Quantum Transport:

Atom to Transistor

Prof. Supriyo Datta

ECE 659
Purdue University

01.15.2003

Lecture 2: What Makes Electrons Flow?

Ref. Chapter 1.2

Network for Computational Nanotechnology

 00:08
Retouch on Concepts

I Vacuum Level
0eV E
VG VD
Gate
Empty EC
S INSULATOR
D
O L R
U
R CHANNEL
A
I
EF
C
E
z
N
EV
INSULATOR
fo
x 0 1

ID • Key Concepts: VD and VG Bias, Empty and

full energy levels, Threshold voltage VT, and
Fermi energy
• Basic Fermi function centered at E=0: f0(E)
VG = 1/ (e E / kBT + 1). To get it centered at Ef, one
VT could shift it in energy: f0(E-EF)
01.15.2003
 05:05
Retouch on Concepts

I Vacuum Level
VG VD 0eV E
EC
Gate
S INSULATOR
Empty
D
O L R
U
R
CHANNEL A
I
EF
C
E z
N EV
INSULATOR
f0
x 0 1

• Pauli Exclusion Principle allows • At equilibrium, there is no bias voltage

two electrons per energy level
(one spin up and one spin down)
• Positive gate voltage lowers
these levels and negative gate
voltage raises them
01.15.2003
between the source and drain, the Fermi
energy is fixed at the same level in source,
channel and drain
• Very Important: The amount of current
flow does not depend on number of
electrons. It is the amount of states around
the Fermi energy that determines how
much current flows.
 Band Diagram for a 09:22
Simple Molecule

• Consider a simple system with wide spacing of electron energy levels (a small
molecule)
• 4 electrons in the system considering spin up and down fill the first 2 energy
levels.
• The Fermi energy is a level for which at T=0K the levels below it are full and the
levels above it are empty. For our system at 0 K, the Fermi level will be half way
between levels 2 and 3.
Fixed Small
ID VD
• The smaller the system, the more the
spacing between the energy levels. VG

E4 • The picks observed in the current are due to the

E3 overlap of energy levels and the Fermi level: As the gate
voltage is applied these energy levels move up or down
EF based on the sign of the voltage; hence they cross over the
E2
E1 Fermi level and the result will be higher current because of
electrons
01.15.2003 higher availability of states at the Fermi energy.
 12:32
Away from Equilibrium

I Vacuum Level
VG VD
Gate
µ1=Ef + qVD/2
S INSULATOR D
O
U
L R
qVD
A
µ2=Ef - qVD/2
R CHANNEL
I
C N
E
z
INSULATOR
x

• When VD is applied between the source and
drain, system is driven out of equilibrium; the
Fermi energies in the source and drain will
not be at the same level any more.
• Total energy difference between the two
Fermi levels (chemical potentials) µ1 and µ2 is
qVD.
• i.e.01.15.2003
1V x q = 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J
• The reason why the shift in
Fermi levels is symmetric will
be discussed later. For now
consider the fact that division
of voltage is very important for
large bias but not so important
for small bias which is in fact
the case here.
 Current Flow due to
Difference in Agenda
Vacuum Level
E 0eV
μ1 = EF + qVD / 2
• If you do not have any
levels between µ1 and µ2
then current will not flow
• If you have a level between
µ1 and µ2 current will flow
because left side (at μ1 )
keeps filling up the level and
right side (atμ 2 ) keeps
emptying it.
01.15.2003
16:59
Top Levels
E
μ2 = EF − qVD / 2
Bottom Levels
• Why don’t bottom and top levels contribute
to current? Since we have two different Fermi
levels, we have two different Fermi functions.
Consider their value for high energies and for
low energies; you’ll find that they have the
same value of 0 (For high E) and 1 (For low
E) - In other words, both contacts have the
same agenda for these levels; hence no
current flow due to these levels.
 Average Number of 24:19
Electrons

• What is the average number of Vacuum Level

electrons in the level ε ? 0eV

• N1: the average number of I1

electrons that the left contact would
I2
like to see
• N1= 2f1 (ε) = 2f0 (ε - µ1)
µ1
• N2: the average number of
electrons that the right contact would
ε
like to see
µ2
• N2= 2f2 (ε) = 2f0 (ε - µ2)

• Note: factor of two is due to the fact that

we can put two electrons of up and down
spin in the same level.

