TESLA TECHNOLOGY

A collection of research and research materials for advance

research in understanding the true nature of Tesla's
discoveries.

Introduction to
DIELECTRICITY AND
CAPACITANCE
by Eric Dollard

CAPACITANCE
The phenomena of capacitance is a type of electrical energy
storage in the form of a field in an enclosed space. This space
is typically bounded by two parallel metallic plates or two
metallic foils on an intervening insulator or dielectric. A
nearly infinite variety of more complex structures can exhibit
capacity, as long as a difference in electric potential exists
between various areas of the structure. The oscillating coil
represents one possibility as to a capacitor of more complex
form, and will be presented here.

CAPACITANCE INADEQUATELY EXPLAINED

The perception of capacitance as used today is wholly
inadequate for the proper understanding of this effect.
Steinmetz mentions this in his introductory book Electric
Discharges, Waves and Impulses. To quote, "Unfortunately, to
large extent in dealing with dielectric fields the prehistoric
conception of the electrostatic charge (electron) on the
conductor still exists, and by its use destroys the analogy
between the two components of the electric field, the
magnetic and the dielectric, and makes the consideration of
dielectric fields unnecessarily complicated."

LINES OF FORCE AS REPRESENTATION OF DIELECTRICITY

Steinmetz continues, "There is obviously no more sense in
thinking of the capacity current as current which charges the
conductor with a quantity of electricity, than there is of
speaking of the inductance voltage as charging the conductor
with a quantity of magnetism. But the latter conception,
together with the notion of a quantity of magnetism, etc., has
vanished since Faraday's representation of the magnetic field
by lines of force."

THE LAWS OF LINES OF FORCE

All the lines of magnetic force are closed upon themselves, all
dielectric lines of force terminate on conductors, but may
form closed loops in electromagnetic radiation. These
represent the basic laws of lines of force. It can be seen from
these laws that any line of force cannot just end in space.

FARADAY & LINES OF FORCE THEORY

Farady felt strongly that action at a distance is not possible
thru empty space, or in other words, "matter cannot act
where it is not." He considered space pervaded with lines of
force. Almost everyone is familiar with the patterns formed by
iron filings around a magnet. These filings act as numerous
tiny compasses and orientate themselves along the lines of
force existing around the poles of the magnet. Experiment has
indicated that a magnetic field does possess a fibrous
construct. By passing a coil of wire thru a strong magnetic
field and listening to the coil output in headphones, the
experimenter will notice a scraping noise. J. J. Thompson
performed further experiments involving the ionization of
gases that indicate the field is not continuous but fibrous
(electricity and matter, 1906).

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LINES OF FORCE

Consider the space between poles of a magnet or capacitor as
full of lines of electric force. See Fig.1. These lines of force act
as a quantity of stretched and mutually repellent springs.
Anyone who has pushed together the like poles of two
magnets has felt this springy mass. Observe Fig.2. Notice the
lines of force are more dense along AB in between poles, and
that more lines on A are facing B than are projecting outwards
to infinity. Consider the effect of the lines of force on A. These
lines are in a state of tension and pull on A. Because more re
pulling on A towards B than those pulling on A away from B,
we have the phenomena of physical attraction. Now observe
Fig. 3. Notice now that the poles are like rather than unlike,
more or all lines pull A away from B; the phenomena of
physical repulsion.
MASS ASSOCIATED WITH LINES OF FORCE IN MOTION
The line of force can be more clearly understood by
representing it as a tube of force or a long thin cylinder.
Maxwell presented the idea the tension of a tube of force is
representative of electric force (volts/inch), and in addition to
this tension, there is a medium through which these tubes
pass. There exists a hydrostatic pressure against this media or
ether. The value of this pressure is one half the product of
dielectric and magnetic density. Then there is a pressure at
right angles to an electric tube of force. If through the growth
of a field the tubes of force spread sideways or in width, the
broadside drag through the medium represents the magnetic
reaction to growth in intensity of an electric current.
However, if a tube of force is caused to move endwise, it will
glide through the medium with little or no drag as little
surface is offered. This possibly explains why no magnetic
field is associated with certain experiments performed by
Tesla involving the movement of energy with no
accompanying magnetic field.

INDUCTANCE AS AN ANALOGY TO CAPACITY

Much of the mystery surrounding the workings of capacity
can be cleared by close examination of inductance and how it
can give rise to dielectric phenomena. Inductance represents
energy storage in space as a magnetic field. The lines of force
orientate themselves in close loops surrounding the axis of
current flow that has given rise to them. The large the space
between this current and its images or reflections, the more
energy that can be stored in the resulting field.

