s) and cropping pattern. The factors influencing the
choice of crop are the local/national demand (to ensure self sufficiency or to discourage import),
profitability factor (to export, in response to foreign demand), ease of marketing and market
demand, etc. The materialization of the planned cropping pattern is a must for protecting the
soil (against salinity, alkalinity, aridity, etc.) and for feeding sufficient water to irrigation network
areas.

f. Energy
If water is to be pumped from the source to the irrigated area/field, then the energy source for
the pumping is a major consideration. If an electric transmission line is to be constructed, it will
require an investment. If the pump is to operate with a diesel engine, it will certainly create an
environmental problem.

g. Labor
For the implementation of irrigation projects, a huge amount of human labor will be required
depending on whether the project will be human labor based, or a mechanized one. This point
should be taken into account while planning for an irrigation project.

h. Capital
Establishment of a large scale irrigation facility requires large capital investment. Expenditure for
irrigation consists of capital investments and recurrent expenditures for operation and
maintenance. It should be checked whether the money is available from the local/central
government, a public agency, or from a foreign donor. After ensuring that money is available, the
project should be started.

i. Commodity/product market
An appropriate marketing system or facility of marketing the products to be produced from the
irrigation project area should be considered for an economically sustainable production system.
The producers are obliged to cultivate crops with relatively high profitability and market
guarantees. Lack of viable product markets and marketing institutions are major problems for
sustaining production and effective irrigation development. Government organizations and other
institutions should be developed to overcome marketing problems. The slow growth of markets
for high-value crops sharply reduces the projected profitable crop mix that would warrant the
frequently high costs of irrigation investments.

j. National policy and priority

Irrigation development or implementation of irrigation projects largely depends on the
national/governmental policy and priority issues. The government may promote irrigation
development to increase and stabilize food production in the region. Despite a proposed
irrigation development project being not economical (in terms of estimated net return and cost,
and economic rates of return), the government can establish such a project considering
regional/national food security, local employment opportunity, opportunity of establishment of
local industry, and long-term savings in foreign currency

k. Institutional infrastructure
New construction or rehabilitation of existing irrigation systems requires operation and
maintenance, and financing and cost recovery. An institutional framework and infrastructure is
necessary for analyzing policy decisions with respect to project section, design and construction,
operation and maintenance, cost recovery, and administration.

l. Economic factor
A major problem affecting irrigation development projects is the high cost of construction
yielding low benefits from agriculture. To achieve efficiency, irrigation investments must be fully
recoverable, that is, the present value of public revenues to be generated from the project must
be at least equal to the present value of cost. Who should pay for the cost (and in what
proportion) depends on the distribution of benefits from irrigation. The beneficiary farmers must
pay the cost in proportion to the benefits they receive. Several factors affect the benefits from
an irrigation project: low price of the crops, the prevailing low yields, and the high input costs
are examples. All these factors are linked to the management level, and may vary from location
to location, and region to region. Truly functioning credit systems for small-scale farmers or
effective agricultural extension services may influence the prevailing situations.
 m. Environmental aspect
On the one hand, diversion of existing river-flow in the dry zone may affect downstream users in
terms of quantity or quality or both. On the other hand, wet zone rivers may have large
unutilized water resources flowing through heavily populated areas. In such a case, any large
scale water resource development in these areas would involve displacement of people and
property, which is socially and politically undesirable. These points should be taken into
consideration and the regional or national benefits should be optimized. Other environmental
issues such as drainage effluents, siltation and sedimentation, water logging, development of
salinity and acidity in soils, emission of methane gas from agricultural fields, distortion of natural
habitat and bio-diversity, etc. should be considered while planning an irrigation project

n. Socio-cultural aspect
The implementation of irrigation projects will bring changes in land use pattern and intensity,
land and labor productivity, household resource requirements, and tenure issues, which require
management and institutional consideration. These socioeconomic and institutional factors
affect irrigation development.

2. What is really the purpose of irrigation?

Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water onto cropland for the purpose of satisfying the
water requirements necessary for growing crops. Irrigation plays a key role in stabilizing food production
in a number of countries by either supplementing or replacing the need for natural precipitation for the
purpose of food production.

Irrigation is a key to the ability of many farmers, and even nations, to feed themselves and provide an
adequate standard of living. Irrigation not only protects against drought but brings with it numerous
other benefits as well as occasional problems.