01.15.2003
 Current Flow Left and 28:28
Right

• N is the actual number of electrons at steady state in Vacuum Level

the channel 0eV
γ
• Current from left side: I 1 = q 1 ( N 1 − N )
h I1
Where
γ1 I2
h is the rate at which electrons cross
from µ1 to ε.
γ
• Current to right side: I 2 = q 2 ( N − N 2 )
h µ1
γ2
Where h is the rate at which electrons cross ε
from ε to µ2 .
• h=h = 1.06 × 10 −34 J ⋅ sec µ
2π
• So γ 1 + γ 2 are in units of Joules 2

• Take γ 1 = 1meV , we have: Therefore, it takes

1.6 × 10 −19 × 10 −3 J 1012 ~1 pico second for
γ1 = ≅ electrons to escape
h 1.06 × 10 −34 J ⋅ sec sec into the channel
01.15.2003
 33:55
Steady State Current

• Equating I1 and I2 for a steady state solution we Vacuum Level

get 0eV
γ 1N1 + γ 2 N 2
N =
γ1 + γ 2
I1 I2
q γ 1γ 2
• ∴ I = I1 = I 2 = ( N1 − N 2 )
h γ1 + γ 2
µ1
2q γ 1γ 2
= [ f1 (ε ) − f 2 (ε )] ε
h γ1 + γ 2
• Remember, in order for current to flow, f1 must
µ2
differ from f2
• N-Type conduction: Go through a level that is
empty at equilibrium
• P-Type conduction: Go through a level that is
full at equilibrium
01.15.2003
 38:37
Current at Small Voltages

Vacuum Level
• Use Taylor expansion to get an expression for current at
small voltages: f1(ε) = f0(ε - µ1) 0eV
f2(ε) = f0(ε - µ2) therefore:
f1- f2 = (df0 / dE) (µ2 - µ1) I1 I2
= -(df0 / dE) qVD
Therefore for small voltages:
2q γ1γ 2 2 q 2 γ 1γ 2 ⎡ df 0 ⎤ µ1
I= [ f1 (ε) − f 2 (ε)] =V ⎢ − dE ⎥
h γ1 + γ 2 h γ1 + γ 2 ⎣ ⎦ E =ε − Ef ε
Use E = ε-Ef since µ1= Ef + qVD/2 and µ2= Ef – qVD /2
µ2
• Note: 2q 2 , dimensions of conductance
h
γ 1γ 2
, dimensions of energy
γ1 + γ 2 ⎡ df 0 ⎤
⎢ dE ⎥ , dimensions of inverse energy
01.15.2003 ⎣ ⎦ E =ε − Ef
 46:01
No Upper Limit?

df 0
What does − look like? • From the equation
dE
2 q 2 γ 1γ 2 ⎡ df 0 ⎤
I =V −
E E 1/(4k T) h γ 1 + γ 2 ⎣ dE ⎥⎦ E = ε − E f
⎢
B
Ef it would appear that there is no upper
limit on the conductance
2 q 2 γ 1 γ 2 ⎡ df 0 ⎤
−
f0 h γ 1 + γ 2 ⎣ dE ⎥⎦ E = ε − E f
⎢
1 −
df 0
• However, this is not true. An upper
dE limit does occur due to energy
broadening. The maximum value of
Peak ≅ 1/(4kBT) ; Width ≅ kBT Area conductance for one level device is:
= 1. 2q 2
≅ 77 . 4 μ S ≅ 1
As tÆ0, it can be approximated as a h 12 . 9 k Ω
delta function.
01.15.2003 …to be discussed in more detail next