Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONCLUSIONS AND
POLICY IMPLICATIONS
1
WORLD
2017
DRUG
REPORT
This booklet constitutes the first part of the World Drug Report 2017.
© United Nations, May 2017. All rights reserved worldwide.
ISBN: 978-92-1-148292-8
eISBN: 978-92-1-060624-0
United Nations publication, Sales No. E.17.XI.7
Suggested citation:
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2017
(ISBN: 978-92-1-148291-1, eISBN: 978-92-1-060623-3, United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.17.XI.6).
No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial
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policies of UNODC or contributory organizations, nor does it imply any endorsement.
E-mail: wdr@unodc.org
Website: www.unodc.org/wdr2017
PREFACE
I am proud to say that this year we are marking 20 As the World Drug Report 2017 clearly shows, there
years of the World Drug Report. is much work to be done to confront the many
harms inflicted by drugs, to health, development,
Over the past two decades, the United Nations
peace and security, in all regions of the world.
Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has been
at the forefront of global research into complex areas Globally, there are an estimated minimum of
of drug use and supply, supporting international 190,000 — in most cases avoidable — premature
cooperation and informing policy choices with the deaths from drugs, the majority attributable to the
latest estimates, information on trends and use of opioids.
analysis. The terrible impact of drug use on health can also
This year we are launching a new format, with the be seen in related cases of HIV, hepatitis and
report available as five separate booklets: the execu- tuberculosis.
tive summary, together with the report’s conclusions Much more needs to be done to ensure affordable
and policy implications; a global overview of drug access to effective scientific evidence-based preven-
use and supply; a market analysis of plant-based tion, treatment and care for the people who
drugs; a market analysis of synthetic drugs; and a desperately need them, including those in prison
thematic booklet on the links between drugs and settings. As just one example, this year’s report high-
organized crime, illicit financial flows, corruption lights the need to accelerate accessibility to the
and terrorism. We have done this in response to treatment of hepatitis C, a disease whose negative
readers’ needs and to improve user-friendliness, health impact on people who use drugs is far greater
while maintaining the rigorous standards expected than that of HIV/AIDS.
from the Office’s flagship publication.
Recent attention has focused on the threats posed
The 2017 report comes at a time when the interna- by methamphetamine and new psychoactive sub-
tional community has acted decisively to achieve stances (NPS). However, as the report shows, the
consensus on a way forward for joint action. manufacture of both cocaine and opioids is increas-
ing. These drugs remain serious concerns, and the
The outcome document unanimously adopted at opioid crisis shows little sign of stopping.
last year’s special session of the General Assembly
on the world drug problem contains more than 100 The World Drug Report 2017 further looks at the
concrete recommendations for implementing bal- links with other forms of organized crime, illicit
anced, comprehensive and integrated approaches to financial flows, corruption and terrorism. It draws
effectively addressing and countering the world drug on the best available evidence and, most of all, high-
problem. lights the fact that much more research needs to be
carried out in these areas.
Moreover, at its sixtieth session, in March 2017, the
Commission on Narcotic Drugs adopted resolution Corruption is the great enabler of organized crime,
60/1, reinforcing commitment to implementing the and opportunities for corruption exist at every stage
outcome document and charting a course to the of the drug supply chain. However, too little is
2019 target date of the 2009 Political Declaration known about how different types of corruption
and Plan of Action on the world drug problem, as interact with drug markets.
well as strengthening action towards the Plan of The outcome document of the special session of the
Action’s agreed goals and targets. General Assembly on the world drug problem and
3
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
Security Council resolutions express concern about As the special session of the General Assembly and
terrorist groups profiting from drug trafficking, the recent session of the Commission on Narcotic
among other forms of transnational organized crime. Drugs have shown, the international community is
equipped to respond swiftly and decisively to global
It is well established that there are terrorists and
drug-related challenges.
non-State armed groups profiting from the drug
trade — by some estimates, up to 85 per cent of For example, in March, the Commission scheduled
opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is in terri- two precursors and an analogue to the scheduled
tory under influence of the Taliban. drug fentanyl. This important step will make it
harder for criminals to illicitly manufacture fentanyl
However, evidence on the organized crime-terrorism
and its analogues and, I hope, can help to stem the
nexus remains patchy at best. Moreover, these links
tragic increase in opioid overdoses in recent years.
are not static. Relations between organized crime
and terrorists groups are always evolving, much like However, there remains an enormous need for
drug markets themselves. capacity-building and technical assistance, and fund-
ing continues to fall far short of political
As we have seen with the NPS market, drug use,
commitment. Further resources are urgently needed
supply, trafficking routes and the substances them-
to help all Member States implement the recom-
selves continue to shift and diversify at alarming
mendations contained in the outcome document
speed.
of the special session of the General Assembly and
Drugs continue to represent a major source of rev- achieve related targets under the Sustainable Devel-
enue for organized crime networks, but business opment Goals.
models are changing, with criminals exploiting new
The many evolving drug challenges also highlight
technologies, such as the darknet, that are altering
the importance of prevention — science- and rights-
the nature of the illicit drug trade and the types of
based drug use prevention — but also prevention
players involved, with looser, horizontal networks
of crime, corruption, terrorism and violent extrem-
and smaller groups becoming more significant. New
ism, in line with commitments under the
ways of delivering drugs further point to the need
conventions and United Nations standards and
to involve other sectors such as postal services in the
norms.
fight against drug trafficking.
Finally, I ask all Governments to help us improve
Clearly, countries must be able to act and react to
the evidence base for these reports. Areas such as
an ever-changing and formidable array of threats
the links between drugs, terrorism and insurgency
and problems. UNODC is fully engaged in strength-
clearly touch upon sensitive intelligence, and there
ening responses, working closely with our United
are legitimate concerns about compromising sources,
Nations partners and in line with the international
collection and operations. But if we want to effec-
drug control conventions, human rights instruments
tively address drug challenges we need to strengthen
and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
international cooperation and information-sharing
which are themselves complementary and mutually
to the extent possible, to close the gaps and ensure
reinforcing.
that joint action is targeted, effective and timely.
Yury Fedotov
Executive Director
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
4
CONTENTS
PREFACE. . .......................................................................................................... 3
EXPLANATORY NOTES...................................................................................... 7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . .................................................................................... 9
Who suffers the heaviest burden of disease from drug use?������������������������������������������������������������������11
Drug market diversification�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
The drug market is thriving����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Flux in drug flows�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Cannabis market developments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Changing business models for drug trafficking and organized crime���������������������������������������������������21
Drug crime proceeds damage economies in the long term�������������������������������������������������������������������22
Corruption facilitates illicit drug markets, which fuel corruption��������������������������������������������������������23
Drug trade benefiting some terrorist, insurgent and non-State armed groups��������������������������������������23
Scarcity of reliable data on terrorism and corruption���������������������������������������������������������������������������25
CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS. . .................................................. 27
GLOSSARY.. ..................................................................................................... 33
REGIONAL GROUPINGS. . ................................................................................. 34
5
Acknowledgements
The World Drug Report 2017 was prepared by the Research and Trend Analysis Branch, Division for
Policy Analysis and Public Affairs, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, under the supervision
of Jean-Luc Lemahieu, Director of the Division, and Angela Me, Chief of the Research and Trend
Analysis Branch.
