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Air Pollution

Introduction

When man first learned to lit a fire, he would have thought a bright new world is
ahead of him. But that was the date when the gaseous air pollution started. However,
nobody seems to know that date. Hence, the first incidence of air pollution is lost in
unrecorded history but it certainly goes back to the discovery of fire. Sooner or later,
a bush or forest fire must have occurred in an area of restricted ventilation, with
subsequent contamination of the air by a thick pall of smoke. Simultaneously, heavy
fogs and sand storms proceeded the dawn of history.

The problem of pollution is associated with some activity of man to achieve material
comforts, whether it be farming, manufacturing or just moving about in this world.
Man has lived centuries in atmospheres permeated by dust, methane from
decomposing materials in bogs and swamps. Society's concern has increased now
because urbanization and industrialization have brought together large
concentrations of people in small areas. Concentrations of pollutants emitted from
many of man's activities thus build up to levels sufficient to created adverse effects
on plant, animal and human health. Much of our industrialization is the result of a
demand for higher standard of living. The demands for transportation, ever
increasing demand for electric power, and expansion of industry to provide new
products have all combined to cause an increase in concentrations of pollutants to
the dangerous level

In the recent years there has been great interest in the environment and many 'new'
words have become part of our vocabulary., words such as ecology, environment,
photochemical smog, greenhouse effect, all associated with air pollution.

Meaning of Air Pollution

According to Engineers Joint Council, USA, " Air pollution means the presence in the
outdoor atmosphere, of one or more contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist,
odour, smoke, or vapour, in quantities, of characteristics and of duration such as to
be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property of which unreasonably
interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property"

Other vocabulary associated with air pollution with the definitions according to
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) are:

1) Particulate: A general term meaning existing in the form of minute separate


particles either solid or liquid. Particulate is used interchangeably with aerosol.

2) Aerosol: A dispersion of solid or liquid particles of microscopic size in


gaseous media, such as fog, smoke or mist.

3) Dust: A term loosely applied to solid particles predominantly larger than


colloidal, and capable of temporary suspension in air or other gases.

4) Fly Ash: The finely divided particles of ash entrained in flue gases arising
from the combustion of fuel.

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5) Fog: A loose term applied to visible aerosols in which dispersed phase is
liquid. Formation by condensation is usually implied.

6) Smoke: Finely divided aerosol particles resulting from incomplete combustion.


Consists mainly of carbon and other combustible materials.

7) Soot: Agglomeration of particles of carbon impregnated with 'tar' formed in


the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials.

HISTORY OF AIR POLLUTION

The air pollution is not a recent phenomenon, although some forms of pollution such
as photochemical smog are certainly a new phenomenon. Smoke pollution, however,
has been with man for centuries. A few important events in the history of air
pollution are given below.

The London Smog


In 1300, King Edward I of England prohibited the burning of coal in London, owing to
smoke and odour it produced, which became unbearable.

In 1578, Queen Elizabeth I, annoyed by smoke from coal burning, complained to


parliament to do something. In 1661, John Evelyn published a book on pollution with
a major recommendation to remove all smoke producing plants from London. But,
London did little about it until a major air pollution disaster struck in December 1952.
The London smog lasted 5 days (5-9 December 1952) and caused 4000 deaths,
principally among the old, the infirm and those with respiratory diseases.

Almost exactly 10 years later (3-7 December 1962) London experienced another
black fog with 400 deaths. The improvement over the 1952 episode was due to
smoke reduction brought about by the clean air act and public awareness of the
harmful effects of smog which restrained many people who had respiratory ailment
from going outdoor.

Dr. Des Voeus talked about smoke-fog deaths in 1905 and 1911 and it is likely that
the work 'smog' was coined from his work.

Meuse Valley, Belgium

A strong atmospheric inversion settled over the Meuse valley on December 1, 1930
and remained until December 5. Effluents from several factories in the valley, chiefly
oxides of sulphur, various inorganic acids, metallic acids and soot were then trapped
in the stable atmosphere. Sixty three persons died and several hundred others
became ill. Although sulphur oxides and hydrofluoric acid were suspected, actual
lethal substance could not be identified.

The Donora Smog

Donora is an industrial suburb of Pittsburg with major installations of a steel mill, a


zinc smelter, a sulphuric acid plant. During the period from Oct. 27 to 31, 1948 air
pollutants accumulated due to a particularly calm and meteorogically stable condition,

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causing 20 deaths and many to be hospitalized. As in the London smog of 1952, the
causative agent of the deaths and illness was never determined, but in both
instances sulphur compounds (SO2, SO3, H2SO4, and inorganic sulphate) were
present in the air in abnormally high quantities.

Los Angeles, California

Probably, the most publicized smog problem in the US is that of Los Angeles. The
peculiar geographical location of the city with increasing population and concurrent
increase in industrial and human activity brought about an intolerable atmospheric
condition. This recurring phenomenon since 1940's caused eye irritation, damage to
vegetation, restricted visibility. The peculiarly high oxidant content of the air
continued to increase. In the early 1950s it was shown that these conditions resulted
largely from the reaction between organic compounds and nitrogen dioxide activated
by sunlight. Both reactants are emitted in large quantities in the exhaust gases of
internal combustion engines. As a consequence, the State of California passed its
first motor vehicle pollution control law in 1959 and later by the US Federal
Government.

