Journal of Energy Storage 18 (2018) 250–255

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Demands on energy storage for renewable power sources T

⁎
Zdeněk Dostál, Libor Ladányi
University of Zilina, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Aurel Stodola, ul. kpt. J. Nálepku 1390, 031 01 Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak Republic

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The article deals with the issue of energy storage facilities for renewable energy sources. Due to the ratio be-
Renewable energy sources tween power delivery and take-off, the energy storage system is a key element in these systems. It is useful to
Energy storage divide the energy storages into short, long and backup energy storage. Based on an analysis of the energy
Energy consumption consumption of an apartment or habitable unit, it is possible to define the properties of each type of storage.
Power sources

1. Introduction
Like other systems, renewable energy systems must also include
energy storage. These storages are crucial to ensure the continuous
operation of a home or residential unit. Short-term or long-term energy
storage can compensate the differences between income and outcome
energy.
The Renewable Energy Sources (RES) use the direct transformation
of solar radiation through solar cells, concentrators, solar collectors, as
well as the indirect use of solar radiation through biomass, water
sources, heat pumps, wind power plants, the use of marine energy and
so on, … [4–6]. The geothermal resources have a specific position in
RES.
The RES systems may contain various types of energy storage such
as: electrochemical accumulators, superconductors, superconducting
units, rotary, air-pressurized and others. These types of storages are
referred to as short-term. Except this option, long-term storages can be
used, but they work on different principles. Long-term storage tanks
have to keep their energy supply for a period of years. These are, for
example, biofuel containers.
Electrochemical accumulators [1–3,7,8] are currently the best
available to the user. It is also necessary to design the size of the battery
assembly for the short-term energy storage of the required amount of
electricity. Long-term energy storage bases are principally functional,
but not yet technologically finalized for the stage of general use.
Accessibility has a different time profile. Collection of energy from di-
rect or diffused solar radiation is limited by the daily cycle and me-
teorological situation in a particular location on the Earth's surface,
entering the ground level. Wind energy collection is limited by the
regular or irregular occurrence of the wind with the necessary force.
Geothermal energy collection is relatively stable, but it can also be
variable in time. The energy gain from the tidal wave is regular, but it
has phases when the energy is available, or there is a change between
tides and waves. The energy of the sea waves depend on the stormy
situation over the sea. The energy from the water depending on the
actual water flow or the water reservoir over that source.
The most energy form conversion is from the solar energy into
electrical or thermal energy. It may also be changed to positional,
pressure and other type of energy. Energy conversion is also associated
with its storage in buffer dispensers to reduce disproportion between
collection and energy consumption.
The consumer needs to have the available electrical and thermal
energy constantly, but the time profile of consumption may vary. For
example, heating will be approximately constant, we need a stable
room temperature. However, the hot service water is discharged irre-
gularly. Usually in the morning and evening, as a regular the with-
drawal. Over the day, according to the current activity, resumption is
irregular.
A key element for the continued operation of such a RES system is
the energy storage.

2. Definition of RES 3. Reservoirs of energy in RES

Renewable energy sources (RES) on the Earth's surface can be de- The form of available and consumed energy can be the same or
fined as the technical means that collect the available energy within different. Getting heat and heating energy is a good combination, but it
range, modify it and deliver it to the user for consumption. needs a stack to offset timeless processes.
Energy collection is subject to availability of energy in the area. In the case of different forms of available and consumed energy, a