General coordination and Data management and Graphic design and production
content overview estimates production Anja Korenblik
Chloé Carpentier Enrico Bisogno Suzanne Kunnen
Angela Me Coen Bussink Kristina Kuttnig
Jesus Maria Garcia Calleja (WHO)
Analysis and drafting Coordination
Riku Lehtovuori
Conor Crean Francesca Massanello
Tun Nay Soe
Philip Davis
Andrea Oterova Data Support
Natascha Eichinger
Umidjon Rakhmonberdiev Diana Camerini
Susan Ifeagwu
Ali Saadeddin Raffaella Conconi
Sabrina Levissianos
Keith Sabin (UNAIDS) Sarika Dewan
Kamran Niaz
Antoine Vella Administrative support
Thomas Pietschmann
Lorenzo Vita Anja Held
Martin Raithelhuber
Agata Rybarska Editing Iulia Lazar
Justice Tettey Joseph Boyle
Jonathan Gibbons
The boundaries and names shown and the designa- All uses of the word “drug” in the World Drug Report
tions used on maps do not imply official endorsement refer to substances under the control of the inter-
or acceptance by the United Nations. A dotted line national drug control conventions.
represents approximately the line of control in
All analysis contained in the World Drug Report is
Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Paki-
based on the official data submitted by Member
stan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has
States to the United Nations Office on Drugs and
not yet been agreed upon by the parties. Disputed
Crime through the annual report questionnaire
boundaries (China/India) are represented by cross-
unless indicated otherwise.
hatch owing to the difficulty of showing sufficient
detail. The data on population used in the World Drug
Report are taken from: United Nations, Department
The designations employed and the presentation of
of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Divi-
the material in the World Drug Report do not imply
sion, World Population Prospects: The 2015
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
Revision.
part of the Secretariat of the United Nations con-
cerning the legal status of any country, territory, city References to dollars ($) are to United States dollars,
or area, or of its authorities or concerning the delimi- unless otherwise stated.
tation of its frontiers or boundaries. References to tons are to metric tons, unless other-
Countries and areas are referred to by the names wise stated. R stands for the correlation coefficient,
that were in official use at the time the relevant data used as measure of the strength of a statistical rela-
were collected. tionship between two or more variables, ranging
from 0 to 1 in case of a positive correlation or from
All references to Kosovo in the World Drug Report,
0 to -1 in case of a negative correlation.
if any, should be understood to be in compliance
with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999).
Since there is some scientific and legal ambiguity
about the distinctions between “drug use”, “drug
misuse” and “drug abuse”, the neutral terms “drug
use” and “drug consumption” are used in the World
Drug Report.
7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Harm caused by drug use remains Of those years lost, 17 million were attributable
considerable solely to drug use disorders across all drug types.
DALYs attributable to morbidity and mortality
An estimated quarter of a billion people, or around resulting from all causes of drug use have increased
5 per cent of the global adult population, used drugs overall in the past decade.
at least once in 2015. Even more worrisome is the
fact that about 29.5 million of those drug users, or Yet, with fewer than one in six persons with drug
0.6 per cent of the global adult population, suffer use disorders provided with treatment each year, the
from drug use disorders. This means that their drug availability of and access to science-based services
use is harmful to the point that they may experience for the treatment of drug use disorders and related
drug dependence and require treatment. conditions remain limited.
The magnitude of the harm caused by drug use is Opioids, the most harmful drug type
underlined by the estimated 28 million years of Opioids, including heroin, remain the most harmful
“healthy” life (disability-adjusted life years (DALYs)) drug type in health terms. The use of opioids is
lost worldwide in 2015 as a result of premature death associated with the risk of fatal and non-fatal over-
and disability caused by drug use. doses; the risk of acquiring infectious diseases (such
28 million
disability “healthy” years of life lost
drug use
premature
death
years of
life lost
DALYs
attributed
birth to drug use expected
life years
9
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
183 35 37
million million million
cannabis opioids amphetamines &
prescription stimulants
22 18 17
million million million
“ecstasy” opiates cocaine
as HIV or hepatitis C) through unsafe injecting alone, to reach the highest level ever recorded.
practices; and the risk of other medical and psychi- Indeed, far more people die from the misuse of opi-
atric co-morbidities. oids in the United States each year than from road
traffic accidents or violence.
The large number of premature deaths related to
drugs are mostly avoidable. A significant proportion The emergence of derivatives of prescription medi-
of those deaths is attributable to opioids. In addi- cines, classified as new psychoactive substances
tion, opioid use disorders account for the heaviest (NPS), particularly fentanyl analogues, has been
burden of disease attributable to drug use disorders: associated with rising numbers of overdoses, includ-
in 2015, almost 12 million DALYs, or 70 per cent ing fatal overdoses, among opioid users. In recent
of the global burden of disease attributable to drug years, several emergent synthetic opioids have been
use disorders, were attributable to opioids. associated with increasing numbers of serious
A problem in many countries, the harm caused by adverse events and deaths. The pills and powders
opioids is particularly evident in the United States containing synthetic opioids sold on the illicit
of America. The misuse of pharmaceutical opioids, market pose a threat to public health, a problem
coupled with an increase in heroin and fentanyl use, that is compounded by the variation in both the
has resulted in a combined and interrelated epidemic quantity and potency of their active components.
in the United States, as well as in an increase in Methamphetamine accounts for
morbidity and mortality related to opioids. considerable harm
The United States accounts for approximately one Disorders related to the use of amphetamines
quarter of the estimated number of drug-related account for a considerable share of the global burden
deaths worldwide, including overdose deaths, which of disease attributable to drug use disorders, second
continue to rise. Mostly driven by opioids, overdose only to those related to the use of opioids. Available
deaths in the United States more than tripled during data show that, among amphetamines, metham-
the period 1999-2015, from 16,849 to 52,404 annu- phetamine represents the greatest global health
ally, and increased by 11.4 per cent in the past year threat. Methamphetamine use is spreading and an
10
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
increasing number of methamphetamine users are Hepatitis C causing greatest harm among
seeking treatment. In addition to the established and people who use drugs
expanding market for methamphetamine in East Globally, the negative health consequences related
and South-East Asia and Oceania, there are growing to hepatitis C among people who use drugs are sub-
concerns about methamphetamine use in North stantial. The number of deaths attributable to
America, South-West Asia and parts of Europe. hepatitis C among people who use drugs is greater
Cocaine use disorders increasing than from other causes of death related to drug use.
