General Introduction Dissolved Oxygen: Notes On Water Supply, Sanitation and Fire Fighting

Notes on Water supply, Sanitation and Fire fighting
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Dissolved Oxygen
The determination of dissolved oxygen present in sewage is very important, because : while discharging
the treated sewage into some river stream, it is necessary to ensure at least 4 ppm of D.O. in it.; otherwise,
fish are likely to be killed, creating nuisance near the Vicinity of disposal. To ensure this D.O. tests are
performed during sewage disposal treatment processes.
The D.O. test performed on sewage before treatment helps in indicating the, condition of sewage. It is well
known by now, that only very fresh sewage Contains some dissolved oxygen, which is soon deplete d by
aerobic decomposition. Also, the dissolved oxygen in fresh sewage depends upon temperature. If the
temperature of sewage is more, the D.O. content will be less. The solubility of oxygen in sewage is 95% of
that in distilled water
The D.O. content of sewage is generally determined by the Winkler's method which an oxidation-reduction
process is carried out chemically to liberate iodine in amount equivalent to the quantity of dissolved oxygen
originally present.
Chemical Oxygen'Demand (C.O.D.)

This test is sometimes Carried out on sewage in order to determine the extent of readily oxidisable organic
matter present in sewage. Potassium dichromate (K2Cr O) or potassium permanganate which are oxidising
agents are used to destroy the organic matter. Potassium dichromate is generally preferred.
In order to perform this test, a known quantity of sewage is mixed with a known quantity of standard
solution of potassium dichromate, and the mixture is heated. The organic matter is oxidised by potassium
dichromate (in the presence of H2SO4). The resulting solution of potassium dichromate is titrated, and the
oxygen used for oxidising the sewage is determined. This is called chemical oxygen demand (C.O.D.) and
is a measure of organic matter present in sewage.
The organic matter, infact, is of two types: i.e, {i) that which is biologically oxidised (i.e. oxidised by
bacteria) and is called biologically yactive or biologically degradable; and (ii) that which cannot be oxidised
biologically, and is called biologically inactive. Truly speaking, while testing sewage, we are mainly
interested in finding the amount of biologically active organic matter present in sewage; whereas, the above
test gives the total of biologically active as well as biologically inactive organic matter. Hence, further test is
carried out to determine the biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D.) of sewage, which directly gives us the
amount of biologically active organic matter present in sewage.
Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand

The most important test of wastewater is that for determining its biochemical Oxygen demand, popularly
called BOD.
If sufficient oxygen is available in waste water, the useful aerobic bacteria will flourish and Cause the
aerobic biological decomposition of wastewater, which will continue until oxidation is completed. The
amount of oxygen consumed in this process is the BOD. Polluted waters will continue to absorb oxygen for
many months, and it is not practically feasible to determine this ultimate oxygen demand.
Hence, the BOD of water during 5 days at 20 degrees Centigrade is generally taken as the standard
Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.
demand, and is about 68% of the total demand. A 10 day-BOD is-about 90% of the total.
This standard 5 day BOD, written as BOD5, or simply as BOD is determined in the laboratory by mixing or
diluting a known volume a sample of wastewater with a known volume of aerated pure water, and then
calculating the D.O. of this diluted sample. The diluted sample is then incubated for 5 days at 20 degrees
centigrade. The D.O. of the diluted sample, after this period of incubation, is again calculated. .
The difference between the initial D.O. value and the final D.O. value will indicate the oxygen consumed by
the sewage sample in 5 days (used in causing aerobic decomposition. of waste). The BOD in ppm is then
calculated by using the equation
BOD or BOD5 = D.O. consumed in the test by the diluted sample X [Vol. of the diluted sample / Vol. of the
undiluted sewage sample]
The factor on the right hand side in the above equation is nothing but the dilution factor.
The Oxygen Deficit of a Polluted River-Stream

The oxygen deficit D at any time in a polluted river-stream is the difference between the actual D. O.
content of water at that time and the saturation D.O. content at the water temperature; i.e.
[ Oxygen deficit (D) = Saturation D.O. - Actual D.O.]
In order to maintain clean conditions in a river-stream, the oxygen deficit must be nil and this can be found
out by knowing the rates of de-oxygenation and re-oxygenation.
De-oxygenation Curve
In a polluted stream, the D.O. content goes on reducing due to decomposition of volatile organic matter.
The rate of de-oxygenation depends upon the amount of the organic matter remaining to be oxidized at the
given time (i.e. Lt) ws-well as on the temperature of reaction (i.e. T). Hence, at a given temperature, the
curve showing depletion of D.O. with time, i.e. de-oxygenation curve is similar to the first stage B.O.D.
curve
Re-oxygenation Curve
In order to counter-balance the consumption of D.O. due to de-oxygenation, atmosphere supplies oxygen
to the water, and the process is called re-oxygenation. The rate at which the oxygen is supplied by the
atmosphere to the polluted water depends upon:
(i) the depth of the receiving water (rate is more in a shallow depth);
(ii) the condition of the body of water (rate is more in a running stream than in a quiescent pond) ;
(iil) the saturation deficit or the oxygen deficit (i.e. the deficit of D.O. below the saturation value) ; and
(iv) the temperature of water
Depending upon these factors, the rate of re-oxygenation can also be expressed mathematically and
plotted in the form of a curve called re-oxygenation curve
Oxygen Deficit Curve