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dostal@lm.uniza.sk (Z. Dostál), ladanyi@lm.uniza.sk (L. Ladányi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2018.05.003
Received 25 September 2017; Received in revised form 30 April 2018; Accepted 3 May 2018
2352-152X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Dostál, L. Ladányi
reservoir is also needed, also to offset the time-lagging processes of
energy generation and consumption. For example, acquiring electricity
from direct sunlight and its consumption on mechanical motion may
also be uncoordinated. The combination of the form of collected and
consumed energy can be a great deal.
It should be noted that in the RES we need to have an energy re-
servoir included due to the continuous operation of RES.
However, by energy manipulation, the fact is that to increase the
efficiency of energy use, it is necessary to use the devices as simply as
possible or without reservoirs. For example, to pump water into the
reservoir, we can use an electric pump that is powered by photovoltaic
panels through an electric accumulator. Here the electric accumulator
acts as a compensating element for the optimal operation of the electric
drive of the pump. However, it is also possible to use a mechanical
method where the blade is driven by the wind and the mechanical
motion of the pump drives the water to the tank. Obviously, the second,
easier way of direct use of mechanical energy is more efficient and
reliable.
If it is not possible to use a more straightforward method of direct
use of the form of energy, it is necessary to use the RES system with a
defined form of energy to carry out all the necessary activities.
For island RES systems, oriented to use for residential units of ci-
tizens, two forms of energy need to be delivered: thermal and electric.
Therefore, the reservoirs should store either directly or indirectly the
form of thermal and electrical energy, or the form of stored energy must
be readily reversible to the two forms.
Keystones for residential units of citizens are storage tanks for heat
and electricity. The user needs to store energy at three-time levels:
• for immediate use (short-term storage),
• for use in periods of lack of energy (long-term storage),
• for use in emergency situations (backup power sources).
3.1. Short-term storage
The principle of short-term storage of heat and electricity is similar.
The energy obtained is stored in this form and, if necessary, withdrawn
from the container.
Heat energy is obtained from the surrounding environment via a
solar collector, heat pump, electric spiral from the electrical system, this
heat energy is stored in the reservoir so as to heat the heat medium.
Heat transfer is usually via the primary circuit from the source to the
stack and back. The medium is often liquid, sometimes fixed or com-
bined. Sometimes heat is stored in the form of a change in the heat
carrier medium. Heat collection is only carried out using a secondary
circuit with heat transfer fluid from the tank to the appliance. The
appliance may be a heater, like a central heating system.
Electricity is obtained from the surrounding environment in pho-
tovoltaic panels, fuel cells, wind generators, water generators, DC
electricity is fed into the storage tank, which is the most common
chemical accumulator. The battery is recharging, energizing and storing
in a chemical reaction. In addition, the accumulator may consist of an
energized flywheel, superconductor, or other device. Electric energy is
taken immediately by connecting an electrical appliance. Then the
battery is discharged, the chemical energy is released in a chemical
reaction. From the flywheel, we get the electric power so that the en-
gine running will change to the generator.
These storages have the advantage that we can take the electricity
instantly as needed. If the charging is at the same time, the battery only
covers the difference between take-off and charging. If the subscription
is small, only the battery charge is reduced by this value.
But they also have drawbacks. Although the thermal container is
heat-isolated to reduce heat loss, losses cannot be reduced to zero. After
a few days, the media temperature drops considerably in the energy
storage. Similarly, the electric accumulator is gradually self-biasing.
Over time, the amount of stored electricity will be reduced.
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Journal of Energy Storage 18 (2018) 250–255
Short-term energy storages must be recharged at every opportunity.
They enable power delivery at the point of time when the power cannot
be recharged. The amount of energy stored overlays only a short period,
the order day. For overclocking for several days, the stack increases
considerably, or it may need to be folded from several standardly
stocked energy storages. This is a disadvantage of short-term storage.
3.2. Long-term storage
The principle of long-term storage of energy is in a form that is
stable over a long period of years.
Often it is about hydrogen. This is one of the perspective ways of
long-term energy storage. The water is decomposed by means of electric
energy by the electrolysis method, for example, in the fuel cell.
Hydrogen and oxygen should be stored in a way that eliminates leakage
and mixing. A great advantage is its non-toxicity in the event of leakage
into the atmosphere. At the same time, the hydrogen reaction with
oxygen generates water which is also capable of repeated decomposi-
tion. The disadvantage is, however, in its considerable explosiveness.
Solving this problem is a technological issue. This problem is expected
to be solved in the future.
Long-term storage of energy is principally in fact, that we acquire
and store energy at a time when it is surplus and is not consumed. It is
then stored for a long time. In a period of shortage of energy, these
stocks are again used to re-release the stored energy. An essential
condition is the requirement to save energy for a long time. The re-
release of the stored energy can be started with a delay and hours
without disturbing the continuous operation of the RES system.
3.3. Backup resources
Back-up power sources are in the RES system exclusively for
emergency purposes. Then there will be a failure or failure of the RES
systems, or in particularly adverse meteorological situations, the energy
has been exhausted in both short and long-term stores.
Back-up resources can be ecological. These are, for example, the
production and drying of wood pellets for use in winter and in emer-
gency situations. However, the possibility of combustion of fossil fuels
(natural gas, diesel) to produce heat or the use of a diesel power plant is
also always available.
The preparation of backup energy sources is appropriate at a time
when all the necessary steps can be taken regardless of the meteor-
ological situation. The purchase of diesel is totally independent of the
availability of energy in the RES system.
4. Approach to dimensioning short-term energy storage
The short-term energy storage is designed for daily energy con-
sumption with a certain reserve. However, meteorological conditions
will sometimes get worse enough, that we must save energy for several
days. No energy can be added during this time. After that the size of the
short-term storage increases algebraically. This process can also in-
crease the cost of purchasing components.
The heuristic method is based on the results of individual insolation
observation during each day. The assessment of the degree of insolation
shall consider:
• The length of the day is variable after the year, in summer it is about
18 h, in winter about 7 h,
• In the case of a clear day, insolation in the summer is approximately
three times, which is given by the length of the day and the angle of
sunshine during the day,
• Also, the degree of insolation is determined by considering whether
the air is clean or the amount of water vapor and smog present,
• The numerical representation of the insolation rate for a given day is
subjective and expressed in 5% increments.
Z. Dostál, L. Ladányi
Fig. 1. Measurement of insolation using the heuristic method in September 2016.
Fig. 2. Measurement of insolation using the heuristic method in September 2016.
Estimating the energy storage size is a challenging task. From the
measurement of the meteorological situation using the pyranometer
and the heuristic method gives us basic information about the real si-
tuation, Figs. 1 and 2.
The heuristic method is very inaccurate in quantitative terms. It is
not rational to compare it with the measurement method. However, this
method gives relatively informative information on days with very low
insolation, ordinarily below 20%. From the monthly report, it is pos-
sible to evaluate periods with direct insolation approaching zero. Such a
period is crucial for the process of designing short- and long-term en-
ergy storage.
The pyranometer was located at the level of the 2nd floor of the
building to allow for insolation of the required part of the day. The
measurement of the pyranometer was
continuous. Measured values were obtained:
• The measurement period was set for 60 s,
• Light noise was minimized based on the evaluation of its level in the
time interval 2 h after midnight each day,
• Light noise was minimized for the current day,
• The resulting insolation value for the current day is the sum of the
insolation rate in all measurement periods.
September 2016 was favorable in case of insolation in Liptovský
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Journal of Energy Storage 18 (2018) 250–255
Mikuláš. Only on September 5–6, September 21, the insolation was
close to zero. At that time, it was cloudy, perhaps even a rainy. For the
next days, insolation was around 80% as Fig. 1. shows.
The results of the pyranometer measurements were in line with the
results of the heuristic method. This shows that, even in a weaker
sunshine, insolation can be relatively high. At that time, diffuse radia-
tion may increase, which does not affect the eye, but the pyranometer
records it as Fig. 2. shows.
Based on the measured and calculated values, the average hor-
izontal plane insolation value is based on September 3.313 kWh/m2 per
day [9].
The design of the short-term energy storage is limited, in particular,
by the required amount of stored energy. At the same time, it must be
determined how many days the short-term storage tank must be sized.
This means the algebraic increase in the size of the short-term stack.
In October 2016, the insolation of Liptovský Mikuláš was quite
small. Up to 12 days, insolation was close to zero. Then it was rainy,
perhaps foggy. The remaining days were insolated to a relatively low,
about 20% or 50%. Only two days were sunny, insolation was about
90%, as Fig. 3. shows. The measured values of the pyranometer are
confirmed by the dynamics of the results of the heuristic method. A
significant difference in measured values is due to the human eye's
ability to adapt to changing light conditions. Then the degree of in-
solation is difficult to determine in Fig. 4. Based on the measured and
Z. Dostál, L. Ladányi Journal of Energy Storage 18 (2018) 250–255