Although the number of cocaine users is decreasing Overall, more DALYs are lost as a result of hepatitis
or stabilizing in parts of Europe, wastewater analysis C than of HIV infection among people who use
suggests that cocaine consumption in that region drugs. Most of those DALYs are the result of pre-
may be increasing. Following several years of decline, mature death, while the remainder are the result of
there are also indications of an increase in cocaine years lived with disability.
use in North America. Moreover, drug overdose Recent advances in the treatment of hepatitis C,
cases involving cocaine increased markedly in the using direct-acting antivirals, have created a new
United States between 2012 and 2015. Much of opportunity to reduce the heavy burden of the dis-
that increase is linked, however, to the use of cocaine ease among people who use drugs. Nevertheless,
in combination with opioids. Globally, DALYs accessibility remains poor for many of those in need,
attributed to cocaine use disorders increased from as such treatment options remain very expensive in
729,000 in 2005 to 999,000 in 2015. most countries.
New psychoactive substances potentially
more lethal than other drugs, but market
still relatively small
12 million people inject drugs
Despite the large number of NPS present in drug
markets, the overall size of the market for such sub-
stances is still relatively small when compared with
other drug markets. However, one of the most trou-
bling aspects of NPS is that users are unaware of the
content and the dosage of the psychoactive sub-
stances contained in some NPS. This potentially
exposes users of NPS to additional serious health
risks. Little or no scientific information is available
to determine the effects that these products may
have and how best to counteract them.
A number of NPS have been implicated in fatalities,
while the injecting of NPS with stimulant effects
has been reported among high-risk groups of people
who use drugs, further aggravating the health risks
to which people in those groups are exposed.
Who suffers the heaviest burden of 1.6 million people who inject drugs
disease from drug use?
are living with HIV
People who inject drugs (PWID) face some of the
most severe health consequences associated with 6.1 million are living with hepatitis C
drug use. Almost 12 million people worldwide inject
drugs, of whom one in eight (1.6 million) are living 1.3 million are living with both
with HIV and more than half (6.1 million) are living hepatitis C and HIV
with hepatitis C.
11
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
Among people who use drugs, People who use drugs may have a particular need
more die from hepatitis C than from HIV for interventions that prevent and treat tuberculosis.
They may be disproportionately affected by the risk
factors for the disease (such as poverty, malnutrition,
infection with HIV and time spent in prison). Infec-
tion with HIV is one of the main reasons for the
high prevalence of tuberculosis among PWID and
tuberculosis is one of the leading causes of mortality
among people who use drugs and are living with
HIV.
Treatment of tuberculosis is particularly complex
for people who use drugs as they may be living with
222,000 hepatitis 60,000 HIV multiple, co-existing infectious diseases (such as
C deaths deaths HIV and hepatitis C) and psychiatric and medical
co-morbidities (such as depression and anxiety) in
addition to drug dependency. Furthermore, many
People who use drugs particularly barriers to the prevention and treatment of tuber-
vulnerable to tuberculosis culosis are more difficult to surmount for people
who use drugs than for the general population.
Tuberculosis is more prevalent among people who
use drugs than in the general population. Based on Prison a high-risk environment for the
the limited data available from studies in Europe, spread of infectious diseases
Asia and the Americas, the prevalence of tubercu- On any given day, approximately 10 million people
losis among PWID is estimated at approximately 8 are held in prison (including in pretrial detention)
per cent. Meanwhile, the prevalence of tuberculosis throughout the world. The number of people who
in the general population at the global level is esti- pass through prison each year is, however, consider-
mated at less than 0.2 per cent. ably higher.
years of premature
life lost death
years of
life lost
DALYs
DALYs
birth attributed expected birth attributed expected
to hepatitis C life years to HIV life years
0.1 million years lost as a result of disability 0.2 million years lost as a result of disability
6.2 million years lost as a result of premature death 2.8 million years lost as a result of premature death
12
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
eral populati
on gen on Higher rate of increase in the burden
ris he
of disease from drug use disorders
p
t
in
+25% +19%
20% 5.3%
13
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
RN
WESTERN
W
TRAL
AND CENTRAL Finland Russian
EUROPE Federation
Canada United
tted
ed
d Latvia EASTERN
Kingdom
ngd
gdom
gd
g domm Denmark
D
EUROPE CENTRAL ASIA
Ireland
nd N Netherlands
Net
ett Poland AND
Belgium
Belg
Belgi
gi
gi Germany
NORTH FFrance Austria Hungary TRANSCAUCASIAN
AMERICA Romania COUNTRIES
Italy SOUTH-
EASTERN
Spain
United States EUROPE
of America China
NORTHERN
EAST AND AFRICA EAST AND
SOUTH-EAST NEAR AND SOUTH-EAST
SOUTH
ASIA MIDDLE EAST/ ASIA
ASIA
SOUTH-WEST
ASIA
CENTRAL WESTERN
AMERICA AND CENTRAL
AFRICA
SOUTH
AMERICA
Australia
OCEANIA OCEANIA
the United
yet been agreedNations. Dashed
upon by the parties. lines
The final boundary represent
between undetermined
the Sudan and South boundaries.
Sudan has not yet been determined. The
A dispute exists between dottedof line
the Governments Argentinarepresents approximately
and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern the Line of
Ireland concerning Control
sovereignty in Jammu
over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).and
The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir
has not
Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary
between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined.
14
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
15
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
95 78 67
hallucinogens new psychoactive sedatives,
substances tranquillizers
increase in cocaine use in the United States. In Seizures of both opium and heroin have remained
Europe, early signs of increases in cocaine consump- quite stable at the global level in recent years, sug-
tion, based on wastewater analysis in selected cities, gesting a smooth supply of heroin, irrespective of
have been reported, with an increase of 30 per cent annual changes in opium production. The quantity
or more during the period 2011-2016. of heroin seized in North America increased sharply
in 2015. This went in parallel with reports of
The quantities of cocaine seized are also on the
increasing heroin use and heroin-related deaths in
increase. Worldwide, they increased by 30 per cent
that subregion.
to reach 864 tons (of varying purities) in 2015, the
highest level ever reported. In North America, they Expanding market for synthetic drugs
increased by 40 per cent to reach 141 tons; in Europe, Unlike the manufacture of heroin and cocaine, the
they increased by 35 per cent to reach 84 tons. manufacture of synthetic drugs is not geographically
Opium production on the increase constrained, as the process does not involve the
extraction of active constituents from plants that
In 2016, global opium production increased by one
have to be cultivated in certain conditions for them
third compared with the previous year. Although
to grow. Yet any analysis of the synthetic drugs
there was also an increase in the size of the area under
market is complicated by the fact that information
opium poppy cultivation, the major increase in
on synthetic drug manufacture is limited, which
opium production was primarily the result of an
prevents the estimation of the volume of such drugs
improvement in opium poppy yields in Afghanistan
being manufactured worldwide. Nevertheless, data
compared with the previous year. At 6,380 tons,
on seizures and use suggest that the supply of syn-
however, total global opium production was still
thetic drugs is expanding.
