Hydraulic and Electric Regulation of a Prototype for

Real-Time Control of Pressure and Hydropower

Generation in a Water Distribution Network
N. Fontana, C.Eng., M.ASCE 1; M. Giugni 2; L. Glielmo 3; G. Marini, C.Eng., M.ASCE 4; and R. Zollo 5
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Abstract: Coupling pressure management and energy recovery in water distribution networks (WDNs) is an appealing topic in the field
of optimal management of water systems. The use of turbines or pumps as turbines (PATs) allows for reducing leakage within the network
while also recovering energy that would otherwise dissipate, by means of pressure reducing valves (PRVs). Unlike water supply systems, where
operating conditions remain essentially constant over time, a real-time control (RTC) is required in WDNs because of the variability of pressure
and flow discharge during the day. To this end, a prototype for RTC of a WDN was presented and discussed in a recent paper, in which constant
rotational speed of the impeller was considered. To overcome such a limitation and maximize energy recovery, an inverter was coupled to the
prototype. A mathematical model of the prototype was developed and the decision variables were calculated by solving an optimization
problem via the YALMIP tool of MATLAB at varying conditions of inflow discharge, pressure head at the inlet, and desired pressure head
at the control node. The mathematical model was further validated through preliminary laboratory experiments, showing good agreement
between simulated and actual values. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001004. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Introduction
In recent years, the possibility of coupling leakage reduction and
hydropower generation in water distribution networks (WDNs) has
been shown (e.g., Fontana et al. 2012; Jafari et al. 2015; Corcoran
et al. 2016; Samora et al. 2016). Turbines can replace pressure
reducing valves (PRVs), thus enabling recovery of energy that
would otherwise dissipate (Giugni et al. 2014). Many authors
(Ramos and Borga 1999; Williams and Simpson 2009; Arriaga
2010) have also recommended using pumps as turbines (PATs) in-
stead of conventional turbines because pumps are mass produced
and easily available for a wide range of heads and flows in a large
number of standard sizes. Pumps also have short delivery times,
wide availability of spare parts, and ease of installation and main-
tenance (Williams 1996).
Although using turbines and PATs for hydropower generation is
a fairly common application in water supply systems, their instal-
lation in WDNs is far more complex because of the high variability
1
Associate Professor, Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università degli Studi
del Sannio, Piazza Roma, 21, 82100 Benevento, Italy. Email: fontana@
unisannio.it
2
Full Professor, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile, Edile e Ambientale,
Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, via Claudio, 21, 80125
Napoli, Italy. Email: giugni@unina.it
3
Full Professor, Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università degli Studi del
Sannio, Piazza Roma, 21, 82100 Benevento, Italy. Email: glielmo@
unisannio.it
4
Associate Professor, Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università degli
Studi del Sannio, Piazza Roma, 21, 82100 Benevento, Italy (corresponding
author). Email: gustavo.marini@unisannio.it
5
Ph.D. Student, Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università degli Studi
del Sannio, Piazza Roma, 21, 82100 Benevento, Italy. Email: raffaele
.zollo@unisannio.it
Note. This manuscript was submitted on January 30, 2018; approved on
May 30, 2018; published online on September 10, 2018. Discussion period
open until February 10, 2019; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Water Resources
Planning and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9496.
of flow discharge and pressure during the day. Because of the vari-
ability of inflow discharge, the pressure within a WDN (and some-
times also at the inlet node) may vary significantly between night
and peak hours. In addition, when operating at constant rotational
speed, the head drop through the turbine increases with discharge
according to a parabolic curve (Derakhshan and Nourbakhsh
2008). On the other hand, pressure over the WDN should be kept
constant and as low as possible over time to minimize leakage. To
this end, it is possible to identify one (or even more) regulated
node(s) (i.e., the critical node), where the minimum service pres-
sure has to be maintained to ensure adequate service level
(Campisano et al. 2010, 2012).
Installation of turbines or PATs also requires preliminary cost-
benefit analysis. Creaco and Walski (2017) showed that no pressure
controls are needed if leakage and the variable operation and main-
tenance cost are low. When these variables are high, remote real-
time control is attractive, especially for peaked demand patterns
and large water networks. The installation of a device for energy
recovery requires extra equipment (electric power generator, extra
needle valve, inverter, and extra flow meter and pressure transduc-
ers). Nevertheless, several studies showed low payback periods
and economic feasibility can be expected, especially for large sites
(Su and Karney 2015) or when a PAT is used for power generation
(Fecarotta et al. 2015; Patelis et al. 2016). Although recovered
power is generally limited, installation and maintenance costs are
also small, with attractive revenues, especially in the case of incen-
tive policy for renewable energy.
Because of the variability of flow conditions, only a real-time
control (RTC) can ensure constant pressure over time at the control
node. RTC is also required to counter abnormal operating condi-
tions occurring, for example, in the case of break of transmission
mains and for fire hydrant service. Several authors discussed RTC
in a WDN from a theoretical point of view (Giustolisi et al. 2015;
Creaco et al. 2017; Page et al. 2017). Recently, Fontana et al.
(2018a, b) discussed the RTC of pressure in a WDN by means
of both laboratory and field experiments. Laboratory experiments
demonstrated the proposed control algorithm’s ability to maintain

