Ec & Us Manual PDF

Energy Conservation & Utilization System
PRACTICAL: 1
Aim:-To study vapor compression refrigeration system.
1
Objective:-
To study vapor compression refrigeration system.
Introduction:
The basic principles of air conditioning comes from second law of thermodynamics which states
that
"Heat can never pass from a colder to swarm body without some other changes, connected
therewith, occurring at the same time"
The air conditioning comparison mainly of four mainly,
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Expansion Device
• Evaporator
Compressor:-
The basic function of compressors discovery the low temperature, low pressure refrigerant to
high temperature, high pressure vapor refrigerant.
Condenser:-
The basic function of condenser is to reject heat. It concert high temperature, high pressure vapor
refrigerant to low temperature, high pressure liquid refrigerant.
Expansion device:-
Nobody a capillary tube is often uses as expansion device.
The function of an expansion device is to concert the low temperature, high pressure liquid
refrigerant to low temperature, low pressure liquid refrigerant.
Evaporator:-
Subsequently the evaporator is circulating refrigerant absorbs and removes het which is rejected
in the condenser and transfer elsewhere by the water or air in used in the condenser.
2
Fig 2.1
Theory:-
One important application of the thermodynamic cycles is refrigeration. The transfer of heat
from a higher temperature to a lower one is a natural phenomenon, but the unnatural reverse
process happens in refrigeration cycles. The devices that produce refrigeration are called
refrigerators and the working fluids are called refrigerants.
3
Fig. 2.2
Schematic diagram of refrigerator
A refrigerator is shown schematically in Figure 2.1. Here, QL is the magnitude of the heat
removed from the refrigerated space at temperature TL, QH is the magnitude of the heat rejected
to the warm space at temperature TH, and Win is the network input to the refrigerator.
Refrigeration can be classified as:
1. Vapor cycle, and
2. Gas cycle
Vapor cycle refrigeration can further be classified as:
1. Vapor compression refrigeration
2. Gas absorption refrigeration
4
Fig. 2.3
Ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle
An ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle is defined as a refrigeration system that removes
thermal energy from a low temperature region and transfers the heat to a high temperature
region. The diagram in Figure 2.2 shows the schematic and the T-s graph for an ideal vapor
compression refrigeration cycle.
For an ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle, it consists of 4 main processes:
The refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1 as saturated vapor and is compressed isentropic
ally to the condenser pressure. The temperature increases during this process to well above the
temperature of the surrounding medium. The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated
vapor at state 2 and leaves as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection. The
temperature at this state is still above the surrounding temperature.
The saturated liquid at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by passing it through an
5
expansion valve. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low quality saturated
mixture and is completely evaporated by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The
refrigerator leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor and re-enters the compressor, completing
the cycle.
However, in real life situations, the ideal cycle rarely occurs due to friction in the pipe and
irreversibility’s that occur in pipes and devices in the refrigeration cycle. The deviation from the
ideal cycle is as shown below in Fig. 2.3.
Fig 2.4 Schematic and T-s diagram for the actual vapor compression refrigeration cycle
Construction:-
Fig 2.5
6
Fig 2.6
The construction of vapor compression refrigeration system is illustrated in below figure. This
system consists of four basic components, i.e. a compressor, an evaporator, a condenser and
capillary tubes. Here the compressor delivery head, discharge line, condenser and liquid line
form the high pressure side of the system. The expansion line, evaporator, suction line and
compressor suction head form the low pressure side of the system. In plants with a large amount
of refrigerant charge, a receiver is installed in the liquid line. A drier is also installed in the liquid
line. The drier contains silica gel and absorb traces of moisture presented in the liquid
refrigerants so that it does not enter the narrow cross section of the expansion device causing
moisture chocking by freezing.
Working: - Refrigerant flows through the compressor, which raises the pressure of the
refrigerant. Next the refrigerant flows through the condenser, where it condenses from vapor
form to liquid form, giving off heat in the process. The heat given off is what makes the
condenser "hot to the touch." After the condenser, the refrigerant goes through the expansion
valve, where it experiences a pressure drop. Finally, the refrigerant goes to the evaporator. The
refrigerant draws heat from the evaporator which causes the refrigerant to vaporize. The
evaporator draws heat from the region that is to be cooled. The vaporized refrigerant goes back
to the compressor to restart the cycle.
Compressor: - Of the reciprocating, rotary, and centrifugal compressors, and the most popular
among domestic or smaller power commercial refrigeration is the reciprocating. The
reciprocating compressor is similar to an automobile engine. A piston is driven by a motor to
"suck in" and compress the refrigerant in a cylinder. As the piston moves down into the cylinder
(increasing the volume of the cylinder), it "sucks" the refrigerant from the evaporator
7
Fig 2.7
The intake valve closes when the refrigerant pressure inside the cylinder reaches that of the
pressure in the evaporator. When the piston hits the point of maximum downward displacement,
it compresses the refrigerant on the upstroke. The refrigerant is pushed through the exhaust valve
into the condenser. Both the intake and exhaust valves are designed so that the flow of the
refrigerant only travels in one direction through the system.
8
Fig 2.8
Condenser: The condenser removes heat given off during the liquefaction of vaporized
refrigerant. Heat is given off as the temperature drops to condensation temperature. Then, more
heat (specifically the latent heat of condensation) is released as the refrigerant liquefies. There
are air-cooled and water-cooled condensers, named for their condensing medium. The more
popular is the air-cooled condenser. The condensers consist of tubes with external fins. The
refrigerant is forced through the condenser. In order to remove as much heat as possible, the
tubes are arranged to maximize surface area. Fans are often used to increase air flow by forcing
air over the surfaces, thus increasing the condenser capability to give off heat.
Fig 2.9
9
Receiver
The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in a vessel known as receiver from
where it is supplied to the evaporator through the expansion valve or refrigerant control valve.
Expansion Valve
It is also called throttle valve or refrigerant control valve. The function of the expansion valve is
to allow the liquid refrigerant under high pressure and temperature to pass at a controlled rate
after reducing its pressure and temperature. Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes
through the expansion valve, but the greater portion is vaporized in the evaporator at the low
pressure and temperature
Fig 2.10
Evaporator: This is the part of the refrigeration system that is doing the actual cooling.
Because its function is to absorb heat into the refrigeration system (from where you don't want
it), the evaporator is placed in the area to be cooled. The refrigerant is let into and measured by a
flow control device, and eventually released to the compressor. The evaporator consists of finned
tubes, which absorbs heat from the air blown through a coil by a fan. Fins and tubes are made of
Metals with high thermal conductivity to maximize heat transfer. The refrigerant vaporizes from
the heat it absorbs heat in the evaporator.
Flow control device (expansion valve): This controls the flow of the liquid refrigerant
into the evaporator. Control devices usually are thermostatic, meaning that they are responsive to
the temperature of the refrigerant.
10
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Sr. Time T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
P1 P2 V I P
No. Interval’s (◦C) (◦C) (◦C) (◦C) (◦C)
1. Initial 0.2 6.9 235 1.57 1060 23.2 30.4 27.4 -19.2 26.4
After 5
2. 0.4 7 236 1.63 1063 23.9 48.7 29.2 -11.6 23.1
min.
After 10
3. 0.8 7.5 240 1.70 1057 19.8 63.8 31.2 -7.9 17.6
min.
After 15
4. 1.1 7.8 238 1.66 1051 15.7 72 32.6 -6.8 12.6
min.
Where,
P1 = Pressure
P2 = Pressure
V = Voltage given to the VCR system.
I = Current given to the VCR system.
P = Power
T1 = Temperature of inlet of Compressor
T2 = Temperature of outlet of Compressor
T3 = Temperature of outlet of Condenser
T4 = Temperature of outlet of Expansion Device
T5 = Brine Temperature
CALCULATION:-
(1) For Initial Time Period:
(a) C.O.P (Carnot) =
= 25 / (77.6-25)
= 0.475
(b) C.O.P (Theoretical) =
=(412.44 – 194.68) / (429.20 – 412.44)
= 13.339
(c)
But,
Q = mwcpw(Ti-Tf) / Time Duration or interval
11
= 14 x 4.187 x (308.5 – 296.6) / 5