some 20 per cent lower than at its peak in 2014,
and was close to the average reported in the past five An increasing number of countries are reporting
years. seizures of synthetic NPS, with over 20 tons seized
16
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
Canada Netherlands
Belgium WESTERN
AND CENTRAL
EUROPE
China
Colombia
WEST Peru
Qatar AND Brazil
SOUTH ASIA Panama
Australia Mexico CARIBBEAN United
Dominican Republic Arab Emirates Hong Kong,
Guatemala China
SOUTH- WEST
EAST ASIA
CENTRAL Trinidad and AFRICA
AMERICA
Costa Rica Panama Tobago Nigeria
Venezuela Ghana
(Bol. Rep. of)
Colombia
Ecuador
Peru
Brazil
Bolivia
(Plur. State of)
Australia
Paraguay
United
Chile Australia States
South of America
Africa Brazil
Chile
Argentina
0 1,000 2,000 km
Main trafficking
Other trafficking
Most frequently mentioned countries of provenance as
reported by countries where cocaine seizures took place
Source: UNODC elaboration, based on responses to annual report questionnaire and individual drug seizure database.
Notes: The trafficking flows are determined on the basis of country of origin/departure, transit and destination of seized drugs as reported by Member
States in the annual report questionnaire and individual drug seizure database: as such, they are to be considered as broadly indicative of existing
trafficking routes while several secondary flows may not be reflected. Flow arrows represent the direction of trafficking: origins of the arrows indicate
either the area of manufacture or the one of last provenance, end points of arrows indicate either the area of consumption or the one of next
destination of trafficking. The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines rep-
resent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Paki-
stan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan
has not yet been determined. A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).
in 2015. Seizures of amphetamine-type stimulants share of people treated for drug use in the majority
(ATS) doubled in the five years prior to 2015, to of countries and territories in East and South-East
reach 191 tons in 2015. This was a result of sharp Asia that reported on that indicator.
increases in the amounts of amphetamines seized,
In Oceania, there has been an increase in both the
of which methamphetamine accounted for some
quantities of methamphetamine seized and the prev-
61-80 per cent annually during that period.
alence of its use.
The expansion of the methamphetamine market in
Increasingly effective law enforcement
East and South-East Asia is visible in the, albeit
scarce, information available on methamphetamine Reflecting improvements in international coopera-
use and treatment for such use. In 2015, experts in tion, law enforcement appears to be becoming
several countries in the subregion reported a per- increasingly effective. Evidence of this is the fact
ceived increase in the use of both crystalline that the estimated global interception rate of cocaine
methamphetamine and methamphetamine tablets. increased to between 45 and 55 per cent in 2015,
They also considered methamphetamine to be the a record level. The estimated global interception
most commonly used drug in some of those coun- rate of opiates also rose from between 9 and 13 per
tries. In the same year, people receiving treatment cent during the period 1980-1997 to between 23
for methamphetamine use accounted for the largest and 32 per cent during the period 2009-2015.
17
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
Russian
Federation
Canada Netherlands
WESTERN, CENTRAL
AND SOUTH EASTERN CENTRAL
EUROPE Ca ASIA
United States uc Canada
asu
of America s
Turkey China
Pakistan Islamic Afghanistan
India Republic n
of Iran sta
ki
Persian Gulf Pa
Mexico area & Myanmar
Middle East India
Lao PDR
Guatemala WEST
AFRICA Nigeria
SOUTH-EAST
ASIA
Colombia
Kenya
Tanzania
(United EAST
Republic of)AFRICA
Southern route
Sources: UNODC elaboration, based on responses to annual report questionnaire and individual drug seizure database.
Notes: The trafficking flows are determined on the basis of country of origin/departure, transit and destination of seized drugs as reported by Member
States in the annual report questionnaire and individual drug seizure database: as such, they are to be considered as broadly indicative of existing
trafficking routes while several secondary flows may not be reflected. Flow arrows represent the direction of trafficking: origins of the arrows indicate
either the area of manufacture or the one of last provenance, end points of arrows indicate either the area of consumption or the one of next
destination of trafficking. The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines
represent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and
Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South
Sudan has not yet been determined. A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).
Flux in drug flows That route circumvents Turkey, where the recent
increase in flows of refugees heading towards
Drug flows are in a constant state of flux. With the countries in the European Union may have pushed
changes brought by globalization and the spread of traffickers to seek other options.
new communication technologies, drug flows are
characterized more than ever by rapid changes in Data show that quantities of heroin and morphine
trafficking routes, modi operandi and concealment seized declined in Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey
methods. during the period 2014-2015 compared with the
period 2012-2013. By contrast, the amounts inter-
Growing importance of Caucasus branch
cepted on the trafficking route through Armenia,
of the Balkan route
Azerbaijan and Georgia, and via the Black Sea to
With about 40 per cent of global heroin and Ukraine and Romania, increased sharply between
morphine seizures in 2015 being made in countries those two periods.
on the so-called “Balkan route”, the route appears
Geographical shift in the
to remain the world’s principal opiate trafficking
methamphetamine market
route. While overall quantities seized on the Balkan
route declined in 2015, an alternative branch of the A major geographical shift appears to have occurred
route, through the Caucasus countries, appears to in the methamphetamine market in the last five
have been gaining in importance in recent years. years. In 2015, the quantity of methamphetamine
18
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
Interregional trafficking flows of methamphetamine, 2012-2015
N
WESTERN Russian
AND CENTRAL Federation
EUROPE Denmark
Lithuania EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA
Netherlands EUROPE
Germany Poland AND
Belgium Czechia
NORTH France TRANSCAUCASIAN
AMERICA Switzerland SOUTH- COUNTRIES
EASTERN
EUROPE
United States Islamic Japan
of America Republic
NORTHERN of Iran China
EAST AND AFRICA EAST AND
SOUTH-EAST NEAR AND SOUTH-EAST
SOUTH
ASIA MIDDLE EAST/ ASIA
Mexico ASIA
SOUTH-WEST Myanmar
ASIA Hong Kong,
CENTRAL WESTERN Thailand China
AMERICA AND CENTRAL Philippines
AFRICA
Malaysia
SOUTH
AMERICA
SOUTHERN
Australia
OCEANIA AFRICA OCEANIA
intercepted in East and South-East Asia surpassed the neighbouring Near and Middle East. Quantities
the quantity intercepted in North America for the of amphetamine seized also sharply increased in
first time, making East and South-East Asia the lead- Central America and South-West Asia.
ing subregions for methamphetamine seizures Cocaine trafficking expanding eastwards
worldwide. While this may be a reflection of an
increase in the effectiveness of law enforcement in Although still comparatively small overall, there are
East and South-East Asia, methamphetamine traf- indications that cocaine markets in several countries
ficking routes appear to be increasingly connecting in Asia continue to rise. Possible proof of this was
previously unconnected markets in various subre- a very large seizure (900 kg) of cocaine in Sri Lanka
gions. Of particular note is the large increase in in 2016 and another of 500 kg in Djibouti in 2017,
methamphetamine seizures in China. which was probably en route to Asia. That was the
single largest cocaine seizure in East Africa since
Amphetamine trafficking expanding in 2004.