Effect of Air Pollution

One of the difficulties in coping with the air pollution lies in the variety of its effects
on people. A farmer is most interested in its effects on his crops; a house will
complain that dirt and soot soil clothing and furniture; a traveler, may be
inconvenienced by low atmospheric visibility; a large segment of general public is
concerned with the possible health effects of polluted air. The five most common
effects of air pollution are;

(i) Reduction in visibility


(ii) Economic damage to property
(iii) Annoyance to human senses
(iv) Damage to health
(v) Substantive changes in the ecology of the natural environment

(i) Limited Visibility

Restriction of visibility is the most widely noticed and probably least understood
of all effects of air pollution. Smoke and dust clouds that are sufficiently dense to
darken the sky will obviously limit visibility. But many a times horizontal visibility
is restricted even when the sky overhead is bright. The most noteworthy case of
this type is the so called 'Los Angeles Smog'. During the smog period the sun
shines brilliantly with horizontal visibility less than 300-400 meters. The effect is
similar to poor visibility in a ground hugging fog except that the relative humidity
is very low.

The difficult problem with respect to visibility restriction is the determination of


whether or not is independent of natural phenomena, i.e. fog or haze.
Combination effects like London 'smog' (smoke and fog), Denver's 'smaze'
(smoke + haze), Elpaso's 'smust' (smoke and dust) confound the issue.

Public objection to reduced risibility stems from two factors, transportation


hazards and delays and aesthetic considerations. The blotting of the horizon in a

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smoke filled valley can well discourage tourist trade and reduce its land value.
Eventually the problem must be faced on a cost benefit basis.

(ii) Economic Damage to Property

Air pollution damage to property includes damage to materials, vegetation and


animals as well as interference with production and services. Air pollution
damages materials chiefly by corrosion of metals, presumably from acidic
pollutants in atmospheres. The most important pollutant is sulphur dioxide, SO2,
which is released in great quantities by the combustion of sulphur containing
fuels. In the presence of oxygen SO2 is converted into sulphur trioxide, SO3,
which in turn combines with water vapor in the atmosphere to form sulphuric
acid. Deposition of this acid on metal parts of equipment, building roofs results in
considerable loss in most urban communities. Hydrogen Fluoride (h2F2) and
Hydrochloride (HCl) will also react with water vapour to form highly corrosive
droplets of fog.

Another form of property damage is the 'rubber cracking'. Principal areas are the
sidewalls of tyres and various forms of electrical insulation. This damage is
caused by high ozone content in the atmospheric air.
Hydrogen sulphide is a common cause for the damage to the painted surfaces by
reaction with the lead in paints. Temporary damage results from the soiling of
surfaces by smoke, soot and dust fall. Losses most commonly encountered are
the additional cost of laundering, cleaning and redecorating the buildings.

The pollutants like SO2, H2, F, Cl2, HCl, oxides of nitrogen, H2S, NH3, Hydrogen
Cyanide, Mercury vapour, Ethylene etc, commonly cause vegetation damage.

The nature of damage varies with the toxicant, usually in the form of chlorotic
marking (disappearance of green colour), silvering or bronzing of the underside
of the leaf, leading to death of the plant in extreme cases. The extent of damage
to an individual plant also depends on many factors, e.g., the pollutant, type of
soil, relative humidity, amount and type of plant food available, stage of growth,
pollutant concentration, time of exposure and amount of light.

The effect of pollution on animals is the damage caused to them by grazing in


areas where grasses are contaminated by fluoride dusts or have absorbed
fluoride compounds from the atmosphere. The chief effect of ingested fluorides
on animals is fluorosis, an accumulation of fluoride in the bone structure of the
animal leading to weight loss and lameness.]

Interference with production and services includes a variety of secondary effects


occasioned primarily by other air pollution effects. Included would be automobile
and air traffic delays caused by poor visibility and a general lethargy in human
activities because of depressing nature of some effects. Related interference to
services of more direct economic consequence is loss of retail trade, loss of
tourist trade and reduction in land and improvement values.

(iii) Annoyance to senses of people

This category, of air pollution effects includes a multitude of reactions that can be
generally divided into two classes;

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(a) Eye, nose and throat irritation
(b) Odours

Just where annoyance stops and danger to health beings is a controversial matter.
Two forms of atmospheric eye irritation are recognized: (1) The emission of an
irritating substance, such as tear gas, into the atmosphere, and (2) The
formation of an eye irritant in the atmosphere by reaction of otherwise non-
irritating pollutant. When a known irritant escapes into the atmosphere it is easy
to relate the cause and effect. Some times a mixture of unknown composition
and unsuspected irritability is released into atmosphere and carried away by air.
It is difficult to trace such a source. The second type of eye irritants, those
caused by atmospheric reactions, are becoming a major problem in urban
communities. The photochemical reactions between certain organic materials and
nitrogen dioxde, NO2, chiefly from automobile exhaust, have been shown to be
responsible for the high incidence of irritation. Formaldehyde, acrolein and paroxy
acetyl nitrate (PAN) are the products of atmospheric photochemical reaction.

Nose and throat irritation have been often reported as effects of air pollution.
Odour is also a subjective response of people and is more difficult to define than
eye irritation. This is particularly true because an odour objectionable to one
person may be pleasing to another. A panel makes measurements of the degree
of odour and eye irritation.

(iv) Damage to health

Of all effects of air pollution, damage to health is undoubtedly foremost in


people’s minds. Air is necessary for the survival of man and there is no such
thing as absolutely ‘pure’ or ‘clean’ air, nor is there any such thing as an
absolutely safe contaminant. At some concentration in air any gas or aerosol will
damage health. The specific concentration at which a contaminant will damage
health depends upon how the word ‘health’ is defined, the nature of contaminant,
the length of time the air containing the specific pollutant is breathed or in
contact with the receptor, and the state of health of the receptor. The state of
health of a receptor is a highly important variable. Health is defined (WHO) as ‘ a
state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity”. A further complication is the subjective nature of
health, which is the reason for the emotion approach to matters concerning air
pollution.

