UNIT -3

Wider concept of social responsibility: Cost-benefit analysis of corporate social responsibility

and good corporate citizenship (Social / moral obligations and survival). Ethics and human
rights, balanced global environment, concern of global warming, judicious use of natural
resources.
Wider Concept of CSR
1950s : Corporate Social Responsibility of Businessman: The obligations of businessmen to
pursue policies, to make decisions or to follow lines of action which are desirable in terms of the
objectives and values of society (Bowen (1953)
Some socially responsible business decisions can be justified by the long-run economic gain of
the firm, thus paying back for its socially responsible behaviour. Davis (1960)

Private contribution to society’s economic and human resources and a willingness on the part of
business to see that those resources were utilized for broad social ends. Frederick (1960)

1960s–1970s : Stakeholder approach : Instead of striving only for larger returns to its
shareholders, a responsible enterprise takes into account the interests of employees, suppliers,
dealers, local communities and the nation as a whole. Johnson (1971)
Three dimensional model : The concept consists of corporate responsibilities (i.e., economic,
legal, ethical and philanthropic), social issues of business (e.g., labour standards, human rights,
environment protection and anti-corruption) and corporate actions (e.g., reactive, defensive,
accommodative and proactive). Carroll (1979)
1980s-1990s: Three-dimensional model of principles, policies and processes : Integration of
the principles of corporate responsibility, the policies of social issue management and the process
of action into an evolving system. Wartick and Cochran (1985)
Institutional framework and extended corporate actions: Four types of corporate
responsibilities (i.e., economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic) were linked to three institutional
levels (i.e., legal, organizational and individual), while corporate actions are extended to
assessment, stockholder management and implementation management. Wood (1991)
2000s: Three Domains Approach: Three domains of corporate responsibilities: economic, legal
and ethical. Schwartz and Carroll (2003)
New concept: A process to integrate social, environmental, ethical, human rights and consumer
concerns into business operations and core strategy in close corporation with the stakeholders.
European Commission (2011)
The emerging concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) goes beyond charity and
requires the company to act beyond its legal obligations and to integrated social, environmental
and ethical concerns into company’s business process.
Business has today, emerged as one of the most powerful institutions on the earth. Some of the
biggest companies in the world are in fact, bigger in size than some of the developing countries
of the world. Globalization makes the world smaller, and business, worldwide, is expanding like
never before. Companies are expanding their operations and crossing geographical boundaries.
Indian companies too have made their way into the business boom and are today globally
acknowledged as major players. India is currently amongst the fastest growing countries in the
world. The globalization and liberalization of the Indian economy has helped in stepping up
growth rates. Integration of the Indian with the global economy has also resulted in Indian
businesses opening up to international competition and thereby increasing their operations.
In the current scheme of things, business enterprises are no longer expected to play their
traditional role of mere profit making enterprises. The ever-increasing role of civil society has
started to put pressure on companies to act in an economically, socially and environmentally
sustainable way.
The companies are facing increased pressure for transparency and accountability, being placed
on them by their employees, customers, shareholders, media and civil society. Business does not
operate in isolation and there is today, an increased realization that not only can companies affect
society at large, but they are also in a unique position to influence society and make positive
impact.
Milton Friedman, Nobel Laureate in Economics and author of several books wrote in 1970 in the
New York Times Magazine that “the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits”
and “the business of business is business”. This represented an extreme view that the only social
responsibility a law-abiding business has is to maximize profits for the shareholders, which were
considered the only stakeholders for the company. However, time has given the term
‘stakeholder’ wider connotations.
Edward Freeman defines, ‘a stakeholder in an organization is any group or individual who can
affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization’s objectives.’ Thus, the term
stakeholder includes (apart from shareholders), but not limited to, customers, employees,
suppliers, community, environment and society at large.
These and a host of other such ideas have given rise to the concept of Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR). The concept of CSR goes beyond charity or philanthropy and requires the
company to act beyond its legal obligations and to integrate social, environmental and ethical
concerns into its business process. Business for SocialResponsibility defines CSR as “achieving
commercial success in ways that honor ethical values and respect people, communities, and the
environment.
It means addressing the legal, ethical, commercial and other expectations that society has for
business and making decisions that fairly balance the claims of all key stakeholders. In its
simplest terms it is: “what you do, how you do it, and when and what you say.” A widely quoted
definition by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that “Corporate
social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute
to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families
as well as of the local community and society at large”.
Though, there is no universal definition of CSR but the common understanding amongst most of
these definitions concern with how the profits are made and how they are used, keeping in mind
the interests of all stakeholders. The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility is constantly
evolving.
The emerging concept of CSR goes beyond charity and requires the company to act beyond its
legal obligations and to integrate social, environmental and ethical concerns into company’s
business process. What is generally understood by CSR is that the business has a responsibility –
towards its stakeholders and society at large – that extends beyond its legal and enforceable
obligations.
The triple bottom line approach to CSR emphasizes a company’s commitment to operating in an
economically, socially and environmentally sustainable manner. The emerging concept of CSR
advocates moving away from a ‘shareholder alone’ focus to a ‘multi-stakeholder’ focus. This
would include investors, employees, business partners, customers, regulators, supply chain, local
communities, the environment and society at large.
The key components of CSR would therefore include the following:
Corporate Governance: Within the ambit of corporate governance, major issues are the
accountability, transparency and conduct in conformity with the laws. Good corporate
governance policy would enable the company to realize its corporate objectives, protect
shareholder rights, meet legal requirements and create transparency for all stakeholders.
Business Ethics: Relates to value-based and ethical business practices. ‘Business ethics defines
how a company integrates core values – such as honesty, trust, respect, and fairness – into its
policies, practices, and decision making. Business ethics also involves a company’s compliance
with legal standards and adherence to internal rules and regulations.’1
Workplace and labour relations: Human resources are most important and critical to a
company. Good CSR practices relating to workplace and labour relations can help in improving
the workplace in terms of health and safety, employee relations as well as result in a healthy
balance between work and non-work aspects of employees’ life. It can also make it easier to
recruit employees and make them stay longer, thereby reducing the costs and disruption of
recruitment and retraining.
Affirmative action/good practices: Equal opportunity employer, diversity of workforce that
includes people with disability, people from the local community etc., gender policy, code of
conduct/guidelines on prevention of sexual harassment at workplace, prevention of HIV/AIDS at
workplace, employee volunteering etc. are some of the good practices which reflect CSR
practices of the company.
Supply Chain: The business process of the company is not just limited to the operations internal
to the company but to the entire supply chain involved in goods and services. If anyone from the
supply chain neglects social, environmental, human rights or other aspects, it may reflect badly
on the company and may ultimately affect business heavily. Thus, company should use its
strategic position to influence the entire supply chain to positively impact the stakeholders.
Customers: The products and services of a company are ultimately aimed at the customers. The
cost and quality of products may be of greatest concern to the customers but these are not the
only aspects that the customers are concerned with. With increased awareness and means of
communication, customer satisfaction and loyalty would depend on how the company has
produced the goods and services, considering the social, environmental, supply-chain and other
such aspects.
Environment: Merely meeting legal requirements in itself does not comprise CSR but it
requires company to engage in such a way that goes beyond mandatory requirements and
delivers environmental benefits. It would include, but not limited to, finding sustainable
solutions for natural resources, reducing adverse impacts on environment, reducing environment-
risky pollutants/emissions as well as producing environment-friendly goods.
Community: A major stakeholder to the business is the community in which the company
operates. The involvement of a company with the community would depend upon its direct
interaction with the community and assessment of issues/risks faced by those living in the
company surrounding areas. This helps in delivering a community-focused CSR strategy –
making positive changes to the lives of the people and improving the brand-image of the
company. Involvement with the community could be both direct & indirect – through funding
and other support for community projects implemented by local agencies.
Cost Benefit Analysis
A process by which business decisions are analyzed. The benefits of a given situation or
business-related action are summed and then the costs associated with taking that action are
subtracted. Some consultants or analysts also build the model to put a dollar value on intangible
items, such as the benefits and costs associated with living in a certain town. Most analysts will
also factor opportunity cost into such equations.
Prior to erecting a new plant or taking on a new project, prudent managers will conduct a cost-
benefit analysis as a means of evaluating all of the potential costs and revenues that may be
generated if the project is completed. The outcome of the analysis will determine whether the
project is financially feasible, or if another project should be pursued.
cost-benefit analysis - an analysis of the cost effectiveness of different alternatives in order to
see whether the benefits outweigh the costs analytic thinking, analysis - the abstract separation of
a whole into its constituent parts in order to study the parts and their relations.

Process of quantifying costs and benefits of a decision, program, or project (over a certain
period), and those of its alternatives (within the same period), in order to have a single scale of
comparison for unbiased evaluation. Unlike the present value (PV) method of investment
appraisal, CBA estimates the net present value (NPV) of the decision by discounting the
investment and returns. Though employed mainly in financial analysis, a CBA is not limited to
monetary considerations only. It often includes those environmental and social costs and benefits
that can be reasonably quantified.

Definition: CBA can be explained as a procedure for estimating all costs involved and possible
profits to be derived from a business opportunity or proposal.
Description: CBA takes into account both quantitative and qualitative factors for analysis of the
value for money for a particular project or investment opportunity. Benefits to costs ratio and
other indicators are used to conduct such analyses.
The objective is to ascertain the soundness of any investment opportunity and provide a basis for
making comparisons with other such proposals. All positives and negatives of the project are
first quantified in monetary terms and then adjusted for their time-value to obtain correct
estimates for conduct of cost-benefit analysis. Most economists also account for opportunity
costs of the investment in the project to get the costs involved.
When it comes to goal setting or deciding on the best plan of attack, working up a cost-benefits
analysis will help you decide just which route would be best for you. And a cost-benefit analysis
doesn't have to be complicated. You simply draw a line down the middle of a piece of paper to
create two columns. On the left, list the benefits of achieving a given goal. On the right, list what
it will cost you to get there. Once you've done that, you can simply add up the benefits and costs
columns and see which has more, or assign weighted scores to each entry and total them at the
bottom. Of course, you may not want to let this quick and easy analysis make the final decision
for you. And it may sometimes be the nearest thing to a tossup. But even a simple cost-benefit
analysis can give you an idea of whether a given goal is worth investigating further.