= 139.511
And, W = n x 3600 / t x energy meter contt.
= 1060 x 3600 / 5 x 1500
= 508.8
Thus, C.O.P (actual) = Q / W
= 139.511 / 508.8
= 0.2742
Thus, C.O.P (Relative) = C.O.P (actual) / C.O.P (Theoretical)
= 0.2742 / 13.339
= 0.02055
Conclusion:-
By this experiment we studied the working and performance of vapor refrigeration system
The COP of the system varies as:-
C.O.P (Theoretical)> C.O.P (Carnot)> C.O.P (actual)> C.O.P (relative)
References:-
[1] [1] “Refrigeration and Air-conditioning”, P L Ballaney
[2] “Air Conditioning”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioning
[3] “How Conditioner Works”,http://home.howstuffworks.com/ac3.htm
[4] “REFRIGERATION CYCLE”,http://www.ignou.ac.in/upload/Unit%202-32.pdf
SIGNATURE
12
 EXPERIMENT NO: 2
Aim: - To Study VAR system
13
 Introduction:-
The term ‘refrigeration’may be defined as the process of removing heat from a substance
under controlled conditions. It also includes the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature
of a body below the general temperature of its surroundings. In other words, the refrigeration means a
continued extraction of heat from a body whose temperature is already below temperature of its
surroundings.
The vapor absorption refrigeration is heat operated system. It is quite similar to the vapor
compression system.In this compressor in a vapor compression system were replaced with a
generator isabsorber assembly the result would be a simple absorption system. In both the systems,
there are evaporator and condenser. The process of evaporation and condensation of the refrigerant
takes place at two different pressure levels to achieve refrigeration in both the cases. The method
employed to create the two pressure levels in the system for evaporation and condensation of the
refrigeration makes the two processes different. Circulation of refrigerant in both the cases is also
different.
In the vapor absorption refrigeration system only pump is moving part so its operation is
very easy with minimum noise.Vapor absorption refrigeration system usually design to use solar
energy as well as the steam at high pressure or low pressure. Load variation doesn’t affect the
performance of vapor absorption refrigeration system.Vapor absorption refrigeration system can be
built easily by capacity of above thousand tons of refrigeration.
 Theory:-
This type of refrigeration is usually used for domestic purposes only as it is complexin the
construction and working. This type of refrigerator was developed in 1925 bymunters and Battzervan
when they were studying at Royal Institute of TechnologyAt Stockholm for their undergraduate
course. This type of refrigerator was knownas three fluid refrigeration system. The elimination of
aqua pump from theabsorption system with the complete absence of moving parts and work input.
Themain purpose of removing the pump was to make the machine noiseless.
It usesrefrigerant as a solvent s and an inlet gas for inlet of the system. The inert gas
iscontinued to the lower side of system only by its system. It is possible to maintainthe uniform
pressure throughout the system and after sometime permitting therefrigerant to evaporator at low
temperature corresponding to its partial pressure.In the high pressure side system (generator and
condenser), there exists only therefrigerant which is subjected to total pressure of the system so that it
iscondensed by using normal cooling water as air as it is done in other system.In lower side of the
system, the total pressure is sum of the partial pressure ofhydrogen which is used as an inert gas. The
liquid ammonia which comes into theevaporator as the partial pressure of ammonia is low.
The strong aqua ammonia solution is heated in generator by the application ofexternal heat
source. The water vapour carried with ammonia vapour is removed. Then the dry ammonia vapour is
passed into thecondenser and it is condensed by using external cooling source. The liquid
ammoniaflows under gravity in the evaporator and it evaporates.
14
The mixture of hydrogenand ammonia vapour is passed into the absorber and the weak
solution from aquaammonia from the separator is allowed to follow into the absorber, through tray
thisweak aqua ammonia solution comes into contact with hydrogen separated. This strongsolution is
further passed to the generator and it completes the cycle. There is no pump to create the pressure
differential between condenser andevaporator or not an expansion valve.The hydrogen returns to the
evaporator having no affinity for the absorbent.
Thehydrogen is held in this condition by the V tube due to small pressure difference inthe
system. The solution is circulated through absorber and generated by thermalaction alone. The paths
are so arranged that the liquid refrigerant flows throughevaporator by gravity, only care is to be taken
to keep hydrogen isolated in theproper part of the system otherwise pressure will be unbalanced and
the machinewill stop.
 Construction:-
Vapor absorption refrigeration system is consist of different parts are absorber, generator,
pump, condenser, pressure reducing valve, expansion valve, evaporator. Function of it parts as
follow:
 Absorber:-
The NH3 vapor from evaporator is enter into absorber where it is absorbed by the water
so that the solution formed in absorber by the water so that the solution formed in absorber is
said to strong solution. In absorber water is filled and provided cooling coil.
Fig-1Absorber
 Generator:-
15
Fig -2Generator
The strong solution from absorber is entering into generator with help of pump. In
generator, heat is supplied from external source so that NH3 vapor is separated from the mixture.
The hot water is come back into absorber through pressure reducing valve.
 Pump:-
When the absorbent absorbs the refrigerant strong solution of refrigerant-absorbent (ammonia-
water) is formed. This solution is pumped by the pump at high pressure to the generator. Thus
pump increases the pressure of the solution to about 10bar.
Fig-3Pump
 Condenser:-
Fig: 4Condensers
The condenser or cooler consists of pipe in which refrigerant is come in to

condenser,Functionof condenser is converts the high temperatureand high pressure vapor
refrigerant to low temperatureand high pressure liquid refrigerant. It means reject the heat.
 Expansion devise OR Throttling valve:-
Capillary tube and throttling valve used as expansion devise.The basic function of
expansion devise or throttling valve is to converts thelowtemperature and high pressure liquid
refrigerant to low temperature and low pressure liquid refrigerant. It means reduce the
pressure.
16
Fig: 5 Expansion devise
 Evaporator:-
Evaporator is removes heat of the circulating refrigerant. In evaporator refrigerant

at low temperature and lowpressure liquid refrigerant in to low temperature andlowpressure
vapor. Inevaporating the liquid vapour refrigerant absorbs the latent heat of vaporisation from
the mediumwhichis to be cooled.
Fig: 6Evaporator
 Procedure:-
The NH3 vapor from evaporator is entering in to absorber where it is absorbed by water so
that the solution formed in absorber is known as strong solution. In absorber water is filled and by its
properties water is absorb the refrigerant. Some cooling arrangement are provided into absorber so
that when hot water come back into absorber its necessary to remove the generated and it is increase
the ammonia absorption capacity of water.
The strong solution from absorber is entering into generator with help of pump. The pump
is increase the pressure of the solution. In generator, heat is supplied from external source so that
NH3 vapor is separated from the mixture. Now remaining hot water in generator is enter into the
absorber through pressure reducing valve.
17
Then after water particles are removed in the NH3 vapor by rectifier.The condenser liquid
refrigerant from the condenser is stored in a vessel known asreceiver from where it is supplied to
evaporator through expansion valve orrefrigeration control valve.
Now NH3 vapor, which is weak solution from mixture is enter into the condenser.The
condenser or cooler consists of pipe in which the high pressure and high temperature vapour
refrigerant is cooled and condensed and convert into the low temperature and high pressure liquid
refrigerant. The refrigerant while passing through the condenser gives up heat to the surrounding
which consists of condensing medium which is normally air or water.
It is also called as throttle valve and its use is to allow the refrigerant under low
temperature and high pressure liquid refrigerant to pass at controlled rate after reducing its low
temperature and pressure some of the refrigerant evaporates as it passes throughthe expansion valve
and the graded portion is vaporized in the evaporator at lowtemperature and pressure.
It consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid refrigerant at low pressure andtemperature is
evaporated and changed to the vapour refrigerant at low temperature and pressure. In evaporating the
liquid vapour refrigerant absorb thelatent heat of vaporisations from the medium which is to be
cooled.
Fig-7VAR cycle
18
 Observation Table:For capillary tube,
Here,
T₁= Inlet Temperature of compressor.(℃)
T₂= Outlet temperature of compressor.(℃)
T₃= Outlet temperature of condenser.(℃)
T₄= Outlet temperature of expansion device.(℃)
T₅= Brine temperature.(℃)
Calculation:-
Here, For reading 1,
H1=358.37KJ/Kg.
H2=382.90KJ/Kg.
H4=166.07KJ/Kg.
H1−H4
COP(theoretical) =
H2−H1
358.37−166.07
=
382.9−358.37
=7.83
RE
COP(actual) =
WD
19
mCp(T₅−T₄)
=
(H2−H1)
4.18(37.3−22.4)
=
(382.9−358.37)
= 2.53
COP(actual)
COP(relative) =
COP(theoritical)
2.53
=
7.83
= 0.32
Fig.4 Pressure Vs COP graph.
20
Conclusion:-
From this practical, we learnt about the construction, working and calculation of different values
through Vapor absorption Refrigeration system.
Result:-
We study the VAR system.
References:-
(1)Refrigeration and Air-conditioning-P L Ballaney.