In a running polluted stream exposed to the atmosphere, the de-oxygenation as well as the re-oxygenation
go hand in hand. If de-oxygenation is more rapid than the re-oxygenation, an oxygen deficit results.
[Note. If the D.O. content becomes zero, aerobic conditions will no longer be maintained and putrefaction
will set in.]
The amount of resultant oxygen deficit can be obtained by algebraically adding the de-oxygenation and re-
oxygenation curves. The resultant curve so obtained is called the oxygen sag curve or the oxygen deficit
curve. From this curve, the oxygen deficit and oxygen balance (i.e. 100 – D) percent in a stream after a
certain lapse of time can be found out.
It can also be seen that when the de-oxygenation rate exceeds the re-oxygenation rate, the oxygen sag
curve shows increasing deficit oxygen; but when both the rates become equal, the critical point is reached,
and then finally when the rate of de-oxygenation falls below that of re-oxygenation, the oxygen deficit goes
on decreasing till becoming zero
The following requirements are essential for a good distribution system:

1. The system should be cheap.
2. The system should meet the fire demand.
3. The system should be water tight to avoid any loss due to leakage.
4. It should be easy to operate and maintain.
5. Degree of purity of water should be maintained.
6. The system should be reliable i.e. if one pipe fails, the supply should reach the area from the other
pipe line.
7. The system should maintain the desired pressure in the pipes so that consumer may get ample
water at all times.

SANITATION
DRAINAGE PLANS OF BUILDINGS
Before starting the plumbing work, it is necessary to prepare detailed plans of the proposed house drainage
system for its approval from the competent' authority.
The following points should be kept in mind while preparing the drainage plans.
(1) To a convenient scale. the site plan of the building should be drawn. The positions of gully traps should
be marked on it.
(2) The longitudinal section of proposed sewer line should be drawn to a convenient scale.
(3) The particulars regarding distances, ground levels, invert levels, depths of cutting sizes of chamber and
manhole size and gradients of pipes etc. should be marked in the longitudinal sections of drains.
(4) The position and level of public sewer-.should be clearly shown on the site plan and in the longitudinal
section of drains.
(5) The position of floor traps and sanitary fittings of different floors of building should be shown in the plan.
(6) The house drain are laid as per details of the approved drainage plan of the buildings.

HOUSING DRAINAGE
Layout
(1) Separate pipes should be provided for sewage and rain water.
(2) Sewage pipes should be connected to sewers.
(3) All pipes should be laid in straight lines as far as possible in both the vertical and horizontal planes.
(4) No bends and junctions are to be permitted in sewers except at manholes and inspection chambers.
(5) All junctions of pipe should be oblique and the contained angle should be not more than 45°.
(6) If it is necessary to lay a drain under a building, pipes shall be of cast iron and drains shall be laid in a
straight line and at a uniform gradient. Manholes shan be provided at each end immediately outside the
building. Drain shall be taken under a staircase room or a passage.
(7) The following gradients shall be adopted:
Pipe diameter (mm) Gradient
100 1 in 35
150 1 in 65
230 1 in 120
300 1 in 200
This gradient will anow the discharge of three times the dry-weather .flow while pipe will flow only half full.
(8) A minimum size of 100 mm shall be used.
(9) All vertical soil, waste, ventilating, and anti-siphonage pipes should be covered on top with a copper or
heavily galvanised iron wire dome or cast iron terminal guards. Cast iron pipes should be painted
periodically.
(10) Waste pipes: Every pipe in a building for carrying off the waste or overflow water from bath, wash
basin, or sink to a drain should be of 32-50 mm diameter.
(11) Ventilating pipes: The drain pipes carrying waste water and sewage should be provided with at least
one ventilating pipe. This ventilating pipe or shaft should be carried to a height of at least 600 mm above
the outer covering of the roof in case of pitched roof, 1200 mm above the parapet in case offlat roof, and
not less than 3 m above plinth level in any case.
(12) Anti-siphonage pipes: The minimum diameter of these pipes for soil pipe should be 50 mm, and for
waste pipes 40 mm.
(13) Manhole and inspection chamber: At every change of alignment, gradient, or diameter of a drain, there
should be a manhole or inspection chamber. .
(14) Rain water pipes: A rain water pipe conveying rain water should discharge directly or by means of a
channel into or over an inlet to a surface drain or shall discharge freely in a compound drained to a surface
drain. Normally, rain water pipes should not be less than 650 mm2 bore for every 5-6 m2 of roof surface
drained, and with a minimum diameter of 75 mm. The distance between two pipes should be about 6m.
(15) Roof gutters: They should gerte.rally be of galvanised iron sheets having a thickness of 1.25 mm. The
gutter should be semi-circular in s:ction with a width at top of about twice the diameter of the downtake
pIpe. The gutter should be fixed 25 mm below the edge of the roof. M.S. bracket 25 mm wide and 6 mm
thick are to be used to support the gutter at about 1.2 m intervals. A convenient met~od would be to fix the
bracket to every alternate rafter. Ends of guttenng should be closed with galvanised sheet. Gutters should
have a general minimum fall of 1 in 120.
Drainage, as distinct from plumbing, is a system whereby waste products from baths, wash-basins, water
closets and sinks together with rain are collected and discharged into public sewers, septic tanks,
soakaways or cesspools. The drain layer's work begins where the plumber's stops. The construction of
drains is therefore principally the concern of the blocklayer. The very poor way in which drainage work is
carried out in some towns and cities makes it necessary to treat the subject in some depth at this stage of
studies. A radical change in housing drainage in the future depends mainly on the seriousness that is
attached to the subject now
Principles of drainage
The following principles apply to every drainage scheme.
1. Materials used to be of the best quality.