Irrigation can result in a number of benefits for the farmer and his or her community. Irrigation stabilizes
farm production by protecting against drought and by increasing crop yields and quality when rainfall is
insufficient. It permits farmers to grow moisture-sensitive, high-value crops and crops that will improve
their diet. In some areas with proper climates, irrigation allows farmers to raise two or three good crops
in a year. It allows them to plant on time, thus optimizing market conditions. In some areas, irrigation
systems are used for frost protection. There are numerous problems, however that can be caused by
poor design, construction, and management of irrigation systems. Salinization and waterlogging are
other results. Poor design and management of systems often result in irrigation of only one-half or one-
third of the potential area. Thus, costs per unit area may be very high, and the benefits of irrigation may
extend to only a portion of the farmers who could use the water.

Irrigation is only one of many inputs to a farmer's sustainable agricultural system. Cultural practices,
farmer resources, farmer preferences, and other factors will affect the selection, design, construction,
and operation of an irrigation system. Therefore, it is very important that those who work in irrigated
agriculture understand clearly not only the benefits and consequences of irrigation but also what it takes
to maximize or optimize the benefits.
3. What are the types of applying irrigation?

a. Surface irrigation consists of a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is distributed over the
soil surface by gravity flow. The irrigation water is introduced into level or graded furrows or basins,
using siphons, gated pipe, or turnout structures, and is allowed to advance across the field. Surface
irrigation is best suited to flat land slopes, and medium to fine textured soil types which promote the
lateral spread of water down the furrow row or across the basin.

b. Sprinkler irrigation is a method of irrigation in which water is sprayed, or sprinkled through the air in
rain like drops. The spray and sprinkling devices can be permanently set in place (solid set), temporarily
set and then moved after a given amount of water has been applied (portable set or intermittent
mechanical move), or they can be mounted on booms and pipelines that continuously travel across the
land surface (wheel roll, linear move, center pivot).

c. Drip/trickle irrigation systems are methods of microirrigation wherein water is applied through
emitters to the soil surface as drops or small streams. The discharge rate of the emitters is low so this
irrigation method can be used on all soil types.

d. Subsurface irrigation consists of methods whereby irrigation water is applied below the soil surface.
The specific type of irrigation method varies depending on the depth of the water table. When the water
table is well below the surface, drip or trickle irrigation emission devices can be buried below the soil
surface (usually within the plant root zone).

4. How to open rice field? Give the steps.

Land preparation is important to ensure that the rice field is ready for planting. A well-prepared field
controls weeds, recycles plant nutrients, and provides a soft soil mass for transplanting and a suitable
soil surface for direct seeding.

a. Clear the Field

1. At dry field condition, apply glyphosate to kill weeds and for better field hygiene.

2. Irrigate the field 2−3 days after glyphosate application.

3. Maintain standing water at 2−3 cm level for about 3−7 days or until it is soft enough and suitable for
an equipment to be used.

4. Plow or rotovate the field to incorporate stubbles and hasten decomposition.

5. Flood the field. Keep it submerged for at least two weeks. Let the water drain naturally to allow
volunteer seeds and weed seeds to germinate.

b. Wet preparation

Wet preparation may be appropriate if:

1. My farm has access to irrigation.

2. My field is surrounded by bunds that enable flooding.

3. My farm has a loamy to clay type of soil.

4. I have equipment for primary tillage, secondary tillage, and leveling.

c. Dry preparation

Dry preparation may be appropriate if:

1. I do not have access to irrigation and water supply is limited.

2. I have equipment and machinery available for tillage and/or labor is a limiting factor.

3. My farm has a coarse, sandy type of soil.

4. My field has a well-established hard pan, I have planted rice on it many times and I can control weeds
with methods other than flooding.

5. When to irrigate the rice?

Step 1: Determine the reference crop evapotranspiration: ETo

Step 2: Determine the crop factors: Kc

Step 3: Calculate the crop water need: ET crop = ETo x Kc

Step 4: Determine the amount of water needed for land preparation: SAT

In the month before sowing or transplanting, water is needed to saturate the root zone. The amount of
water needed depends on the soil type and rooting depth.

Step 5: Determine the amount of percolation and seepage losses: PERC

The percolation and seepage losses depend on the type of soil. They will be low in very heavy, well-
puddled clay soils and high in the case of more sandy soils. They can best be determined locally.

Step 6: Determine the amount of water needed to establish a water layer: WL

A water layer is established after transplanting. The amount of water needed for maintaining the water
layer has already been taken into account with the determination of the percolation and seepage losses.

Also a common practice is to drain all the water from the field before applying fertilizers and to re-
establish the water layer after the fertilizer application. This, of course, has a significant effect on the
total irrigation water need of the paddy rice.

Step 7: Determine the effective rainfall: Pe

Step 8: Calculate the irrigation water need: IN