Asia and Central America
Overall, in 2015, the quantities of cocaine inter-
In contrast to methamphetamine, amphetamine has cepted in Asia increased by more than 40 per cent
been confined to fewer subregions, such as the Near compared with the previous year, with increases
and Middle East and Western and Central Europe. reported across all subregions. The largest propor-
The quantities of amphetamine seized in 2015 point tions of the total quantity of cocaine seized in Asia
to a possible recent expansion of the amphetamine over the period 2010-2015 were seized in East and
market in South-Eastern Europe, but this may be South-East Asia (56 per cent) and in the Near and
simply related to the large amphetamine market in Middle East (40 per cent).
19
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
Jurisdictions in the United States that allow recreational use, medical use of cannabis and those
that allow no access to cannabis
Recreational WA ME
Medical MT ND VT
Limited medical MN NH
OR ID WI NY MA
No access laws SD
WY MI RI
IA PA CT
NE NJ
OH DE
NV IL IN
UT WV VA MD
CO
CA KS MO KY
NC
TN
OK AR SC
AZ NM
AK MS AL GA
TX LA
FL
HI
Source: Based on information from the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) as of 12 May 2017.
Notes: The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
20
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
Yet while the increases in those jurisdictions are more Source: UNODC, adapted from Europol, SOCTA 2017.
marked than in states where such use has not been
legalized, cannabis use has increased at the national trafficking, while more are also operating in other
level. The developments observed in the jurisdictions illicit sectors.
where the use of cannabis has been legalized
(including the perception of risk of harm from Almost two thirds of drug trafficking groups oper-
cannabis use) appear to have affected the cannabis ating in countries in the European Union are
market and users’ perceptions of cannabis nationwide. involved in more than one crime area, according to
It has been observed that increases in cannabis use research by the European Police Office (Europol),
and that figure has been rising for years. Drug traf-
across the United States are disproportionally
ficking groups in Europe are frequently also involved
associated with adults with a low socioeconomic
in the counterfeiting of goods, trafficking in human
status who are regular and heavy users of cannabis.
beings, smuggling of migrants and trafficking in
Cannabis regulation in Uruguay weapons.
In 2013, the Government of Uruguay approved Continued importance of drugs to
legislation regulating the cultivation, production, organized crime groups
dispensing and use of cannabis for recreational In 2014, transnational organized crime groups across
purposes. Since then, the Government has passed the globe were estimated to have generated between
additional decrees and ordinances concerning the approximately one fifth and one third of their rev-
implementation of specific elements of the cannabis enues from drug sales.
regulations. They include regulating the medical use
of cannabis, the marketing and dispensation of Europol identified some 5,000 international organ-
cannabis for recreational use, including through ized crime groups operating in countries in the
pharmacies, and the registration of recreational European Union in 2017, and estimated that more
cannabis users. However, the impact of the provisions than one third were involved in drug trafficking.
regulating the recreational use of cannabis in This makes drug trafficking more widespread across
Uruguay will be evident only after they have been organized crime than organized property crime,
fully implemented, and will require close monitoring smuggling of migrants, trafficking in human beings,
over time. excise fraud or any other illicit activity.
Drug trafficking no longer the preserve
Changing business models for drug
of large criminal groups
trafficking and organized crime
Groups with a strong hierarchical structure, such as
Organized crime groups branch out
those in Mexico and Japan, and to some extent in
Organized crime groups have widened their port- the Russian Federation, continue to be involved in
folio of illicit activities. New crime areas such as the drug trade. Hierarchical, top-down organizations
cybercrime and environmental crime have emerged. are still the most widespread type of organized crime
Fewer groups are exclusively dedicated to drug group in Europe, according to Europol.
21
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
20
years.
transactions transactions
<1% Drug crime proceeds damage
+50%
economies in the long term
DARKNET
increase DARKNET
22
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
17 countries of the Organization for Economic Afghanistan. Further, the Consolidated United
Cooperation and Development, suggests that a $1 Nations Security Council Sanctions List contains a
billion increase in money-laundering could reduce number of Taliban leaders who are accused of direct
overall economic growth by between 0.03 and 0.06 involvement in drug trafficking.
percentage points.
UNODC estimated that non-State armed groups
Corruption facilitates illicit drug raised about $150 million in 2016 from the Afghan
markets, which fuel corruption illicit opiate trade in the form of taxes on the culti-
vation of opium poppy and trafficking in opiates.
Corruption exists all along the drug supply The overall drug-related income, however, may be
chain
higher still. The Security Council Committee estab-
At each stage of the drug supply chain, there are lished pursuant to resolution 1988 (2011) estimated
opportunities for corruption. At the production the overall annual income of the Taliban at about
level, farmers may bribe eradication teams, producers $400 million, half of which is likely to be derived
may bribe judges and police officers, and from the illicit narcotics economy.
manufacturers may exploit workers in chemical
Role of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of
companies in order to get hold of precursor Colombia in the drug trade
chemicals. Further down the chain, traffickers bribe
customs officials and take advantage of weaknesses The involvement of the Revolutionary Armed Forces
in transport firms. At the consumer level, users can of Colombia (FARC) in the drug trade in Colombia
get drugs through corrupt doctors and pharmacists. goes back decades. At various times, they have pro-
Corruption, the illicit drug trade and
vided security for coca crops, taxed the introduction
poverty reinforce each other of precursor chemicals and the use of landing strips,
sold coca paste and become involved in the intrare-
Corruption entrenches poverty by discouraging gional cocaine trade.
foreign investment, according to World Bank
research. In a narco-economy, this is doubly true. FARC agreed in 2016 to halt its involvement in the
Foreign firms, seeing the corrupted justice system drug business after the peace agreement signed with
and pervasive money-laundering that characterize the Government.
narco-economies, are unlikely to make or increase Evidence implicating other groups is thin
investments.
