COMPOSITION OF SOIL

Chapter # 04
Tayyab Tahir
2018-MS-GE-05
 INTRODUCTION
 Geotechnical engineering is primarily concern with
mechanical behavior of the soils.
 Solid , Liquid (water) and Gas (air) are three
phases. Behavior and properties (permeability,
compressibility, shrinkage, swelling and shear
strength) depend on interaction of these 3 phases.
 However, dealing with contaminated soils and
transport through soils, it is important to
characterize these 3 phases accurately.
 Liquid (water, chemicals & dissolved gases) & Gas
( air & chemical vapors).
 This may influence the soil prop. & behavior so
detail understanding of soil composition is critical.
 SOIL FORMATION
 Earth was formed about 4.5bya from huge molten
ball of cosmic gasses & debris.
 Our concern is earth crust (10-15km below
ground), consists of bed rock and overlying by a
layer of unconsolidated material (soils).
 Soils due to weathering of Igneous (granite &
basalt) , Sedimentary (sandstone & shale), &
metamorphic rocks (slate & marble).
 Weathering is due to mechanical processes or
chemicals processes or combination of both.
SOIL FORMATION
 SOIL FORMATION
 Mechanical processes are unloading, thermal
expansion & contraction, crystal growth, colloid
plucking and organic activity (Mitchell, 1993).
 Chemical processes are hydration, oxidation,
hydrolysis, carbonation, chelation and cation
exchange (Mitchell, 1993).
 Based on mode of deposition, soils may be
transported or residual.
 Transported by water (alluvial), glaciers (glacial),
wind (Aeolian) or gravity (talus or colluvium).
 Residual soils are in tropical regions of SE & SW
of US.
SOIL COMPOSITION
SOLID PHASE
 In geotech. solid phase is classify according to the
particle size as boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand,
silt, clay and colloids.
 For geo-environmental studies, solid phase is
divided into inorganic constituents and organic
constituents.
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
 Consists of mainly soil minerals, free oxides and
hydroxides (as discrete particles, coating and
cementing agents).
 Soil minerals are naturally occurring,
homogeneous, solid inorganic substance that
have definite physical properties & chemical
composition, originated from parent rock.
 Soil minerals are grouped into carbonates (calcite
and dolomite) and silicates (quartz, feldspar,
mica & clay minerals).
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
Carbonate Minerals:
 Derived from limestone or dolomite rocks or reef.

 Exhibit perfect cleavage planes

 Addition of dilute HCl to the soil results in

effervescence, indication of Carbonates.
 Several chemical analysis methods are available
to determine the amount of carbonates present in
soils.
 We’ll briefly explain some of the methods.
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
Carbonate Minerals
 Vacuum Distillation & Titration Method:

In this method CO2 is liberated in vacuum at

low HCl and temperature (50-55°C) in the presence
of SnCl2 (antioxidant). This decreases the tendency
of CO2 to evolve from soil organic matter. Evolved
CO2 is swept away by water vapors in the upper
flask, where it is absorbed by Ba(OH)2. Titration of
Ba(OH)2 gives accurate index or carbonates in the
sample.
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
Carbonate Minerals:
 Gravimetric Method:

in this method CO2 is released by treating

the soil with 2N H2SO4 containing FeSO4 as an
antioxidant to prevent release of CO2 from organic
matter. The air steam containing evolved CO2 is
passed by number of traps to remove water and
any extraneous constituents. Evolved CO2 is then
absorbed into a Nesbitt Bulb. Weighing the bulb
before and after gives the amount of CO2 and this
value determines the carbonate content.
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
Carbonate Minerals
 Acid Neutralization Method:

In this method, soil is treated with hot dilute

HCl and all carbonates are decomposed. Few other
soil constituents may also react with HCl. This this
method gives us a rough amount of carbonates.