Fig. 3. Measurement of insolation using the heuristic method in October 2016.

calculated values, the average insolation of the horizontal plane is energy consumption will be on a work day, on weekend or holiday.
based on October 1.716 kWh/m2 per day [9]. Consumption of electric energy for heating (E-night) will depend on
the season. Apparently, during the summer this demand will drop to
zero. Unfortunately, on very cold summer it may be partially activated.
5. Access to dimensioning the long-term storage
In the rest of the period, from autumn to spring, the power take-off is
limited by the current weather. It is important to mention the principle
The problem of dimensioning long-term storage must be based on
of energy saving, that most preferable method is to maintain an ap-
an analysis of energy consumption in each residential or other facility.
proximately constant temperature of the building. A shutdown for a
It is necessary to define how much energy is needed for the operation of
period of absence will cause an increase of power consumption at the
this object and from what sources this energy is obtained so far. Fig. 5.
initial heating of the building. Savings will only be partially reflected in
shows an example of the energy consumption profile of a family house
long-term absence in the building. However, it is necessary to ensure
in year 2004. The profile is dependent on the meteorological situation
the keeping constant temperature of the object, that means heating to a
in the given year. In another year it may be similar, but some conditions
reduced temperature.
can be different. If autumn is hot or cold, it will affect the amount of
The consumption of gas for heating and hot water (DHW) shows an
consumed energy. The same goes for the spring. Summer has the spe-
approximately constant process (Gas). This can be partly influenced
cificity of reducing the energy consumption for heating to zero for a
only by changing the number of inhabitants in the building. In the
certain period. Remaining energy consumptions will depend on the
summer, only hot water was heated, from autumn to spring, gas heating
possible change in the number of members of the household or the
was also used.
performed activity. Otherwise, this consumption will be relatively
Another expression of the energy consumptions to cover the needs
stable or constant. In this household, electric heating (E-night), electric
of the household or object is shown in Fig. 6.
household appliances (E-day) was realized. The usage of gas was on the
An example of the household energy consumption structure is
one hand yearly for heating hot water, and for heating in the transition
shown in Fig. 6, the ratio of energy required to run the house or object.
and winter period.
When we express the ratio financially, the graph will be similar.
By analyzing the above-mentioned patterns, it is possible to state:
The graph in Fig. 6 shows similar behavior to all family houses or
The flow of electricity to the function of electrical appliances (E-
residential units. Other types of objects may have these ratios partially
day) is continuously balanced and independent of the season.
changed. However, all objects will require most of the energy for
Dependency will be reflected in the change in the number of members
heating.
of the household and in the performed activity. Another immediate