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J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2018, 144(11): 04018072

 the set point pressure at the critical node, as well as in the case of
abrupt variation in the network operation. Field experiments further
showed that pressure regulation is also beneficial for the other no-
des within the WDN, with a lower pressure and a more regular pres-
sure pattern.
Moreover, coupling pressure regulation and hydropower gener-
ation may incorporate hydraulic and electrical regulation of the
machine (Carravetta et al. 2012). Hydraulic regulation uses a by-
pass line and PRVs to regulate flow, such that the turbine operates
at or near the best efficiency point (BEP). Fontana et al. (2016)
discussed the RTC of a prototype for pressure regulation and hydro-
power generation in a WDN based on hydraulic regulation. The
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prototype has a main line (i.e., the power generation line, where a
PAT has been installed for energy production) and a bypass line,
with a needle valve as a PRV installed on each line to ensure both
the set point pressure at the regulated node and the maximum hy-
dropower generation. In the previously mentioned paper, a constant
rotational speed n was used for power generation. Nevertheless,
because of the fixed velocity of the impeller, in many operating
conditions, the prototype is not able to entirely exploit the available
head and the PRV located downstream of the PAT has to dissipate a
greater residual head as a consequence.
As an alternative, electric regulation of the PAT may be imple-
mented based on the use of an inverter (Carravetta et al. 2013) to
adjust the impeller rotational speed according to the inflow dis-
charge and available head drop; however, the machine may have
to operate far from the BEP. Carravetta et al. (2013) also developed
numerical simulations to assess the technical and economic feasibil-
ity of electric regulation. Although hydraulic regulation showed
smaller payback periods for the analyzed scenarios, electric regula-
tion can be still an attractive alternative.
Hydraulic or electric regulation of the PAT are required for op-
timal operation in real environments, as implicitly confirmed by
Muhammetoglu et al. (2017). The authors presented a full-scale
application of a PAT in Antalya City (Turkey), which allowed pres-
sure reduction up to 12.5 m and a reduction of 50 m3 =h in water
losses. Generated power varied between 0.7 and 7 kW in the first
month of operation. Nevertheless, no electric or hydraulic regula-
tion was performed and the PRV on the bypass line was regulated
only to ensure the operation of a synchronous power generator of
the PAT system at a constant rotational speed of 750 rpm. Conse-
quently, the pressure over the network varies with the inflow dis-
charge and efficiency also achieves values lower than 40% for low
discharges.
Optimal power generation and pressure control can be achieved
by coupling hydraulic and electric regulations, with a frequency
converter added to the prototype. The control strategy will
Fig. 1. Layout of the prototype.
© ASCE 04018072-2
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2018, 144(11): 04018072
determine both the flow discharge running the turbine and the rota-
tional speed of the impeller to be regulated so as to maximize the
energy produced at varying flow discharge and available head drop.
In this paper, a different control architecture for the prototype
operation is proposed, which uses an inverter to vary the rotational
speed of the PAT impeller. A RTC of the valves and the inverter
is outlined and discussed, adjusting the impeller rotational speed
according to the flow characteristics (flow discharge and available
head drop). Unlike individual hydraulic or electric regulation,
the proposed RTC maximizes power generation while ensuring the
set-point pressure at the regulated node for all operating conditions.
The proposed method and models were also validated through pre-
liminary laboratory experiments.
Model Layout and the Optimization Problem
The layout of the prototype tested for coupling pressure regulation
and hydropower generation is given in Fig. 1. Similar to Fontana
et al. (2016), the prototype has a main line, where the electric gen-
erator (the PAT) is installed, and a bypass line, each line also having a
respective PRV installed for pressure regulation. The bypass line is
required when the head drop corresponding to the discharge running
the PAT exceeds the available drop, so that a part of the discharge
flows through the bypass. The bypass line can also be used when the
flow discharge running the PAT falls below a minimum value so that
the resulting energy production is not suitable. Unlike the prototype
proposed by Fontana et al. (2016), an inverter is also available, which
can vary the rotational speed of the impeller within a wide range.
The goal of the prototype is to regulate downstream pressure
while maximizing hydropower generation. Consequently, the oper-
ation of the system can be inferred by the solution of an optimi-
zation problem. The subscripts 1 and 2, respectively, indicate the
bypass line and the generation line in the following sections. The
power generated by the turbine can be expressed as PT ¼ γQ2 H T η,
where γ is the fluid specific weight, Q2 the discharge running the
generation line, HT the turbine head drop, and η the turbine effi-
ciency. The quantities HT and η depend on both the rotational speed
n and the flow Q2 ; i.e., HT ¼ HT ðn; Q2 Þ and η ¼ ηðn; Q2 Þ, and
the optimization problem can be stated as
max γQ2 HT ðn; Q2 Þηðn; Q2 Þ ð1Þ
n;Q2
subject to a number of constraints expressing compatibility equa-
tions of flow and head in the prototype. The pressure drop across
the prototype has to satisfy the equations
H u − Hd ¼ ΔH1 ðK 1 ; Q1 Þ ð2Þ
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.
 Hu − Hd ¼ ΔH 2 ðK 2 ; Q2 Þ þ HT ðn; Q2 Þ
where Hu and Hd = heads upstream and downstream, respectively,
of the generation system; and ΔH1 , ΔH 2 = head losses through the
PRVs located on the bypass and generation lines. In general, ΔH i
can be calculated as a concentrated head loss
Q2i
ΔH i ðK i ; Qi Þ ¼ K i
2gA2i
where K i ¼ ith valve loss coefficient; Qi = flow discharge in the ith
pipe; g = gravitational acceleration; and Ai = cross sectional area of
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the ith valve port. The heads upstream and downstream of the gen-
eration system Hu and H d are assumed to be known: Hu is mea-
sured using a pressure transducer, whereas Hd depends on the
minimum head Hmin required at the critical node. Such a value de-
pends on the characteristics of the served area (building height, net-
work pipes and topology, etc.). The value of H min should be set in
order to both ensure adequate service level and minimize leakage
over the WDN. In general, H d ¼ Hmin þ ΔHN , where ΔH N is the
head loss between the prototype and the critical node. Obviously,
if the critical node is identified at the prototype, then ΔH N ¼ 0
and H d ¼ Hmin .
Another constraint is the continuity equation for the system, so
the total flow running the system Qtot satisfies
Qtot ¼ Q1 þ Q2
Also, Qtot is assumed to be given. Finally, the rotational speed of
the impeller n can vary in a fixed range
nmin ≤ n ≤ nmax
The optimization problem given by Eq. (1) and the constraints in
Eqs. (2)–(6) is similar to that solved by Fontana et al. (2016). The
only difference is that, in this case, the rotational speed of the im-
peller can be set by an inverter; consequently, the decision variables
of the problem are n and Q2 . Also, the optimization problem has to
be solved in real time because of the continuously variable oper-
ation of the network (inlet discharge and upstream pressure). For
this reason, use was made of the MATLAB optimization toolbox
YALMIP, an open-source toolbox (Lofberg 2004) that can be used
Fig. 2. Four-loop laboratory network.
© ASCE
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2018, 144(11): 04018072
ð3Þ for optimization problems in control and systems engineering. The
toolbox simplifies the development and the solution of optimization
problems in general, and control-oriented semidefinite program-
ming (SDP) problems in particular, by offering a uniform program-
ming structure against a variety of solvers. YALMIP currently
supports linear programming, quadratic programming, second-
order cone programming, determinant maximization, mixed integer
programming, posynomial geometric programming, semidefinite
ð4Þ
programs with bilinear matrix inequalities, and multiparametric lin-
ear and quadratic programming (Lofberg 2004).
Experimental Setup
The models were validated by means of preliminary experiments at
the Hydraulic Laboratory of the Department of Civil, Architectural,
and Environmental Engineering, University of Naples Federico II.
Control algorithms were tested on the four-loop network (Fig. 2),
discussed in greater detail in Fontana et al. (2016). A pump deliv-
ering a flow discharge up to 50 L=s at a maximum pressure of
around 100 m supplies the network. An air chamber guarantees
constant pressure head at the network inlet, avoiding continuous
small pressure and flow oscillations. The network is made mainly
of cast iron, with a nominal diameter of 150 mm. A number of gate
and needle valves deployed within the network for flow control and
regulation are also all motorized for remote control. Manual butter-
ð5Þ
fly valves installed at three outlets regulate outflow (Fig. 2).
Pressure transducers and flow meters are deployed for compre-
hensive flow characterization during operation as well. Measured
data are collected in real time by programmable logic controllers
ð6Þ (PLCs) located at the most significant nodes. Local PLCs commu-
nicate with a master PLC through a wired connection with Ethernet/
IP protocol. A supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
system is also implemented for network operation monitoring and
valve control. Data are collected at 1 s intervals and stored in a
database for further analysis.
To ensure communication between MATLAB and the PLC, a
program for interface is required. A solution based on the open
platform communication (OPC) standard was used, which allows
Windows-based software to communicate with industrial hard-
ware devices. The OPC was implemented using a client–server
04018072-3 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.
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Fig. 3. OPC client–server solution for communication between Windows and PLC.