(2) Vapor absorption refrigeration system-en.wikipedia.org
(3)VAR system component-Google image.
(4) Refrigeration and Air-conditioning-Lab Manual
21
Aim: - Performance Test On A Single Cylinder Diesel Engine Test Rig.
22
Theory::
Heat engine is a machine for converting heat, developed by burning fuel into useful work.
It can be said that heat engine is equipment which generates thermal energy and transforms it
into mechanical energy.
 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES:
 Based on combustion of fuel:
i) External Combustion Engine:
In this type of engine the combustion of fuel takes place outside the cylinder. These types of
engines are used to locomotives, ships etc. In locomotive steam is produced by the combustion of fuel and
this steam is used to move a piston in a cylinder.
ii) Internal Combustion Engine:

In this type of engine the combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder. Examples of these
types of engines are gas engines, petrol engines and diesel engines. In these engines the mixtures of gases
and air or fuel and air enters the cylinder.
 Based ignition of fuel:
i) Spark ignition engine :
It is a process that uses an electrical field induced in a magneto or coil. The field builds to many thousands of volts and then is
collapsed via a timed circuit. The resulting surge of current travels along a wire and terminates at the spark plug inside the
combustion chamber. An electrical spark occurs as the charge tries to jump the precision gap at the tip of the spark plug at exactly
the moment a precisely metered mixture of fuel and air has been thoroughly compressed in the combustion chamber. The
resulting controlled explosion delivers the power to turn the reciprocating mass inside the engine.
ii)Compression ignition engine :
The concept behind compression ignition involves using the latent heat built up by highly compressing air inside a combustion
chamber as the means for igniting fuel.
 Based on fuel used:
i)Diesel engine:Diesel is used as fuel
ii)Petrol engine:Petrol is used as fuel
iii)Gas engines:propane, butane or methane gases are used.
23
 Based on working cycle:
i)Four stroke cycle engine:When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft, it
is called four stroke cycle engine.
ii)Two stroke cycle engine:When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft, it is
called two stroke cycle engine.
i)Four stroke cycle engine:
The operation is as follows -
1. Intake Stroke -
The inlet valve is opened and the fuel/air mixture is drawn in as the piston travels down.
2. Compression Stroke –
The inlet valve is closed and the piston travels back up the cylinder compressing the fuel/air
mixture. Just before piston reaches the top of its compression stroke a spark plug emits a spark to combust
the fuel/air mixture. The number of degrees before the top its stroke is the ignition advance. When the
piston is at the top of its travel it is at top dead centre (TDC).
3. Power Stroke –
The piston is now forced down by the pressure wave of the combustion of the fuel air mixture.
The engines power is derived from this stroke.
4. Exhaust Stroke –
The exhaust valve is opened and the piston travels back up expelling the exhaust gases through the
exhaust valve. At the top of this stroke the exhaust valve is closed. This process is then repeated.
The above is the cycle of operation of one cylinder of a 4-stroke engine. Generally engines have 2
or more cylinders acting in concert with each other to produce the engine power.
24
 Theory:
 Brake power:
2πNT
BP = KW
60×1000
Where,
N = brake speed, rpm.
T = torque, N.m.
= (L × 9.81) × 0.133 Nm.
 Fuel Consumption:
10 3600
FC = × × 0.78
tf 1000
28.08
= Kg/hr.
tf
25
 Specific Fuel Consuption:
FC
SFC = Kg/Kw hr.
BP
 Head supplied by fuel:
Hf =FC × 42630 KJ/hr.
 Indicated power:
IP = FP + BP KW.
 Heat equivalent to BP:
HBP = BP × 3600 KJ/hr.
 Heat equivalent to IP:
HIP = IP × 3600 KJ/hr.
 Efficiency:
Mechanical Efficiency:
BP
ηm = ×100%
IP
Brake thermal efficiency:
Heat in BP
ηBT =
Heat Supplied by fuel
ma
AFR = Indicated thermal efficiency:
fc
HIP
ηIT = × 100%
HBP
 Air consumption:
Air head across orifice,
hw
ha = 100(1000−ρa)
26
where, hw is in cm.
 Apparatus:Single cylinder Diesel Engine test rig.
 Procedure:
Fill up sufficient diesel in diesel tank.
Check oil level in the engine. It should be up to the top edge of the flat portion provided over the
oil dipstick. If oil level is reduced, add up clean SAE-40 oil to the crankcase by opening the
valve cover at the top of the engine. Replace the cover after filling the oil.
Fill up water in manometer upto half of the manometer height.
Start the water supply and see that water is flowing throe engine jacket, brake drum and exhaust
gas calorimeter. Put off the water in the brake drum.
If diesel tank is empty before filling the diesel, remove air bubbles in fuel pipe by opening the
vent screw provided at the right side, top of the fuel pump.
Release the loading screw so that there is no tension in the rope.
Lift up decompression lever, at the side of valve cover. Put the handle over starting shaft. As
engine picks up sufficient speed, drop the decompression lever. The engine will start remove the
handle immediately.
As engine picks up speed, start the water to the brake drum.
Load the engine with loading screw, and set the spring balance difference to, say 2kgs.
Open burette filling cock, take sufficient diesel in burette and close the cock.
Now, turn selector cock to ‘BURETTE’ position and note down time required formal fuel
consumption.
Note down brake drum speed with tachometer and manometer difference.
Note down cooling water and calorimeter water flow rate.
Note down the temperatures from the channels 1 to 5.
Repeat the procedure for different laods, say 4kg, 6kg etc, and complete observation table.
27
 Observation Table:
 Calculation: For 2Kg load.
 Brake power:
2πNT
BP = KW
60×1000
T = torque, N.m.
= (L × 9.81) × 0.133 Nm.
= (2 × 9.81) × 0.133 Nm.
= 2.6094 Nm.
2π×1490×2.6094
BP = KW
60×1000
= 0.4071 KW.
28
 Fuel Consumption:
10 3600
FC = × × 0.78
tf 1000
28.08
= Kg/hr.
tf
28.08
= Kg/hr.
42
= 0.668Kg hr.
 Specific Fuel Consuption:
FC
SFC = Kg/Kw hr.
BP
0.668
= Kg/Kw hr.
0.4071
= 1.64 Kg/Kw hr.
 Head supplied by fuel:
Hf =FC × 42630 KJ/hr.
=0.668 × 42630 KJ/hr.
= 28988.4 KJ/hr.
 FC Vs BP Graph:
By this Graph, we find the FP.
FP = 3.16KW
The graph of FC vs BP is shown below,
29
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
FC
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
BP
Indicated power:
IP = FP + BP KW.
= 3.15 + 0.4071 KW.
= 3.5571 KW.
 Heat equivalent to BP:
HBP = BP × 3600 KJ/hr.
= 0.4071 × 3600 KJ/hr.
= 1465.56 KJ/hr.
30
 Heat equivalent to IP:
HIP = IP × 3600 KJ/hr.
= 3.5571 × 3600 KJ/hr.
= 12805.56 KJ/hr.
 Efficiency:
Mechanical Efficiency:
BP
ηm = ×100%
IP
0.4071
= ×100%
3.16
= 12.88
Brake thermal efficiency:
Heat in BP
ηBT = ×100%
Heat Supplied by fuel
1465.56
= ×100%
28988.4
= 5.05
Indicated thermal efficiency:
HIP
ηIT = × 100%
Hf
12805.56
= × 100%
28988.4
= 44.17
 Air consumption:
Air head across orifice,
hw
ha = 100(1000−ρa)
31
where, hw is in cm.
12.5
= (1000−1.90)
100
= 124.762Kg/m2 .
 Air fuel ratio:

ma
AFR =
fc
41.96
=
0.668
= 62.81.
 Conclusion:
By performing this practical, we find the efficiency of single cylinder diesel engine
which is 12.88%.
SIGNATURE
32
Aim: - To Study Psychometric Properties & Psychometric Chart
33
 INTRODUCTION: -
Atmospheric air makes up the environment in almost every type of air conditioning
system. Hence a thorough understanding of the properties of atmospheric air and the ability to
analyze various processes involving air is fundamental to air conditioning design.
Psychometric is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water
vapour.Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water vapour and a number of
pollutants. The amount of water vapour and pollutants vary from place to place. The
concentration of water vapour and pollutants decrease with altitude, and above an altitude of
about 10 km, atmospheric air consists of only dry air. The pollutants have to be filtered out
before processing the air. Hence, what we process is essentially a mixture of various gases that
constitute air and water vapour. This mixture is known as moist air.
The moist air can be thought of as a mixture of dry air and moisture. For all practical
purposes, the composition of dry air can be considered as constant. In 1949, a standard
composition of dry air was fixed by the International Joint Committee on psychometric data. It is
given in Table
Constituent Molecular weight Mol fraction

Oxygen 32.000 0.2095
Nitrogen 28.016 0.7809

Argon 39.944 0.0093
Carbon dioxide 44.010 0.0003
Based on the above composition the molecular weight of dry air is found to be 28.966
and the gas constant R is 287.035 J/kg.K.
As mentioned before the air to be processed in air conditioning systems is a mixture of
dry air and water vapour. While the composition of dry air is constant, the amount of water
vapour present in the air may vary from zero to a maximum depending upon the temperature and
pressure of the mixture (dry air + water vapour).
At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only hold a certain maximum amount
of moisture. When the moisture content is maximum, then the air is known as saturated air,
which is established by a neutral equilibrium between the moist air and the liquid or solid phases
of water.
For calculation purposes, the molecular weight of water vapour is taken as 18.015 and its
gas constant is 461.52 J/kg.K
34
Fig:- Atmospheric air
35
 THEORY: -
o What is psychrometry?
 It is a branch of air conditioning which deals with the study of properties of the moisture
air.
 Psychometric terms: -
 Dry air: It is a mixture of gases like hydrogen, carbon dioxide, xenon, oxygen etc.
 Moist air: It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour.
 Saturated air: It is defined as mixture of the dry air and water vapour when air has
diffused maximum amount of the water vapour into it.
 Specific humidity: It is defined as the mass of the water vapour present into 1kg of dry
air.
It is indicated by ‘w’.
w= (mv / ma) where, mv=mass of water
ma=mass of dry air
 Absolute humidity: It is defined as the mass of water vapour present into the 1m3 of dry
air.
 Relative humidity: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of the water vapour to the mass
of the saturated air.
It is indicated by ‘ɸ’
ɸ= (mv / ms) where, mv=mass of water
ms=mass of saturated air
 Degree of saturated: It is defined as the ratio of mass of the water vapour present into
the unit mass of the dry air to the mass of water vapour present into the unit mass of dry
air when air is saturated.
It is indicated by ‘µ’.
µ= [(mv / ma) / (mv / ma)*s]
 Dry bulb temp (td, tdp, DBT): It is defined as the temperature measured by the
thermometer when bulb of thermometer is not affected by moisture contents.
 Wet bulb temp (tw, twb, WBT): It is defined as when the bulb of the thermometer is
covered by wet at that time measured by thermometer.
 Wet bulb depression: It is defined as difference between the dry bulb temperature and
wet bulb temperature.
WBD= DBT-WBT
 Dew point temp (tdp): the temperature at which moisture present into the air start to
condense. It is tdp→pv
36
 Dew point depression: It is defined as the difference between the dry bulb temperature
and dew point temperature.
 psychometric relation:
 Specific humidity: It is defined as the mass of the water vapour present into 1kg of dry
air.
It is indicated by ‘w’.
w= (mv / ma) where, mv=mass of water
ma=mass of dry air
Assume that the water vapour and dry air behave like as perfect gas.
So that, according to the characteristic of the gas equation,
Pa Va = Ma Ra Ta for dry air
Pv Vv = Mv Rv Tv for water vapour
Where,
Pa= Pressure of the dry air
Va= Volume of the dry air
Ma= Mass of the dry air
Ra= Gas constant
Ta= Absolute temp of the dry air
Pv= Pressure of water vapour
Vv= Volume of water vapour
Mv= Mass of water vapour
Rv= Gas constant
Tv= Absolute temp of water vapour
→ Assume that,
Va =Vv,
Ta=Tv=Td
Ra= 0.287 kJ/kg*k