Fig. 4. Measurement of insolation using the heuristic method in October 2016.

253
Z. Dostál, L. Ladányi
Fig. 5. Example of the energy consumption of family house in 2004.
Fig. 6. Example of energy consumption for family house in 2004.
• By the design of RES, the main effort is to provide energy for heating
and for DHW
• Reducing the amount of energy needed for heating is possible by
reducing the loss of a house or living unit. This can be achieved by
thermal insulation in case of new building. Thermal insulation in
older homes may be questionable. Furthermore, it is necessary to
replace old windows with new ones that may reduce the heat
transfer between surroundings and building. They can be wooden or
plastic, multilayered or double. Older windows need to be sealed.
Doors can also be replaced or re-sealed, or additionally added with
heat insulation to reduce heat leakage out. If there are other struc-
tural elements in the house, they must be sealed and heat-insulated
to reduce heat leakage and thermal bridges.
• Consider heat production with electric heating or gas heating. Gas
heating is evidently cheaper.
• Consider heat production using RES systems, heat pump, solar col-
lectors, or otherwise. Enhance environmental protection by not
burning fossil fuels.
• Weigh or supplement the heat production methods by biomass,
pelleting, wood chips or fuel wood. At present, this way of heating is
a matter of attention and modern furnaces are very efficient. But you
need to choose the right furnace. Combustion of fuel other than that
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Journal of Energy Storage 18 (2018) 250–255
on which the furnace is constructed can cause poor burning and
pollution.
• Electricity consumption to drive electrical elements of these thermal
devices is always lower than heating by electric heaters.
• This may increase the electricity consumption. However, electricity
from the grid can be reduced to a large extent using the RES system.
• With the appropriate setting of the electrical system of RES, excess
electricity can be used to store energy in long-term storage. We can
easily produce electrical energy using photovoltaic panels (FVP),
using a wind generator or a water generator. The storage of elec-
tricity in long-term storage facilities is still unresolved, however a
number of ways already exist. For example, the most promising way
is the hydrogen economy. Also there are some possibilities to use
rotary flywheels, superconductors, or cryogenic magnetic reservoirs.
The main problem is the unresolved technology of using these de-
vices for small, individual use.
The design of a long-term energy storage is limited primarily by the
estimated amount of energy that is missing throughout the year and is
not covered by the short-term storage. It is further defined by the speed
of switching from the energy storage mode and the power take-off mode
from the long-term storage.
The limit switch between long-term storage and non-use of the
short-term stack should be evaluated from the insolation measurement
in the current location. The decision can also be evaluated from the
results of a rather inaccurate heuristic method. This will tell us quite
reliably how many days without insolation follow. And also how many
times a month this case occurred. Such a situation does not allow re-
charging the short-term stack.
According to a rough estimate, the switching threshold can be ex-
pected at 2 to 3 days without insolating one after the other.
For example, energy sources, such as those obtained from photo-
voltaic panels, must be able to cover the long-term storage tank in a
period of surplus energy so as to be able to cover an all-year shortage of
energy.
6. Conclusion
Energy storage facilities are a key element for the continuous supply
of RES energy. The dividing to short, long and backup stocks is ad-
vantageous due to disproportion between supply and take-off.
The design of long-term storage facilities must be based on an
analysis of the house or residential unit. The entire RES system will
Z. Dostál, L. Ladányi
probably be hybrid, composed of several systems that can work to-
gether. It must be designed to provide energy for as long as possible for
the whole year of operation of the house or residential unit. Due to the
differences between energy availability in winter and summer, it is
necessary to use a period of excess energy for storing energy in long-
term and reserve storage.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by project ITMS: 26220120046, co-funded
from EU sources and European Regional Development Fund. This work
was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under
the contract No. APVV-0888-11. This work was supported by the Slovak
Agency VEGA under the contract No. VEGA 2/0076/15. This work was
supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the
contract No. APVV-15-0152.
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Journal of Energy Storage 18 (2018) 250–255
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