Keeping in mind the variations among population groups, there are certain
factors that appear to be incontestable.

• People have died as a result of polluted air as evidenced by several air


pollution episodes in London, Donora and other places. Mandy of these
people many not have died as a direct result of air pollution but air
pollution was a contributing factor.
• There is a concentration or a dosage of specific air pollutants, which
evokes various physiological responses from receptors.
• Certain contributions of atmospheric pollutants aggravate the symptoms
of chronic pulmonary disease and possibly other diseases.

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• Some pollutants irritate sensitive membranes, those of the eyes, nose,
throat, and lungs particularly, but the irritation varies greatly from one
person to another.
• Health effects that may be caused or aggravated by overcrowding,
occupation, working conditions, nutrition, habits (such as smoking0,
climate and other variable.
• It is probable but not proved conclusively that mixture of pollutants will
affect some people more than would be predicted by the additive effects
of individual pollutants.

The three common means for determining the effects of various


concentrations and dosages of pollutants on people are;
(i) Experimental exposures of men and animals under controlled
conditions to various concentrations and dosages. Like all biological
studies, the results must be subjected to rigorous statistical
analysis. Experimental exposures of human beings must be limited
to low concentrations that will not result in serious illness. Types of
effects noticed and measured are detection of odor, eye-nose-
throat irritation, variation in lung capacity, breathing frequency,
pulse rate, reduction in physical activity, darkness adaptation and
many other physiological responses.

(ii) Clinical Studies predominantly involve observations made on


subjects who are or were exposed to atmospheric pollutants under
controlled conditions. Thus, patients visiting physicians to complain
of symptoms supposedly caused by living in polluted areas may
upon observation yield clinical data of importance. Studies on
downtown traffic police, truck drivers and other occupational
groups may yield valuable information.

(iii) In Epidemiological studies one looks for relationships between the


distribution of specific diseases in human population and the
factors that determine the distribution. Thus one many compare
mortality records, hospital admissions, morbidity (illness) records,
absenteeism and other health related data from several
geographical areas with levels of atmospheric pollutants in the
same area to determine if significant correlation may be discovered.
To avoid misinterpretation, population under study must be
carefully screened for smoking habits, occupational exposures etc.
that might prejudice the results of the study.

SPECIFIC HEALTH EFFECTS

Although there may not be adequate proofs to relate specific disease to specific
concentration of pollutants, certain general relationships seems to appear. For
example,

(i) Chronic pulmonary diseases (bronchitis, asthma, emphysema) is


aggravated by sufficiently high concentrations of SO2, NO2, Particulates
and photochemical smog

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(ii) It has been difficult to relate atmospheric pollution to lung cancer, unlike
the more convincing relationship between heavy cigarette smoking and
lung cancer.
(iii) Cardiovascular diseases are related to pollutants in that any pollutant
placing sufficient stress on the pulmonary function may affect the heart.
(iv) Carbon monoxide ties up the haemoglobin in the blood to a sufficient
amount to put added stress on those suffering from cardiovascular and
pulmonary diseases.
(v) Photochemical smog irritates the eyes but apparently does not damage
them. Persons with pulmonary diseases may suffer aggravation of
symptoms.
(vi) A variety of particulates, particularly pollens, irritate asthmatic attacks.
(vii) Various gases, e.g., H2S and ammonia have noticeable odours at low
concentrations.
(viii) Certain heavy metals, e.g., lead may enter the body through the lungs
and accumulate in the bones and various tissues. In the case of lead,
however, the amounts which enter the body by way of food and drink are
more important.

(v) Ecosystem Changes:

Some effects of pollutants may occur far from the site at which they are emitted
and may induce changes in the environment. For example, storms, cloud
formations, and increased rainfall in areas downwind from large pollution sources
now seems to be well documented. Beyond these changes in regional
environmental systems, other evidence suggests that man caused pollution
discharges may now be leading to ultimate changes in global weather patterns
and to other alterations in the planetary ecological system.

GLOBAL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Consider the energy balance of the earth’s atmospheric system. Of 100 units of
incoming solar radiation 30 units are reflected from the clouds, particulates and
molecules, and the surface of the earth. Nineteen units are absorbed in the
atmosphere, three by the ozone in the stratosphere, thus producing a warm region
some 20-25 km above the earth, 3 by CO2 and particulates and 13 by water vapor.
The remaining 51 units are absorbed by the surface of the earth. The earth radiates
back to space but this must traverse the atmosphere. Some 51 units are radiated in
the infrared at longer wavelengths than the solar input. 96 units are, however,
radiated back to the earth from the atmosphere so that 13 of our absorbed 56 go to
make up the difference in the radiation-energy balance. This difference results
because the average earth temperature is a little higher than the average
atmospheric temperature. The remaining 36 units go back to the atmosphere
through evaporation and conduction (convection). Note that, of the 51 units radiated
back from the earth, only about 6 units go directly through the atmosphere, the rest
are absorbed and remitted on the way out.

The crucial elements in this balance of energy are the points at which man can
disturb the balance, the so called leverage points. For example, by increasing the
CO2 in the atmosphere, we increase the amount of radiation, which is re-radiated to

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the earth around 38 units (Greenhouse Effect). By increasing the particulate load in
the atmosphere, we affect both the 38 units re-radiated and the seven units of
scattered incoming radiation decreasing the earth’s atmospheric temperature. By
increasing the energy dissipated as heat in mankind’s industrial activities, we
increase the earth’s average surface temperature and the affect the evaporation-
condensation water cycle, the potential size of the polar ice caps and therefore, the
water level of the oceans. Man’s ability to act at these points in this modal means
that small changes produced by emission of pollutants may have large effects.