Media reports and some evidence from official
Corruption also increases the level of income sources link a number of other terrorist, insurgent
inequality, according to International Monetary and non-State armed groups to the drug trade. For
Fund research. Higher levels of income inequality example, media reports claim that Islamic State in
are known to encourage drug trafficking and Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and other armed groups
corruption. In fact, the drug industry may perpetuate in Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic produce and
and exacerbate income inequality, which may in consume “captagon” tablets — typically ampheta-
turn cause the expansion of drug production and mine mixed with caffeine. The group operates in an
trafficking. area likely to be a manufacturing hub, according to
Drug trade benefiting some terrorist, seizure data, but no conclusive evidence has emerged
insurgent and non-State armed so far, as other groups also operate in the same area.
groups Boko Haram has also reportedly helped drug traf-
United Nations-designated terrorist fickers to smuggle heroin and cocaine across West
groups: Taliban continues to benefit Africa. During the trial of Boko Haram members
in Chad, the court of appeal heard that considerable
The Taliban’s involvement in the drug trade is well quantities of psychotropic substances had been
documented. It has taxed entities involved in illicit recovered and that Boko Haram members were regu-
opiate production, manufacture and trafficking in larly involved in the trafficking in and consumption
23
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
of those substances. Further north, some evidence Income from drugs key for some terrorist,
suggests that Al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb has insurgent and non-State armed groups
been involved in cannabis and cocaine trafficking,
Much depends on the location of a particular group.
or at least in protecting traffickers, but that its over-
Some have benefited from being based in areas
all income from the drug sector appears to have been
where drug crops flourish. Groups that aspire to
rather modest.
control large amounts of territory need huge finan-
cial resources, and have relied on organized crime
and the illicit drug trade to fund their ambitions.
24
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
Insurgency groups and opium poppy cultivation levels in Afghanistan, 2016
Area under control of insurgent groups and area under opium poppy cultivation in
Afghanistan, 2016 CHINA
UZBEKISTAN
TAJIKISTAN
TURKMENISTAN Badakhshan
Jawzjan
Kunduz
Balkh Takhar
Level of opium cultivation per district
Uruzgan
Farah Paktika Panjsher
Nuristan
Zabul
Kapisa Kunar
Nangarhar
0 75 150 300 Logar
km
Geographic projection: WGS 84 Paktya
70°E
Source: MCN and UNODC, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2016 – Cultivation and Production (Vienna, 2016). Insurgency groups
taken from opium
Source: Afghanistan the survey
Institute for the
2016 - Cultivation Study of
and production, War, November
UNODC/MCN 2016.Insurgency groups taken from the Institute for th e Study of War, November 2016.
Goverment of Afghanistan.
Note: the boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsment or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represents undetermined boudaries.
Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
Note: the groups
The insurgency boundaries and
are mapped with names
different classesshown and
of confidence, the
which havedesignations
been merged for the used
purpose on
of thisthis
map. map do not imply official endorsment or acceptance by the
United Nations. Dashed lines represents undetermined boudaries. Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and
Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
The insurgency groups are mapped with different classes of confidence, which have been merged for the purpose of this map.Geographic
projection: WGS 84.
Just one revenue stream of many of corruption. While these approaches have certain
for most groups strengths, they highlight a paucity of data on the
Terrorist and other non-State armed groups are links between drugs and corruption across countries.
adept at tapping into multiple sources of revenue. For example, while, intuitively, such a correlation
If drug profits dry up, the groups may move into is anticipated, in terms of research, little is known
extortion, kidnapping for ransom, bank robberies, about the way that different types of corruption
sale of natural resources or sale of cultural artefacts. interact with drug markets and political structures;
However, groups aiming simply to stage shocking the way that corruption and violence coexist also
attacks on civilians can do so with negligible finan- needs further investigation.
cial investment. Huge variation in estimates of finances
of terrorist, insurgent and other non-State
Scarcity of reliable data on terrorism
armed groups
and corruption
Little reliable data exist for estimating the overall
Lack of understanding of the relationship
wealth of terrorist, insurgent and other non-State
between drugs and corruption
armed groups, making it tricky to estimate the
Many studies have focused on specific events or importance of the drug trade. Forbes International
geographical areas; others have relied on perceptions attempted to compile a list, but the income of the
25
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
26
CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
As opioids continue to cause the In an environment where risk perceptions and social
highest negative health impact norms affect attitudes and behaviour towards the
related to drug use, preventing use of drugs such as cannabis, effective prevention
and treating opioid use remain strategies and interventions are needed more than
a priority ever. The UNODC International Standards on Drug
Seventy per cent of the global burden of disease Use Prevention provide scientific evidence for the
caused by drug use disorders is attributable to opioid interventions and policies that have been found to
use. The following interventions remain key to the be effective and result in positive prevention out-
reduction of that burden: preventing drug use in comes. In the context of use of cannabis and other
families, schools and communities using sci- drugs by adults, interventions such as screening and
ence-based methods that are effective in addressing brief interventions (SBI) address the harmful pat-
individual and environmental vulnerabilities; treat- terns of adult substance use and prevent progression
ment and care of opioid use disorders; and to disorders.
prevention of their negative health consequences. REDUCED …leaving no one behind
In most countries with high levels of opioid use, INEQUALITIES
this would include scaling up prevention of opioid First and foremost, no one should be
overdose through community access to naloxone left behind in the delivery of preven-
and long-term medication-assisted psychosocial tion and treatment interventions.
treatment and care for opioid use disorders (com- Interventions and services should be tailored to the
prising interventions such as cognitive behavioural specific needs of different population subgroups.
therapy and contingency management). Drug use by women, men who have sex with men
and by many marginalized groups, including sex
Scaling up prevention and
GOOD HEALTH
workers, often leads to them suffering a double stig-
AND WELL-BEING treatment of drug use disor-
ders to meet target 3.5 of the
matization. Such groups require dedicated
Sustainable Development prevention and treatment services. In this context,
Goals by 2030... it is worrying that some NPS have found a niche
among vulnerable population groups such as the
Two years on from the adoption of target 3.5 of the homeless, who are often not well covered by health
Sustainable Development Goals, on strengthening services.
the prevention and treatment of substance abuse,
there is still no sign of improvement in the provision People who use drugs are overrepresented in prison
of drug treatment services — as few as one in six populations in many countries, so it is also import-
people in need of interventions have access to drug ant to mainstream science-based drug prevention
treatment. The availability and access to scientific and treatment efforts and HIV prevention, treat-
evidence-based intervention for treatment of drug ment and care into national prison systems. The
use disorders remains limited in many countries. standard of care provided to those who are incar-
Global standards developed by UNODC and the cerated should be equivalent to that received by
World Health Organization (WHO) on the treat- those outside prison, with appropriate continuity
ment of drug use disorders need to be better integrated of care between prison and the wider community
within health-care systems across all countries to (in line with the United Nations Standard Minimum
ensure that the policies and interventions available Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson
are effective and based on scientific evidence. Mandela Rules)).
27
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
Access to effective treatment for and management and closer collaboration between
hepatitis C key to reducing the very health, social welfare and prison authorities, could
heavy burden of disease among improve adherence to treatment and enhance health
people who use drugs outcomes.