An example is a sales director who needs to decide whether to implement a new computer-based
contact management and sales processing system. The sales department currently has only a few
computers, and its salespeople aren't computer savvy. Any system upgrade would require
extensive employee training. The company is likely to experience a drop in sales during the
transition period.

While total expenses, including equipment, installation and training costs, plus lost productivity,
are estimated to be $55,800, the company's analysis reveals the new computer system would
increase sales capacity, boost efficiency and enhance customer service and retention--financial
benefits the company pegs at $90,000 annually. Based on the cost-benefit estimates, the
company would see a return on its investment in eight months. (Payback time: $55,800 ?
$90,000 = 0.62 of a year.)
 Theory
Cost–benefit analysis is often used by governments and other organizations, such as private
sector businesses, to evaluate the desirability of a given policy. It is an analysis of the expected
balance of benefits and costs, including an account of foregone alternatives and the status quo.
CBA helps predict whether the benefits of a policy outweigh its costs, and by how much relative
to other alternatives (i.e. one can rank alternate policies in terms of the cost-benefit ratio).
Generally, accurate cost-benefit analysis identifies choices that increase welfare from a utilitarian
perspective. Assuming an accurate CBA, changing the status quo by implementing the
alternative with the lowest cost-benefit ratio can improve Pareto efficiency. An analyst using
CBA should recognize that perfect evaluation of all present and future costs and benefits is
difficult, and while CBA can offer a well-educated estimate of the best alternative, perfection in
terms of economic efficiency and social welfare are not guaranteed.

Process

1. List alternative projects/programs.

2. List stakeholders.
3. Select measurement(s) and measure all cost/benefit elements.
4. Predict outcome of cost and benefits over relevant time period.
5. Convert all costs and benefits into a common currency.
6. Apply discount rate.
7. Calculate net present value of project options.
8. Perform sensitivity analysis.
9. Adopt recommended choice.

Cost-Benefit Analysis (Example)

Jules Dupuit, a French engineer, first introduced the concept of Cost-Benefit Analysis in the
1930s. It became popular in the 1950s as a simple way of weighing up project costs and benefits,
to determine whether to go ahead with a project.
As its name suggests, Cost-Benefit Analysis involves adding up the benefits of a course of
action, and then comparing these with the costs associated with it.
The results of a cost-benefit analysis are often expressed as a payback period – this is the time it
takes for benefits to repay costs. Many people who use Cost-Benefit Analysis look for payback
in less than a specific period – for example, three years.
You can use Cost-Benefit Analysis in a wide variety of situations. For example, when you are:
 Deciding whether to hire new team members.
 Evaluating a new project or change initiative.
 Determining the feasibility of a capital purchase.
However, bear in mind that Cost-Benefit Analysis is best for making quick and simple financial
decisions. More robust approaches are commonly used for more complex, business-critical or
high cost decisions.
How to Use the Tool
Follow these steps to do a Cost-Benefit Analysis.
Step One: Brainstorm Costs and Benefits
First, take time to brainstormall of the costs associated with the project, and make a list of these.
Then, do the same for all of the benefits of the project. Can you think of any unexpected costs?
And are there benefits that you may not initially have anticipated?
When you come up with the costs and benefits, think about the lifetime of the project. What are
the costs and benefits likely to be over time?
Step Two: Assign a Monetary Value to the Costs
Costs include the costs of physical resources needed, as well as the cost of the human effort
involved in all phases of a project. Costs are often relatively easy to estimate (compared with
revenues).
It's important that you think about as many related costs as you can. For example, what will any
training cost? Will there be a decrease in productivity while people are learning a new system or
technology, and how much will this cost?
Remember to think about costs that will continue to be incurred once the project is finished. For
example, consider whether you will need additional staff, if your team will need ongoing
training, or if you'll have increased overheads.
Step Three: Assign a Monetary Value to the Benefits
This step is less straightforward than step two! Firstly, it's often very difficult to predict revenues
accurately, especially for new products. Secondly, along with the financial benefits that you
anticipate, there are often intangible, or soft, benefits that are important outcomes of the project.
For instance, what is the impact on the environment, employee satisfaction, or health and safety?
What is the monetary value of that impact?
As an example, is preserving an ancient monument worth $500,000, or is it worth $5,000,000
because of its historical importance? Or, what is the value of stress-free travel to work in the
morning? Here, it's important to consult with other stakeholders and decide how you'll value
these intangible items.
Step Four: Compare Costs and Benefits
Finally, compare the value of your costs to the value of your benefits, and use this analysis to
decide your course of action.
To do this, calculate your total costs and your total benefits, and compare the two values to
determine whether your benefits outweigh your costs. At this stage it's important to consider the
payback time, to find out how long it will take for you to reach the break even point – the point
in time at which the benefits have just repaid the costs.
For simple examples, where the same benefits are received each period, you can calculate the
payback period by dividing the projected total cost of the project by the projected total revenues:
Total cost / total revenue (or benefits) = length of time (payback period).
Example
Custom Graphic Works has been operating for just over a year, and sales are exceeding targets.
Currently, two designers are working full-time, and the owner is considering increasing capacity
to meet demand. (This would involve leasing more space and hiring two new designers.)
He decides to complete a Cost-Benefit Analysis to explore his choices.
Cost in First Year
Lease : 750 square feet available next door at $18 per square foot
$13,500
Leasehold improvements : Knock out walls and reconfigure office space
$15,000
Hire two more designers : Salary, including benefits
$75,000

Recruitment costs
$11,250

Orientation and training

$3,000
Two additional workstations : Furniture and hardware
$6,000

Software licenses
$1,000
Construction downtime :Two weeks at approximately $7,500 revenue per week
$15,000
Total
$139,750
Benefits
Benefit Wit
Month

50 percent revenue increase

Paying in-house designers $15 an hour, versus $50 an hour outsourcing (100 hours per month, on
average: savings equals $3,500 a month)

10 percent improved productivity per designer ($7,500 + $3,750 = $11,250 revenue per week with a 10
percent increase = $1,125/week)

Improved customer service and retention as a result of 100 percent in-house design

Total

Good Corporate Citizenship

A good corporate citizen is a corporation that accepts the importance of being collectively
responsible for its local community and environment as an integral part of their core business.
Corporate citizenship is therefore about the contribution a corporation makes to society through
its core business activities, its social investment and philanthropy programs and its engagement
in public policy.

Ethical Business Behavior

1) Engages in fair and honest business practices in its relationship with stakeholders.

2) Sets high standards of behavior for all employees.

3) Exercises ethical oversight of the executive and board levels

Stakeholder Commitment

4) Strives to manage the company for the benefit of all stakeholders.

5) Initiates and engages in genuine dialogue with stakeholders.

6) Values and implements dialogue.

Community
7. Fosters a reciprocal relationship between the corporation and community.

8. Invests in the communities in which corporation operates.

Consumers

9. Respects the rights of consumers.

10. Offers quality products and services.

11. Provides information that is truthful and useful.

Employees

12. Provides a family-friendly work environment.

13. Engages in responsible human-resource management.

14. Provides an equitable reward and wage system for employees.

15. Engages in open and flexible communication with employees.

16. Invests in employee development.

Investors

17. Strives for a competitive return on investment.

Suppliers

18. Engages in fair trading practices with suppliers.

Environmental Commitment

19. Demonstrates a commitment to the environment.

20. Demonstrates a commitment to sustainable development

The process of identifying, analyzing, and responding to the company’s social, political, and
economic responsibilities as defined through law and public policy, stakeholder expectations,
and voluntary acts flowing from corporate values and business strategies.

Principle of Corporate citizenship

Principle 1

Managers should acknowledge and actively monitor the concerns of all legitimate stakeholders
and should take their interests appropriately into account in decision making and operations.

Principle 2

Managers should listen to and openly communicate with stakeholders about their respective
concerns and contributions and about the risks that they assume because of their involvement
with the corporation.

Principle 3

Managers should adopt processes and modes of behavior that are sensitive to the concerns and
capabilities of each stakeholder constituency.

Principle 4

Managers should recognize the interdependence of efforts and rewards among stakeholders and
should attempt to achieve a fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of corporate activity
among them, taking into account their respective risks and vulnerabilities.

Principle 5

Managers should work cooperatively with other entities, both public and private, to insure that
risks and harms arising from corporate activities are minimized and, where they cannot be
avoided, appropriately compensated.

Principle 6

Managers should avoid altogether activities that might jeopardize inalienable human rights or
give rise to risks that, if clearly understood, would be patently unacceptable to relevant
stakeholders.

Principle 7

Managers should acknowledge the potential conflicts between their own role as corporate
stakeholders, and their legal and moral responsibilities for the interests of stakeholders and
should address such conflicts through open communication, appropriate reporting and inventive
systems, and where necessary, third-party review.

The Learning Stage

 Once it has identified a social problem and adopted a general policy, the company must
learn how to tackle the problem and make the new policy work.

 Specialized learning
Occurs when a sociotechnical expert is employed to advise the company officers and managers.

 Administrative learning

Occurs when a company’s supervisors and mangers become familiar with new routines that are
necessary to cope with a social problem.

The Organizational Commitment Stage

 When the organization institutionalizes its new social policy. When corporate citizenship
becomes part of the company and its standard operating procedures

 Concentrate action programs on limited objectives.

 Concentrate action programs related to the firm’s products or services.

 Begin action programs close to home.

 Facilitate employee action.