Pollution Sources and Emission Inventories

The composition of clean, dry air indicates many compounds in it, which we consider
to be pollutants. Some of them are NO2, O3, SO2, CO and NH3. Though their
concentrations are very low in unpolluted air, under polluted conditions they are
greatly increased. Concentrations of 0.50 ppm for ozone, O3 and 20 to 50 ppm for
30 minutes of CO levels are common along busy urban streets. Thus it is not the
mere presence of these gases that cause problems but it is the greatly increased
concentrations of these gases in the air.

Particulate

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates in USA indicate that forest fires are
accountable for almost one quarter of particulate emissions. Coal burning power
plants represent concentrated sources and control technology exists to clean up a
large percentage of the particulate from their exhaust.

Carbon Monoxide

The largest source of emission for carbon monoxide is the gasoline fuelled motor
vehicle. Most emissions occur in urban areas and often leading to a high
concentration of 10-15 ppm for 8 hour periods along the streets. Exposure to such
high levels for an 8 hour day results in a carboxyhemoglobin level of 2.5 percent,
that is 2.5 percent of the red blood cells, have CO attached instead of O2. CO has
about 200 times the affinity of O2 for haemoglobin and thus readily displaces O2
from the haemoglobin molecule.

Clearly then, great reduction in urban CO level can only be made by removing the
automobiles or by controlling the combustion process in its engine.

Sulphur Oxides
Fuel combustion in stationary sources dominates in the emission of sulphur oxides.
Coal and fuel oil burning power plants are responsible for more than 50% of sulphur
oxides. Typically coal (or residual fuel oil) contains from 1 to 3 percent sulphur and
the combustion of coal produces SO2 at the rate of 20 times the percent sulphur in
units of kgs of SO2 per ton of coal burnt.

Nitrogen Oxides

The two primary sources of nitrogen oxides, NOx, are motor vehicles and power
generation stations. Thus control techniques must include both for the individual car
and for the individual power station. The reduction in auto produced emissions is
difficult because some techniques to reduce NOx increase CO and HC emissions.

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Hydrocarbons
This list again shows the motor vehicles as the main sources for hydrocarbon
emissions. Organic solvent evaporation comes from sources such as paint and
varnish industries and the local dry cleaning plants.

Emission Control Through Combustion Process

Generally there are three sources of emittants from engines- fuel tank, crankcase
and exhaust pipe. Of these, the major emittant source from engine is its exhaust. A
primary energy source for the engine is crude oil from underground, which typically
contains varying amount of sulphur. Much of the sulphur is removed during refining
of petroleum fuels. Thus, the final fuel is hydrocarbons (HC) with only a small
amount of sulphur. If, for the moment we neglect the sulphur and assume perfect
and complete combustion, only water and carbon dioxide (CO2) would appear in the
exhaust. Of these two species, CO2 has the potential of affecting the weather, hence
it may ultimately be considered as a pollutant. Except for the sulphur dioxide (SO2),
which is a result of perfect combustion, the compounds usually considered, as
pollutants are those resulting from imperfect and/or incomplete combustion. These
pollutants include;

Gaseous: Unburnt hydrocarbons (UHC)


Carbon monoxide (CO)
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Particulates
Soot particles
Soluble organic fraction

The major pollutants emitted by different engines are;

S.I. Engines: UHC, CO and NOx

C.I. Engines: UHC, NOx and Particulates

Gaseous pollutants are an almost irrevocable consequence of combustion, by nature,


burning irreversibly alters reactants and produces products as above. In the
following sections, the impact of combustion processes on the formation of such
pollutants as well as the impact of their formation on burning is discussed. The
research into the production of pollutants, as well as their control is rigorous as
emissions generated by any engine are dependent on the operating conditions as
well as a multitude of other variables.

GENESIS OF VEHICULAR EMISSIONS

In India and Nepal, there are three distinct categories of vehicles

(a) Vehicles with spark ignition engines using petrol


(b) Vehicles with compression ignition engines using diesel and

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(c) Vehicles with two stroke ignition using lubricating oil mixed petrol (two
or three wheelers)

For complete combustion, air to fuel ratio (A/F ratio) is computed as 14.5. This ratio
is a stoichiometric ratio. But in spark ignition engines, complete combustion does not
take place and pollutants are produced at stoichiometric values of A/F ratio. This is
because the spark induced reaction is not fully propagated inside the piston chamber.
In the four stroke cycle petrol engine, as the air-fuel ratio and operating temperature
are low, substantial quantities of unburnt hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide with low
quantities of oxides of nitrogen are emitted. While in diesel engine, due to high fuel-
air ratio and operating temperature, the concentration of oxides of nitrogen is high in
emission. Since diesel has low vapour pressure, the emission of fine carbon root
particles is also very high. The two and three wheelers, being petrol driven, emit
large quantities of unburnt hydrocarbons besides carbon monoxide and particulates.

Thus the major pollutants released through automobile exhaust include:

a. Carbon monoxide - 63.91%


b. Unburnt hydrocarbons - 22.51%
c. Nitrogen oxides - 11.75%
d. Sulphur oxides - 0.87%
e. Organic and Inorganic lead components - 2.3%
f. Particulate - 0.98%

Petrol Driven Vehicles- Two, three and four wheelers are the major contributors of
the total vehicular pollution and more particularly the two stroke engined vehicles
are responsible for release of large amount of pollutants.

Further, the driving cycle pattern prevalent in India exhibits frequent or repeated
acceleration of deceleration in short intervals of time as vehicle travel at steady
speed (Cruising) for a very limited distance only. It could be due to intermixing of
fast and slow moving vehicles, improper traffic management, poor road conditions,
vehicular congestion etc. which results in emission of excessive quantum of toxicants.
Besides the inherent tendency to opt for breakdown maintenance instead of
preventive maintenance has led to poorly maintained vehicles, which emit excessive
amounts of pollutants.