2. Drains to be provided with sound foundations laid with uniform gradient (the availability of flexible
plastic pipes may make this provision unnecessary).
3. Adequate means of inspection and cleaning to be provided by the construction of inspection chambers
at changes of direction and other convenient positions. As many branch drains should be included as
possible.
4. Pipes should, as far as it is practicable, be laid in straight lines between inspection chambers.
5. Drains on completion must be airtight and watertight, be of good workmanship with a clear bore
throughout and be self-cleansing.
6. All traps must be self-cleansing and have an adequate water seal.
7. Branches should connect the main line in an inspection chamber. In some circumstances, it is possible
to use a branch junction, which joins the main drain obliquely in the direction of the flow.
8. Drains to have adequate ventilation.
9. Rainwater pipes, sinks, lavatory basins and bath waste must discharge over gullies outside the
building.
10. Water closets must connect direct to drains; upper water closets being connected to well ventilated soil
pipes.
11. No drain should pass under a building, unless it becomes unavoidable, in which case the section under
the building must be encased in concrete not less than 150 mm thick.
A DRAINAGE SYSTEM SHALL SATISFY THE FOLLOWING REQUIREMENTS:

1. Rapid and efficient removal of liquid wastes without leakage;
2. Prevention of access of foul gases to the building and provision for their escape from the system;
3. Adequate and easy access for clearing obstructions;
4. Prevention of undue external or internal corrosion, or erosion of joints and protection of materials of
construction; and
5. Avoidance of air locks, siphonage, proneness to obstruction, deposit and damage.
RAIN WATER PIPES FOR DRAINAGE OF ROOFS

1. The roofs of the building shall be so constructed or frame as to permit effectual drainage of rain water
therefrom by means of a sufficient number of rain water pipes of adequate size so arranged, jointed
and fixed as to ensure that the rain water is carried away from the building without causing dampness
in any part of the walls or foundations of the building or those of an adjacent building.
2. The rain water pipes shall be fixed to the outside of the external walls of the building or in recesses or
chases cut or formed in such external wall or in such other manner as may be approved by the
authority.

3. The rainwater shall directly be drained to surface drain but in no case shall it discharge directly into any
closed drain.
4. Whenever it is not possible to discharge a rain water pipe to a surface drain or in a street drain within
30m from the boundary of the premises, such rain water pipes shall discharge into a gully trap which
shall be connected with the street drain for storm water.
5. If such street drain is not available within 30m of the boundary of the premises, a rain water pipe may
discharge directly into the kerb drain and shall be taken through a pipe outlet across the footpath, if
any, without obstructing the path.
6. A rain water pipe shall not discharge into or connect with any soil pipe or its ventilating pipe or any
waste pipe.
7. Rain water pipe shall be constructed of cast iron, asbestos cement, galvanized sheet or other equally
suitable material and shall be securely fixed.
8. Rain water pipes shall be normally sized on the roof area. A bell mouth inlet at the roof surface is found
to give better drainage effect, provided proper slopes are given to the roof surface. The spacing of
pipes depends on the position of the windows and arch openings, but 6m apart is the convenient
distance. The stainer area shall be one and half to two times the area of pipe to which it connects.
THREE SYSTEMS OF SEWERAGE

(i) Separate system: In this system two sets of sewers are laid. One sewer is meant for carrying sewage;
while the other, for carrying storm water
(ii) Combined system: in this system, the same sewer is intended to carry sanitary sewage, industrial
sewage and storm water
(iii) Partially separate system or partially combined system: in this system also only one set of sewer is
laid. During small rainfalls, the rainwater is collected and conveyed along with sanitary sewage. If the
amount of storm water exceeds a certain limit, it is collected and conveyed in open drains, while sewage
continues to flow through sewers.
TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS OF SEWERS

1. Rectangular
2. Circular
3. Semi-elliptical
4. Horseshoe
5. Egg-shaped

SYSTEMS OF PLUMBING
There are four systems adopted in plumbing of drainage work in a building
1. Single stack system

2. One pipe system
3. One pipe system partially ventilated
4. Two pipe system
1. Single stack system

This is a simplified one-pipe system without ventilation pipe work. The trap of water closet, sinks, basins, is
directly connected to single stack. The pipe, in addition, also acts as a vent pipe. The single stack system is
economical.
2. One pipe system

In his, a single soil waste pipe conveys both soil and waste directly to the building drain. A separate vent
pipe is provided. Hence, it is more effective than the single stack system. The vent pip provides ventilation
to water seal of all the traps.