architecture (Fig. 3). The OPC server is software that converts was established, both the head drop and generated power were
the hardware communication protocol used by PLCs into an OPC measured. The generated power was measured downstream of
protocol. The OPC client software is any program (in this case the converter; thus, it does not account for the power required
MATLAB) that is to be connected to the hardware. The OPC client for converter operation. Preliminary analysis showed the energy
uses the OPC server to get data or send commands to the hardware. used at around 0.04 kW (Pugliese et al. 2016), this value conse-
The prototype for pressure regulation and energy production is quently being added to the power resulting from the converter
installed within the network (Fig. 2). The installation allows for to estimate the actual generated power. The efficiency curve was
comprehensive regulation of flow and pressure and represents calculated as the ratio η between generated and available power
the typical layout for energy production in WDNs. Three pressure
transducers for measuring pressure are installed upstream and PT
η¼ ð7Þ
downstream of the prototype and at the PAT outlet, allowing cal- γQH T
culation of the head drop through the PAT and PRVs. Also, two
flow meters installed along the generation line and on the pipe As an example, the characteristic curves of the PAT for Q ¼
downstream of the system measure flow. The flow discharge run- 19 L=s at varying n are given in Fig. 4. The power curve shows
ning the bypass line is calculated as the difference between the two that generated power progressively increases at increasing rota-
measured values. tional speed, with a maximum of 0.95 kW for n ≈ 23.5 Hz, and
Finally, for fast and accurate characterization of the pipe flows, then decreases. At n ¼ 35.5 Hz, the generated power is close to
only the part of the network marked by the thick lines in Fig. 2 was zero, with no further increase in the rotational speed. The maximum
used in the experiments. To allow that, some of the motorized efficiency is achieved instead for n ≈ 18.5 Hz, with a value of
gate valves were closed and only the outlet valve close to the node around 0.60.
N2_P1 was left open. The opening degree (OD) of the outlet valve It follows that for any flow discharge, it is possible to calculate
was changed during the experiments so as to vary the flow dis- the optimal rotational speed of the impeller, that is, the speed at
charge running the system. which the generated power is maximum. However, because electric
A horizontal single stage centrifugal pump, model Lowara regulation aims at setting the head drop through the machine equal
(Lowara-Xylem, Rye Brook, New York) FHE 80-200/220, was to the available head drop by a suitable choice of n, it is not able to
used as PAT. Efficiency, head, and discharge at BEP in normal maximize energy production alone. In the case of large variability
mode were 78.7%, 38 m, and 42 L=s, respectively. The motor of inflow discharge, electric regulation may not even be able to
nominal power was 22 kW. The electric generator was connected
to the grid through an ABB regenerative converter, model ACS800-
11-0025-3 (ABB, Zurich, Switzerland). The converter included a
system for energy dissipation consisting of a braking chopper
(model ABB NBRA-653C) and braking resistor (model ABB
15RE13). In the absence of a formal agreement for energy produc-
tion with the local provider, energy dissipation was required be-
cause the power produced could not be released to the electric
grid. Consequently, for low flows, the energy produced by the sys-
tem was used to supply the self-consumption of the system. For
higher values, the voltage at the dc-link increased, and upon reach-
ing a predefined reference value (about 650 V), the chopper dissi-
pated the energy produced by the generation system into the
resistance (Dannier et al. 2015).
Preliminary tests were carried out to obtain the characteristic
curves of the pump when operating in reverse mode by setting
the flow discharge and varying the rotational speed of the impeller.
The minimum speed was set to 5 Hz (300 rpm) and further
increased by 0.5 Hz (30 rpm) at each step until either minimal
power was generated or the maximum set speed (n ¼ 50
Fig. 4. Characteristic curves of the PAT for Q ¼ 19 L=s.
Hz ¼ 3,000 rpm) was achieved. When a steady state condition