Rv= 0.461 kJ/kg*k
So,
w= (mv / ma)
w= [(Pv Vv) / (Rv Tv)] / [(Pa Va) / (Rv Tv)]
w= (Pv / Pa) * (Ra / Rv)
37
w= [Pv / (Pb-Pv)]*0.622 (Pb= Pv + Pa) (Pb= Berrometric pressure)
→ Specific humidity of saturation air

wmax = ws = 0.622*[Ps / (Pb-Ps)] (Ps= Saturated pressure)
 Degree of saturated: It is defined as the ratio of mass of the water vapour present into
the unit mass of the dry air to the mass of water vapour present into the unit mass of dry
air when air is saturated.
It is indicated by ‘µ’.
µ= [(mv / ma) / (mv / ma)*s]
= {0.622* [Pv / (Pb-Pv)]} / {0.622*[Ps / (Pb-Ps)]}
= (Pv/Ps)*[(Pb-Pv) / (Pb-Ps)]
 Relative humidity: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of the water vapour to the mass
of the saturated air.
It is indicated by ‘ɸ’
ɸ= (mv/ms) where, mv=mass of water

ms=mass of saturated air
Assume that the water vapour and dry air behave like as perfect gas.
So that, according to the characteristic of the gas equation,
Ps Vs = Ms Rs Ts for saturated air
Where,
Pa= Pressure of the dry air
Va= Volume of the dry air
Ma= Mass of the dry air
Ra= Gas constant
Ta= Absolute temp of the dry air
38
Ps= Pressure of saturated air

Vs= Volume of saturated air
Ms= Mass of saturated air
Rs= Gas constant
Ts= Absolute temp of saturated air
→ Assume that,
Va =Vv,
Ta=Ts=Td
Rv= Rs=0.461 kJ/kg*k
ɸ= (mv/ms)
= [(Pv Vv) / (Rv Tv)] / [(Ps Vs)/ (Rs Ts)]
= Pv/Ps
→ now, degree of saturated
µ= (Pv / Ps) * [(Pb - Pv) / (Pb - Ps)]
= ɸ[1 - (Ps / Pb)] / [1 - (Pv / Pb)]
= ɸ [1 - (Ps / Pb)] / [1 - ((Pv / Ps) * (Ps / Pb))]
= ɸ [1 - (Ps / Pb)] / [1 - (ɸ * (Ps / Pb))]
µ - [(µɸPs) / Pb] = ɸ - [(ɸPs) / Pb]
µ= ɸ - [(ɸPs) / Pb] + [(µɸPs) / Pb]
= ɸ - [(ɸPs) / Pb] * [1 - µ]
= ɸ * [1 - [1 - µ] * (Ps / Pb)]
ɸ= µ / [1 - [1 - µ] * (Ps / Pb)]
39
 Pressure of water vapour:

Pv= Pw - [(Pb - Pw) * (td - tw)] / [1544 - (1.44 * tw)]
Where,
Pw= Pressure of water vapour to (WBT)
td= DBT
tw= WBT
Pv= Corresponding to the dew point temp
 Vapour density: It is defined as the mass of the water vapour present into the 1m3 of the
dry air
ƍv= (w Pa) / (Ra Ta)
Here,
Mv= ƍv Vv for water vapour
Ma= ƍa Va for dry air
→ Assume that Vv= Va
So, w= Mv / Ma = (ƍv Vv) / (ƍa Va)

= ƍv / ƍa
ƍa= ƍv / w
→ from geometric of gas constant
Pa (Va / Ma) = Ra Ta
Pa (1 / ƍa) = Ra Ta
ƍa= Pa / (Ra Ta)
 Enthalpy Of moist air:
h= 1.022td + w(hfgdp + 2.3tdp) kJ
40
PSYCHOMETRIC CHART:-
It is the graphical representation of various thermodynamic properties of the conditional
air. In this chart DBT lines are taken on horizontal co-ordinates & specific humidity on vertical
co-ordinates.
 DBT line: These lines are vertical line and parallel to vertical co-ordinates with
uniformly spacing between the ranges of -5̊C to 55̊C.
41
 Sp. humidity: This lines are horizontal & parallel to horizontal co-ordinates uniformly
speed ranges 0 to 30 g/kg of dry air.
 Dew point temp: These are horizontal parallel to horizontal co-ordinates draw up to
saturation curve.
 Wet bulb temp: These lines are inclined with non-uniform up to the saturation curve.
42
 Sp. volume line: These line are obliquely inclined straight lines with uniform spaced.
 Enthalpy line: These lines are straight inclined line which are parallel to the wet bulb
temp diff some of this lines are coincided with the wet bulb temp line as its value read
above from saturation curve.
 Vapour pressure line: Horizontal parallel to horizontal co-ordinate generally not drawn
on chart but its scale is given at left side of chart.
 Relative humidity line: These lines are curvature line follows the saturation curve. It is
drawn with a value of 10%, 20%, 100% saturation curve represent the 100% relative
humidity.
 APPLICATION:-
 HVAC system animal, plant, human comfort

 Air conditioning system
43
 Cooling tower
 Food Science & Engineer
 Animal housing
SIGNATURE
44
AIM:TO STUDY WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER.
45
 Introduction: This is also known as room air conditioner as it is also known as

window air conditioner. There units are designed for the delivery of cool (or warm)
conditioned air to room. Each unit includes a prime source of refrigeration,
dehumidification and means of circulating and cleaning air. The basic function of a room
air conditioner is to provide conform cooling, dehumidification, filtering and circulating
the room air. It may also provide ventilation by introducing outside air into the room and
exhausting room air to the outside. Comfort may be provided by controlling the room
temperature through selection of the desired thermostat setting.
 Theory: The heat form the warm room air vaporized the cool liquid flowing through
the evaporator.Thevapors then carry the heat to the compressor which compresses the
vapor and increase its temperature the value higher than the temperature of outdoor air. In
the condenser the hot refrigerant vapor liquefies and gives up heat from the room air to
the outside air. The high pressure liquid refrigerant passing through a restricted, which
reduces its pressure and temperature? The cold refrigerant then re-enter the evaporator to
repeat this refrigeration cycle
 Basic Refrigeration Cycle
Fig 1.1 Basic Refrigeration cycle
• Principles of Refrigeration
• Liquids absorb heat when changed from liquid to gas
46
• Gases give off heat when changed from gas to liquid.
• For an air conditioning system to operate with economy, the refrigerant must be used
repeatedly. For this reason, all air conditioners use the same cycle of compression,
condensation, expansion, and evaporation in a closed circuit. The same refrigerant is used to
move the heat from one area, to cool this area, and to expel this heat in another area.
• The refrigerant comes into the compressor as a low-pressure gas, it is compressed and then
moves out of the compressor as a high-pressure gas.
• The gas then flows to the condenser. Here the gas condenses to a liquid, and gives off its heat
to the outside air.
• The liquid then moves to the expansion valve under high pressure. This valve restricts the
flow of the fluid, and lowers its pressure as it leaves the expansion valve.
• The low-pressure liquid then moves to the evaporator, where heat from the inside air is
absorbed and changes it from a liquid to a gas.
• As a hot low-pressure gas, the refrigerant moves to the compressor where the entire cycle is
repeated.
Fig 1.2Pictorial view of window air conditioner
Note that the four-part cycle is divided at the center into a high side and a low side This
refers to the pressures of the refrigerant in each side of the system.
 Essential components:The essential components are given below:

• Compressor
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• Condenser
• Evaporator
• Blower
• Expansion Device
• Construction:
Fig 1.3
• Compressor: A hermitically type compressor is one in which the compressor and
motor are integral on one shaft and they are both contained in pressure sealed
housing. Hermetic- type compressor are manufactured either by fully hermetic or
semi hermetic. The hermetic compressor has a sealed welded housing.
48
Fig 1.4Rotary vane Compressor
• Condenser: In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used

to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. In
so doing, the latent heat is given up by the substance, and will transfer to the
condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers which
Fig 1.5
have various designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather small (hand-held)
to very large industrial-scale units used in plant processes.
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Fig 1.6 Condenser
• Evaporator: An evaporator is used in an air-conditioning system to allow a

compressed cooling chemical, such as R-22 or R-410A, to evaporate from liquid to
gas while absorbing heat in the process. It can also be used to remove water or other
liquids from mixtures. The solution containing the desired product is fed into the
evaporator and passes across a heat source. The applied heat converts the water in the
solution into vapor. The vapor is removed from the rest of the solution and is
condensed while the now-concentrated solution is either fed into a second evaporator
or is removed.
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Fig 1.7Evaporator
 Blower: An air conditioning blower moves that air around for ventilation to each air duct
and vent, as well as helps control the air conditioning temperature. If your air conditioner
is not emitting enough cool air, or if weak air flow is coming from your vents, your air
conditioner blower may need to be repaired or replaced. If your air conditioner's blower
isn't working properly, dirt may be to blame; therefore, it’s essential to have your air
conditioner serviced regularly to make sure the blower stays clean.
Fig 1.8Blower
• Expansion Device: The expansion valve removes pressure from the liquid
refrigerant to allow expansion or change of state from a liquid to a vapor in the
evaporator.
The high-pressure liquid refrigerant entering the expansion valve is quite warm. This may be
verified by feeling the liquid line at its connection to the expansion valve. The liquid
refrigerant leaving the expansion valve is quite cold. The orifice within the valve does not
remove heat, but only reduces pressure. Heat molecules contained in the liquid refrigerant are
thus allowed to spread as the refrigerant moves out of the orifice. Under a greatly reduced
pressure the liquid refrigerant is at its coldest as it leaves the expansion valve and enters the
evaporator
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Fig 1.9Expansion Device
 Working:
• You can compare your air conditioner with a refrigerator, it is basically the same, but the
A.C. has no the insulated box. It can be also compared with the fridge, because it works
exactly in the same way. It removes the heat from the controlled place and dumps it
outside and not in your kitchen like the fridge. To better understand how your air
conditioning system works we will start from the place when the "Freon" gas comes into
the compressor which is typically located in that part of the unit, which is outside.
• Just when the Refrigerant gas goes into the compressor, it compresses the Freon gas that
has just taken warmth from air that was indoors, and makes it extremely hot. Do you have
a bicycle? We can compare it with that near the end of a bicycle pump when you push the
handle down. The air that was compressed into the end of the pump will become hot,
because all the warmth that the air contained inside is compressed into the place that is
many times smaller than where it just was. Now this hot Freon gas goes through a set of
coils outside where a fan blows on it to cool the gas with high temperature, so that a large
part of this concentrated heat is removed from it.
• Then the unit that is outside (radiator) cools this hot vapor and it turns into a liquid. It is
similar to the process when steam condenses into water when it loses its warmth. This
Freon liquid with high pressure now has had a lot of its original heat, and then is pulled
back into the house where it waits for its turn to pass through a tiny opening that is the
entrance to the indoor coil that sits within your home's air stream.
• It allows the compressor to maintain a low pressure side within the indoor coil that is in
your home's air stream due to the use of this little opening to "back-up" the pressure on
52
the outdoor part of the system. Then the gas with high pressure finally goes into this
place with low pressure, at that moment the difference in pressure makes the part of it to
expand into a gas immediately. You can compare it with the reverse process of the
compressor working, because now the cool Freon gas occupies a bigger area, than before,
so the heat that was left in it now has to spread itself out over its bigger size.
• It has to become quite cold quickly, because it is necessary to use its limited warmth over
a now bigger gas molecule, so that as it goes through the indoor coil, the air going over
this coil (the radiator effect again) is cooled and then spread through your house by the
duct work of your home. At that time the warmth that was taken out of your home's air,
has reached the hot Freon gas so that when it returns to the compressor then the whole
process repeats itself.
Room Sensible Heat Factor - RSHF
The Room Sensible Heat Factor - RSHF - is defined as the sensible heat load in the room
divided by the total heat load in room
The Room Sensible Heat Factor - RSHF - expresses the ratio between sensible heat load and
total heat load in the room. It can be expressed as:
RSHF = Qsr / Qtr (1)
where
RSHF = room sensible heat factor
Qsr = sensible heat load in the room (kW, Btu/hr)
Qtr = total heat load in the room (kW, Btu/hr)
(1) can be modified to:
RSHF = cp (tr - ti) / (hr - hi) (2)
where
cp = specific heat capacity of air (kJ/kg.oC)
tr = room temperature (oC)
ti = inlet temperature (oC)
53
hr = room enthalpy (kJ/kg)
hi = inlet enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Example - Room Sensible Heat Factor - RSHF
The sensible heat generation in a room is 4 kW. The latent heat generation is 1.4 kW.
The Room Sensible Heat Factor can be calculated as:
RSHF = (4 kW) / ((4 kW) + (1.4 kW))= 0.75
Great Sensible Heat Factor - GSHF
heat The Great Sensible Heat Factor is the ratio between the sensible and total for a cooling
coil
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A cooling coil should have the capacity to handle the heat load generated in the room in addition
the capacity to cool down the fresh make up air. The Great Sensible Factor is independent of
the total air flow and can be expressed as
GSHF = [Qs + mf cp (tf - tr)] / [Qt + mf (hf - hr)] (1)
where
GSHF = Great Sensible Heat Factor
Qs = sensible heat generated in the room (kW)
mf = fresh air mass flow (make up air) (kg/s)
cp = specific heat capacity of air (kg/kg.oC)
tf = temperature in fresh air (oC)
tr = temperature in room air (oC)
Qt = total heat generated in the room (kW)
hf = specific enthalpy of fresh air (kJ/kg.oC)
54
hr = specific enthalpy of air in the room (kJ/kg.oC)
Example - Great Sensible Heat Factor - GSHF
The sensible heat generation in a room is 4 kW and the latent heat generated is 1.4 kW. The room
is cooled with an air flow of 1000 kg/h.
The fresh (out door) air temperature is 28oC with a specific enthalpy of 60 kJ/kg and a specific
humidity of 12.7 g/kg.
The room temperature is 22oC with a specific enthalpy of 45 kJ/kg and a specific humidity of 9.1
g/kg.
The Great Sensible Heat Factor can be calculated like
GSHF = [(4000 W) + (1000 kg/h)(1/3600 s/h)(1000 J/kgoC)(28oC - 22oC)] / [(4000 W + 1400

W) + (1000 kg/h)(1/3600 s/h)(60000 J/kg - 45000 J/kg)]= 0.59
 Result: The experiment of window air conditioner has been done.
 Conclusion: In this practical of window air conditioner I conclude the Air conditioner
is work base on heat exchanger law, Thermodynamics laws.
 Reference:
• http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/building_construction/hvac/ventilation/refrige
ration_compressors_air_conditioning_compressors
SIGNATURE
55
Aim :To study about ice plant
56
 Introduction:
The physical process whereby heat is removed from substance resulting in decrease in the
temperature or keeping it constant is known as cooling. The process can be performed in two
ways: naturally by utilizing medium of a temperature lower than temperature of substance to be
cooled and artificially by utilizing thermodynamics process of working medium producing low
temperature, mainly in a closed cycle.
The term ‘refrigeration’may be defined as the process of removing heat from a substance
under controlled conditions. It also includes the process of reducing and maintaining the
temperature of a body below the general temperature of its surroundings. In other words, the
refrigeration means a continued extraction of heat from a body whose temperature is already
below temperature of its surroundings. In a refrigerator, heat is virtually pumped from a lower
temperature to a higher temperature.
According to Second Law of Thermodynamics, this process can only be performed with
the aid of some external work. It is thus obvious that supply of power is regularly required to
drive a refrigerator. Theoretically, a refrigerator is a reversed heat engine or a heat pump which
pumps heat from a cold body and delivers it to a hot body. The substance which works in a pump
to extract heat from a cold body and to deliver it to a hot body is known as refrigerant.
 Theory:
CE manufacture is used for producing refrigerationeffect to freeze potable water in
standard cansplaced in rectangular tank which is filled by brine. Agood definition of refrigeration
is the removal of heatenergy so that a space or material is colder than itssurroundings.
An ice plant based on same principleas a simple refrigeration system. An ice plant
containsvarious parts such as compressor, condenser, receiver,expansion valve, evaporator and
refrigerationIaccumulator. A refrigeration is always been a greatdeal for human being and play a
vital role in preservingfood , chemical, medicine, fisheries and providingappropriate temperature
in working Entity of anyindustry.
Refrigeration in the coming years becomesvery essential deal for drastic development of
theindustrial sector.
In system main four components are,