Hepatitis C has a substantially greater negative Improvement of coverage of
health impact on people who use drugs than HIV, evidence-based prevention and
and results in far more deaths and years of “healthy” treatment services is needed to stop
life lost as a result of premature death and disability. the rising number of new HIV cases
Recent advances in the development of direct-acting among people who inject drugs and to
antivirals have brought in a new era for the treat- meet target 3 of the Sustainable Develop-
ment of hepatitis C, but their high cost prevents ment Goals
many people from benefiting from them. To prevent The target of reducing by 50 per cent HIV trans-
hepatitis C infection and reinfection after treatment mission among PWID by 2015, set in the 2011
for those injecting opioids, access needs to be Political Declaration on HIV and AIDS: Intensify-
expanded to hepatitis C prevention and treatment. ing Our Efforts to Eliminate HIV and AIDS, has
This includes affordable access to direct-acting anti- not been met. New HIV infections among PWID
virals, increased awareness and increased access to climbed from 114,000 in 2011 to 152,000 in 2015;
diagnosis, needle and syringe programmes, also fea- an increase of 33 per cent.
turing low dead-space syringes, and long term opioid
agonist treatment. The role of the community in Renewed impetus is needed to achieve target 3.3 of
prevention and treatment response is a key factor the Sustainable Development Goals (ending the
in its effectiveness. AIDS epidemic by 2030). Removing barriers and
increasing access to and coverage of evidence-based
Addressing the specific prevention and treatment services, such as those
challenges and needs of people recommended in the WHO, UNODC, UNAIDS
who use drugs and suffer from
Technical Guide for Countries to Set Targets for Uni-
drug use disorders is integral to
versal Access to HIV Prevention, Treatment and Care
ending tuberculosis
for Injecting Drug Users,1 would help reduce the
People who use drugs are at a greater risk of becom- number of new cases of HIV among PWID.
ing infected with tuberculosis than those who do
Alternatives to incarceration
not, and people who inject drugs (PWID) and/or for possession, purchase,
are living with HIV are disproportionately affected. or cultivation for personal
They should therefore be considered a priority group consumption and appropriate
for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of tuber- cases of a minor nature: an
culosis. There is a need to engage people who use effective human rights-based criminal
drugs with prevention and treatment services in justice response and an effective policy
order to cure tuberculosis, prevent the development for preventing the spread of infectious
of drug-resistant forms of the disease and prevent it diseases
spreading.
People who use drugs may have a history of greater
For people who use drugs, treatment for tuberculosis exposure to the risk factors for infectious diseases
needs to be combined with prevention and treat- than people in the general population. In prison,
ment services for other infectious diseases, people who use drugs are exposed to a high-risk
particularly HIV, as well as for drug dependence as environment for infectious diseases such as HIV,
a continuum of care within the health-care system. hepatitis C and tuberculosis. The use of drugs,
The co-location of services for tuberculosis with including heroin, and unsafe injecting practices con-
HIV services, needle and syringe programmes and tinue in many prisons. These factors contribute to
drug treatment, including opioid substitution ther- the overall high prevalence and co-infection of
apy, alongside a multidisciplinary approach to care
1 Geneva, WHO, 2009.
28
CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 1
infectious diseases observed in many prison popula- control conventions need not be an obstacle to the
tions. Alternatives to incarceration for offences of a availability of such medication, as their aim is to
minor nature help reduce the spread and burden of ensure the availability of controlled substances for
infectious diseases in prisons, and ultimately within medical and scientific purposes while preventing
the wider community. The international drug con- their diversion and misuse. Legal and regulatory
trol conventions give States parties the flexibility to frameworks and clinical guidelines based on that
adopt such an approach through referral from the balanced approach can help remove any obstacles
criminal justice system to the treatment system. and increase accessibility to pharmaceutical opioids
Continuous monitoring of
while reducing the risk of their diversion. The vari-
the impact of new cannabis ous guidelines and discussion papers prepared by
policies provides an important UNODC, INCB and WHO can be used as a
knowledge base for the resource for addressing these issues.
international community Benefit of regional and interna-
It will take years to determine the long-term impact tional cooperation and its role in
of regulations approved in Uruguay and in some the fight against drug trafficking
jurisdictions in the United States of America allow-
The increased interception rates observed
ing the production and sale of cannabis for
for opiates and cocaine since the 1990s demonstrate
recreational use. However, the regular monitoring
that when countries engage in regional, interregional
of the public health and safety, criminal justice and
and international cooperation they achieve results.
other outcomes of those regulations will continue
It is encouraging to see the international community
to provide valuable insights. It would be beneficial
maintaining its commitment to cross-border coop-
to the countries concerned, and to the international
eration at the core of its efforts to address the drug
community in general, if jurisdictions and countries
problem, as reiterated in the outcome document of
adopting new regulations were to establish systems
the special session of the General Assembly on the
to regularly monitor their impact across all areas of
world drug problem held in 2016.
public health and criminal justice.
Medical use of cannabis needs While interception rates are not available for syn-
a scientific approach thetic drugs, the expanding market and trafficking
routes for methamphetamine, in particular, require
Research has shown that, notwith- increased international cooperation in order to sup-
standing the usefulness of some port countries with a limited capacity to detect and
cannabinoids in the management of specific medical address the methamphetamine problem.
conditions, their use, particularly in the botanical
form of herbal cannabis with unknown content and Complexity of the synthetic drugs
dosage, can be detrimental to health. To protect market requires enhanced forensic
human health, it is therefore necessary that the prin- capacity
ciples of safety, quality and efficacy and the rigorous
The synthetic drugs market has never been
scientific testing and regulatory systems that apply
so complex and widely spread. In partic-
to established medicines be applied also to cannabis-
ular, the range of substances on the market with
based medicines.
stimulant effects, such as traditional amphetamine
Improving access to and type-stimulants and NPS, is increasing. The rapid
availability of pharmaceutical evolution of synthetic drugs requires forensic capac-
opioids for medical use by ity with adequate equipment and human resources,
addressing major impediments together with new approaches to collecting data on
and putting in place adequate legal and drug use, as many users are often ignorant about
regulatory frameworks the compound they are taking.
Too many people lack access to pain medication.