Human Rights

Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is
inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived
as universal (applicable everywhere) and egalitarian (the same for everyone). These rights may
exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in local, regional, national, and international law. The
doctrine of human rights in international practice, within international law, global and regional
institutions, in the policies of states and in the activities of non-governmental organizations, has
been a cornerstone of public policy around the world. The idea of human rights states, "if the
public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is
that of human rights." Despite this, the strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights
continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature and
justifications of human rights to this day. Indeed, the question of what is meant by a "right" is
itself controversial and the subject of continued philosophical debate.

Human rights belong to everyone. They are the basic rights we all have simply because we are human,
regardless of who we are, where we live or what we do. Human rights represent all the things we need
to flourish and live together as human beings. They are expressed in internationally agreed laws, and
cover many aspects of everyday life ranging from the rights to food, shelter, education and health to
freedoms of thought, religion and expression.

The roots and origins of human rights and the struggles to bring them about lie deep in the
history of many different societies, civilisations and individuals. However, the first universally
agreed statement of human rights did not emerge until 1948, with the ‘Universal Declaration of
Human Rights’ (UDHR). The UDHR is the most famous, most translated, and probably most
important, human rights document. All other human rights laws take the UDHR as their starting
point – it is the foundation of modern human rights law.

Human rights are political and legal claims to equal freedom in a universal perspective. They
constitute standards, which require political an legal implementation through national, regional,
and international institutions.

Philosophy of human rights

The philosophy of human rights attempts to examine the underlying basis of the concept of
human rights and critically looks at its content and justification. Several theoretical approaches
have been advanced to explain how and why human rights have become a part of social
expectations.

One of the oldest Western philosophies of human rights is that they are a product of a natural
law, stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds. Other theories hold that human
rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product developed by a process of
biological and social evolution (associated with Hume). Human rights are also described as a
sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of Weber).
These approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate
authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in Rawls) – a social contract. The
two theories that dominate contemporary human rights discussion are the interest theory and the
will theory. Interest theory argues that the principal function of human rights is to protect and
promote certain essential human interests, while will theory attempts to establish the validity of
human rights based on the unique human capacity for freedom.

Who has responsibilities for human rights?

Human rights are based on the principle that we all have human rights – we are all ‘rights
holders’. When an individual has a right, there is a corresponding ‘duty bearer’, usually the state,
who is responsible for making sure that right is respected, protected and fulfilled. By the state, in
broad terms we mean the government and those acting on its behalf. Human rights prevent states
from doing certain things, like not treating you in a degrading way. They also require states to
take certain actions to make sure your rights are protected and fulfilled, like taking steps to
protect your life and improve your quality of life.

This doesn’t mean that human rights have nothing to say about the responsibilities of individuals,
or our relationships with each other. Human rights recognise that we all live alongside each
other, and everyone else has rights too. If we compromise others’ human rights, we are subject to
laws that may limit our own rights as a result.

Human rights in India is an issue complicated by the country's large size, its tremendous
diversity, its status as a developing country and a sovereign, secular, democratic republic. The
Constitution of India provides for Fundamental rights, which include freedom of religion.
Clauses also provide for Freedom of Speech, as well as separation of executive and judiciary and
freedom of movement within the country and abroad.

According to the United States Library of Congress, although human rights problems do exist in
India, the country is generally not regarded as a human rights concern, unlike other countries in
South Asia such as neighbouring Pakistan. Based on these considerations, the 2010 report of
Freedom in the World by Freedom House gave India a political rights rating of 2, and a civil
liberties rating of 3, earning it the highest possible rating of free.

In its report on human rights in India during 2010, Human Rights Watch[unreliable source?] stated
India had "significant human rights problems. They identified lack of accountability for security
forces and impunity for abusive policing including "police brutality, extrajudicial killings, and
torture" as major problems. In 2011, Margaret Sekaggya, the U.N. Special Rapporteur on the
situation of human rights defenders, expressed concern that she found human rights workers and
their families who "have been killed, tortured, ill-treated, disappeared, threatened, arbitrarily
arrested and detained, falsely charged and under surveillance because of their legitimate work in
upholding human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Name of Human Rights

Right to life: Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law. No
one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life The right to life is the essential right that a human being
has the right not to be killed by another human being. The concept of a right to life is central to
debates on the issues of abortion, capital punishment, euthanasia, self defense and war.
According to many human rights activists, the death penalty violates this right. The United
Nations has called on states retaining the death penalty to establish a moratorium on capital
punishment with a view to its abolition. States which do not do so face considerable moral and
political pressure.

Freedom from torture

Throughout history, torture has been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation,
punishment, and coercion. In addition to state-sponsored torture, individuals or groups may be
motivated to inflict torture on others for similar reasons to those of a state; however, the motive
for torture can also be for the sadistic gratification of the torturer, as in the Moors murders.

Torture is prohibited under international law and the domestic laws of most countries in the 21st
century. It is considered to be a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unacceptable by
Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Signatories of the Third Geneva
Convention and Fourth Geneva Convention officially agree not to torture prisoners in armed
conflicts. Torture is also prohibited by the United Nations Convention Against Torture, which
has been ratified by 147 states.

National and international legal prohibitions on torture derive from a consensus that torture and
similar ill-treatment are immoral, as well as impractical. Despite these international conventions,
organizations that monitor abuses of human rights (e.g. Amnesty International, the International
Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims) report widespread use condoned by states in many
regions of the world.[66] Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments
currently practice torture, some of them openly.

Freedom from slavery

Freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. Article 4 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights states:

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all
their forms.

Despite this, the number of slaves today is higher than at any point in history, remaining as high
as 12 million to 27 million, Most are debt slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt
bondage incurred by lenders, sometimes even for generations.[74] Human trafficking is primarily
for prostituting women and children into sex industries.

Groups such as the American Anti-Slavery Group, Anti-Slavery International, Free the Slaves,
the Anti-Slavery Society, and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to rid
the world of slavery.

Right to a fair trial

Main article: Right to a fair trial

Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial
tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against
him.[76]

The right to a fair trial has been defined in numerous regional and international human rights
instruments. It is one of the most extensive human rights and all international human rights
instruments enshrine it in more than one article.[77] The right to a fair trial is one of the most
litigated human rights and substantial case law has been established on the interpretation of this
human right.[78] Despite variations in wording and placement of the various fair trial rights,
international human rights instrument define the right to a fair trial in broadly the same terms. [79]
The aim of the right is to ensure the proper administration of justice. As a minimum the right to
fair trial includes the following fair trial rights in civil and criminal proceedings:[80]

 the right to be heard by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal

 the right to a public hearing
 the right to be heard within a reasonable time
 the right to counsel
 the right to interpretation

Freedom of speech
Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without censorship. The term freedom of
expression is sometimes used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and
imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used. In practice, the right to freedom
of speech is not absolute in any country and the right is commonly subject to limitations, such as
on libel, slander, obscenity, incitement to commit a crime, etc. The right to freedom of
expression is recognized as a human right under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law in the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Article 19 of the ICCPR states that "[e]veryone shall have
the right to hold opinions without interference" and "everyone shall have the right to freedom of
expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of
all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through
any other media of his choice".

Freedom of thought, conscience and religion

Main articles: Freedom of thought, Conscience, and Freedom of religion

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others
and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and
observance.

—Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

Freedom of thought, conscience and religion are closely related rights that protect the freedom of
an individual or community, in public or private, to think and freely hold conscientious beliefs
and to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is
generally recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or not to follow any
religion.[81] The freedom to leave or discontinue membership in a religion or religious group—in
religious terms called "apostasy"—is also a fundamental part of religious freedom, covered by
Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Human rights groups such as Amnesty International organises campaigns to protect those
arrested and or incarcerated as a prisoner of conscience because of their conscientious beliefs,
particularly concerning intellectual, political and artistic freedom of expression and
association.[83] In legislation, a conscience clause is a provision in a statute that excuses a health
professional from complying with the law (for example legalising surgical or pharmaceutical
abortion) if it is incompatible with religious or conscientious beliefs.

Freedom of movement
Main article: Freedom of movement

Freedom of movement asserts that a citizen of a state in which that citizen is present has the
liberty to travel, reside in, and/or work in any part of the state where one pleases within the limits
of respect for the liberty and rights of others,[1] and to leave that state and return at any time.

Rights debates

Events and new possibilities can affect existing rights or require new ones. Advances of
technology, medicine, and philosophy constantly challenge the status quo of human rights
thinking.

Right to keep and bear arms

Main article: Right to keep and bear arms

The right to keep and bear arms for defense is described in the philosophical and political
writings of Aristotle, Cicero, John Locke, Machiavelli, the English Whigs and others.[85] In
countries with an English common law tradition, a long standing common law right to keep and
bear arms has long been recognized, as pre-existing in common law, prior even to the existence
of national constitutions.

Future generations

In 1997 UNESCO adopted the Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation
Towards the Future Generation. The Declaration opens with the words:

Mindful of the will of the peoples, set out solemnly in the Charter of the United Nations, to 'save
succeeding generations from the scourge of war' and to safeguard the values and principles
enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and all other relevant instruments of
international law.

—Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards the Future Generation

Article 1 of the declaration states "the present generations have the responsibility of ensuring that
the needs and interests of present and future generations are fully safeguarded." The preamble to
the declaration states that "at this point in history, the very existence of humankind and its
environment are threatened" and the declaration covers a variety of issues including protection of
the environment, the human genome, biodiversity, cultural heritage, peace, development, and
education. The preamble recalls that the responsibilities of the present generations towards future
generations has been referred to in various international instruments, including the Convention
for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO 1972), the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity
(Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UN Conference
on Environment and Development, 1992), the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
(World Conference on Human Rights, 1993) and a number of UN General Assembly resolutions
relating to the protection of the global climate for present and future generations adopted since
1990.[87]

Sexual orientation and gender identity

See also: LGBT rights by country or territory

Sexual orientation and gender identity rights relate to the expression of sexual orientation and
gender identity based on the right to respect for private life and the right not to be discriminated
against on the ground of "other status" as defined in various human rights conventions, such as
article 17 and 26 in the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and
article 8 and article 14 in the European Convention on Human Rights.