3. One pipe system partially ventilated

This system combines the one pipe and single stack system. In this system, only one soil waste pipe
conveys both soil and waste. The separate vent pipe provides ventilation only to the traps of water closets.
4. Two pipe system

In this system two pipes are provided. One pipe collects all soil wastes from urinals and lavortary wastes.
The other pipe collects the unfoul water from kitchen, bathroom, house washings, rain water, etc. The soil
pipes are directly connected to the drain.

TRAPS
A trap is a fitting provided in a drainage system to prevent entry of foul air or gases from the sewer or drain
into the building. The barrier to the passage of foul air is provided by the water seal in the trap. A trap is
merely a double bend or loop in the sanitary fitting, the depth of water seal being the distance of the first
bend and the bottom of the second. The deeper the seal the more efficient is the trap. The depth of the
water seal varies from 40 to 75 mm. The trap should always be fitted close to the waste or soil fitting unless
the trap is an integral part of the fitting as in case of European WC (siphon type).
What Does Anti-siphon or Backflow Prevention Mean?
The water supply in our homes is normally under pressure, but occasions can arise when the pressure
drops. For example, if there is a fire in your neighborhood and the fire department begins to pump large
amounts of water; the water pressure in the surrounding area can drop. This low pressure or no pressure
can contribute to a condition that allows water to flow backwards. If at the same time, a fixture in the house
is open and submerged in water, water can be siphoned back into the water supply.
Built-in Anti-siphon Protection

What does this have to do with toilets? The refill valves in many older toilets do not have builtin anti-siphon
protection, and it is possible for the water stored in a toilet tank without anti-siphon protection to be drawn
back into the water supply. About the only time you'd even know this was happening is if you use a "toilet
tank cleaner" that turns the water blue. When I was teaching, I had a number of students tell of turning the
water on in the bathtub and finding that it was blue. Their water supply had experienced low pressure or no
pressure just before this event, and the blue water in their toilet tank had been sucked back into the supply

TYPES OF TRAPS
Depending upon the shape-the commonly used traps are P-trap, Q-trap and S-trap, named after the
letters they resemble

Depending on the use and location, the various types of traps can be broadly summarised as:
(i) Floor trap (Nahani trap)
(ii) Gulley trap
(iii) Intercepting trap
(iv) Grease and oil traps
(v) Silt trap.
Floor Trap (Nahani Trap)

Floor traps are provided in floors to collect waste water from kitchen sinks, bathroom floors, washing floors,
etc. A floor trap forms the starting point of waste flow. The trap is made of cast iron or PVC, provided with a
removable grating at top so as to prevent the entry of solid matter. The depth of water seal of floor trap
should not be less than 40 mm.
Multi-floor Trap
Used in places where many sanitary fittings, like wash-basin, sink, floor drainage is connected to a single
floor trap. Use of multi-floor trap is advisable to prevent the leakage due to faulty/connection.
Leakage in floor trap is caused due to the improper installation of the trap. Thus, while installing the floor
trap the following points should be considered: - Determine the correct location of the floor trap and set it on
a firm base, located relative to the floor finish by pouring concrete on a slab.
- The boss shoulders should be drilled out as required using a hole-cutter, taking care not to damage the
surface of the shoulders.
- Bedding can be carried out by pouring concrete around the floor trap, ensuring that the trap outlet is left
clear of concrete.
-50 mm or 40 mm (reducing bush) pipe can be inserted as required and two surfaces can be solvent
cemented to make a permanent leak proof joint. - The outlet pipe can be inserted as required and solvent
cement to make a leak proof joint. Height raisers can be used to adjust the height of floor trap according to
the floor tiles.
. Remove floor trap top section, i.e. top-tile and insert the raiser piece into body and joint by solvent cement
method.
. Replace removed floor trap top section on the top of height-raiser piece again by solvent cement method.
. Boss saddles strip of required inlet of 40 mm or 50 mm can also be used for connecting incoming waste
line connections to the height-raiser piece of required angle / direction and height.
Gulley Trap
The gulley trap is usually situated near the external face of the wall. It disconnects the waste water flowing
from kitchen, bathroom, wash-basin and floors from the main drainage system This is a deep seal trap
forming a barrier for preventing the foul gases from house drain to the inside of the
building. It is made of cast iron or glazed stoneware. Grating is provided on top to retain all solid matter. It is
fitted in a small masonry enclosure to meet the requirements of invert levels of waste pipes discharging into
the gulley trap. The water seal of about 60 to 70 mm is provided in the gulley trap. Gulley trap is provided in
the waste pipe only. The maximum distance between
the gulley trap and the first manhole should be 6 m.
Intercepting Trap
This trap is provided at the last manhole, Le. at the junction of house drain (inspection chamber) and the
public sewer so as to prevent the entry of foul air from public sewers to the house
drain. The trap is made of glazed stoneware with an inspection arm for the purpose of cleaning or
inspection The inspection arm is kept closed by a lid or plug. The water seal is deeper than that of normal
traps (not less than 100 mm).Though the use of intercepting trap is not essential; the provision of this trap
is sometimes made compulsory by the local authority and thus it is a matter of policy of local authority.