The implementation of the international drug
29
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
30
CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 1
mainstream online investigation and electronic evi- Role of the United Nations
dence collection capability across all law enforcement Convention against
agencies. This approach will ensure that highly $
Corruption in achieving
trained, specialized cyberinvestigators can focus on target 16.5 of the
the most appropriate, high-risk, challenging and Sustainable Development
impactive cases. Goals (substantially reduce corruption and
bribery in all their forms) and helping
Fighting drug trafficking as
PEACE, JUSTICE address the drug problem
a fundamental factor in the
AND STRONG
INSTITUTIONS
achievement of Sustainable Corruption and drugs reinforce each other, with
Development Goal 16; corruption facilitating the production of and
preventing organized crime trafficking in drugs, which, in turn, fuel corruption.
groups diversifying their portfolios Corruption occurs at all levels along the illicit drug
requires strategies that go beyond the supply chain, from production and trafficking to
reduction and elimination of single illicit consumption, and affects a wide range of institutions:
markets eradication teams, alternative development projects,
law enforcement agencies, the criminal justice
Although they still represent between one fifth and system and the health sector, as well as private
one third of the total income from transnational companies, including chemical companies,
organized crime, the importance of drugs in overall pharmacies and transport companies. The United
illicit activities is declining. Organized crime groups Nations Convention against Corruption provides
have become more agile in their structure and more the tools to break this vicious circle and its review
versatile, moving opportunistically from one market mechanism can support countries in identifying
to another and bypassing regulatory systems in order practical steps to reduce corruption. Actions that
to make a profit. Addressing transnational organized have proved effective in reducing drug-related
crime therefore requires more effective and substan- corruption include proper scrutiny of key personnel,
tial long-term investment in individuals and anti-corruption training, the payment of a decent
communities. Areas affected by organized crime income to those vulnerable to corruption, rotation
need to find alternative social and economic solu- of officers in vulnerable units to avoid creating
tions that are supported by legitimate and transparent permanent links with organized crime groups, legal
institutions and robust rule of law. sanctions against corruption and the creation of an
overall climate in which corruption is not tolerated,
Going after drug money as one of the including systems to allow for the anonymous
most effective approaches to combating reporting of corruption and for witness protection.
drug trafficking
Strengthening the knowledge
While the economic impact of drug proceeds and base of the drug problem by
illicit financial flows may be too small to be really improving data, analysis and
significant for the majority of countries, it can still dissemination at the national,
have negative consequences for smaller economies, regional and international levels,
particularly in developing countries. Part of target including on the links between drugs
16.4 of the Sustainable Development Goals is to and other issues
significantly reduce illicit financial flows. Drug prof-
The World Drug Report provides the best picture of
its are what drive traffickers, and identifying the
the drug problem that can be assembled with the
flows related to those profits and the channels where
data and information available globally. The report
they are invested and laundered can effectively coun-
provides ample evidence to guide the international
teract them. Strengthening international cooperation
community on key aspects of drug policy, but much
in combating money-laundering also helps to reduce
remains unknown, even with regard to the basic
or eliminate the potential negative economic and
indicators of drug use, particularly in Africa and
social consequences from the outset.
Asia. Enhanced international cooperation to support
31
WORLD DRUG REPORT 2017
32
GLOSSARY
amphetamine-type stimulants — a group of sub- opiates — a subset of opioids comprising the various
stances composed of synthetic stimulants that were products derived from the opium poppy plant,
placed under international control in the Conven- including opium, morphine and heroin.
tion on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 and are
opioids — a generic term applied to alkaloids from
from the group of substances called amphetamines,
opium poppy (opiates), their synthetic analogues
which includes amphetamine, methamphetamine,
(mainly prescription or pharmaceutical opioids) and
methcathinone and the “ecstasy”-group substances
compounds synthesized in the body.
(3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
and its analogues). problem drug users — people who engage in the
high-risk consumption of drugs; for example, people
amphetamines — a group of amphetamine-type
who inject drugs, people who use drugs on a daily
stimulants that includes amphetamine and
basis and/or people diagnosed with drug use disor-
methamphetamine.
ders (harmful use or drug dependence), based on
annual prevalence — the total number of people of clinical criteria as contained in the Diagnostic and
a given age range who have used a given drug at Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fifth edi-
least once in the past year, divided by the number tion) of the American Psychiatric Association, or
of people of the given age range, and expressed as a the International Classification of Diseases (tenth
percentage. revision) of the World Health Organization.
coca paste (or coca base) — an extract of the leaves people who suffer from drug use disorders/people with
of the coca bush. Purification of coca paste yields drug use disorders — a subset of people who use
cocaine (base and hydrochloride). drugs. People with drug use disorders need treat-
ment, health and social care and rehabilitation.
“crack” cocaine — cocaine base obtained from
Dependence is a drug use disorder.
cocaine hydrochloride through conversion processes
to make it suitable for smoking. prevention of drug use and treatment of drug use dis-
orders — the aim of “prevention of drug use” is to
cocaine salt — cocaine hydrochloride.
prevent or delay the initiation of drug use, as well
new psychoactive substances — substances of abuse, as the transition to drug use disorders. Once there
either in a pure form or a preparation, that are not is a drug use disorder, treatment, care and rehabili-
controlled under the Single Convention on Narcotic tation are needed.
Drugs of 1961 or the 1971 Convention, but that
may pose a public health threat. In this context, the
term “new” does not necessarily refer to new inven-
tions but to substances that have recently become
available.
33
REGIONAL GROUPINGS
The World Drug Report uses a number of regional • Central Asia and Transcaucasia: Armenia,
and subregional designations. These are not official Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
designations, and are defined as follows: Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan
• East Africa: Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, • East and South-East Asia: Brunei Darussalam,
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Cambodia, China, Democratic People’s
Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Lao
Uganda and United Republic of Tanzania People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia,
Mongolia, Myanmar, Philippines, Republic of
• North Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco,
Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste and
South Sudan, Sudan and Tunisia
Viet Nam
• Southern Africa: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho,
• South-West Asia: Afghanistan, Iran (Islamic
Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa,
Republic of ) and Pakistan
Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe
• Near and Middle East: Bahrain, Iraq, Israel,
• West and Central Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso,
Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Central African
Arabia, State of Palestine, Syrian Arab Republic,
Republic, Chad, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire,
United Arab Emirates and Yemen
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial
Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, • South Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka
Niger, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal,
• Eastern Europe: Belarus, Republic of Moldova,
Sierra Leone and Togo
Russian Federation and Ukraine
• Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas,
• South-Eastern Europe: Albania, Bosnia and
Barbados, Bermuda, Cuba, Dominica,
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro,
Dominican Republic, Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica,
Romania, Serbia, the former Yugoslav Republic
Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint
of Macedonia and Turkey
Vincent and the Grenadines and Trinidad and
Tobago • Western and Central Europe: Andorra, Austria,
Belgium, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia,
• Central America: Belize, Costa Rica,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua
Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein,
and Panama
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco,
• North America: Canada, Mexico and United Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, San
States of America Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland and United Kingdom of Great
• South America: Argentina, Bolivia
Britain and Northern Ireland
(Plurinational State of ), Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, • Oceania: Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall
Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela (Bolivarian Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of ),
Republic of ) Nauru, New Zealand, Palau, Papua New
Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga,
Tuvalu, Vanuatu and small island territories
34
To celebrate 20 years since its inception, the World Drug
Report 2017 is presented in a new five-booklet format
designed to improve reader friendliness while maintaining the
wealth of information contained within.
Enhanced by this new format, the World Drug Report 2017 is,
as ever, aimed at improving the understanding of the world
drug problem and contributing towards fostering greater
international cooperation for countering its impact on health
and security.
ISBN 978-92-1-148292-8
9 789211 482928