1) Compressor
2) Condenser
3) Expansion devise OR Throttling valve
4) Evaporator
 Compressor: It is a steady flow machine. The function ofcompressor is to Convert the

low temperature and low pressure refrigerant Into high temperature and highpressure
vapor refrigerant.
57
 Condenser: When Compressor refrigerant is come in to condenser,Functionof condenser

is converts the high temperatureand high pressure vapor refrigerant to low
temperatureand high pressure liquid refrigerant. It means reject the heat.
 Expansion devise OR Throttling valve: Capillary tube and throttling valve used as
expansion devise.The basic function of expansion devise or throttling valve is to converts
thelow temperature and high pressure liquid refrigerant to low temperature and low
pressure liquid refrigerant. It means reduce the pressure.
 Evaporator: Evaporator is removes heat of the circulating refrigerant In

evaporatorrefrigerant at low temperature and low pressure liquid refrigerant in to low
temperature andlow pressure vapor refrigerant.
 Apparatus:
In the study of an ice plant the componentsgenerally used are viz. compressor, oil
separator,condenser, receiver, drier, expansion valve,evaporator, chilling Tank, refrigerant
accumulator andpressure gauge.
 Construction:-
The components are,

 Compressor: -
A refrigerating compressor, as the name indicates, isa machine used to compress the
vapour refrigerantfrom the evaporator and to raise its pressure so thatthe corresponding
saturation is higher than that of thecooling medium. It also continually circulates therefrigerant
through the refrigerating system. Since thecompression of refrigerant requires some work to
bedone on it, therefore a compressor must be driven bysome prime mover. In other words the
purpose ofthe compressor in the vapour compression cycle is tocompress the low-pressure dry
gas from theevaporator and raise its pressure to that of thecondenser. Compressors may be
divided into twotypes, positive displacement and dynamic, as shownbelow.
Positive displacement types compress discretevolumes of low-pressure gas by physically

reducingthe volumes causing a pressure increase, whereasdynamic types raise the velocity of the
low-pressuregas and subsequently reduce it in a way which causesa pressure increase.Ammonia
compressor is the heart of refrigerationplants like Ice plants.
Three types of Ammonia basedrefrigeration compressors available in India are,

a)Reciprocal, b) Screw and c) Rotary type. Reciprocaland screw type ammonia compressors are
widely usedin India in all types and size of Refrigeration plantsand cold storages. There are
many types ofcompressors used in an ice plant industries dependingupon its capacity. The
58
compressor used in this modelis hermitically sealed reciprocating compressorcapacity of 240

BTU (1/5 TN). The hermitically sealedcompressor is discussed in details ahead.
Fig:8.1 Compressor
 Condenser:
The condenser is an important device used in the highpressure side of a refrigeration
system. Its function isto remove heat of hot vapour refrigerant discharge from the compressor.
The hot vapour consists of the heatabsorbed by the evaporator and the heat ofcompression added
by the mechanical energy ofcompressor motor. The heat from the hot vapourrefrigerant in a
condenser is removed first bytransferring it to the walls of the condensers tubesand then from the
tubes to the condensing or coolingmedium.
The high temperature, high pressure ammonia vapour is condensed in a condenser which
may be ofshell and tube type or evaporative type. The selectionof the condenser depends of the
capacity of therefrigerating system, the type of refrigerant used andthe type of cooling medium
available. Generally thecondensers used are water cooled condensers (thewater cooled
condensers are further divided into wastewater and re-circulated water system type)
andevaporating condensers. In this model forced aircooled condenser is used as shown in figure
below:
59
Fig: 8.2 Condensers
 Filter drier:
The function of filter dryer is to remove any physicalmaterial from compressor’s wear and
tear, and removeany moisture presence within an air conditioningsystem. The Drier is made up
of a metal outer containerand inside there is a desiccant (moisture removalmaterial) and strainer.
Refrigerant passes through thedrier and give up any moisture as well as any unwantedmatter.
The main job of the drier is to protect themetering device from clogging either by Ice
(moisture)or blockage by particles.
It is not uncommon fordriers and filters to block due to their nature of pickingup unwanted
agents - evidence of this can be seen byfrost build up. Filtering process is achieved bymechanical
action of partitioning the flow. Particleswill be trapped, whilst the refrigerant flow will
bemaintained. These desiccants can be of two types,viz. absorbent and adsorbent type. In this
modeladsorbent type filter drier is used which is definedahead.
 Expansion Devices:
The expansion device (also known as metric deviceor throttling device) is an important
device that dividesthe high pressure side and the low pressure side of arefrigerating system. It is
connected the receiver(containing liquid vapour at high pressure) and theevaporator (containing
liquid refrigerant at lowpressure). The expansion device performs thefollowing functions like to
reduce the high pressureliquid refrigerant to low pressure liquid refrigerantbefore being fed to
the evaporator and to maintainthe desire pressure difference between the high andlow pressure
side of the system, so that the liquidrefrigerant vaporizes at the designed pressure in
theevaporator. There are many types of expansiondevices used viz. capillary tubes, automatic
orconstant-pressure expansion valve, low side floatvalve, high side float valve and thermostatic
expansionvalve in an ice plant industry depending upon itscapacity. In this model the capillary
tube type
expansion devise is used which is discussed in details.
Fig:8.3 Expansion Devices
60
 Evaporator:
The evaporator is an important device used in the low pressure side of the refrigeration
system. The liquid refrigerant from the expansion valve enters into the evaporator where its boil
and change into vapour. The function of the evaporator is to absorb heat from the surrounding
location or medium which is to be cooled, by mean of a refrigerant. The temperature of the
boiling refrigerant in the evaporator must always be less than that of the surrounding medium
so that heat flows to the refrigerant. The evaporator becomes cold and remains cold due to the
following two reasons:
 The temperature of the evaporation coil is low due to the low temperature of the
refrigerant
inside the coil.
 The low temperature of the refrigerant remains unchanged because any heat it absorbs is
converted to latent heat as boiling proceeds.
The liquid refrigerant at low pressure enters theevaporator at point 6, as shown in figure, as
the liquidrefrigerant passes through the evaporator coil, itcontinuously absorb heat through the
coil walls,medium to be cooled. During this, the refrigerantcontinues to boil and evaporate.
Finally at point 1’,the entire liquid refrigerant has evaporated and onlyvapours refrigerant
remains in the evaporator coil. Theliquid refrigerant’s ability to convert absorbed heat tolatent
heat is now used up. Since the vapour refrigerant at point 1’ is still colderthan the medium being
cooled, therefore the vapourrefrigerant continues to absorb heat. This heatabsorption cause an
increase in the sensible heat (ortemperature) of the vapour refrigerant.
The vapourtemperature continues to rise until the vapourleaves the evaporator to the suction
line at point 1. Atthis point the temperature of the vapour is abovethe saturation temperature and
the vapourrefrigerant is superheat. There are many typesof evaporators used in an ice plant
industrydepending upon their capacities. In this project the bare tube coil evaporator is used
which is discussed
61
Fig8.4 : Evaporator
 Chilling Tank:
The main components of chilling tank are viz.ice tank,insulation of ice tank and ice
block. Ice tanks aremade of such material as wood, steel or concrete. Aswooden tanks do not
last long enough and are liableto leak, they should preferably be made of steel wellcoated
with waterproof paint. Tanks made of reinforcedconcrete are also recommended as
superiorto those of wood. The ice tank contains the directexpansion coils, equally distributed
throughout thetank and these coils are submerged in brine. The tankis provided with a
suitable frame of hard wood forsupport the ice cans and a propeller or agitator forkeeping
the brine in motion: the brine in the tank actsas a medium of contact only, the ammonia
evaporatingin the ice coils extracts the heat from the brine,which again absorbs the heat for
the water in the cans.
The tank itself should not be much larger than is necessaryto hold the cans, the coils, and
the agitator.Insulation of the ice tank is accomplished by usingtwelve to eighteen inches of
good insulating materialon each of the sides and not less than twelve inchesunder the bottom.
Commercial sizes of Ice cans varywith the weight of ice cakes required. The cans aremade to
contain about 5% more than their ratedcapacity to compensate for thawing
 Working of an Ice Plant:-