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 match the required pressure drop. Because generated power is a
function of Q and n, both variables have to be set in order to per-
form an effective optimization. To this end, both electric regulation
and hydraulic regulation have to be carried out. The presence of the
bypass line and its PRV enables setting the flow running the gen-
eration line to maximize the generated power and dissipate the
available head.
To obtain general relationships for any operating condition of
the PAT when running in reverse (Pugliese et al. 2016), results were
analyzed in terms of the following dimensionless parameters at
varying Q, H T , PT , n (Stepanoff 1948):
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Q
φ¼ ð8Þ
nD3
gH T
ψ¼ ð9Þ
n2 D 2
PT
π¼ ð10Þ
ρn3 D5

in which φ, ψ, and π = flow number, head number, and power num-

ber, respectively; D = impeller diameter; and ρ = fluid density. Results
showed that dimensionless curves, computed using D ¼ 0.189 m,
coincided at varying head drop, flow discharge, and rotational speed
[Figs. 5(a and b)]. The following regression equations were inferred:
ψ ¼ 242.6φ2 − 12.77φ þ 2.898 ð11Þ

π ¼ 1.784φ3 þ 36.33φ2 − 0.669φ − 0.142 ð12Þ

and also plotted for comparison in Figs. 5(a and b).

As will be pointed out in the following paragraph, lower values
of φ have greater interest for the optimization problem. Conse-
quently, different regression curves were inferred for φ < 0.30
ψ ¼ 280.3φ2 − 27.55φ þ 4.156 ð13Þ

π ¼ 24.01φ3 þ 27.60φ2 þ 0.126φ − 0.148 ð14Þ

Experiments and regression curves are plotted in Figs. 6(a and b), Fig. 5. (a) Head number; and (b) power number at varying flow
both cases showing very good agreement. number and regression curves.