 Gravimetric Method for Loss of CO2:

When carbonates are decomposed, CO2 is
released in the atm. The weight of CO2 lost is an
index of carbonate content of soil.
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
Carbonate minerals:
 Volumetric Calcimeter Method:

When carbonates are treated with acid in a

closed system at const. T & P, the increase in V is
direct measure of CO2, if no other gases are
evolved.

 Pressure Calcimeter Method:

When carbonates are treated with acid in a
closed system at const. T & P, the increase in P on
a manometer is a direct measure of CO2.
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
 Silicate Minerals:
 Most common minerals.

 Formed due to weathering of igneous and

metamorphic rocks.
 Posses crystalline structures and are formed by
various combination of two basic units of silicates
minerals,
➢ The silica tetrahedron
➢ The aluminum and magnesium octahedron
a) single silica tetrahedron (Grim, 1959); b) isometric view of tetrahedral or silica sheet (Grim,1959); c)
schematic representation of silica sheet (Lambe, 1953)

d) Top view of silica sheet (Warshaw & Roy, 1961)

a) Single Al or Mg octahedron (Grim, 1959); b) isometric view of octahedral sheet (Grim. 1959); c)
schematic representatin (Lambe, 1953)

d) Top view of octahedral sheet (warsha and Roy, 1961)

SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
Common Silicate Minerals in CGS:
 Quartz: SiO2, silica tetrahedron are arranged in 3-D
network, no cleavage, very hard and insoluble in all
common acids.
 Feldspar: same crystalline structure as quartz except
some of Si4+ are replaced by Al3+. This results in –ve
charge, balanced by cations (K+, Na+ & Ca2+), have
cleavage & less resistant to weathering. (e.g.
Orthoclase & Plagioclase)
 Mica: Octahedral layer sandwiched b/w tetrahedral
layer, some of the Si4+ are replaced by Fe3+ or Mg2+,
causes +ve charge deficiency balanced by K+(K-bond),
formed of many sheets, nonswelling, moderately plastic
and relatively resistant to weathering. (e.g. muscovite,
biotite)
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
Common Silicate Minerals in FGS:
 Kaolinite: 1-tetrahedral & 1-octahedral layer of sheet
(1:1 type), strong O & OH bond b/w sheets (hydrogen
bond). Found in stable soils with little tendency of
volume change.
 Illite: decomposed of hydrous mica, 1-octahedral & 2-
tetrahedral layers of sheets (1:2 type), sheets
connected to each other by K-bond. Present in marine
deposits, don’t expand unless there is K deficiency.
 Montmorillonite: 1-octahedral layer sandwiched b/w
2-tetrahedral layers, no apparent bonding exist to
connect these sheets so, water enters b/w these sheets
causes high swelling. Found in soils from
ferromagnesian rocks and volcanic ashes
 Illite

kaolinite

montmorilonite
SOLID PHASE
INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
Method to Identify Soil Minerals:
 Optical microscope

 Petrographic microscope

 Electron microscope
➢ Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
➢ Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
 X-ray diffraction analysis
 Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
SOLID PHASE
ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
 Derived from soil biomass, includes nonhumified
and humified compounds.
 Nonhumified released by the decay of plant,
animal and microbial tissues and includes
carbohydrates, amino, proteins, lipids, nucleic
acid, lignins, pigments, hormones and verity of
organic acid.
 Humified are the products that have been
synthesized from nonhumified substances by a
process called humification, include complex
substances like humic & fulvic acid.
SOLID PHASE
ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
 An increase in organic carbon causes the soil to
➢ Become lightweight, darker and less plastic.
➢ Increase the absorption of water & chemicals.
➢ To experience biochemical reaction.
 Quantity determined either by direct or indirect
methods.
 Direct method gets the destruction of all organic
matter and loss in W of soil is taken as organic
content.
➢ Oxidation of organic matter with H2O2 (Black,1965)
➢ Ignition at high temp. (ASTM D 2974)
 Indirect method, organic carbon is measured
experimentally (Black, 1965).
LIQUID PHASE
 Generally composed of water so it is called soil,
water or soil solution (dissolve chemicals &
gasses).
 Saturated zone soil pores are completely filled
with water while in unsaturated zone partially.
 The soil water may exist as
➢ Adsorbed water
➢ Double-layer water
➢ Free water
LIQUID PHASE
ADSORBED WATER
 Water that make bond with surfaces of soil solid
is adsorbed water.
 Via different mechanism like H-bonding,
hydration of exchangeable cations, osmosis,
surface dipole-dipole attraction & London
dispersion forces.
 Thickness is 3-4 molecular layers of water.

