Identity through work[edit]

By working in an organization, employees identify, to some extent, with the organization, as part of a
collective group.[3] Organizational values, norms and interests become incorporated in the self-
concept as employees increase their identification with the organization. However, employees also
identify with their outside roles, or their "true self".[4]Examples of these could include:
parental/caretaker roles, identifications with certain groups, religious affiliations, align with
certain values and morals, mass media etc.[3]
Employee interactions with the organization, through other employees, management, customers, or
others, reinforces (or resists) the employee identification with the organization.[4]Simultaneously, the
employee must manage their "true self" identification. In other words, identity is "fragmented and
constructed" through a number of interactions within and outside of the organization; employees do
not have just one self.
Most employees identify not only with the organization, but also other facets of their life
(family, children, religion, etc.). Sometimes these identities align and sometimes they do not. When
identities are in conflict, the sense of a healthy work–life balance may be affected. Organization
members must perform identity work so that they align themselves with the area in which they are
performing to avoid conflict and any stress as a result.[4]

Causes of work–life imbalance[edit]

There are three moderators that are correlated with work–life imbalance: Gender, time spent at
work, and family characteristics.[5]
Gender differences could lead to a work–life imbalance due to the distinct perception of role identity.
It has been demonstrated that men prioritize their work duties over their family duties to provide
financial support for their families, whereas women prioritize their family life.[6]
Spending long hours at work due to "inflexibility, shifting in work requirements, overtime or evening
work duties" could lead to an imbalance between work and family duties.[7] It has been demonstrated
"that time spent at work positively correlate with both work interference with family and family
interference with work, however, it was unrelated to cross-domain satisfaction" [5] This could be due
to the fact that satisfaction is a subjective measure. This being said, long hours could be interpreted
positively or negatively depending on the individuals. Working long hours affect the family duties, but
on the other side, there are financial benefits that accompany this action which negate the effect on
family duties.[5]
Family characteristics include single employers, married or cohabiting employers, parent employers,
and dual-earning parents. Parents who are employed experience reduced family satisfaction due to
their family duties or requirements.[5] This is due to the fact that they are unable to successfully
complete these family duties. In addition, parent workers value family-oriented activities; thus,
working long hours reduces their ability to fulfill this identity, and, in return, reduces family
satisfaction. As for the married and/ or dual-earning couples, it seems that "not only require more
time and effort at home but also are a resource for individuals to draw from, both instrumentally
through higher income and emotionally through increased empathy and support." [5]
In addition to these moderators that could lead to an imbalance, many people expose themselves to
unsolicited job stress, because they enjoy high social recognition. This aspect can also be the cause
of an imbalance in the areas of life.[8] However, other occupational activities could also lead to such
an imbalance, for example, unpaid labor such as contribution to house and garden work,
maintenance and support of family members or volunteer activities. All of these contribute to the
perception of a chronic lack of time.[9]Lacking time leads to pressure, which is experienced differently
based on the individual's age, the age and number of children in the household, marital status, the
profession and level of employment and the income level.[10] Strong pressure of time leads to
increased psychological strain, which in turn affects health. Psychological strain is also affected by
the complexity of work, the growing responsibilities, concerns for long-term existential protection and
more.[11] The mentioned stresses and strains could lead in the long term to irreversible, physical
signs of wear as well as to negative effects on the human cardiovascular and immune systems.[12]

Role of gender and family[edit]

Main article: Work–family conflict
Work–life conflict is not gender-specific. According to the Center for American Progress, 90 percent
of working mothers and 95 percent of working fathers report work–family conflict.[13] However, due
to social norms surrounding gender roles, and how the organization views its ideal worker, men and
women handle the work–life balance differently. Organizations play a large part in how their
employees deal with work–life balance. Some companies have taken proactive measures in
providing programs and initiatives to help their employees cope with work–life balance.
The conflict of work and family can be exacerbated by perceived deviation from the "ideal worker"
archetype, leading to those with caretaker roles to be perceived as not as dedicated to the
organization. This has a disproportionate impact on working mothers,[14] who are seen as less worthy
of training than childless women.[15]
Many authors believe that parents being affected by work–life conflict will either reduce the number
of hours one works, where other authors suggest that a parent may run away from family life or work
more hours at a workplace.[16] This implies that each individual views work–life conflict differently.
Research conducted by the Kenexa Research Institute (KRI) evaluated how male and female
workers perceive work–life balance and found that women are more positive than men in how they
perceive their company’s efforts to help them balance work and life responsibilities. The report is
based on the analysis of data drawn from a representative sample of 10,000 U.S. workers who were
surveyed through WorkTrends, KRI’s annual survey of worker opinions. The results indicated a shift
in women’s perceptions about work–life balance. In the past, women often found it more difficult to
maintain balance due to the competing pressures at work and demands at home.[17]
"The past two decades have witnessed a sharp decline in men’s provider role, caused in part by
growing female labor participation and in part by the weakening of men’s absolute power due to
increased rates of unemployment and underemployment," states sociologist Jiping Zuo. She
continues, "Women’s growing earning power and commitment to the paid workforce together with
the stagnation of men’s social mobility make some families more financially dependent on women.
As a result, the foundations of the male dominance structure have been eroded."[18]
In recent research by Pew Research Center, it is reported that half of working mothers and fathers
believe it is a challenge to simultaneously be a professional and a parent. Generally speaking, men
have more interests in financial gain which requires working longer hours. Women tend to report
higher desires of flexibility between profession and home life, which can allow them to be at home
more frequently.[19]

Changes in perceived gender roles[edit]

Today there are many young women who do not want to just stay at home and do housework
without having careers. About 64% of mothers whose youngest child was under age six—as well as
77% of mothers with a youngest child age 6–17—were employed in 2010, indicating that the majority
of women with dependent-care responsibilities cannot, or do not, wish to give up careers. While
women are increasingly represented in the workforce, they still face challenges balancing work and
home life. Both domestic and market labor compete for time and energy. "For women, the results
show that only time spent in female housework chores has a significant negative effect on wages".[20]
Many men do not see work alone as providing their lives with full satisfaction, and they often want a
balance between paid work and personal attachments, without being penalized at work.[21][22] These
men may desire to work part-time, in order to spend more time with their families.[23][24]
More men are realizing that work is not their only primary source of fulfillment from life. A new study
on fatherhood (2010) shows that more men are looking for alternatives to their 40-hour workweek in
order to spend more time with their family. Though working less means a smaller paycheck and
higher stress levels, men are looking for flexibility just as much as women. However, with an ever-
changing society, flexibility is becoming much more apparent. "It seems that some traditional
stereotypes are starting to lessen just a bit in terms of who’s responsible for care of the children,"
says human resource specialist Steve Moore. Traditionalism is becoming less frequent due to what’s
actually practical for each individual family.[25]
Men often face an unequal opportunity to family life, as they are often expected to be the financial
supporter of the family unit. According to Garey and Hansen, "the masculine ideal of a worker
unencumbered by caregiving obligations is built into workplace structures and patterns of reward."[26]