Control Algorithm
As mentioned previously, needle valves regulate flow and pressure
within and downstream of the prototype. Laboratory experiments
for valve characterization were carried out and discussed by Fon-
tana et al. (2016). The loss coefficient shows large deviations with
respect to the curve provided by the manufacturer. The curves also
show relevant differences when varying the inflow discharge, es-
pecially for the smaller opening degrees. Consequently, pressure
(or flow) regulation cannot be achieved by setting the opening de-
gree of the valve. In addition, valves are controlled through a dis-
crete (digital) signal; that is, only open, stop, and close commands
are accepted. The motor valve has a fixed velocity: the open com-
mand starts the rotation of the motor in the opening direction; the
close command starts the rotation in the closing direction; the stop
command stops the motor rotation. Hence, a desired opening de-
gree can be achieved through a control strategy switching among
the three possible inputs (open, stop, close).
Because the loss coefficient curve is very steep at smaller open-
ing degrees, precise regulation can be obtained only by slowing the
opening (or the closing) of the valve. To this end, the valve is con-
trolled in small consecutive increments: each open (or close)
command is converted into an open (or close) impulse of duration
δ, followed by a longer period Δ when the valve is stopped
(Fontana et al. 2016). The duration δ is on the order of milliseconds,
whereas Δ is on the order of seconds; consequently, the average
velocity of the opening (or closing) action significantly reduces
and fine regulation can be obtained. Details of the feedback algo-
rithm for pressure regulation or coupled regulation of flow and
pressure can be found in Fontana et al. (2016).
Because of the variability of flow during the day, three operating
conditions (OCs) were identified:
• OC1 mode; that is, all the inflow discharge runs the PAT, and the
corresponding head drop HT is lower than the available head
H u − H d . It follows that the bypass line is closed and the
PRV downstream of the PAT dissipates the residual head
H u –Hd –HT . The optimal flow Qopt coincides with the inflow
discharge Qtot ; that is, Q2 ¼ Qopt ¼ Qtot and Q1 ¼ 0.
• OC2 mode; that is, the inflow discharge is too low for power
generation; consequently, the PAT is disconnected and the flow
runs the bypass line. In this case, the generation line is closed
(Q2 ¼ 0 and Q1 ¼ Qtot ) and the bypass line PRV dissipates the
available head Hu –Hd .

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Fig. 6. (a) Head number; and (b) power number at varying flow
number and regression curves for φ < 0.30.
• OC3 mode, which occurs for larger inflow discharge; thus, the
corresponding head drop H T (with n maximizing the generated
power) is greater than the available head Hu –H d . Consequently,
the inflow discharge has to run both the generation line and the
bypass line. The optimization algorithm calculates the optimal
value of the flow discharge running the PAT, Q2 ¼ Qopt and the
optimal rotational speed of the impeller nopt, which maximizes
power generation consistently with the available head. The gen-
eration line PRV is fully open to exploit all the available head
(the head drop through the PAT equals the available head). The
bypass line PRV regulates to dissipate the available head of the
remaining flow Q1 ¼ Qtot − Qopt.
For the sake of clarity, a flowchart showing the operation of
the algorithm and the switching between OCs is given in Fig. 7.
Starting from a steady state condition, if the inflow discharge
(or upstream pressure) varies, then the optimization algorithm cal-
culates the new decision variables (Qopt and nopt ). The control al-
gorithm regulates the rotational speed of the PAT according to the
value nopt resulting from the optimization problem. At the same
time, the prototype achieves the set point pressure at the critical
node by operating the PRVs on both the generation and bypass
© ASCE 04018072-6
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2018, 144(11): 04018072
Fig. 7. Flowchart of prototype operation.
lines. If OC1 mode occurs, only the generation line PRV operates
to achieve the set point pressure, whereas the bypass line PRV re-
mains closed. In the case of OC3 mode, both PRVs operate alter-
nately, the bypass line PRV to set the pressure, the generation line
PRV to regulate the flow discharge. Finally, if Qtot falls below a
minimum value Qmin , the generation line PRV closes, the PAT
is disconnected from the electric grid, and the inflow discharge runs
the bypass line.
To avoid oscillations between OC1 mode and OC2 mode, a hys-
teresis was introduced; that is, when the inflow discharge oscillates
around Qmin , the algorithm moves to OC1 mode when Qtot is suf-
ficiently greater than Qmin (Qtot > C · Qmin ). A value C ¼ 1.2 was
assumed in the experiments. Finally, because of the characteristic
curves of the needle valves used, a maximum opening degree
(ODmax ¼ 60%) was considered because the PRV is ineffective
for regulating flow and pressure for large opening degrees (Fontana
et al. 2016). Similarly, when the OD is lower than 6%, the PRV is
essentially closed; thus, a minimum opening degree ODmin ¼ 6%
was considered in the control algorithm.
The optimal operation of the prototype can be assessed accord-
ing to a different approach without using an external optimization
module. The values of Qopt and nopt can be calculated directly using
Eqs. (11) and (12) [or the regression curves of Eqs. (13) and (14),
valid for φ < 0.30]. For the sake of simplicity, let us assume
OC1 mode is established (to be later verified). The optimal oper-
ation of the PAT can be inferred from Fig. 8, where the experi-
mental values of π=φ3 are plotted against φ. Indeed, because
π=φ3 ¼ PT D4 =ðQ3 ρÞ, it follows that for a given flow Q, maximi-
zation of π=φ3 at varying φ yields maximization of PT at varying n.
The curve shows the variability of the produced power with re-
spect to the flow number, whereas it is independent of the head drop,
that is, provided the available head H u − H d is greater than HT .
The curve achieves the maximum for φ ≈ 0.12, which represents
the optimality condition in this case. The regression curve inferred
from Eq. (12)
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Fig. 8. Values of π=φ3 versus φ and regression curves. Fig. 9. Values of π=ψ1.5 versus φ and regression curves.