IMPACT OF VEHICULAR POLLUTION

Smoke is an irritant, while carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. While the general
feeling is that pollution is caused by mostly by trucks and busses because smoke is
visible to the naked eye, carbon monoxide is an invisible gas without smell and more
harmful from the public health point of view.

Carbon monoxide could produce dizziness, lassitude and headache and even cause
death if it is present in excess amounts. Recently, a high incidence of respiratory
diseases was reported in highly congested metropolitan city of Bombay due to
poisonous vehicular emissions.

Hydrocarbons released through automobile are very toxic particulate and


carcinogenic. The Hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight

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undergo complex reactions to form photochemical smog, which is more harmful than
the hydrocarbons.

The pollutants sulphur dioxide is also responsible for lung cancer in human and may
affect photosynthetic activity in plants.

Nitrogen oxides emitted from automobile exhaust lead to irritation, bronchitis etc.

The other pollutants, organic and inorganic, lead components and particulate matters
may lead to significant disorders on plants and human beings. High concentrations of
lead in the blood have toxic effects. A report says that lead concentration in air of
Delhi has increased from 0.45 micrograms to 1.25 micrograms on an average.

Traffic policemen, automobile workshop employees and other who constantly work in
areas of heavy vehicular traffic have greater possibility to inhale lead and carbon
monoxide.

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EMISSION CONTROL AND MEASUREMENT

(I) EMISSION CONTROL:

1. INTRODUCTION

There are four areas in the automobile, which can emit pollutants into the
atmosphere. These are, the fuel tank, the carburettor, the crankcase and the
exhaust system. The fuel tank and the carburetor emit fuel vapours, the crankcase
gives out the partly burnt air-fuel mixture blown off through the piston rings, while
the emissions from the exhaust system include unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides. Therefore, controlling these areas of
the automobile can decrease the atmospheric pollution. To do this, two different
approaches have been followed:

1. To reduce the formation of pollutants in the emissions by redesigning the engine


ventilating system, carburetor, and fuel tank. The combustion chamber, along
with fuel system, cooling system, ignition system and the exhaust system are
also redesigned, thus improving upon the combustion efficiency, which reduces
the emissions.

2. To destroy the pollutants after these have been formed.

2. REDUCTION OF EMISSIONS

This is achieved by the following:


1. Closed Crankcase Ventilation
2. Fuel tank and Carburettor Ventilation
3. Redesigning the engine: (i) Combustion chamber, (ii) Cooling system
(iii) Fuel supply system (iv) Ignition system.

Closed Crankcase Ventilation

There are two variations of this system, vig., the positive crankcase ventilation and
the Fixed orifice system. In the former, filtered air from the carburetor air cleaner is
introduced in the crankcase from where it carries away the blow-by gases and the
gasoline vapours to the engine inlet manifold through a special PCV valve. Thus the
blow-by gases and the gasoline vapours enter the engine combustion chamber along
with fresh and are burnt there.
Air Cleaner

Inlet Manifold
Air Cleaner

Carburettor
Engin
PCV
e
Valve

Engine
Crankcase

Figure 1: Layout of positive crankcase ventilation


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The special PCV valve is spring-loaded and is so designed that it opens more with the
decrease of vacuum in the inlet manifold. Thus at idling and low speeds when the
vacuum is high, the P.C.V. valve opens only a small amount thus passing a small
quantity of air. In this way, the idle-mixture ratio is not upset. With the increase of
speed when the throttle valve is opened more the inlet manifold vacuum decreases,
causing the PCV valve to open more and thus allowing more air to pass. This system
is being employed overwhelmingly in vehicles of the leading manufactures in U.S.A.
In the Fixed Orifice system, a fixed orifice in the base of the carburetor takes the
place of the PCV valve. The blow-by gases are diverted to the inlet manifold through
this orifice.

In both these types of closed crankcase ventilation systems, the sludge and the
other similar elements during the course of time, clog the PCV vale or the orifice,
which may decrease and ultimately stop the blow of the blow-by gases altogether,
which would affect the engine performance very seriously. A coating of oil on the air-
cleaner filter, apart from various engine troubles, indicates that service of the system
is needed urgently, which mainly requires the cleaning of the P.C.V. valve or orifice,
the air-cleaner filter, hoses, etc.

Fuel Tank And Craburettor Ventilation

The gasoline vapours from the fuel tank escape into the atmosphere by evaporation
or ‘breathing’. With the increase of temperature, the air inside the fuel tank, which
carries gasoline vapours, expands and is thus forced out through either the filter cap
vent or the tank vent tube. When the temperature decreases, the air from outside
enters the tank. Thus with the increase and decrease of temperature, the fuel tank
‘breathes’. Thereby discharging gasoline vapours into the atmosphere. Gasoline is
also lost from the carburettor float bowl by evaporation when the engine is not
running. It is estimated that the losses from the fuel tank and carburettor are about
10% of the total hydrocarbon emission of the engine into the atmosphere.

Vapor –liquid separator

Carburettor

Fuel Tank

Carbon Canister

To Engine Inlet

Figure 3: Layout of Vapour Recovery System

A simple system to control these losses is shown in Figure 3, the fuel tank and the
carburettor float chamber are not vented into the atmosphere. They are, instead,

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vented to a carbon canister, which adsorbs the vapour and stores it. When the
engine is operated, the stored vapour in the carbon canister is purged out through
the inlet manifold into the engine combustion chamber and is burnt there.