 Properties of adsorbed water are slightly

different than of ordinary water e.g. viscosity &
density may be higher than ordinary water
LIQUID PHASE
DOUBLE-LAYER WATER
 Clay mineral carry -ve charge, this is balanced by
dissolved cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+).
 These cations have thermal energy so, they move and
repel each other, water molecules tend to surround
them.
 That’s why, cations don’t crowd the clay surface,
rather they form a diffused layer around mineral.
 The charged surface and distributed charge in
adjacent phase are together termed as diffuse double
layer and water within this layer is double-layer
water.
 Two most popular theories to predict the diffuse
double layer are
➢ Gouy-Chapman theory
➢ Stren’s theory
LIQUID PHASE
FREE WATER
 Water surrounding the diffuse-double layer is
called the free water.
 Contain different dissolved materials e.g.
metallic ions and dissolved gasses like CO2 and
O 2.
LIQUID PHASE
METHODS TO DETERMINE AMOUNT & COMPOSITION.

 Volume may be calculated using M-V

relationships.
 Oven drying method (ASTM D 2216)

 Liquid phase may be extracted by various

methods specified in ASTM D 4542
(refractometer).
➢ Collection of drainage water
➢ Displacement by fluid immiscible with water
➢ Direct extraction by vacuum or centrifugation
GAS PHASE

 Also known as soil air.

 Amount of gas in pores is controlled by liquid
phase.
 Surficial soils have same gasses as in atm.

 Quality of air is measured by its O2 & CO2

content. Biological reactions consume O2 and
produce CO2.
GAS PHASE
METHODS TO DETERMINE AMOUNT & COMPOSITION.

 Volume may be calculated using M-V

relationships.
 On site using gas detector like photoionization
detector (PID).
 For identification of individual gas components,
gas chromatography.
 SOIL FABRIC
 Arrangement of solids and pore spaces in a
particular soil is soil fabric.
 Fabric of coarse grain soils (gravels, sands & in
some cases silts) is a single grain structure (loose
or dense), under certain conditions these soils
may form honeycomb structure.
 SOIL FABRIC
 Fabric of fine grain soils is complex, single grain
structures rarely exist.
 Generally present on different scale level
➢ Microfabric: regular aggregation of particles and very
small pore spaces b/w them.
➢ Minifabric: aggregation of microfabric and
interassemblage of pores b/w them.
➢ Macrofabric: cracks, fissures, root holes and
laminations and so on.
 Fabric of fine grain soils can result flocculent
(attraction & contact through edge-to-face
arrangements) or dispersed structures (parallel
arrangements).
a) Dispersed and
flocculated;
b) aggregated but
deflocculated (face-
to-face association);
c) edge-to-face
flocculated but
dispersed;
d) edge-to-edge
flocculated but
dispersed;
e) edge-to-face
flocculated but
aggregated;
f) edge-to-edge
flocculated but
aggregated;
g) edge-to-face
flocculated but
aggregated
 SUMMARY
 Unlike geotechnical engineering, detail chemical
characterization of soil phases (solid, liquid & gas)
is essential for geo-environmental studies.
 Solid phase consists of free minerals, free oxides,
hydroxides & organic matter.
 Liquid phase consists of water, dissolved chemicals
& gasses.
 Gas phase consists of air & chemical vapors.

 Various techniques are used to det. the amounts &

composition of these phases.
 Understanding of soil fabric is also valuable in
assessing the fate & transport of chemicals in soil.