MECHANISM OF STORING ENERGY MAGNETICALLY

The process of pushing these lines or loops outward, causing
them to stretch, represents storing energy as in rubber band.
A given current strength will hold a loop of force at a given
distance from conductor passing current hence no energy
movement. If the flow of current increases, energy is
absorbed by the field as the loops are then pushed outward at
a corresponding velocity. Because energy is in motion an
E.M.F. must accompany the current flow in order for it to
represent power. The magnitude of this EMF exactly
corresponds to the velocity of the field. Then if the current
ceases changing in magnitude thereby becoming constant, no
EMF accompanies it, as no power is being absorbed. However,
if the current decreases and represents then a negative
velocity of field as the loops contract. Because the EMF
corresponds exactly to velocity it reverses polarity and
thereby reverses power so it now moves out of the field and
into the current. Since no power is required to maintain a
field, only current, the static or stationary field, represents
stored energy.

THE LIMITS OF ZERO AND INFINITY

Many interesting features of inductance manifest themselves
in the two limiting cases of trapping the energy or releasing it
instantly. Since the power supply driving the current has
resistance, when it is switched off the inductance drains its
energy into this resistance that concerts it into the form of
heat. We will assume a perfect inductor that has no self
resistance. If we remove the current supply by shorting the
terminals of the inductor we have isolated it without
interrupting any current. Since the collapse of field produces
EMF this EMF will tend to manifest. However, a short circuit
will not allow an EMF to develop across it as it is zero
resistance by definition. No EMF can combine with current to
form power, therefore, the energy will remain in the field.
Any attempt to collapse forces increased currents which
pushes it right back out This is one form of storage of energy.

INSTANT ENERGY RELEASE AS INFINITY

Very interesting (and dangerous) phenomena manifest
themselves when the current path is interrupted, thereby
causing infinite resistance to appear. In this case resistance is
best represented by its inverse, conductance. The
conductance is then zero. Because the current vanished
instantly the field collapses at a velocity approaching that of
light. As EMF is directly related to velocity of flux, i tends
towards infinity. Very powerful effects are produced because
the field is attempting to maintain current by producing
whatever EMF required. If a considerable amount of energy
exists, say several kilowatt hours* (250 KWH for lightning
stroke), the ensuing discharge can produce most profound
effects and can completely destroy inadequately protected
apparatus.* The energy utilized by an average household in
the course of one day.
ANOTHER FORM OF ENERGY APPEARS
Through the rapid discharge of inductance a new force field
appears that reduces the rate of inductive EMF formation.
This field is also represented by lines of force but these are of
a different nature than those of magnetism. These lines of
force are not a manifestation of current flow but of an electric
compression or tension. This tension is termed voltage or
potential difference.

DIELECTRIC ENERGY STORAGE SPATIALLY DIFFERENT

THAN MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE
Unlike magnetism the energy is forced or compressed
inwards rather than outwards. Dielectric lines of force push
inward into internal space and along axis, rather than pushed
outward broadside to axis as in the magnetic field. Because
the lines are mutually repellent certain amounts of broadside
or transverse motion can be expected but the phenomena is
basically longitudinal. This gives rise to an interesting
paradox that will be noticed with capacity. This is that the
smaller the space bounded by the conducting structure the
more energy that can be stored. This is the exact opposite of
magnetism. With magnetism, the units volumes of energy can
be though of as working in parallel but the unit volumes of
energy in association with dielectricity can be thought of as
working in series.

VOLTAGE IS TO DIELECTRICITY AS CURRENT IS TO

MAGNETISM
With inductance the reaction to change of field is the
production of voltage. The current is proportionate to the
field strength only and not velocity of field. With capacity the
field is produced not by current but voltage. This voltage must
be accompanied by current in order for power to exist. The
reaction of capacitance to change of applied force is the
production of current. The current is directly proportional to
the velocity of field strength. When voltage increases a
reaction current flows into capacitance and thereby energy
accumulates. If voltage does not change no current flows and
the capacitance stores the energy which produced the field. If
the voltage decreases then the reaction current reverses and
energy flows out of the dielectric field.As the voltage is
withdrawn the compression within the bounded space is
relieved. When the energy is fully dissipated the lines of force
vanish.

AGAIN THE LIMITS ZERO AND INFINITY

Because the power supply which provided charging voltage
has internal conductance, after it is switched off the current
leaking through conductance drains the dielectric energy and
converts it to heat. We will assume a perfect capacitance
having no leak conductance. If we completely disconnect the
voltage supply by open circuiting the terminals of the
capacitor, no path for current flow exists by definition of an
open circuit. If the field tends to expand it will tend towards
the production of current. However, an open circuit will not
allow the flow of current as it has zero conductance. Then any
attempt towards field expansion raises the voltage which
pushes the field back inwards. Therefore, energy will remain
stored in the field. This energy can be drawn for use at any
time. This is another form of energy storage.