Redesigning The Combustion Chamber

To avoid the addition of lead in gasoline, the engine combustion chambers have been
redesigned with lower compression ratios (from approximately 10.5:1 to 8.5:1). This
loss of efficiency has been made good by reducing the cool areas around the
combustion chamber which results in improved combustion of the air-fuel mixture
and consequently in the decrease of pollutants in the exhaust.

The shape of the combustion chamber also has a bearing of the combustion
efficiency. It is seen that for a given volume, the hemispherical combustion chamber
has the least surface area, which means least surface to cool the air-fuel mixture and
hence lower percentage of unburnt hydrocarbons in the exhaust.

In a chamber designed for the stratified charge, the richer part of the mixture is kept
away from the surfaces of the chamber, whereas the weaker part is first introduced.
Thus the percentage of unburnt hydrocarbons is decreased.

Figure 4: Sonex System for Emission Control

In a new system being developed in Britain, first only a charge of air is injected after
which the fuel-air mixture is injected Figure 4. A specially designed piston on its
compression stroke sets the combustion charge oscillating as ignition takes place.
The system attains the complete combustion effect by utilizing the natural
frequencies of the system and the resonance effect.

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Changes In Cooling System

The thermostat in the cooling system may be set to open at highest possible
temperature, say, about 940C. In this way, the engine operating temperature is
insulting in improved combustion of the air-fuel mixture and hence decreasing the
pollutants in exhaust emissions

Changes In Fuel Supply System

The air cleaner is controlled thermostatically so that the temperature of the air
entering the carburettor is about 30-400C. The heating of the carburettor is by
utilizing the heat of the exhaust gases only. The supply of air to the engine at higher
temperature results in decrease of exhausts emissions due to increase in combustion
efficiency. Figure 5 shows the exhaust controlled heating system employed in SL
engines of Mazda vehicles.

Figure 5: Exhaust Controlled Heating System

The carburetors have also been redesigned so as to increase idling speeds. Further
suitable designs are now adopted so that the idle setting cannot be disturbed later by

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mechanics, as it has been found that too rich an idle mixture results in increase of
exhaust emissions Figure 6.

Figure 6: Effect Of Fuel-Air Ratio On Exhaust Emissions At Idle

When the choke valve is closed, the mixture supplied is very rich, emitting higher
quantities of exhaust. The choke valves have, therefore, been redesigned so that
these open and close more quickly, thus reducing the time for which the engine a
typical example of such design. Fuel injection system is found to meter the fuel more
accurately and to supply an even quantity of fuel to all the cylinders. Thus it
improves the combustion and hence decreases the emission of unburnt hydrocarbons
and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere.

Modifications In Ignition System

As the exhaust emissions increase with the increase of ignition advance Figure 7 the
distributor is redesigned to provide retarded ignition at idling speeds. Further the
vacuum advance units have also been modified so as not to operate under certain
conditions, e.g., on deceleration; in low gear etc. this decreases the exhaust
emissions under these conditions.

Figure 7: Effect Of Ignition Timing On Exhaust Emissions At Idle

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Treating The Exhaust Gases To Reduce Pollutants

To types of techniques are used for treating the exhaust gases from the engine to
reduce the percentage of pollutants in them:

1. Fresh air is sent into the exhaust manifold. The fresh air supplies additional
oxygen required to complete the combustion of any hydrocarbons or carbon
monoxide, which are harmless.

2. The exhaust gases from the engine are passed through catalytic converters also
know as catalytic muffler Figure 8.

Catalyst (Pallets)

Exhaust from Clean Gases


Engine

Figure 8: Flow of Gas Through Catalytic Converter

Such a converter is a cylindrical canister installed in the exhaust system and contains
the plastic pallets coated with the catalyst. Platinum is used as catalyst in many such
converters.

In the presence of the catalyst, the pollutants in the exhaust gases are converted
into harmless water vapour, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and oxygen.

The first method has the drawback that it cannot remove nitrogen oxides. The
second method converts these into harmless nitrogen and oxygen. However, the
disadvantage in this case lies in the catalyst being very expensive.

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(ii) EXHAUST GAS ANALYSIS & MEASUREMENTS:

The analysis of exhaust gases can be done with the help of analyzers. A high
hydrocarbon reading indicates improper ignition timing or system malfunction,
carburettor defect or improper fuel-air mixture, or faulty valve or component of valve
actuating mechanism. Excessive presence of CO in the exhaust gases means too rich
carburettor setting, defective choke, incorrect idle setting or clogged air cleaner.
High indication of both the hydrocarbons as well as carbon monoxide means non-
functioning PCV system, sticking air cleaner preheat door, excessive crankcase
dilution with fuel or defective carbon canister purging system. Thus from the analysis
of exhaust gases, we can come to know the possible sources of malfunction and take
remedial action to bring pollution within permissible limits.

From the point of view of pollution control, measurement of emissions from engines
is very important. Emissions may be divided into two groups, Viz., invisible emissions
and visible emissions. The exhaust of an engine may contain one or more of the
following.

(i) carbon dioxide


(ii) water vapour
(iii) oxides of nitrogen
(iv) unburnt hydrocarbons
(v) carbon monoxide
(vi) aldehydes
(vii) smoke and
(viii) particulate

Out of the eight the first six may be grouped as invisible emissions and the last two
as visible emissions. Out of the various invisible emissions carbon dioxide and water
vapour are considered harmless compared to others. Hence, their measurements are
not discussed. We will briefly describe the measurement of other invisible emissions.

Oxides of Nitrogen: Oxides of nitrogen, which also occur only in the engine
exhaust, are a combination of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen
and oxygen react at relatively high temperatures. Therefore, high temperatures and
availability of oxygen are two main reactions for the formation of NOx. When the
proper amount of oxygen is available, the higher the peak combustion temperature
the more is the NO formed.