Grease and Oil Traps

These are chambers provided on the sewer line to exclude grease and oil from sewage before it enters the
sewer line These traps work on the principle that grease or oil being light in weight float on the surface of
sewage. Thus, the inlet pipe is near the top of the chamber and the outlet pipe is near the bottom.
The grease and oil traps are located near the sources contributing grease and oil to sewage like automobile
repair workshops, grease and oil producing industries, garages, hotel kitchens, etc. If grease or oil is not
removed, it sticks to the sides of sewer, reducing its capacity. Moreover, presence of grease or oil in sewer
adversely affects the biochemical reactions during sewage treatment.
Silt Trap
Silt traps are provided only in situations where the waste water carries large amount of silt, sand, coarse
particles, etc. Silt traps work on the principle that silt, sand being heavier settle down in
the chamber. Silt trap is a masonry chamber where inlet and outlets are provided at the higher level so that
the silt, sand settles down.

INSPECTION CHAMBERS (MANHOLES)
General
A manhole or inspection chamber shall be capable of sustaining the loads which may be imposed on it,
exclude sub-soil water and be water-tight. The size of the chamber should be sufficient to permit ready
access to the drain or sewer for inspection, cleaning and rodding and should have a removable cover of
adequate strength, constructed of suitable and durable material. Where the depth of the chamber so
requires, access rungs, step irons, ladders or other means should be provided to ensure safe access to the
level of the drain or sewer. If the chamber contains an open channel, benching should be provided having a
smooth finish and formed so as to allow the foul matter to flow towards the pipe and also ensure a safe
foothold.
No manhole or inspection chamber shall be permitted inside a building or in any passage therein. Further,
ventilating covers shall not be used for domestic drains.
At every change of alignment, gradient or diameter of a drain, there shall be a manhole or inspection
chamber. Bends and junctions in the drains shall be grouped together in manholes as far as possible.
Spacing of manholes
The spacing of manholes for a given pipe size should be as follows:
Where the diameter of a drain is increased, the crown of the pipes shall be fixed at the same level and the
necessary slope given in the invert of the manhole chamber. In exceptional cases and where unavoidable,
the crown of the branch sewer maybe fixed at a lower level, but in such cases the peak flow level of the two
sewers shall be kept the same.
Size of manhole
The manhole or chamber shall be of such size as will allow necessary examination or clearance of drains.
The size of manhole shall be adjusted to take into account any increase in the number of entries into the
chamber.
Manholes may be rectangular, arch or circular type. The minimum internal size of manholes, chambers
(between faces of masonry) shall be as follows:

Bed Concrete
The manhole shall be built on a bed of concrete 1:4:8 (1 cement: 4 coarse sand: 8 graded stone aggregate
40 mm nominal size). The thickness of bed concrete shall be at least 150 mm for manholes upto 0.9 m in
depth, at least 200 mm for manholes from 0.90 m upto 2.5 m in depth and at least 300 mm for manholes of
greater depth, unless the structural design demands higher thickness.
Brickwork
The thickness of walls shall be designed depending upon its shape and taking onto account all loads
coming over it, including earth pressure and water pressure. Generally the brickwork shall be with first class
bricks in cement mortar 1:5 (1 cement: 5 coarse sand). All brickwork in manhole chambers and shafts shall
be carefully built in English Bond, the jointing faces of each brick being well “buttered” with cement mortar
before laying, so as to ensure a full joint.