INSTANT ENERGY RELEASE AS INFINITY

Phenomena of enormous magnitude manifest themselves
when the criteria for voltage or potential difference is
instantly disrupted, as with a short circuit. The effect is
analogous with the open circuit of inductive current. Because
the forcing voltage is instantly withdrawn the field explodes
against the bounding conductors with a velocity that may
exceed light. Because the current is directly related to the
velocity of field it jumps to infinity in its attempt to produce
finite voltage across zero resistance. If considerable energy
had resided in the dielectric force field, again let us say
several KWH the resulting explosion has almost inconceivable
violence and can vaporize a conductor of substantial thickness
instantly. Dielectric discharges of great speed and energy
represent one of the most unpleasant experiences the
electrical engineer encounters in practice.

ENERGY RETURNS TO MAGNETIC FORM

The powerful currents produced by the sudden expansion of a
dielectric field naturally give rise to magnetic energy. The
inertia of the magnetic field limits the rise of current to a
realistic value. The capacitance dumps all its energy back into
the magnetic field and the whole process starts over again.
The inverse of the product of magnetic storage capacity and
dielectric storage capacity represents the frequency or pitch
at which this energy interchange occurs. This pitch may or
may not contain overtones depending on the extent of
conductors bounding the energies.

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE AS REPRESENTATION OF

PULSATION OF ENERGY FIELD
The ratio of magnetic storage ability to that of the dielectric is
called the characteristic impedance. This gives the ratio of
maximum voltage to maximum current in the oscillatory
structure. However, as the magnetic energy storage is
outward and the dielectric storage is inward the total or
double energy field pulsates in shape or size.The axis of this
pulsation of force is the impedance of the system displaying
oscillations and pulsation occurs at the frequency of
oscillation.

ENERGY INTO MATTER

As the voltage or impedance is increased the emphasis is on
the inward flux. If the impedance is high and rate of change is
fast enough (perfect overtone series), it would seem possible
the compression of the energy would transform it into matter
and the reconversion of this matter into energy may or may
not synchronize with the cycle of oscillation. This is what may
be considered supercapacitance, that is, stable long term
conversion into matter.

MISCONCEPTIONS OF PRESENT THEORY OF CAPACITANCE

The misconception that capacitance is the result of
accumulating electrons has seriously distorted our view of
dielectric phenomena. Also the theory of the velocity of light
as a limit of energy flow, while adequate for magnetic force
and material velocity, limits our ability to visualize or
understand certain possibilities in electric phenomena. The
true workings of free space capacitance can be best illustrated
by the following example. It has been previously stated that
dielectric lines of force must terminate on conductors. No line
of force can end in space. If we take any conductor and
remove it to the most remote portion of the universe, no lines
of force can extend from this electrode to other conductors. It
can have no free space capacity, regardless of the size of the
electrode, therefore it can store no energy. This indicates that
the free space capacitance of an object is the sum mutual
capacity of it to all the conducting objects of the universe.

FREE SPACE INDUCTANCE IS INFINITE

Steinmetz in his book on the general or unified behavior of
electricity The Theory and Calculation of Transient Electric
Phenomena and Oscillation, points out that the inductance of
any unit length of an isolated filamentary conductor must be
infinite. Because no image currents exist to contain the
magnetic field it can grow to infinite size. This large quantity
of energy cannot be quickly retrieved due to the finite velocity
of propagation of the magnetic field. This gives a non reactive
or energy component to the inductance which is called
electromagnetic radiation.

WORK OF TESLA, STEINMETZ AND FARDAY

In the aforementioned books of Steinmetz he develops some
rather unique equations for capacity. Tesla devoted an
enormous portion of his efforts to dielectric phenomena and
made numerous remarkable discoveries in this area. Much of
this work is yet to be fully uncovered. It is my contention that
the phenomena of dielectricity is wide open for profound
discovery. It is ironic that we have abandoned the lines of
force concept associated with a phenomena measure in the
units called farads after Farady, whose insight into forces and
fields has led to the possibility of visualization of the electrical
phenomena.

QUESTION AS TO THE VELOCITY OF DIELECTRIC FLUX

It has been stated that all magnetic lines of force must be
closed upon themselves, and that all dielectric lines of force
must terminate upon a conducting surface. It can be inferred
from these two basic laws that no line of force can terminate
in free space. This created an interesting question as to the
state of dielectric flux lines before the field has had time to
propagate to the neutral conductor. During this time it would
seem that the lines of force, not having reached the distant
neutral conductor would end in space at their advancing wave
front. It could be concluded that either the lines of force
propagate instantly or always exists and are modified or
conjugate space exists within the same boundaries as
ordinary space. The properties of lines of force within this
conjugate space may not obey the laws of normally conceived
space.

IMPORTANT REFERENCE MATERIAL

1. Electricity and Matter, J. J. Thompson, New York, l906,

Scribner's Sons, and l904, Yale University.

2. Elementary Lecture on Electric Discharges, Waves, and

Impulses and other Transients, C. P. Steinmetz, second
edition, 1914, McGraw-Hill.

3. Theory and Calculation of Transient Electric Phenomena

and Oscillations, C. P. Steinmetz, third edition, l920, McGraw-
Hill. Section III Transients in Space, Chapter VIII, Velocity of
Propagation of Electric Field.