The NOx concentration in exhaust is affected by engine design and the mode of
vehicle operation. Air-fuel ratio and the spark advance are the two important factors,
which significantly affect NOx emissions. The maximum NOx is formed at ratios
between 14:1 and 16:1. At lean and rich air-fuel mixtures the NOx concentration is
comparatively low. Increasing the ignition advance will result in lower peak
combustion temperatures and higher exhaust temperatures. This will result in high
NOx concentration in exhaust.

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Figure 9: Chemiluminescence Method of Measuring Oxides of Nitrogen

Internationally accepted method for measuring oxides of nitrogen is by


chemiluminescence’s analyzer. The details are shown in Figure 9. The principle of
measurement is based on chemiluminescence’s reaction between ozone and No
resulting in the formation of excited NO2. This excited NO2 emits light whose
intensity is proportional to NO concentration. The light intensity is measured by a
photo multiplier tube. The analyzer measures only nitric oxides, NO, and not NO2. To
analyze all the oxides of nitrogen a converter is usually is fitted ahead of the reaction
chamber to convert all the oxides of nitrogen into nitric oxide. Thereby, the light
intensity can be taken to be proportional to the oxides of nitrogen concentration in
the sample.

Carbon Monoxide: It occurs only in engine exhaust. It is a product of incomplete


combustion due to insufficient amount of air in the air-fuel mixture or insufficient
time in the cycle for completion of combustion. Theoretically, the gasoline engine
exhaust can be made free of CO by operating it at air-fuel mixture ratios greater
than 16:1. However, that some CO is always present in the exhaust even at lean
mixtures.

The percentage of CO decreases with speed. In passenger cars CO percentage has


been found to be as high as 5 percent with rich mixtures and 1 percent with near
stoichiometric mixtures. The complete elimination of CO is not possible and 0.5
percent CO should be considered a reasonable goal. Carbon monoxide emissions are
high when the engine is idling and reach a minimum value during deceleration. They
are the lowest during acceleration and at steady speeds. Closing of the throttle which
reduces the oxygen supply to engine is the main cause of CO production, so
deceleration from high speed will produce highest CO in exhaust gases.

Non-dispersive Infrared analyzer (NIDR) as shown in Figure 10 is the widely


accepted instrument for measuring CO. This instrument is presently used for the
testing and legal certification of some automotive exhaust emissions. In the NIDR
analyzer the exhaust gas species being measured are used to detect themselves. The
method of detection is based on the principle of selective absorption of the infrared

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energy of a particular wavelength peculiar to a certain gas, which will be absorbed by
that gas.

Figure 10: NDIR Method of Measuring Carbon Monoxide

Unburned hydrocarbons: Unburnt hydrocarbons emissions are the direct result of


incomplete combustion. The pattern of hydrocarbon emission is closely related to
many design and operating variables. Two of the important design variables are
induction system design and combustion chamber design, while main operating
variables are air-fuel ratio, speed, load and mode of operation. Maintenance is also
an important factor.

Induction system design and engine maintenance affect the operating air-fuel ratio
of the engine and hence the emission of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.
Induction system determines fuel distribution of cylinders, fuel economy, available
power etc. And the quantity of engine maintenance determines whether the engine
will operate at the designed air-fuel ratio and for how long. This will include piston
ring wear, lubrication, cooling, deposits and other factors which are likely to affect
the air-fuel ratio supplied or its combustion in the combustion chamber.

The design of the combustion chamber is important in that in the combustion


chamber portions of the fuel-air mixture which come in direct contact with the

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chamber walls are quenched and do not burn. Some of this quenched fuel-air
mixture is forced out of the chamber during exhaust stroke and, because of the high
local concentration of hydrocarbon in this mixture, contributes to the high
hydrocarbon exhaust from the engine. A small displacement engine will have a
higher surface-to-volume ratio than an engine with a large displacement. Factors like
combustion chamber shape, bore diameter, stroke and compression ratio affect the
surface-to-volume ratio and hence the hydrocarbon emission. Lower compression
ratio, higher stroke to bore ratio, larger displacement per cylinder and fewer
cylinders, all lower the surface-to-volume ratio and hence the hydrocarbons. The
effect of the air-fuel ratio on the HC emission is exactly like that on carbon monoxide.
At near stoichiometric fuel-air mixtures both hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide
(HC/CO) emissions are higher and lean fuel mixtures have substantially low (HC/CO)
emission.

Figure 11: Flame Ionization Method for Measuring Unburnt Hydrocarbons

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Flame ionization detector (FID) is used for measuring hydrocarbons. This instrument
as shown in Figure 11 is a well-established and accepted method for measuring HC>
ionization is a characteristic of HC compound. This principle is employed in the FID
detector. Formation of electrically charged particles of ionized carbon atoms from the
hydrocarbons in a hydrogen-oxygen flame is achieved in the FID analyzer. Current
flow in microamperes (amplified for measurements) is a measure of the
concentration of hydrocarbons.

Aldehydes

The emission of odorous oxygenated hydrocarbons from the engines is generally


carcinogenic. The use of alcohol based fuels can lead to higher levels of oxygenated
hydrocarbon emissions. These aldehydes are responsible for the pungent smell o the
engine exhaust and trained human personnel specifies the odour ratings for the
emission sample by comparison.

The methods of measurements for aldehydes are based on wet chemical methods
(analytical methods) like iodine titration technique (ITT), chromotropic acid (CA)
method, 3-methyl 2-benzothiazolene hydrazone (MBTH) method and 2,4
Dinitrophenyl hydrazine (DNPH) method. While the first two methods are meant to
measure total aldehydes, the DNPH method is for individual aldehydes and the CA
method is only for the formaldehyde.