π 36.33 0.669 0.142 can be solved to calculate n̄opt . According to Eq. (8), the corre-
¼ 1.784 þ − 2 − 3 ð15Þ sponding value of φ̄opt can be calculated as
φ3 φ φ φ
Qtot
is also plotted for comparison. The maximum is attained for φ̄opt ¼ opt 3
ð20Þ
n̄ D
φ ¼ 0.128, slightly right shifted with respect to the experiments.
Such a difference depends on the lower agreement between the and Q̄opt ¼ Qtot . At increasing Qtot , Eq. (19) holds until the maxi-
experiments and Eqs. (11) and (12) for smaller values of φ. By con- mum producible power for the head drop H u − H d is achieved.
sidering the regression curves obtained for φ < 0.30, that is, Such a value can be calculated by considering the dimensionless
Eqs. (13) and (14), the curve π=φ3 becomes variable π=ψ1.5 ¼ PT =½ρD2 g1.5 ðHu − Hd Þ1.5 , whose maximiza-
tion implies again maximization of PT . The regression curve
π 27.60 0.126 0.148 can be inferred by means of Eqs. (11) and (12), yielding
¼ 24.01 þ þ 2 − 3 ð16Þ
φ3 φ φ φ
π 1.784φ3 þ 36.33φ2 − 0.669φ − 0.142
1.5
¼ ð21Þ
also plotted for comparison in Fig. 8. The data show the better agree- ψ ð242.6φ2 − 12.77φ þ 2.898Þ1.5
ment of Eq. (16) with the experiments, at least for φ < 0.30.
The maximum of the curve occurs for φopt ¼ 0.122, which is very or using Eqs. (13) and (14), which show a better agreement with the
close to the experimental maximum (Fig. 8). experiments for φ < 0.30
Because Q2 ¼ Qtot ¼ Qopt , then nopt can be calculated from
Eq. (8), yielding π 24.01φ3 þ 27.60φ2 þ 0.126φ − 0.148
¼ ð22Þ
ψ1.5 ð280.3φ2 − 27.55φ þ 4.156Þ1.5
Qtot
nopt ¼ ð17Þ
ϕopt D3 Also in this case, the regression relationships fit very well with
the experiments, as shown in Fig. 9. The experimental maximum
whereas Eq. (13) yields ψopt ¼ 4.98. Finally, the head drop for this point basically coincides with the curve maximum point; that
operating condition can be calculated from Eq. (9): is, φ^ opt ¼ 0.185.
Hence, when the value of φ̄opt calculated by means of
ψopt ðnopt DÞ2 Eq. (20)—with n̄opt inferred from Eq. (19)—equals or exceeds φ^ opt ,
HT ¼ ð18Þ
g then the condition φ^ opt ¼ 0.185 can be used to identify optimal op-
eration of the prototype. From Eq. (13), for φ^ opt ¼ 0.185, it results
This value should be lower than the available head Hu –Hd . in ψ^ opt ¼ 8.62; thus, the optimal velocity of the impeller can be
If this holds, then OC1 mode actually occurs and the PRV on calculated using Eq. (9) by assuming HT ¼ Hu − Hd
the generation line has to dissipate the excess head H u –Hd –HT sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
to ensure the set point pressure at the critical node. gðHu − Hd Þ
Conversely, if the head drop resulting from Eq. (18) is greater n̂opt ¼ ð23Þ
than the available head, that is, HT > H u − H d , then the optimal ψ̂opt D2
velocity of the impeller can be calculated from Eq. (13), in which
H T ¼ Hu − H d , and Q ¼ Qtot . Thus, the second-order polynomial The optimal flow running the PAT can be calculated from
equation Eq. (8), giving

280.3  Q2tot gðHu − Hd Þ 27.55Qtot opt Q̂opt ¼ ϕ̂opt n̂opt D3 ð24Þ

2
− − n̄ þ 4.156n̄opt ¼ 0
D6 D2 D3 The flow running the bypass line will be Q1 ¼ Qtot − Q ^ opt and
ð19Þ the corresponding PRV will regulate to dissipate the available head.

© ASCE 04018072-7 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2018, 144(11): 04018072

 The flowchart of Fig. 10 summarizes the previously mentioned
operations.

Experiments

Numerical and laboratory experiments were carried out to assess the

validity of the proposed approach and test the capability of the proto-
type in maximizing power generation by ensuring, at the same time,
the set point pressure at the critical node. For the sake of simplicity,
the critical node was identified just downstream of the prototype
(N2_P1 in Fig. 1), although Fontana et al. (2016) showed that pres-
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sure regulation is also effective in a node far from the prototype.

Numerical Experiments
Numerical experiments were developed to assess whether YALMIP
can effectively identify the optimal operating conditions of the
system. The following optimization problem was implemented
in YALMIP, where the change in sign of the objective function is
required to comply with the standard structure of the solver:
Fig. 10. Flowchart for calculating optimal working points (flow and
rotational velocity). min − PT ð25Þ
n;Q2

Fig. 11. Operation of the prototype for Hu − Hd ¼ 40 m: optimal n with (a) dimensional; (b) dimensionless variables; (c) dimensional variables and
n ¼ 25 Hz; and (d) dimensional variables and n ¼ 50 Hz.