Homosexual behaviour is illegal in 76 countries[citation needed], and is punishable by execution in

seven countries. The criminalization of private, consensual, adult sexual relations, especially in
countries where corporal or capital punishment is involved, is one of the primary concerns of
LGBT human rights advocates.

Other issues include: government recognition of same-sex relationships, LGBT adoption, sexual
orientation and military service, immigration equality, anti-discrimination laws, hate crime laws
regarding violence against LGBT people, sodomy laws, anti-lesbianism laws, and equal age of
consent for same-sex activity.

A global charter for sexual orientation and gender identity rights has been proposed in the form
of the 'Yogyakarta Principles', a set of 29 principles whose authors say they apply International
Human Rights Law statutes and precedent to situations relevant to LGBT people's experience.[96]
The principles were presented at a United Nations event in New York on November 7, 2007, co-
sponsored by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay.

The principles have been acknowledged with influencing the French proposed UN declaration on
sexual orientation and gender identity, which focuses on ending violence, criminalization and
capital punishment and does not include dialogue about same-sex marriage or right to start a
family.[97][98] The proposal was supported by 67 of the then 192 member countries of the United
Nations, including all EU member states and the United States. An alternative statement
opposing the proposal was initiated by Syria and signed by 57 member nations, including all 27
nations of the Arab League as well as Iran and North Korea.

Trade

Although both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights emphasize the importance of a right to work, neither of
these documents explicitly mention trade as a mechanism for ensuring this fundamental right.
And yet trade plays a key role in providing jobs.

Some experts argue that trade is inherent to human nature and that when governments inhibit
international trade they directly inhibit the right to work and the other indirect benefits, like the
right to education, that increased work and investment help accrue. Others have argued that the
ability to trade does not affect everyone equally—often groups like the rural poor, indigenous
groups and women are less likely to access the benefits of increased trade.
 On the other hand, others think that it is no longer primarily individuals but companies that
trade, and therefore it cannot be guaranteed as a human right.[citation needed] Additionally, trying to
fit too many concepts under the umbrella of what qualifies as a human right has the potential to
dilute their importance. Finally, it is difficult to define a right to trade as either "fair" or "just" in
that the current trade regime produces winners and losers but its reform is likely to produce
(different) winners and losers.

See also: The Recognition of Labour Standards within the World Trade Organisation and
Investor state dispute settlement

Water
See also: Water politics and Right to water

In November 2002, the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
issued a non-binding comment affirming that access to water was a human right:

the human right to water is indispensable for leading a life in human dignity. It is a prerequisite
for the realization of other human rights.

—United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

This principle was reaffirmed at the 3rd and 4th World Water Councils in 2003 and 2006. This
marks a departure from the conclusions of the 2nd World Water Forum in The Hague in 2000,
which stated that water was a commodity to be bought and sold, not a right.[106] There are calls
from many NGOs and politicians to enshrine access to water as a binding human right, and not as
a commodity.[107][108] According to the United Nations, nearly 900 million people lack access to
clean water and more than 2.6 billion people lack access to basic sanitation. On July 28, 2010,
the UN declared water and sanitation as human rights. By declaring safe and clean drinking
water and sanitation as a human right, the U.N. General Assembly made a step towards the
Millennium Development Goal to ensure environmental sustainability, which in part aims to
"halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking
water and basic sanitation".

Reproductive rights
Main article: reproductive rights

Reproductive rights are rights relating to reproduction and reproductive health. The World
Health Organisation defines reproductive rights as follows:

Reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to
decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the
information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and
reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction
free of discrimination, coercion and violence.
—World Health Organisation

Reproductive rights were first established as a subset of human rights at the United Nations 1968
International Conference on Human Rights.[111] The sixteenth article of the resulting
Proclamation of Teheran states, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and
responsibly the number and the spacing of their children."[111][112]

Reproductive rights may include some or all of the following rights: the right to legal or safe
abortion, the right to control one's reproductive functions, the right to quality reproductive
healthcare, and the right to education and access in order to make reproductive choices free from
coercion, discrimination, and violence.[113]

Reproductive rights may also be understood to include education about contraception and
sexually transmitted infections, and freedom from coerced sterilization and contraception,
protection from gender-based practices such as female genital cutting (FGC) and male genital
mutilation (MGM).[109][111][113][114]

Information and communication technologies

Main articles: Right to Internet access and Digital rights

In October 2009, Finland's Ministry of Transport and Communications announced that every
person in Finland would have the legal right to Internet access.[115] Since July 2010, the
government has legally obligated telecommunications companies to offer broadband Internet
access to every permanent residence and office. The connection must be "reasonably priced" and
have a downstream rate of at least 1 Mbit/s.[116]

In March 2010, the BBC, having commissioned an opinion poll, reported that "almost four in
five people around the world believe that access to the internet is a fundamental right."[117] The
poll, conducted by the polling company GlobeScan for the BBC World Service, collated the
answers of 27,973 adult citizens across 26 countries to find that 79% of adults either strongly
agreed or somewhat agreed with the statement: "access to the internet should be a fundamental
right of all people".[118]

Human Rights in India

Freedom of expression
Main article: Freedom of expression in India

According to the estimates of Reporters Without Borders, India ranks 122nd worldwide in 2010
on the press freedom index (down from 105th in 2009). The press freedom index for India is
38.75 in 2010 (29.33 for 2009) on a scale that runs from 0 (most free) to 105 (least free).

The Indian Constitution, while not mentioning the word "press", provides for "the right to
freedom of speech and expression" (Article 19(1) a). However this right is subject to restrictions
under subclause (2), whereby this freedom can be restricted for reasons of "sovereignty and
integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order,
preserving decency, preserving morality, in relation to contempt of court, defamation, or
incitement to an offence". Laws such as the Official Secrets Act and Prevention of Terrorism Act
[25]
(POTA) have been used to limit press freedom. Under POTA, person could be detained for
up to six months before the police were required to bring charges on allegations for terrorism-
related offenses. POTA was repealed in 2004, but was replaced by amendments to UAPA.[26]
The Official Secrets Act 1923 is abolished after right to information act 2005

For the first half-century of independence, media control by the state was the major constraint on
press freedom. Indira Gandhi famously stated in 1975 that All India Radio is "a Government
organ, it is going to remain a Government organ..." With the liberalisation starting in the 1990s,
private control of media has burgeoned, leading to increasing independence and greater scrutiny
of government. Organisations like Tehelka and NDTV have been particularly influential, e.g. in
bringing about the resignation of powerful Haryana minister Venod Sharma. In addition, laws
like Prasar Bharati act passed in recent years contribute significantly to reducing the control of
the press by the government.

LGBT rights
Main article: LGBT rights in India

Until the Delhi High Court decriminalised consensual private sexual acts between consenting
adults on 2 July 2009, homosexuality was considered criminal as per interpretations of the
ambiguous Section 377 of the 150 year old Indian Penal Code (IPC), a law passed by the
colonial British authorities. However, this law was very rarely enforced. In its ruling
decriminalising homosexuality, the Delhi High Court noted that existed law conflicted with the
fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India, and such criminalising is violative of
Articles 21, 14 and 15 of the Constitution.

Human trafficking
Main articles: Human trafficking in India and Child trafficking in India

Human trafficking is a $8 million illegal business in India. Around 10,000 Nepali women are
brought to India annually for commercial sexual exploitation.[30] Each year 20,000–25,000
women and children are trafficked from Bangladesh.[31]

Babubhai Khimabhai Katara was a Member of Parliament when arrested for smuggling a child to
Canada.

Religious violence
Main article: Religious violence in India

Communal conflicts between religious groups (mostly between Hindus and Muslims) have been
prevalent in India since around the time of its independence from British Rule. Among the oldest
incidences of communal violence in India was the Moplah rebellion, when Militant Islamists
massacred Hindus in Kerala. Communal riots took place during the partition of India between
Hindus/Sikhs and Muslims where large numbers of people were killed in large-scale violence.

The 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots was a four-day period during which Sikhs were massacred by
members of the secular-centrist Congress Party of India; some estimates state that more than
2,000 were killed.[32] Other incidents include the 1987 Hashimpura massacre during communal
riots in Meerut, 1992 Bombay Riots and the 2002 Gujarat violence —in the latter, more than 100
Muslims[33] were killed following a militant Islamist attack on a train full of Hindu pilgrims in
the Godhra Train Burning, where 58 Hindus were killed.[34] Lesser incidents plague many towns
and villages; representative was the killing of five people in Mau, Uttar Pradesh during Hindu-
Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival. [34] Other
such communal incidents include the 2002 Marad massacre, which was carried out by the
militant Islamist group National Development Front, as well as communal riots in Tamil Nadu
executed by the Islamist Tamil Nadu Muslim Munnetra Kazagham against Hindus.

Caste related issues

Main articles: Caste system in India, Caste politics in India, and Caste-related violence in India

According to a report by Human Rights Watch, "Dalits and indigenous peoples (known as
Scheduled Tribes or adivasis) continue to face discrimination, exclusion, and acts of communal
violence. Laws and policies adopted by the Indian government provide a strong basis for
protection, but are not being faithfully implemented by local authorities."