All the above described wet chemical methods excepting the improved DNPH method,
even though time consuming and cumbersome, are economical. Various other
methods available are Fourier Transform-Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Derivative
spectrophotometry and portable Polarigraph.

VISIBLE EMISSIONS

Compared to harmful and invisible emissions, visible emissions are more irritating
and cause nuisance. Especially in diesel engines, smoke is one of visible emissions.
The details are discussed in the following sections.

Smoke

The smoke of the engine exhaust is a visible indicator of the combustion process in
the engine. Smoke is due to incomplete combustion. Smoke in diesel engine can be
divided into three categories viz., blue, white and black. Visible method of analysis is
used for quantifying the above three types of smokes. Smoke measurements can be
broadly classified into two groups viz. comparison method and obscuration method.

Comparison method:

Most ordinances regulating smoke emissions are based on estimation of the density
of the smoke as it emerges from exhaust. Of the several available methods, the one
of the commonly used method is the Ringelmann Chart. The chart shows

Four shades of gray, as well as pure white and an all-black section. To overcome the
difficulty of reproducing various shades of gray, the intermediate shades are built

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from black lines of various widths as shown in Figure 12. The four intermediates
charts are printed by the United States Bureau of Mines on a single 70cm *25cm
sheet. They may be reproduced as follows:

0. All white.
1. Black lines 1mm thick, 10mm apart, leaving white spaces 9mm square.
2. Lines 2.3mm thick, spaces 7.7mm square.
3. Lines 3.7mm thick, spaces 6.3mm square.
4. Lines 5.5mm thick, spaces 4.5mm square.
5. All black.

In use, the chart is set up at eye level in line with the stack at such distances (10m
or more) that the sections appear to be different degrees of uniform gray shades.
The appearance of the smoke at the top of the stack is matched against one of the
shades on the card and reported as a specific Ringelmann number ranging from 0(no
smoke) to No.5 (dense black smoke). With practice, an observer can estimate smoke
density to half a number, particularly in the Nos.2 to 4 ranges. Readings below No.2
Ringelmann are subject to considerable error.

Figure 12: Ringelmann Chart

Obscuration Method: it is basically divided into light extinction type, continuous


filtering type and spot filtering type.

(i) Light Extinction Type: in this method of testing, the intensity of light
beam is reduced by smoke, which is a measure of smoke intensity.
Schematically this method is shown in Figure 13. A continuously taken
exhaust sample is passed through a tube of about 45cm length, which has
light source at one end and photocell at the other end. The amount of
light passed through this column is used as an indication of smoke level or
smoke density. The smoke level or smoke density is defined as the ratio of
electric output from photocell when sample is passed through the column
to the electric output when clean air is passed through it.

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Figure 13: Obscuration Method for Measuring Smoke

Figure 14: Hartridge Smokemeter

The Hartridge Smokemeter is a very commonly used instrument based on this


principle. Schematically it is represented in Figure 14. Light from a source is passed
through a standard length tube containing the exhaust gas sample from the engine
and at its other end the transmitted light is measured by a suitable device. The
fraction of the light transmitted through smoke, (T) and the length of the light path
(Ll) are related by the Beer-Lambert law.

T=e-KacLl

Where Kac= nAθ and Kac is called optical absorption coefficient of the obscuring
matter per unit length, n the number of soot particles per unit volume, A the average
projected area of each particles and θ the specific absorbance per particle.

(ii) Continuous Filtering Type: In this method provision made for


continuous reading and observing transient conditions. Measurement of

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smoke intensity is achieved by continuously passing exhaust gas through
a moving strip of filter paper and collecting particles. The instrument is
schematically represented in Figure 15. Van Brand smokemaster is the
popular instrument based on this principle.

Figure 15: Continuous Filtering Type Smokemaster

Van Brand smokemaster is also filter-darkening type. The exhaust sample


is passed at a constant rate through a strip of filter paper moving at a
preset speed. A stain is imparted to the paper. The intensity of the stain is
measured by the amount of the light, which passes through the filter and
is indication of the smoke density of exhaust. In Van Brand smokemaster
the amount of light passing through the filter is used to indicate smoke
level.

(iii) Spot filtering type: A smoke stain obtained by filtering a given quantity
of exhaust gas through a fixed filter paper is used for the measure of
smoke intensity. The instrument is schematically shown in Figure 16.
Bosch smokemaster is the popular instrument based on this principle and
the details are illustrated in Figure 17.

Figure 16: Spot filtering type smokemaster

A fixed quantity of exhaust gas is passed through a fixed filter paper and
the density of the smoke stains on the paper is evaluated optically. In a
recent modification of this type of smokemaster, a pneumatically operated
sampling pump and a photo-electric unit are used for the measurement of
the intensity of smoke stain on filter paper.

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Figure 17: Bosch Smokemaster

NOISE:
Noise is a mixture of various sounds, which is a source of irritation for the listener.
Sound is created by vibrating object. The vibrations are transmitted to the
surrounding air in the form of pressure waves. If the frequency and intensity of the
pressure waves are within specified range they produce the sensation of sound (15
to 15000Hz and 0 to 120dB intensity).
Sound level meter consists of a microphone, calibrated attenuator, an electronic
amplifier and an indicator meter, which reads, in decibels (dB) as shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18: Sound Level Meter

Octave band frequency analyzer is suitable for obtaining the frequency distribution in
light bands in frequency region between 20 and 10000Hz.
The measurement of the noise emitted by motor vehicles is based on a moving
vehicle, since it is the total noise emitted by motor vehicle including gearbox and
transmission.

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