Channels and benching

These shall be semi-circular in the bottom half and of diameter equal to that of the sewer. Above the
horizontal diameter, the sides shall be extended vertically 50 mm above the crown of sewer pipe and
the top edge shall be suitably rounded off. The branch channels shall also be similarly constructed with
respect to the benching, but at their junction with the main channel an appropriate fall, if required suitably
rounded off in the direction of flow in the main channel shall be given.
The channel drain and benching at the bottom of the chamber shall be done in cement concrete 1:2:4 and
Subsequently plastered with cement mortar of 1:2 proportion or weaker cement mortar with a suitable
waterproofing compound and finished smooth, to the grade (where required). The benching at the sides
shall be carried up in such a manner as to provide no lodgment for any splashing in case of accidental
flooding of the chamber. Channels shall be rendered smooth and benchings shall have slopes towards the
channel.
Rungs
Rungs shall be provided in all manholes over 0.8 m in depth and shall be of preferably of cast. These rungs
may be set staggered in two vertical rungs which may be 300 mm apart horizontally as well as vertically
and shall project a minimum of 100 mm beyond the finished surface if the manhole wall. The top rung shall
be 450 mm below the manhole cover and the lowest not more than 300 mm above the benching.
Manhole covers and frames

The size of manhole covers shall be such that there shall be a clear opening of at least 500 mm in diameter
for manholes exceeding 0.90 m in depth. The manhole covers and frames are used they shall conform to
accepted standards.
The frame of manhole shall be firmly embedded to concrete alignment and level in plain concrete on the
top of masonry.
Drop manhole
Where it is uneconomic or impracticable to arrange the connection within 600 mm height above the invert
of the manholes, the connection shall be made by constructing a vertical shaft outside the manhole
chamber, as shown. If the difference in level between the incoming drain and the sewer does not
exceed 600 mm, and there is sufficient room in the manhole, the connecting pipe may be directly brought
through the manhole wall and the fall accommodated by constructing a ramp in the benching of the
manhole.


SANITARY FITTINGS
The sanitary fittings indicate all the fittings or appliances used for collection and discharge of soil or waste
water. Different sanitary fittings perform different types of functions. They are normally made of ceramics,
glazed fire-clay, glazed earthenware or glazed chinaware. The fittings are so designed so as to have non-
absorbent surface which can be easily cleaned.
(i) Wash-basins
(ii) Bath tubs
(iii) Sinks
(iv) Urinals
(v) Water closets
(vi) Flushing cisterns.
WASH.BASINS
A wash-basin is used for washing hands, face, etc. It is available in various patterns and sizes; Normally
oval shaped bowl type wash-basin with overflow slot Is used In houses. The wash-basin is normally
mounted on angle Irons fixed on the wall. the wash basin is provided with two taps--cold water and hot
water. The drainage hole is provided with the metal strainer and is connected to the waste pipe either
directly or through bottle traps for discharge of waste water Into the floor trap. The top of wash basin is kept
at 75 to 80 cm from floor Ievel

BATH TUBS
Use of bath tub is restricted to a certain class of toilets and private residences. Bath tubs may be precast or
cast in situ. They are made of enameled steel, gel-coated fibre glass, enameled porcelain, reinforced
concrete finished with terra cotta or marble finishes, acrylic etc. It is provided with outlet and overflow pipes
which are usually of 40 mm diameter. Provision is kept for both hot water and cold water connections. The
length of bath tub varies from 1.75 to 1.85 m, width varies between 0.7 to 0.75 m and its depth near the
waste pipe varies between 0.43 to 0.45 m
SINKS
Sink is used in 'kitchens, laboratories, etc.' It is made of stainless steel, plastic, marble, ACC with terrazzo
finishing or glazed chinaware, etc. It is a rectangular basin with or without overflow arrangement It has a
circular waste hole with metal strainer to which the waste pipe is attached for conveying the discharge from
sink to the floor trap with the drain board.

URINALS
The urinals are of following types:

(a) Bowl type
(b) Slab or stall type
(c) Squatting urinal.
Urinals fall under the category of soil appliances and the discharge form the urinal is connected to the soil
pipe. Urinals are generally provided with automatic flushing cisterns which operate at intervals of 10 to 15
minutes. An anti-siphonage pipe is necessary for urinals located on different floors and connected to a
common soil pipe.
(a) Bowl type urinals These urinals are available in two types:
(i) Flat back (ii) Corner
Flat back urinals These are oval-shaped, installed at a height of 500 mm from the floor level. The urinals
are screwed to wall.

Corner These urinals are used in the case where two walls meet at right angle.
(b) Slab or stall type These are open smooth walled urinal, flushing by means of spread. Ideal for public
places
(c) Squaring urinals These are used in squatting position. It is available with integral flushing holes

WATERCLOSETS
The water closet is a sanitary fitting which collects human excreta and discharge it into the soil pipe through
trap:
There are three types of WCs.