The UN stated in 2011 that the caste system of India will be declared a human rights abuse. The
UN's Human Rights Council, meeting in Geneva, is expected to ratify draft principles which
recognises the scale of persecution suffered by 65 million 'untouchables' or 'Dalits' who carry out
the most menial and degrading work.[36]

Amnesty International says "it is the responsibility of the Indian government to fully enact and
apply its legal provisions against discrimination on the basis of caste and descent.[37]

Denotified tribes of India, along with many nomadic tribes collectively 60 million in population,
continue to face social stigma and economic hardships, despite the fact Criminal Tribes Act
1871, was repealed by the government in 1952 and replaced by Habitual Offenders Act (HOA)
(1952), as effectively it only created a new list out of the old list of so-called "criminal tribes.
These tribes even today face the consequences of the 'Prevention of Anti-Social Activity Act'
(PASA), which only adds to their everyday struggle for existence as most of them live below
poverty line. National Human Rights Commission and UN’s anti-discrimination body
Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) have asked the government to
repeal this law as well, as these former "criminalised" tribes continue to suffer oppression and
social ostracization at large and many have been denied SC, ST or OBC status, denying them
access to reservations which would elevated their economic and social status.[38][39][40]

Other violence

Conflicts such as Anti-Bihari sentiment have sometimes escalated to violence.

Invasive methods like 'narcoanalysis' (controlled anaesthesia) is now commonly permitted by
Indian courts for crime investigation. Even though according to Indian constitution "nobody may
be made a witness against himself", courts have recently proclaimed that even a permission from
court is not necessary for conducting this practice. Narcoanalysis is now widely used to
replace/circumvent the lack of skill and infrastructure for conducting scientific methods of crime
investigation.[original research?] Narcoanalysis is also alleged[who?] as against medical ethics.

It has been found that more than half of the prisoners of the country are detained without
adequate evidence[according to whom?]. Unlike in other democratic countries, the investigation in India
generally commence with the arrest of the accused. As the judicial system is understaffed and
sluggish, it is not uncommon to find innocent civilians languishing in jail for many years. For
instance, the Bombay high court in September 2009 asked the Maharashtra government to pay
100,000 as compensation to a 40-year-old man who languished in prison for over 10 years for a
crime he didn’t commit.

Balanced Global Environment

People or organizations with needs and wants; both have the willingness and ability to buy or
sell. The global economic environment plays a large role in the development of new markets for
organizations.
When the natural environment is damaged and contaminated to the extent that it threatens life,
health, food, shelter, and minimum work standards, it also becomes a threat to established human
rights. When people must struggle to obtain the basic necessities of life, political freedoms and
human rights may appear meaningless to them. The destruction of life-sustaining ecosystems, the
pollution of the world's water, land, and air, the inability to control the world's wastes, and other
related environmental problems prevent people from securing the minimum requisites for health
and survival, there by impeding and even prohibiting the effective exercise and enjoyment of
human rights for much of the world's population. The correlation between human rights and the
environment has been recognized by the international community in such forums as the recent
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio deJaneiro (UNCED), in
proposed United Nations Resolutions and other multilateral agreements, and by writers in the
field of international

environmental law.' This Note proposes recognition of a new human right to a clean and
ecologically balanced environment as a "third generation" human right, necessary to facilitate
fulfillment of the first and second generations of human rights which already guarantee basic
rights and freedoms to all people. The term "generation" distinguishes the various conceptual
groups of human rights currently recognized in international law. Use of this term does not imply
a hierarchical division of human rights, nor does it imply that succeeding generations preempt or
gain primacy over earlier generations; rather, it recognizes that the human rights regimes
essentially dynamic and that additional human rights may be proclaimed as changing human
needs are recognized and addressed. Maintaining an effective human rights regime presents the
challenge of "balanc[ing] between the need to maintain the integrity and credibility of the human
rights tradition, and the need to adopt a dynamic approach that fully reflects changing needs and
perspectives and responds to the emergence of new threats to human dignity and well-being.",
The new realities:
– Capital movements have replaced trade as the driving force of the world economy
– Production has become uncoupled from employment
– The world economy, not individual countries, is the dominating factor
– 75-year struggle between capitalism and socialism has almost ended
– E-Commerce diminishes the importance of national barriers and forces companies
to re-evaluate business models
Economic Freedom
Rankings of economic freedom among countries
– Ranges from “free” to “repressed”
Variables considered include such things as:
– Trade policy
– Taxation policy
– Banking policy
– Wage and price controls
– Property rights
Global Ecosystem
An ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the
physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are
many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland. The boundaries
are not fixed in any objective way, although sometimes they seem obvious, as with the
shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical
reasons having to do with the goals of the particular study.

The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the
living, or biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic, components. Energy
transformations and biogeochemical cycling are the main processes that comprise the
field of ecosystem ecology. As we learned earlier, ecology generally is defined as the
interactions of organisms with one another and with the environment in which they occur.
We can study ecology at the level of the individual, the population, the community, and the
ecosystem.

Studies of individuals are concerned mostly about physiology, reproduction, development

or behavior, and studies of populations usually focus on the habitat and resource needs of
individual species, their group behaviors, population growth, and what limits their
abundance or causes extinction. Studies of communities examine how populations of many
species interact with one another, such as predators and their prey, or competitors that
share common needs or resources.

In ecosystem ecology we put all of this together and, insofar as we can, we try to
understand how the system operates as a whole. This means that, rather than worrying
mainly about particular species, we try to focus on major functional aspects of the system.
These functional aspects include such things as the amount of energy that is produced by
photosynthesis, how energy or materials flow along the many steps in a food chain, or what
controls the rate of decomposition of materials or the rate at which nutrients are recycled in
the system.

Process of Ecosystem
Ecological Balance
 Balance of Nature
 Biological Productivity
 Regulation climate
 Degradation of Waste
 Cleaning of Air and Water
 Cycling of Nutrients
 Control of potential pest and disease causing species
 Detoxification of soil and sediments
 Stabilization of land against erosion
 Carbon sequestration and global climate change
 Maintenance of soil fertility
 Pollution
 Hunting
 Global warming and Climate
 Agriculture
 Domino effect
Concern of Global Warming

Global warming and climate change refer to an increase in average global temperatures. Natural
events and human activities are believed to be contributing to an increase in average global
temperatures. This is caused primarily by increases in “greenhouse” gases such as Carbon
Dioxide (CO2).

A warming planet thus leads to a change in climate which can affect weather in various ways, as
discussed further below.
Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since
the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean
surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-thirds of the increase
occurring since 1980.

Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90% certain that it is
primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities
such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. These findings are recognized by the
national science academies of all major industrialized nations.

Climate model projections were summarized in the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They indicated that during the 21st
century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 2.9 °C (2 to 5.2 °F change)
for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.4 to 6.4 °C (4.3 to 11.5 °F change) for their highest.
The ranges of these estimates arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to
greenhouse gas concentrations.

Future climate change and associated impacts will vary from region to region around the globe.
The effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in the
amount and pattern of precipitation, as well a probable expansion of subtropical deserts.
Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with the continuing
retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming include a more
frequent occurrence of extreme weather events including heat waves, droughts and heavy
rainfall, ocean acidification and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects
significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the loss
of habitat from inundation.

Carbon dioxide and other air pollution that is collecting in the atmosphere like a thickening
blanket, trapping the sun's heat and causing the planet to warm up. Coal-burning power plants
are the largest U.S. source of carbon dioxide pollution -- they produce 2.5 billion tons every year.
Automobiles, the second largest source, create nearly 1.5 billion tons of CO2 annually.

Here's the good news: technologies exist today to make cars that run cleaner and burn less gas,
modernize power plants and generate electricity from nonpolluting sources, and cut our
electricity use through energy efficiency. The challenge is to be sure these solutions are put to
use.

Causes of Global Warming

Global warming is one of the major problems which is not divided by the boundaries of various
countries. Global warming is the hottest topic that anybody learned can relate to. But for those of
you who do not understand what is Global Warming, here we are, it is the rise in the average
temperature of the atmosphere of Earth (in Lehman language) and you’ll be able to know its
causes and effects after reading this write up.
It is important to understand that the consequences of global warming are very significant. It
must have not escaped or rather cannot escape our notice that devastations like tsunami,
avalanches, landslides and some other significant changes like increasing average temperature
across the globe and many more in-direct effects. The major cause of global warming is the
developing number of industries in developing countries. But its better not to play the blame
game rather join hands together and work together as one and fight against it so that we can save
our planet from further damage. Recognizing the causes of global warming will be the first step
for the universal cause.

Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse effect is the process in which the atmosphere of the Earth trap some of the heat
coming from the sun, making the Earth warm but due to burning fuels, cutting trees, the
concentration of heat on Earth is increased to abnormal levels making greenhouse effect as one
of the major causes of global warming. Carbon Dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide are the
greenhouse gases which helps to keep the Earth warm. It is a natural phenomenon that takes
place with the adequate concentrations of the greenhouse gases. But when the concentration of
these gases rises, they disturb the climatic conditions, making the Earth more warm. These gases
are not able to escape, which is the cause of worldwide increase in temperature. So the balance
of carbon dioxide and other gases should be maintained so that it does not become the major
reason of global warming.

The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere during the 20th century has resulted from
the growing use of energy and expansion of the global economy. Over the century, industrial
activity grew 40-fold, and the emissions of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur
dioxide (SO2) grew 10-fold.

The amount of CO2 in the air increased from some 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) at
the beginning of the century to 383 ppmv at the end of 2007. The amount of CO2 varies within
each year as the result of the annual cycles of photosynthesis and oxidation (see graph). Of the
other greenhouse gases, methane (CH4), which is formed by anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter, rose from a preindustrial atmospheric concentration of around 700 parts per billion by
volume (ppbv) to about 1 789 ppbv by 2007. Other important greenhouse gases include the
oxides of nitrogen, notably nitrous oxide (NO2) and halocarbons, including the
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chlorine and bromine containing compounds.