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J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2018, 144(11): 04018072

 with the following constraints:
0 ≤ Q2 ≤ Qtot
5 Hz ≤ n ≤ 50 Hz ð26Þ
0 ≤ H T ðn; Q2 Þ ≤ Hu − Hd

Values of H u ¼ 70 m and H d ¼ 30 m were considered, corre-

sponding to an available head drop of 40 m. The range for n was set
according to the actual frequency of the electric grid (50 Hz),
whereas Qtot was varied between 20 and 60 L=s. Fig. 11(a) plots
the results of numerical simulations in terms of flow running the
generation line, head drop through the turbine, rotational speed
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of the impeller, and generated power. The flow running the gener-
ation line equaled the inflow discharge until the head drop
coincided with the available head. The velocity of the impeller also
linearly increased with flow according to Eq. (17). That occurred
for Qtot ≈ 38.8 L=s, that is, the first vertical line in Fig. 11(a). At
increasing inflow discharge, Q2 ¼ Qtot persisted, but n decreased
so that the actual head drop through the turbine coincided with the
available head. Such behavior persisted until Qtot ≈ 44.5 L=s, that
is, the second vertical line in Fig. 11(a), at which flow level the
bypass opened, thus conveying any further increase of inflow dis-
charge. Consequently, with flow running the generation line, im-
peller velocity and head drop (and thus the generated power)
remained constant for Qtot >≈ 44.5 L=s.
The results of numerical simulations are also plotted in terms
of dimensionless parameters [Fig. 11(b)]. For Qtot <≈ 38.8 L=s,
φ ¼ 0.122, whereas for Qtot >≈ 44.5 L=s, φ ¼ 0.185. For inter-
mediate values, φ can be calculated using the value of n̄opt given
by Eq. (19) and Q2 ¼ Qtot , whereas ψ and π can be calculated by
means of Eqs. (13) and (14), respectively.
The effectiveness of electric regulation in optimizing the proto-
type operation can be assessed by comparing such values with
numerical experiments without electric regulation, that is, by as-
suming a constant rotational velocity of the impeller. In the experi-
ments, values n ¼ 25 Hz and n ¼ 50 Hz were considered, and
Fig. 12. Operation of the prototype at varying inflow discharge during
results are plotted in Figs. 11(c and d), respectively. For the sake
OC1 mode.
of brevity, only dimensional variables were plotted. For lower flow
rates, one had Q2 ¼ Qtot , until the head drop through the PAT
equaled the available head. That occurred for Qtot ≈ 46.1 L=s
for n ¼ 25 Hz and for Qtot ≈ 35.9 L=s for n ¼ 50 Hz [the vertical calculated by YALMIP, no command is sent to the PRVs). Simi-
lines in Figs. 11(c and d)]. For greater values of inflow discharge, larly, a dead band of 0.5 m was considered in the control algo-
the bypass opened and the produced power remained constant. As rithm, to avoid continuous changes of the PRVs set points. Finally,
expected, at increasing n, HT also increased for the same Q. Never- to avoid continuous changes of the inverter (and PAT) working
theless, because of the PAT characteristic curves (e.g., Fig. 4), a point, the variation of n was commanded every 10 s.
greater n (and so a greater H T ) does not means a greater produced For the sake of brevity, only OC1 mode was analyzed, that is,
power. In both cases, results show the smaller electric power gen- when the flow discharge entirely runs the generation line. Results
erated by the PAT with respect to the values calculated by optimiz- were analyzed in terms of pressure at the critical node, rotational
ing n, especially for n ¼ 50 Hz. For such a value of n, even no velocity of the impeller, and generated power [Figs. 12(a and b)].
electric power was generated for Q <≈ 23.3 L=s [Fig. 11(d)]. At the initial time, the flow discharge running the prototype
Thus, results confirm that electric regulation is required to maxi- was around 16.5 L=s, with n ≈ 20 Hz and a generated power
mize the produced power. PT ≈ 0.6 kW. For the sake of simplicity, the critical node was
identified just downstream of the prototype and the head H d was
set to 30 m. The PRV located downstream of the PAT (N2_V2) had
Laboratory Experiments
an opening degree (OD2 ) around 22%, thus dissipating the residual
Preliminary laboratory experiments were also developed to validate head. At t ¼ 180 s, the outlet in Fig. 2 was suddenly opened,
the control algorithms in order to assess the effectiveness of the thereby increasing the inflow discharge to around 23 L=s. Because
proposed approach and the reliability of the analytical relation- of the flow increase, a sudden drop in pressure at the critical node
ships. The optimization algorithm returns the flow discharge run- occurred before the PRV has time to adjust: the PRV progressively
ning the PAT and the rotational velocity of the impeller: the PRVs opened until achieving the set point pressure (OD2 ≈ 25%). At the
located on both the generation line and the bypass line regulate same time, the increased flow discharge also caused the rotational
flow discharge, whereas the inverter commands the velocity of the velocity of the impeller to increase, according to YALMIP, with
impeller. To avoid continuous operation of the PRVs, a dead band a resulting value n ≈ 28 Hz. The produced power was around
of 1 L=s was considered for the flow discharge running the PAT 1.7 kW. The outlet was opened again at t ¼ 510 s, with a further
(i.e., if the measured Q2 is within 1 L=s with respect to the value increase in flow discharge at around 31.5 L=s. Again, the pressure