(a) Indian type
(b) European type
(c) Anglo-Indian type
Indian Type WC
It is usually made of porcelain and the pan and the trap are in two different pieces. The WC pan is fixed
flush with the floor of the toilet. The trap has an opening for anti-siphonage pipe. The pan has the flushing
rim having number of holes to spread the flush water. The excreta do not fall directly into the trap and there
are chances for excreta to become foul, if not properly flushed. The contents of the pan are removed by the
gravity flush of water. It is fixed in squatting position at floor level. A pair of foot rests is provided on either
side of the pan for convenience
European Type WC
This is a pedestal type of pan in which pan and trap form an integral part. The pan has a flushing rim to
spread the flush water. European WC is used in sitting position over a plastic seats hinged to the fitting.
The pan is in the form of inverted cone. In this type of WC, excreta falls directly into the trap and thus easy
to clean and is hygienic. Following two types of European type WC are used:
(i) Wash Down Type European WC

In this type, contents of the pan are removed by gravity flush of water. For ground floor, WC fitted with S-
trap is used whereas for upper floors, WC with P-trap is used
(ii) Siphonic Type European wc

The contents of the pan are removed by siphonic action. When the cistern is flushed and water passes
through the pan the specially built trap sets up siphonic action when water is flushed and the entire water

along with the contents get emptied from the pan into the soil pipe. After-flush chamber In the fitting is
provided to re-seal the trap. Siphonic type WC may have a single trap or double trap

Anglo Indian Type WC

It is a pedestal fitting with in-built trap and it can be used in squatting as well as sitting position. The top of
the pan is provided with the pair of footrest and whenever, it is needed, the plastic seat hinged to the closet
can be placed on the top of the pan to use it as European type WC. The excreta falls directly in the trap and
thus can be easily flushed out

FLUSHING CISTERN
Flushing cisterns are provided for flushing the water closets and urinals. They may be of cast iron, vitreous
china, or plastic. For Indian type of WC, flushing cisterns are generally of cast iron provided at a height of
approximately 2 m, but for European type of WC; it is provided at height of 30 cm from the top of the pan.
The capacity of cistern varies from 10 to 15 litres. Depending upon its height, it is of two types.
High Level
These are generally of cast iron and is provided for Indian type WC. The height is normally 2 m to get clear
space under cistern. High level cistern is provided with a hanging chain by which it is operated.
Low Level
These are generally provided with European WC. These low level cisterns are either wall mounted type
with flush pipe having 30 cm distance between WC and cistern or can be close coupled with EuropeanWC.
What is a septic tank? How does it work?

A septic tank is used to treat sewage from isolated group of country houses, where a piped sewage system
(i.e., a public sewer) is not available. It is a horizontal continuous flow sedimentation tank in which sewage
moves very slowly. Septic tank serves two purposes: deposition of settling solids in sewage by
sedimentation, and partial or complete digestion of the sludge prior to its disposal. A septic tank produces
septic action by anaerobic bacteria, wherein proteins, carbohydrates, cellulose and fatty matter present in
sewage are broken to simpler compounds. The nitrogen is converted to ammonia, while the colloidal matter
is flocculated, then liquefied and finally digested. The effluent from the septic tank is discharged either in to
the soak pit or below ground level through drains, so that the effluent gets absorbed in the soil. A baffle wall
with openings is constructed at some distance away from the inlet. The sludge, which is deposited in the
bottom is cleaned periodically, say once in 6 to 12 months. A vent pipe is provided for the escape of gases.
Septic tanks provide an excreta treatment system in locations where a sewerage system is not available.
For rural areas, the septic tanks offer a limited use, especially for locations with high water table. However,
institutions like schools, dispensaries or families who can afford the cost and manage the quantity of water
required, a septic tank system for excreta disposal could be considered.
The system consists of a water-tight settling tank with one or two chambers/ compartments, to which waste
is carried by water flushing down a pipe connected to the toilet which usually has a U-trap. However, this
system does not dispose of wastes; it only helps to separate the solid matter from the liquid. Some of the
solids float on the surface, where they are known as scum, while others sink to the bottom where they are
broken down by the bacteria to form a deposit called sludge. The liquid effluent flowing out of the tank is,
from a health point of view, as dangerous as raw sewage and remains to be disposed off, normally by
soaking into the ground through a soak-pit or with a connection to small bore sewers.
SEPTIC TANK:
A septic tank is an underground chamber in which the excreta from lavatories is digested by anaerobic
action. Normally the septic tank is designed for disposal of night soil from lavatories. The sullage water from
washbasins, sinks etc are dispersed into a garden. The liquid discharge from the septic tank after digestion
called the effluent, should be given secondary treatment.

LAYOUT OF A SEPTIC TANK:

The layout for a septic tank sewerage system should be simple and as direct as possible. The pipes should
be laid in straight lines in both vertical and Horizontal planes as far as possible.
COMPONENTS OF SEPTIC TANK:

The septic tank consists of a rectangular or circular underground chamber built with brick masonary or
stone masonary. It should be plastered inside and outside with 1:4 c.m. The floor should be constructed
with of 1:10 towards the sludge outlet. The septic tank should have a minimum liquid capacity of 1000litres
with a minimum width of 750mm and depth 1000mm. A minimum free board of 300mm should be provided.
The following are the components of septic tank.
(i) Inlet : for tanks of width less than 1200mm, the inlet is T-shaped dippipe of same diameter as the
incoming drain. The pipe should be fixed inside the tank with top level extending above slum level and
bottom limb extending about 300mm below top water level. For wider tanks, a baffle wall should be
provided 150mm from the inlet of the tank, extending 150mm below the invert of the inlet pipes and 150mm
above the top water level.
(ii) Outlet : For narrow tanks, T-Pipe if 100mm dia is fixed inside the tank with the top limb rising above the
slum level and the bottom extending to about 1/3 of the liquid depth. The invert of the pipe should be 50mm
below the invert of the inlet pipe. For wider tanks, a weir outlet is provided extending the full width of the
tank, A scum board is fixed 150mm from the weir and extending 150mm above and 1/3 of liquid depth
below the top of water level. A deflector is provided at the base of the scum board to prevent particles from
reaching the outlet weir.
(iii) Partitions : Where the capacity of the septic tank exceeds 2000litres, the tank is divided into 2
chambers by partition. Suitable openings are provided in the partition at 300mm below the tank water level.
(iv) Openings and cover: Each compartment should be provided with a rectangular or circular openings
with a cover of R.C.C or C.I. The cover should neatly fit the openings to prevent water entering through it.
(v) Ventilating pipe: Every septic tank should be provided with a ventilating pipe of dia 50mm. The top of
pipe should be provided with mosquito prof mesh. The pipe should extend to a height of 2m when the tank
is 20m away from the building and 2m above the top of building if located closer than 20m.
SIZES OF SEPTIC TANKS:

The sizes of septic tanks for 20 users for housing colonies (upto 300 persons) and for hotels and boarding
schools are given in the tables as shown.

 A provision of 300mm should be made for free board

 The size of septic tanks are based in certain assumptions while
choosing the size of septic tank


DISPERSION TRENCH:
The disposal of effluent of septic tank by soil absorption system is known as dispersion trench and is
suitable when the soil is porous and is capable of absorbing the effluent.
The dispersion trench consists of a trench in which open jointed pipes are laid and surrounded by coarse
aggregate media and overlaid by fine aggregates. The effluent gets dispersed through the open joints and
is absorbed in the neighbouring soil. The dispersion trenches should be 0.5 to 1.0m deep and 0.3 to 1.0m
wide excavated to a slight gradient and shall be provided with 150-250mm washed gravel or crushed stone
open jointed pipes
of 75-100mm dia made of unglazed earthen ware clay or concrete shall be placed inside the trench. The
trench should be covered with about 300mm of ordinary soil to form a mound and turf grown on it. The
finished top surface may be kept at least 150mm above ground level to prevent direct flooding of the trench
during rains.

What is function of a soak pit? What is a sludge soak pit?
A soak pit is a covered pit dug in the ground, in which effluent from the septic tank is discharged. It is
generally dug in the pervious soil which can absorb the effluent.
A sludge soak pit is the one in which the sewage effluent from the house drain is directly discharged. The
water in the accumulated sewage is soaked by adjoining pervious soil while the sludge is digested in the
pit. Such soak pits are very common where subsoil is very pervious. Usually, the pit is lined with masonry
with open joints. The top is covered with rigid slab. The diameter of such tank varies from 2 m to 3 m, while
depth varies from 2.5m to 4 m. each individual house has one such soak pit which has a life of about 20
years for a family of 6 persons. When the soak pit gets filled up, the top cover is removed and the tank is
emptied.

General Introduction Dissolved Oxygen: Notes On Water Supply, Sanitation and Fire Fighting

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General Introduction Dissolved Oxygen: Notes On Water Supply, Sanitation and Fire Fighting

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Notes on Water supply, Sanitation and Fire fighting

Chemical Oxygen'Demand (C.O.D.)

Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand

The Oxygen Deficit of a Polluted River-Stream

Oxygen Deficit Curve

The following requirements are essential for a good distribution system:

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

DRAINAGE PLANS OF BUILDINGS

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

The following principles apply to every drainage scheme.

1. Materials used to be of the best quality.

A DRAINAGE SYSTEM SHALL SATISFY THE FOLLOWING REQUIREMENTS:

RAIN WATER PIPES FOR DRAINAGE OF ROOFS

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

THREE SYSTEMS OF SEWERAGE

TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS OF SEWERS

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

There are four systems adopted in plumbing of drainage work in a building

1. Single stack system

1. Single stack system

2. One pipe system

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

3. One pipe system partially ventilated

4. Two pipe system

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

What Does Anti-siphon or Backflow Prevention Mean?

Built-in Anti-siphon Protection

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Floor Trap (Nahani Trap)

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Grease and Oil Traps

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

INSPECTION CHAMBERS (MANHOLES)

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Channels and benching

Manhole covers and frames

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

The urinals are of following types:

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

There are three types of WCs.

(i) Wash Down Type European WC

(ii) Siphonic Type European wc

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Anglo Indian Type WC

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

What is a septic tank? How does it work?

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

LAYOUT OF A SEPTIC TANK:

COMPONENTS OF SEPTIC TANK:

SIZES OF SEPTIC TANKS:

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

 A provision of 300mm should be made for free board

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.

Compiled by CT.Lakshmanan B.Arch., M.C.P.