The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere alters the radiative balance of the
atmosphere. The net effect is to warm the Earth's surface and the lower atmosphere because
greenhouse gases absorb some of the Earth’s outgoing heat radiation and reradiate it back
towards the surface. The overall warming from 1850 to the end of the 20th century was
equivalent to about 2.5 W/m2; CO2 contributed some 60 per cent of this figure and CH4 about
25 per cent, with N2O and halocarbons providing the remainder. The warming effect that would
result from a doubling of CO2 from pre-industrial levels is estimated to be 4 W/m2.
Air Pollution

The harmful gases emitted from the vehicles and factories and the greenhouse gases cause
pollution in the air and these gases get captured in the atmosphere. The smoke, gather up in the
atmosphere forming clouds full of harmful gases which later on fall as acid rain which destroys
the buildings and also lead to many dangerous diseases like cancer, skin burns and the death of
plants. Plants provide us with the oxygen and if they die, the level of carbon dioxide will
increase in the atmosphere which is a harmful gas. These gases also emit heat which increases
the temperature of the Earth (following the same pattern as in the above paragraph) and causes
global warming.

Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer is the layer outside atmosphere which protects the surface of the Earth from the
harmful Ultra-violet and infrared radiations causing dangerous diseases like skin cancer. Ozone
layer depletion is also one of the causes of global warming; entering of harmful gases which
helps in heating up the Earth but the other greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, that
helps in heating up and also tears up the ozone layer making an “Ozone Hole”. Mostly the CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbon) damages the ozone layer. So the ozone layer depletes due to these gases
which allow the UV radiations to enter the Earth making the Earth more warm than normal and
affects the temperature leading to global warming. It is interesting to note that ‘Ozone Holes’
are created mainly on the poles which is the reason of melting glaciers, increase in the water
level of the sea and of course significant rise in temperature.

In 1985 Joe Farman, of the British Antarctic Survey, published a paper showing the decline of
ozone levels over Antarctica during the early 1980s. The response was dramatic: large-scale
international scientific programmes were mounted to prove that CFCs (used as aerosol
propellants, in industrial cleaning fluids and in refrigeration equipment) were the cause of the
problem. Even more important was immediate international action to curb the emissions of
CFCs.

Plummeting ozone levels in the stratosphere over Antarctica during September and October are
the result of complex chemical processes. The return of the Sun at the end of winter triggers
photochemical reactions that lead to the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere. The October
values of ozone have declined by up to 70 per cent compared to the pre-ozone hole years, and the
size of the ozone hole had grown to more than 25 million km2 (twice the size of Antarctica) by
2000.

Over the Arctic the gradual development of an annual decline during the 1990s is a significant
trend. More generally, over northern middle latitudes the concentration of stratospheric ozone
has decreased since 1979 by 5.4 per cent in winter and spring, and by about 2.8 per cent in
summer and autumn. There has been no discernible trend in the tropics and subtropics.

The scale and suddenness of the ozone decline shocked the scientific world, and led to the 1985
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol and
subsequent amendments to eliminate certain CFCs from industrial production. As a result of this
rapid action the global consumption of the most active gases fell by 40 per cent within five years
and the levels of certain chlorine-containing chemicals in the atmosphere have started to decline.
It will be decades before the CFCs already in the atmosphere fully decay. In the meantime, the
substantial destruction of ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica during September and
October will continue.

Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions is also one of the major reason of global warming. These eruptions contain
dust particles and gases like sulphur dioxide which stay in the atmosphere for years and block the
sunlight from reaching the surface of the Earth making it cool. These dust particles affects the
balance of the atmosphere and becomes a contributing factor of global warming. Though
volcanic eruptions cannot be controlled but efforts can be made to decrease the sulphur dioxide
levels.

Melting of the Glaciers

Melting of the glaciers is a natural phenomena. Large mountains of ice melt due to warmer
temperature of the Earth so that new ice can accumulate. These ice mountains helps to equalize
the temperature by beating up the heat. But there is excess melting of the ice due to the
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These gases contribute to the melting of the ice at faster rate
which leads to increased sea levels and eventually floods. If the temperature kept on rising then
there is a chance that glaciers might disappear which will lead to flooding of earth and
destruction of land resources.

Deforestation

Plants give us oxygen which is the most important thing for our survival. They undergo a process
of photosynthesis in which they give out oxygen and take carbon dioxide. Plants consume the
air, sunlight and the carbon dioxide we breathe out to make food and oxygen. So if trees are cut,
plants will not produce oxygen and the concentration of carbon dioxide will increase. Increase of
carbon dioxide in the air is harmful for human beings and also disturbs the water cycle and hence
the total imbalance of our ecosystem. So being one of the greenhouse gases it will lead to global
warming. It’s very much like not parking your car under a tree, the car gets excessively heated
up, making it uncomfortable to sit in the vehicle.

Industrial Advancement

More and more industries and factories are set up in this modern world to meet the needs of
human beings. These big factories need large amount of fuels like coal, petroleum for power and
electricity required by the machines to work. Burning of these fuels releases large amount of
carbon dioxide which absorbs the harmful radiations from the sun making it warm, hence global
warming. The smoke that is produced from these factories is mixed with the air, making it
harmful for breathing. As written earlier developing countries are the major contributors towards
this.
Use of Chemical Fertilizers

The use of artificial chemicals for the crops has become one of the reason for global
warming.These chemicals are very dangerous not only for Earth but also for human beings
too. These fertilizers are rich in nitrogen oxide which is even more dangerous than carbon
dioxide. These oxides of nitrogen destroys the ozone layer even more faster than any other
greenhouse gas and hence let the harmful ultraviolet rays enter the atmosphere, making the Earth
warm and leading to global warming.

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are burnt on a day-to-day basis and they contain high percentage of carbon, coal and
petroleum and many other gases. So burning of these fuels releases large amount of extra carbon
which has been entombed inside the Earth millions of years ago. The carbon that is emitted by
burning these fuels is the extra carbon which is not a part of the cycle. So carbon dioxide being
the greenhouse gas is provided in excess in the atmosphere which again leads to global warming.

Human Activities

It has been said that human activities are primarily responsible for global warming. These
activities are destroying the Earth at a faster rate. The emission of carbon dioxide from the
vehicles, the burning of the fuels, cutting down of trees and forest to build buildings and malls,
the dumping of trash everywhere and not recycling it, excessive use of plastics, smoke from the
factories, etcetra. All these activities performed by human beings are major factors of the
polluted gases in the air and the warming up of the Earth which destroys the ecological balance
of the nature leading to global warming.

Aerosols in the Atmosphere

Atmospheric aerosols are able to alter climate in two important ways. First, they scatter and
absorb solar and infrared radiation and, second, they may change the microphysical and chemical
properties of clouds and possibly their lifetime and extent. The scattering of solar radiation acts
to cool the planet, while absorption of solar radiation by aerosols warms the air directly instead
of allowing sunlight to be absorbed by the surface of the Earth.

The human contribution to the amount of aerosols in the atmosphere takes many forms. Dust is a
biproduct of agriculture. Biomass burning produces a combination of organic droplets and soot
particles. Industrial processes produce a wide variety of aerosols depending on what is being
burned or produced in the manufacturing process. In addition, exhaust emissions from transport
generate a rich cocktail of pollutants that are either aerosols from the outset, or are converted by
chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form aerosols.

The concentrations of condensation nuclei are about three times higher in the Northern
Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. This higher concentration is estimated to result in
radiation forcing that is only about 50 per cent higher for the Northern Hemisphere.
judicious use of natural resources.
Natural resources are those material and substances, which occur naturally in the environment. They
are those resources that are readily and naturally available on our planet, and can be used in their
natural, undisturbed form. Some of the common examples of natural resources include land, water,
coal, wood, sunlight, and oil. All these resources are distributed randomly across our planet, owing to
which, every place has a set of its own natural resources, which aid in its economic development.
Because these resources are randomly distributed, they are available in abundance in some places,
whereas they are found in scarcity in some others. It is, therefore, important that people make proper
and sustainable use of their natural resources so that they can also be preserved, to some extent, for
posterity. Natural resources have been essentially classified into two types:

The non-renewable resources are those natural resources, which can be used only once. They are
exhaustible resources, which tend to diminish in quantity, owing to their constant usage. It is, hence,
important to use the non-renewable resources wisely so that we do not run out of them. Non-
renewable resources include coal, natural gas, petroleum, uranium, etc.

The renewable resources are those natural resources, which can be naturally restored. While some of
these resources are available in plenty everywhere and at all times, like wind, sunlight, etc., some other
renewable resources, such as timber and water require time to be replenished. So, if these resources
are used up at a faster pace than the time taken by nature to restore them, even they are prone to
getting exhausted.

Several economists of the world have observed that the availability of abundant natural resources,
whether renewable or non-renewable, in a particular region, accelerates the economic development
therein. However, it should be noted that the use and exploitation of the natural resources depends on
the attitude of the people of a particular region, and hence, the above observation has also been seen to
be reversed in some cases.

Natural resources :- Natural resources are the resources available in a nature like air, water, sunlight,
soil, minerals, forests, wild life etc.

Natural resources are of two main types. They are renewable and non-renewable natural
resources.

i) Renewable natural resources :-

Those resources which can be replenished in a short period of time like air, water, sunlight,
forests etc.

ii) Non-renewable natural resources :-

Those resources which cannot be replenished in a short period of time like minerals (coal,
petroleum, natural gas, metals etc.) because they take millions of years to be formed.
 Human activities produce a lot of waste materials which are thrown away into the
environment. These wastes cause pollution of natural resources like air, water and soil.

The Ganga Action Plan or GAP was a program launched by Rajiv Gandhi in 1986 in order to
reduce the pollution load on the river.

Human waste- domestic usage like bathing, laundry and public defecation

Industrial waste-dumping untreated waste into it.

Religious events -During festival seasons, people bathe in the Ganges to cleanse themselves
from their sins.. A Hindu belief is that dropping the ashes of cremated bodies (at Varanasi) in the
Ganges would give Moksha (liberation) to the jiva (soul).