© ASCE 04018072-9 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2018, 144(11): 04018072

 at the critical node suddenly reduced, and the algorithm com- Hmin = minimum head required at critical node;
manded the opening of N2_V2 to achieve the set point value HT = head drop through turbine;
(OD2 ≈ 31%). To maximize power generation, the value of n in- Hu = head upstream of prototype;
creased to around 38 Hz, with a produced power PT ≈ 4.4 kW. Ki = loss coefficient of ith valve;
Fig. 12(a) also shows that Q2 ¼ Qtot for all operating conditions;
n= rotational velocity of impeller;
thus, OC1 mode occurred: N2_V2 dissipated the residual head
nmax = maximum allowed rotational velocity of impeller;
downstream of the PAT and the by-pass PRV (N2_V1) remained
closed. nmin = minimum allowed rotational velocity of impeller;
nopt = optimal velocity of impeller for hydropower generation
for HT < Hu − Hd and Q2 ¼ Qtot ;
Conclusions n̄opt = optimal velocity of impeller for hydropower generation
for HT ¼ Hu − Hd and Q2 ¼ Qtot ;
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This paper discusses the operation of a prototype for both regulating n^ opt = optimal velocity of the impeller for hydropower
pressure and generating hydropower in a WDN. Unlike the solution generation for H T ¼ H u − H d and Q2 < Qtot ;
provided by Fontana et al. (2016), both the flow discharge running OD = opening degree of PRV;
the PAT and the rotational velocity of the impeller can be set in order OD1 = opening degree of bypass line PRV;
to maximize power generation. Because a nontrivial optimization OD2 = opening degree of generation line PRV;
problem arises, decision variables have been calculated using the ODmax = maximum allowed opening degree of PRV;
MATLAB optimization toolbox YALMIP. An alternative approach ODmin = minimum allowed opening degree of PRV;
based on dimensionless variables was also proposed. To ensure PT = generated power;
communication between MATLAB and the PLC, a solution based
Q= flow discharge;
on the open platform communication standard was implemented
Q1 = flow discharge running bypass line;
with respect to client–server architecture. According to flow dis-
charge and available head, three operating conditions were identi- Q2 = flow discharge running generation line;
fied. OC1 mode occurs when the head drop through the PAT is Qopt = optimal flow discharge for hydropower generation for
lower than the available head; consequently, all of the flow runs HT < Hu − Hd and Q2 ¼ Qtot ;
the PAT. OC2 mode occurs when the flow discharge is lower than Q̄opt = optimal flow discharge for hydropower generation for
a minimum value; thus, generation of hydropower is not suitable HT ¼ Hu − Hd and Q2 ¼ Qtot ;
and the flow runs the bypass line. Finally, OC3 mode occurs when ^ opt =
Q optimal flow discharge for hydropower generation for
the head drop through the PAT corresponding to the total flow is HT ¼ Hu − Hd and Q2 < Qtot ;
greater than the available head. Consequently, the flow runs both Qmin = minimum flow discharge for hydropower generation;
the generation and bypass lines. Numerical and laboratory experi- Qtot = flow discharge entering prototype;
ments were carried out to assess the operation and reliability of the t= time;
proposed control algorithms. Laboratory experiments developed for γ= fluid specific weight;
OC1 mode showed negligible differences with theoretical values; δ= duration of impulse when valve is commanded;
also, in the case of abrupt variation in flow, the algorithms were Δ= duration of period when valve is stopped;
able to control pressure at the critical node and the PAT to maximize
ΔHi = head loss through ith valve;
power generation in every operating condition.
Preliminary experiments showed the proper operation of the ΔHN = head loss between prototype and critical node;
prototype. Nevertheless, the optimal operation of the prototype η= turbine efficiency;
when flow and upstream head vary requires the characteristic π= power number;
curves of the PAT (or the regression dimensionless equations) to πopt = optimal power number for hydropower generation;
be known. Moreover, the use of needle valves for pressure and ρ= fluid density;
flow regulation requires a certain electric power for operation; thus, φ= flow number;
issues can arise in case of electric blackout. In certain conditions, φopt = optimal flow number for hydropower generation for
the produced power is lower than the power required for valve HT < Hu − Hd and Q2 ¼ Qtot ;
operation, and an emergency generator should be installed. φ̄opt = optimal flow number for hydropower generation for
Consequently, perspectives for future works concern the devel- HT ¼ Hu − Hd and Q2 ¼ Qtot ;
opment of different approaches to optimize the operation of the φ^ opt = optimal flow number for hydropower generation for
prototype when the characteristic curves are not available and hy- HT ¼ Hu − Hd and Q2 < Qtot ;
draulically operated PRVs are used, requiring much less power for ψ= head number;
operation, instead of need valves. An accurate economic analysis
ψopt = optimal head number for hydropower generation for
should be also performed to assess the payback period of the invest-
HT < Hu − Hd and Q2 ¼ Qtot ; and
ments and, eventually, to identify the more convenient scenarios to
ψ^ opt = optimal head number for hydropower generation for
install the prototype.
HT ¼ Hu − Hd and Q2 < Qtot .

Notation
References
The following symbols are used in this paper:
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