The Three R’s to save the environment

The three R’s to save the environment are Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.

i) Reduce :- means using less of natural resources and avoiding wastage of natural resources.

ii) Recycle :- means the materials like paper, plastic, glass, metals etc used for making things
can again be used for making new things instead of synthesising or extracting new paper,
plastic, glass or metals.

iii) Reuse :- means using things again and again like the plastic bottles in which we buy jams,
pickles etc can be again used for storing things in the kitchen.

Need for management of natural resources :-

All the things we use and consume are obtained from natural resources. Due to increase in
population, industrialization and urbanization the demand for natural resources is increasing and
their availability is limited . So there is a need for proper management of natural resources. The
proper management of natural resources consists of :-

i) Judicious use of natural resources and avoiding wastage of natural resources.

ii) Long term planning for the use of natural resources so that it last not only for the present but
also for future generations.

iii) The exploitation of natural resources should not be for the benefit of a few people but should
be distributed equally for all.

iv) While extracting and using natural resources we should also plan for the safe disposal of
wastes and avoid pollution so that no damage is caused to the environment.

Forests :-
Importance of forests :-

i) Forests help to preserve biodiversity.

ii) Forests are natural habitats of plants and animals.

iii) Forests provide timber, wood, fuel, medicines, fodder, etc.

iv) Forests help to maintain ecological balance.

v) Forests help to control climate and rainfall.

vi) Forests help to prevent soil erosion and controls floods.

vii) Forests help to maintain the oxygen–carbon dioxide balance in

nature.

Forests are ‘biodiversity hot spots’

Biodiversity measure by – Number of species found there.

- range of different life forms present.

Conservation means- preserve the biodiversity we have inherited

Loss of diversity may lead to loss of ecological stability.

Stake holders of forests :-

People who are associated with forests directly or

indirectly are :-

i) People living in and around forests depend on forests for their livelihood.

ii) Industrialists who use the raw materials from forests for manufacturing paper, medicines,
furniture etc.

iii) Forest Department of the Government who owns the forests and controls the resources from
the forests.

iv) Nature and wild life organisations who want to conserve and preserve forests.
Conservation of forests :-

Forests can be conserved by :-

i) Afforestation – planting of more trees.

ii) Preventing or reducing deforestation.

iii) Preventing over grazing by cattle.

iv) By setting up wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves etc.

v) Undertaking social forestry programs like Van Mahotsav, Chipko

movement for planting and protecting trees on a large scale.

Importance of wildlife :-

i) Wildlife helps to preserve biodiversity.

ii) Wildlife helps to maintain food chains and food web.

iii) We get useful products from wildlife like food, medicines, leather,

bones, honey, lac etc.

b) Conservation of wildlife :-

i) Preserving the natural habitats of animals.

ii) Banning poaching of animals.

iii) Protecting endangered species of animals.

iv) Setting up of wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere

reserves etc.

The activities for reinforcing the basic role of the market mechanism in the natural
resource management are:

 (a) To establish and improve a system of property rights for natural resources which
requires the separation of ownership from the rights on exploitation, repayable use and
transfer of resources;
 (b) To develop and establish effective and comprehensive planning and management
methods for those organizations or institutions responsible for the management of natural
resources;

(c) To adjust the existing economic measures and financial incentives including the
resource taxes and subsidies for compensation to ecological environment to meet the
objectives of sustainable development;

(d) To encourage the development of a new market eligible for the sustainable and
effective utilization of natural resources to facilitate the development of the sustainable
resource industry;

(e) To encourage, study and adopt techniques for risk assessment, resource pricing and
exploitation which are favourable to the environment;

(f) To carry out market economy incentives for more efficient control over the natural
resources along with measures assuring an equitable distribution of resources for the
whole society;

(g) To establish a system for continuous monitoring of natural resources by the

government and social groups, in order to encourage public participation in the activities
aimed at the sustainable development of natural resources;

(h) To establish sectoral and regional mechanisms for the planning and distribution of
natural resources, inter alia a medium and long term mechanism for the distribution of
resources;

(i) The government will develop and implement a family contracting and responsibility
system in the areas of exploitation and protection of the natural resources other than
agriculture for encouraging family creativity and income generation;

(j) To set up a mechanism for the coordination or elimination of discrepancies arising

during the implementation of some policies related to the utilization of natural resources.

The activities of the government in the area of macroeconomic adjustment are:

 (a) To establish a natural resource management system which is suited to the market
economy;

(b) To organize comprehensive investigation, exploration, planning and utilization of

natural resources, and to carry out unified planning including the Five-Year Plan and the
medium and long-term plans for the management of important resources depending on
their scarcity, and the policies governing their use;

(c) To establish a physical account and an account based on the magnitude of value for a
variety of natural resources in order to support the creation of an integrated valuing and
 accounting system (see the programme area D of Chapter 4) to supplement or improve
the existing economic accounting system;

(d) To allow the exchange of licensing agreements and responsibility for exploitation of
resources under the direction or control of the central government except those scarce
resources which should be kept under special control;

(e) To gradually abolish those pricing policies which are unfavourable to the sustainable
utilization of natural resources and rational use of environmental resources, such as the
policy which provides subsidies for deforestation, which are at a level much lower than
their production costs, non-repayable exploitation of mineral resources and subsidies to
the prices for water and energy;

(f) To formulate and implement as fast as possible the Act for Comprehensive Utilization
of Resources and its enacting terms to bring the comprehensive exploitation and
utilization of natural resources into line with the legislative system.

The activities for upgrading the collection of data and information are:

 (a) To establish an information system related to the management, protection and rational
utilization of natural resources, under the direction of the government and in
collaboration with the international organizations, enterprises and research institutions;

(b) To strengthen the analysis, collection and systematic evaluation of materials

concerning the environmental, economic, social and legislative aspects of the natural
resources at the global, regional, national and local levels;

(c) To set up a mechanism for the coordination and sharing, between the relevant
departments, of existing data and information for natural resource management in order
to reinforce the capability of the state in data collection, processing and evaluation;

(d) To provide in a simple and clear way to people from all walks of life the appropriate
techniques and economic information suited for activities of policy making concerning
the exploitation of resources;

(e) To support and encourage the building of low cost local data and information systems
applicable to natural resources.

International and regional cooperation. The Chinese government and its relevant
departments with the support of the regional and international organizations, are poised to
reinforce at the appropriate level, regional cooperation and exchange of materials
concerning the management and protection of natural resources. The specific activities
are:

 (a) To establish a stable relationship with the relevant agencies under the United Nations
(UNESCO, FAO, UNEP, UNDP, WMO and WHO);
 (b) To set up plans for materials exchange and personnel training and cooperation with
the related countries and non-governmental organizations;

(c) To study the possibility of establishing a relationship in research and development

with the related countries and non-governmental organizations for joint investigation of
methods and systems for management of natural resources.

UNIT -4

Corporate Ethics: Fundamental principles of ethics, Values concepts, types and formation;
principles and concepts of managerial ethics; relevance of ethics and values in business;
corruption in businesses; values of Indian managers; factors influencing business ethics.

Corporate Ethics:
The study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially controversial issues,
such as corporate governance, insider trading, bribery, discrimination, corporate social
responsibility and fiduciary responsibilities. Business ethics are often guided by law, while other
times provide a basic framework that businesses may choose to follow in order to gain public
acceptance.
Ethics involves a discipline that examines good or bad practices within the context of a moral
duty
Moral conduct is behavior that is right or wrong
Business ethics include practices and behaviors that are good or bad
Inventory of Ethical Issues in Business

 Employee-Employer Relations
 Employer-Employee Relations
 Company-Customer Relations
  Company-Shareholder Relations
 Company-Community/Public Interest
Two Key Branches of Ethics
 Descriptive ethics involves describing, characterizing and studying morality “What is”
 Normative ethics involves supplying and justifying moral systems “What should be”
Conventional Approach to Business Ethics
 Conventional approach to business ethics involves a comparison of a decision or practice to
prevailing societal norms Pitfall: ethical relativism
 Decision or Practice Prevailing Norms
Sources of Ethical Norms

Developing Moral Judgment

External Sources of a Manager’s Values

1. Religious values
2. Philosophical values
3. Cultural values
4. Legal values
5. Professional values

Internal Sources of a Manager’s Values

1. Respect for the authority structure

 2. Loyalty
3. Conformity
4. Performance
5. Results

Fundamental Principles of Ethics

1. Respect for Persons. -- Respect for persons incorporates at least two ethical convictions:
first, that individuals should be treated as autonomous agents, and second, that persons
with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection. The principle of respect for persons
thus divides into two separate moral requirements: the requirement to acknowledge
autonomy and the requirement to protect those with diminished autonomy. In most cases
of research involving human subjects, respect for persons demands that subjects enter
into the research voluntarily and with adequate information. To respect autonomy is to
give weight to autonomous persons' considered opinions and choices while refraining
from obstructing their actions unless they are clearly detrimental to others. Respect for
the immature and the incapacitated may require protecting them as they mature or while
they are incapacitated.Some persons are in need of extensive protection. The extent of
 protection afforded should depend upon the risk of harm and the likelihood of benefit.
The judgment that any individual lacks autonomy should be periodically reevaluated and
will vary in different situations.
2. Beneficence. -- Persons are treated in an ethical manner not only by respecting their
decisions and protecting them from harm, but also by making efforts to secure their well-
being. Such treatment falls under the principle of beneficence. Two general rules have
been formulated as complementary expressions of beneficent actions in this sense: (1) do
not harm and (2) maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms. As with all
hard cases, the different claims covered by the principle of beneficence may come into
conflict and force difficult choices.
3. Justice. -- Who ought to receive the benefits of research and bear its burdens? This is a
question of justice, in the sense of “fairness in distribution” or “what is deserved.” An
injustice occurs when some benefit to which a person is entitled is denied without good
reason or when some burden is imposed unduly. Another way of conceiving the principle
of justice is that equals ought to be treated equally.
4. A just distribution of quality of life. Maximize the qualities of life (values of well-
being) of all sentient beings, giving a strong priority on increasing the lowest values of
well being. I.e. maximize the qualities of life of the worst off individuals, unless this is at
the expense of much more well-being of others. Sentient beings are all beings who have a
functioning complex nervous system (they developed the capacity to feel and have not
yet permanently lost this capacity).
5. The basic right of living beings (plants and all beings with complex interests, such as
staying alive). Never allow (or strongly minimize) the killing or injuring of non-sentient
living beings for luxury needs. Especially don’t kill a living being to manipulate your
social status (fashion, status consumption, commercial advertisements). We are allowed
to use plants for basic needs (sharing knowledge,…).
6. The basic right of sentient beings (beings with complex interests and the capacity to
subjectively experience their needs). Never allow (or strongly minimize) the use of
sentient beings as merely means to someone else’s ends (including both luxury, basic and
vital needs). We should not treat someone as property or violate its bodily integrity or
freedom without permission in order to achieve a goal. One exception: sentient beings
 who became dependent (by evolution) on other animals in order to survive, are allowed
to hunt for their vital needs, until feasible alternatives exist (but we are allowed to defend
the prey, if we feel compassion).
7. The intrinsic value of biodiversity. Protect the biodiversity, because the biodiversity for
ecosystems is analogous to well-being for sentient beings: both are intrinsically valuable
properties of an entity (ecosystem, sentient being) that is unique and irreplaceable.
8. Restorative justice. Strive for reconciliation, forgiveness, non-violence, and moral
growth, instead of retributions and punishment.
9. Universal love. Develop a feeling of universal love, a solidarity and compassion with all
life, even with humans doing highly immoral things. Never regard someone as an enemy.
This love is like the unconditional care of a mother for her children: Even when her son
does the most terrible things, the mother still loves him deeply, she has no hatred or
disdain but empathy and respect, but she’ll do whatever she can to stop his immoral
behavior. She will not trust her son, and she may use violence, as long as the violence is
accompanied with love.
10. Just caring. When helping others, you are allowed to give (to some level) priority to
those with whom you feel a personal or emotional concern or involvement, on the
condition that you should tolerate the choice of other caregivers to give priority to whom
they prefer. So you should tolerate the choice of other helpers.
11. The golden rule. Abide by those principles which we would like that everyone abides
them. Give the good example and do that what every moral being should have to do, even
if no-one else does so. This is an unconditional commitment and we should, if need be,
swim up against the stream. We should abide by those principles which are generalizable,
which means that if every moral being should follow those principles and consequently
apply them, there will be no undesirable consequences that violate one of the above
principles. Also, choosing an action or a rule to follow, we should ask ourselves: what are
the consequences if everyone (who is able to do that action) would do that action or
follow that rule? If the consequences satisfy the above principles 1 to 4, then we should
do that action or follow that rule.

Theoies of thics
1. Consequentialism: maintains that the majority of an action depends on the nonmoral
consequences that the action brings about. Morality of an action consists ofthe ratio of good to
evil that theaction produces. We should perform right and only right action in terms of good and
evil, as each individual defines good and evil, and right and wrong. There is no objective right
and wrong or good and evil. The person defines these. You bump into a car at the mall. You
could leave a note, but since there were no witnesses and the owner is not around, you decide
not to because you recognize that the damage is low (probably only a couple of hundred
dollars). The car owner probably has insurance, and it would be such a hassle for the owner to
contact you and your insurance company. You may have to end up paying higher premium, the
owner may think ill of you —all of which are nonmoral reasons that may be unpleasant for
you.Ethical egoism state that you shoul d always act so that your actions produce what is in your
own best long-term interests. Personal egoism states that an individual should always act in his
or her own bestlong-term interests, but that does not say how others should act.Impersonal
egoismstates that an individual should always act in his or her own best long - term interest.
2. Values Clarification (Philosophical Relativism) teaches that the most important aspect is not
what one believes, but being aware one’s own feelings, beliefs, and valuessystems. People thus
consider alternative models of thinking and acting. By acting thusly and making one’s own
choices, one develops one’s own values. In this setting, a value is what a person likes to do. It is
NOT an ought - to- do , but rather a want-to-do. Values clarification puts a heavy emphasis on
feelings—much sothat it virtually equates values with feelings. It also reflects a philosophical
relativism—the belief that there are no moral or ethical absolutes—everything is relative.
Concludingwhat is right or wrong is basically anybody’s guess. Proponents of this systems say
thatthey use the Socratic method—every ethical question is a question of either this or
thatchoice. Unfortunately, Socrates and Plato had distinct beliefs about truthand ethics which
the proponents of this methodology do not possess.
3. Utilitarianism : states that the moral standard should be promotion of the best long-term
interests of everyone concerned. Many utilitarianists say that which is intrinsically good is
pleasure and happiness (known as the hedonistic calculus). Others say there are other things
which are intrinsically good such as beauty, power, knowledge, etc. Act Utilitarianism states that
the right utilitarian act is the one that produces the greatest ratio of good to evil for all
concerned. Rule utilitarianism teaches us that certain actions almost always have a great
utilitarian value and thus general rules are formulated to help us see that we follow these rules
of action. A few doctors decide th at a number of experiments on a few people, even if most of
them died, would be worth it if they could find a cure for a disease that would relieve the
suffering of millions of people. Utilitarianism would give the approval for such because it
produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
4. Legalistic Moralism (Moral Absolutism) states that there are pluralities of absolutes (or norms)
with each one covering an area of human experience. These absolutes never conflict with each
other. An action that is evil under one absolute is evil under every other absolute and could
never be seen as good under any absolute. Some call this the ethic of absolute ends because we
do what is right and trust God or fate or destiny or the forces of good to work things out. There
 is no personal responsibility for the consequences of morally right acts. We do them, not
because they bring us pleasure, but because they are “right”...this is called the “categorical
imperative”. A madman shows up at your door with a weapon raving, asking where your loved
one is, that he intends to kill the person. You answer truthfully because it would be wrong to lie.
You trust that since you have told the truth, things will work out. Perhaps the neighbors have
called the police, or someone will intervene, or something will happen.
5. Situation Ethics: shows that since legalistic Moralism is encumbered with a bundleof
predetermined rules and regulations and while antinomianism says that there are noabsolutes,
then decision making must be based on a “middle ground”. That middle ground then says the
guidelines for decision - making must be 1) absolute love (agape) 2) general guidelines of
helpfulness (sophia) 3) particular moment (kairos). Love and justice are the same. If love is t he
end result, then the ends justifies the means. This is not a selfish love, but a love that desires the
neighbor’s best good at all times. There are four working principles involved — a) Pragmatism
(love gives concrete practical, workable answers) b) Relativism (everything is relative to love) c)
Emotivism (each person desires his or her own values) and d) Personalism (persons are the
ultimate value). A man finds himself in an unfulfilled marriage, looking for a person with whom
he can deeply connect. A woman is trapped in a marriage that is abusive and filled with pain.
They find each other and after a while one things lead to another until they are in love. Love
being the ultimate goal, they being consenting adults, then they are morally right in having an
affair.
6. Ethical Realism (as espoused by Reinhold Neibuhr)(the lesser of two evils) states that when
absolute norms come into conflict (as they will eventually do) one must decide which to follow.
Each solution offers limited alternatives, so the solution which produces the less of two evils is
the one to be chosen. Unavoidable moral dilemmas occur because our world is not perfect.
Neibuhr’s theory, The Origin of Moral Dilemma, comes from a Christian perspective stating that
we live in a “fallen” world since sin entered it. Thus there is an excusable and pardonable sin
because people did not cause that dilemma by their own acts. Every decision will have some
sinful consequence of which God will forgive. Thus people must make the choice that is the
lesser sin and then ask God’s forgiveness. Neibuhr talked of a world. War. The Soviet Union was
an evil and brutish dictatorship over millions of people, forcing them into horrific, hellish
conditions. Yet to oppose them in an outright war would bring ma ssive destruction through
nuclear weapons. Instead of direct opposition, we chose indirect opposition (the cold war)
through economics and alternative means.
7. Ethical Hierarcicalism (Graded Absolutism) is the view that there are many universal norms, but
they are not all intrinsically equal. Thus when a conflict takes place, we must obey the “higher”
norm...we choose the greater of the two goods. Geisler Hierarchical Calculus is:
•Persons are more valuable than things
•God is more valuable than an incomplete person
•A complete person is more valuable than an incomplete person
•An actual person is more valuable than a potential person
•Potential persons are more valuable than actual things (fetus vsappendage)
 •Man persons are more valuable than a few persons
•Personal acts which promote personhood are better than those which don’tWhy should a
person be held responsible for committing a crime if the crime wasa lesser norm? Is it wrong for
a man to steal money to purchase a life-saving machine forhis child who is dying? Perhaps the
system is at fault and not the person.

8. Principle Ethics states: that principles are merely value states or guidelines toactions (as opposed to
rules or laws). Thus when principles encounter each other inconflict it is not a conflict of norms, but
rather an exercise in reasoning and logic. Principle ethics is the most difficult to study because it
demands the area test study and the most incisive analysis of principles and cases with the goal of
determining which principles apply to which case. The decision that is made is based upon test oflogic,
reasoning, and rationale.

9. Cognitive Moral Development : (as espoused by Lawrence Kohlberg) states that ethics education is
possible. Just as people develop mentally, physically, and emotionally, they develop a moral cognizance.
Using critical thinking tactics such as the Socratic method, people can solve their ethical dilemmas.
Kohlberg taught that there were six stages of ethical thinking, each stage being of greater maturity t han
the previous one. By delineating these levels, we are allowed to know and test each our own thinking.
This helps us know ourselves better and challenges us to move on to a higher level of thinking. This
assumes a sort of natural goodness and integrity in the child whereby he or she will always want to do
the right thing — if only they had the time to reason tings out. This is the idea that people suffer from a
character defect if they are void of logical thinking.