In ice plant the tanks are filled with chilled brine. Thebrine solution is kept in constant
motion by agitatorsfor increasing the heat transfer from the water in thecan to the chilled brine.
The agitators may be eitherhorizontal or vertical and are operated by means ofelectric motors
.The brine temperature is maintainedby the refrigeration plant at -10º C to -11ºc.
62
Fig8.5 :Layout of Ice Plant
The high temperature, high pressure ammonia vapours are condensed in a condenser
which may be of shell and tube type or evaporative type. The condensed liquid ammonia is
collected in the receiver and then expanded through the expansion valve. Due to the expansion,
the pressure of the liquid ammonia is considerably reduced It then passes through the
evaporator coils surrounding a brine tank in which brine solution is filled. The low pressure
liquid ammonia absorbs heat from the brine the brine solution, equivalent to its latent heat of
vaporization, gets converted to vapour state and is once again fed to compressor to complete
the cycle.
The depth of brine tank is such that the brine level is around 25 mm higher than the water
level in the cans. The Tank is insulated on all the four sides and from the bottom. The insulated
wooden lids are provided to cover the top in segments, to facilitate the removal of ice cans. The
ice cans are fabricated from galvanized steel sheets and are given chromium treatment to
prevent corrosion.
In order to get transparent ice, water in the can is agitated by the use of low pressure air
through the tubes suspended from the top. Due to agitation, the dissolved impurities such as
salt, even colours get collected in the unfrozen water core. It is desirable that it should be taken
out and replaced with fresh water.
63
 Observation Table:-
Sr Time
V I P T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
No Inter P1 LPH P2
(volt) (amp) (W) (◦C) (◦C) (◦C) (◦C) (◦C)
. val’s
1. 9:30 2.8 16 13.8 255 2.7 1077 26.3 55.9 43.5 -6.3 25.4
2. 10:30 2 10 18 246 2.4 950 13.8 91.4 34.7 -2.8 9.4
3. 11:30 1.3 6.2 15 246 2.2 873 8.8 88.7 32.1 -9.5 0.7
4. 12:30 0.7 0 13.6 262 2.4 991 5 80.9 32.8 -15.4 -6.7
5. 1:30 0.5 0 13.8 260 2.4 950 2.3 11.3 33.6 -15.6 -13.7
6. 2:30 0 13 262 2.4 935 2.6 78.1 32.7 -18.1 -12.3
0.5
7. 3:30 0 19 260 2.2 932 8.2 32.9 -16.2 -8.4 32.6
0.7
Here,
P1 = Pressure of inlet of Compressor.
P2 = Pressure of outlet of Compressor.
V = Voltage.
I = Current.
P = Power Consumed.
T1 = Temperature of inlet of Compressor.
T2 = Temperature of outlet of Compressor.
T3 = Temperature of outlet of Condenser.
T4 = Temperature of outlet of Expansion Device.
T5 = Brine Temperature
Given Data:-
cpw = 2.841 KJ / Kg.K
h1 = Enthalpy at T1 Temp. = 396KJ / Kg
64
h4 = Enthalpy at T4 Temp. = 325 KJ / Kg
Calculation:-
𝐓𝟐
(A) COP(Carnot)=
𝐓𝟐 −𝐓𝟏
348.5
=
(348.5−273.4)
=4.6
𝐡𝟏 −𝐡𝟒
(B) COP(th)=
𝐡𝟐 −𝐡𝟏
(396−325)
=
(452−396)
=1.357
𝐑𝐄
(C)COP(act)=
𝐖𝐂
But,
𝐦𝐰 𝐜𝐩𝐰 (𝐓𝐢 −𝐓𝐟 )

Q=
𝟐 𝐱 𝟑𝟐.𝟒𝟓
72 X 2.814 X (27+9.5)
=
2𝑥32.45
= 0.11 KJ/Kg
𝐕𝐱𝐈
And, 𝐖 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 245 x 2.07
100
65
=0.5 KJ/Kg
𝐐
COP(act)=
𝐖
0.11
=
0.5
=0.22
𝐂𝐎𝐏(𝐚𝐜𝐭)
Thus, COP(relative) =
𝐂𝐎𝐏 (𝐭𝐡)
0.22
=
1.357
=0.16
 Conclusion:-
From this practical, we learnt about the construction, working and calculation of different values
through Ice plant system.
 Result:- We study the Ice plant.
References:-
(1)Refrigeration and Air-conditioning-P L Ballaney.
(2) Vapor compression refrigeration system-en.wikipedia.org
(3)Ice plant-Google image.
(4) Pdf-Ice plant
SIGNATURE
66
Aim :To study about carburetor
67
Introduction:-
fuel plus air equals motion—that's the basic science behind most of the vehicles that travel on land, over
sea, or through the sky. Cars, trucks, and buses turn fuel into power by mixing it with air and burning it in
metal cylinders inside their engines. Exactly how much fuel and air an engine needs varies from moment
to moment, depending on how long it's been running, how fast you're going, and a variety of other factors.
Modern engines use an electronicallycontrolled system called fuel injection to regulate the fuel-air
mixture so it's exactly right from the minute you turn the key to the time you switch the engine off again
when you reach your destination. But until these clever gadgets were invented, virtually all engines relied
on ingenious air-fuel mixing devices called carburetors.
What does carburetor do-

The carburetor has several functions like-
it combines gasoline and air creating a highly combustion mixture,

it regulates the ratio of air and fuel,
it controls the engine speed.
Further information:
If you look at a carburetor, you will notice a rather large hole going from one side to the other. This is
called a Venturi. Air passes into the engine through this hole (Venturi). As the velocity of the air entering
the carb (and then the engine) increases, it's pressure decreases, creating a low pressure or vacuum in the
venturi. This vacuum moves around in the venturi, as the throttle is opened, and sucks gasoline through
the different jets in the carb. The gas then mixes with the air going through the venturi. The way the jets
are made causes the fuel to vaporize as it goes into the venturi. Where the jets are placed in the carb and
where the jet's outlet is located in the venturi, determines what part of the throttle opening that jet
controls. The idle jet system (comprised of pilot air jet, pilot fuel jet and pilot fuel screw) controls from
0% to about 25% of the throttle opening. The throttle valve controls 0% to 35% of the throttle opening.
The needle jet and jet needle control from 15% to 80% of the throttle opening and the main jet controls
60% to 100%. This means that when you open the throttle about one eighth of the way open, all of the
gas/air mixture going into your engine is controlled by the idle jet. As you can see, the different jets over
lap the operating range of each other. That is, the jet needle starts to effect things before the effect of the
idle jet ends. This is something to remember when working on carbs... everything is interconnected.
Change one thing and it will effect other things.
68
Working Principle Of Simple Carburetor Used In Petrol Engine.-
This is most important to supply proper air-fuel ratio in inlet manifold of the internal
combustion engine.The process of breaking up the fuel into minute particles and mixing
it is with air is known as carburetion.
As internal combustion engine have very low compression ratio and which use highly volatile liquid fuel
such as petrol,paraffin etc.,the carburationprocess is must required.
In carburetor,the fuel is completely broken into the minute particles,vaporized and mixed with the air in a
proper ratio.The homogeneous mixture of fuel and air thus obtained,is supplied to the engine cylinder
during the suction stroke of engine.
Carburetors:-
This device is used in petrol or similar liquid fuel engines by means of which the fuel mixed with air is
supplied into the induction manifold of the engine.The carburetor controls the required quantity of fuel
and breaks it up into minute globules for being mixed with the correct quantity of air.
The main purpose of carburetor is to supply the required quantity of petrol and air mixture,of the correct
strength as per requirement of load conditions of the engine.The ratio should not be more than 20 : 1 and
not less than 8 : 1.The ideal ratio is 15 : 1
69
Construction and working of simple carburetor:-
Simple carburetor consist of a venturi and a fuel jet located therein.For maintaining the level of fuel in the
jet,a float chamber is usually required.A throttle valve in the form of a flat circular metal disc mounted on
spindle is provided for controlling the flow of air-fuel mixture to the induction manifold.A rotary type
valve also can be used instead of disc type.
The level of fuel is just kept slightly below the top of the jet to prevent the leakage when not in
operation.Usually 1.5 mm difference is kept between the top of the jet and the surface of the fuel in float
chamber.A needle valve controls the passage of fuel from the fuel pump,when the air begins to flow past
the jet,a low pressure zone is created in the venturi because of the increased velocity of air.
The fuel begins to rise because of the difference in the air pressure on the fuel which is equal to the
pressure of the atmosphere and on the fuel in the jet at the venturi and issue out from the jet in the form of
fine spray.A minute petrol particles present a large surface area being exposed to the air stream.The fuel
is not completely vaporized in carburetor and some globules of fuel still enter the induction manifold and
are vaporized during the compression stroke in engine cylinder.A chock valve controls the flow of air into
the carburetor.A gas tight connection is provided between the carburetor and the induction manifold.
When two concentric venturies are provided,the discharge end of the inner venturi called
"Primary Venturi",which lies just at the throat of the mainventuri.A higher velocity of air which aids in
the atomization of the fuel,is obtained at the throat of primary venturi due to lower pressure comparing of
following three types.
01)Updraft Type:-In this,the air enters the carburetor at the bottom and leaves at the top.
02)Downdraft Type:-In this,air enters the carburetor at the top and leaves at the bottom. to main venturi.
The main advantages of multiple venturies are,these keep the fuel away from the carburetor walls and
there is considerable reduction in fuel consumption.
The Simple Carburetor may be This used most passenger cars because it can be installed at a higher level
in the engine which makes it more accessible for the purpose of inspection and repair.
70
03)Side draft Type:-It has more width and mounting of oil bath air filter is clumsy.
Pintle nozzle.-The valve of the pintle nozzle (fig.) has an extension that protrudes through the hole
in the bottom of the nozzle body and produces a hollow cone-shaped spray. The included angle of the
spray cone may be up to a maximum of 60 degrees, depending on the type of combus-tion chamber in
which it is used. A pintle nozzle generally opens at a lower pressure than the pressure at which the hole
nozzle opens because fuel flows more readily from the large hole of the pintle nozzle. Although
atomization of the fuel is not so complete in the pintle nozzle as it is in the hole nozzle, penetration into
the combustion space is greater.Consequently, pintle-type nozzles are used in engines having pre-
combustion, divided, air cell or energy-cell combustion chambers, where mixing of fuel and air is largely
dependent on combustion reaction or turbulence. In addition, the motion of the pintle tends to inhibit the
formation of carbon crust on the tip of the nozzle.
(a) Idling and low load:-

from no load to about 20% of rated power -No load running mode is called idling condition -very low
suction pressure give rise to back flow of exhaust gases and air leakage -increases the amount of
residual gases and hence increase the dilution effects -Rich mixture i.e. F/A ratio 0.08 or A/F ratio
12.5:1 provide smooth operation of the engine
71
Idling system: -Idling jet is added for the idling and low load operation which requires rich mixture
sof about A/F ratio 12:1 -consists of small fuel line from the float chamber to a point of throttle side -
gradual opening of throttle may stop the idling jet
Types of carburetors:-
Constant Choke Carburetor:

In the constant choke carburetor, the air and fuel flow areas are always maintained to be constant. But the
pressure difference or depression, which causes the flow of fuel and air, is being varied as per the demand
on the engine. Solex and Zenith carburetors belong to this class.
Constant Vacuum Carburetor:

In the constant vacuum carburetor, (sometimes called variable choke carburetor) air and fuel flow areas
are being varied as per the demand on the engine, while the vacuum is maintained to be always same. The
S.U. and Carter carburetors belong to tills class.
Multiple Venturi Carburetor:

Multiple venturi system uses double or triple venturi. The boost venturi is located concentrically within
the main venturi.The discharge edge of the boost venturi is located at the throat of the main venturi. The
boost venturi is positioned upstream of the throat of the larger main venturi. Only a fraction of the total air
flows though the boost venturi. Now the pressure at the boost venturi exit equals the pressure at the main
venturi throat. The fuel nozzle is located at the throat of the boost venturi.
(i) Open choke:Zenith, solex and carter Constant vacuum type: S.U. carburettor
(ii) updraught type Horizontal or downdraught: mixture is assisted by gravity in its oassage to the engine
induction
(a) Solex carburetor: -provide ease of starting, good performance, and reliability -used in Fiat and
standard cars and Willey jeep -Bi-starter is used for cold starting -well of emulsion system is used for
idling and slow running condition -diaphragm type acceleration pump is used for increasing speed case
(b) Carter carburettor: -downdraft type carburettor used in jeep -has triple venture diffusing type choke
in which smallest lies above the level float chamber, other two below the petrol level, one below other -
72
multiple venturies result in better formation of the mixture at very low speeds causing steady and smooth
operation at very low and high engine speed -mechanical metering method is used -choke valve is
provided in the air circuit for cold starting -plunger type acceleration pump is used
(c) S.U. carburettor: -constant air-fuel ratio is maintained due to vacuum depression -has only one jet -
no separate idling jet or acceleration pump -constant high velocity air across the jet may avoid the use of
idling jet -jet lever arrangement provides the rich mixture in cold starting -used in many British cars and
Hindustan ambassador car
Drawbacks of modern carburettor: -improper mixture proportion in multi-cylinder engine -loss of

volumetric efficiency due to obstruction of flow of mixture from choke tubes, jets, throttle valve etc. -
wear of carburettor parts -Freezing at low temperature -surging when carburettor is tilted or during
acrobatics in aircraft -backfiring in fuel pipe line
Petrol injection: -to avoid above problem of modern carburettor, petrol injection is used like in diesel
engine -petrol injected during the suction stroke in the intake manifold at low pressure -injection timing is
not much critical as like in diesel engine -continuous injection and timed injection methods are used
Continuous injection: -fuel is sprayed at low pressure continuously into the air supply -amount of fuel is
governed by air throttle opening -in supercharged engine, fuel injected in the form of multiple spray into
the suction side of the centrifugal compressor --provide efficient atomisation of fuel and uniform mixture
strength to all cylinder -higher volumetric efficiency -one fuel injection pump and one injector
Timed injection system: -similar to high speed diesel engine -components are fuel feed or lift pump,
fuel pump and distributor unit, fuel injection nozzles and mixture controls -mixture controls are automatic
for all engine operating conditions
(i) Multiple plunger jerk pump system: -pump with separate plunger and high injection nozzle pressure
for each cylinder -100 to 300 bar pressure -measured quantity of fuel for definite time and over definite
period is delivered
73
(ii) Low pressure single pump and distributor system: -single plunger or gear pump supply fuel at low
pressure to a rotating distributor -pressure about 3.5 to 7 bar
(a) Lucas petrol injection system: -firstly used in racing car -single distributor system with novel
metering device -line pressure is maintained at 7 bar -metering distributor and control unit distributes the
required amount of fuel at correct time and interval -has shuttle arrangements for metering unit -in aircraft
engine two injectors and spark plug provided for direct injection of fuel in combustion chamber
74
(b) Electronic fuel injection Fuel delivery system: -electrically driven fuel pump draws fuel from tanks
to distribute -fuel and manifold pressure kept constant by pressure regulator
Air induction system:-air flow meter generate voltage signal according to air flow -cold start magnetic
injection valve give good fuel atomisation and also provide extra fuel during warm up condition
Electronic control unit (ECU): -sensors for manifold pressure, engine speed and temperature at intake
manifold -sensor measures operating data from locations and transmitted electrically to ECU Injection
timing: -injected twice for every revolution of crank shaft -triggering of injectors
SIGNATURE
75
PRACTICAL: 8
AIM:To study about Fuel injection system
76
Introduction:
When Rudolph Diesel contracted with Augsburg and Krupp of Germany in 1893 to develop a more
efficient internal combustion engine, one of his objectives was to use a s fuel the mountainous piles of
powdered coal which had been accumulating throughout the countryside. The first experimental coal dust
burning engine was built that year using air to blast the fuel into the combustion chamber. His method i s
shown schematically in Fig. 1, which was reproduced from U. S. patent No. 542846 granted in 1895. The
powdered coal was contained in hopper B provided with rotary valve D, and the compressed air was
stored in tank A. When the injection valve E was lifted, the high pressure air flowed into the combustion
chamber C through orifice F carrying with it the coal discharged through the rotating valve F. In
attempting to start the engine it exploded, and all subsequent efforts to operate the engine on coal dust
failed, so that oil was finally adopted as the fuel.
In the first experiments with oil, it was mechanically injected into the engine. The results were
unsatisfactory, probably because of the crude injection equipment with large dead fuel volume, so that Dr.
Diesel resorted to using the compressed air equipment available from his coal dust experiments. His first
tests with air injection proved so successful that this became the acccepted method of injection for many
years. Thus, early in the development of this new engine the importance of the fuel injection process on
engine combustion was emphasized, and subsequent progress in diesel engine development has been
largely dependent upon improvements in fuel injection.
(a) Air injection system:-
In this system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air. This system is little used
nowadays, because it requires a bulky multi-stage air compressor. This causes an increase in engine
weight and reduces the brake power output further. One advantage that is claimed for the air injection
system is good mixing of fuel with the air with resultant higher mean effective pressure. Another is
the ability to utilize fuels of high viscosity which are less expensive than those used by engines with
solid injection systems. These advantages are off-set by the requirement of a multistage compressor
thereby making the air-injection system obsolete.
The procedure is as given below in briefly-
-fuel supplied through camshaft driven fuel pump

-fuel valve is also connected with high pressure airline to inject into cylinder
-multi-stage compressor which supply air at a pressure of about 60 to 70 bar
-blast air sweeps the fuel along with it
-good atomisation results in good mixture formation and hence high mean effective
77
pressure
-heavy and viscous fuels are used
-fuel pump require small pressure
-but it is complicated due to compressor arrangement and expensive
-bulky engine and low bhp
-overheating and burning of valve seat
(b) Solid injection system:-
In this system the liquid fuel is directly injected into the combustion chamber without the aid of
compressed air, hence, it is also called airless mechanical injection or solid injection system. It consists of
the following components.
1. Fuel tank
2. Fuel feed pump to supply fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection system
3. Injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection
4. Governor to ensure that the amount of fuel injected is in accordance with variation in load
5. Injector to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combustion chamber by atomizing
it into fine droplets
6. Fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and injectors thereby
minimizing the wear and tear of the components.
A typical arrangement of various components for the solid injection system used in a CI engine is
shown in Fig. 1. Fuel from the fuel tank first enters the coarse filter from which is drawn into the plunger
feed pump where the pressure is raised very slightly. Then the fuel enters the fine filter where all the dust
and dirt particles are removed. From the fine filter the fuel enters the fuel pump where it is pressurized to
about 200 bar and injected into the engine cylinder by means of the injector. Any spill over in the injector
is returned to the fine filter. A pressure relief valve is also provided for the safety of the system. The
above functions are achieved with the components listed above.
-Fuel directly injected to combustion chamber without primary atomisation termed as solid injection.
-Also known as airless mechanical injection
-2 units-pressurise and atomising unit
3 different types which are described below
(i) Individual pump and injector or jerk pump system:
78
-separate metering and compression pump is used for each cylinder

-reciprocating fuel pump is used to meter and set the injection pressure of the fuel
-heavy gear arrangements which gives jerking noise, hence name is given is jerk pump
-jerk pump is used for medium and high speed diesel engines
(ii) Common rail system:
-high pressure fuel pump delivers fuel to an accumulator whose pressure is constant
-plunger type of pump is used
-driving mechanism is not stressed with high pressure hence noise is reduced
-common rail or pipe is connected in between accumulator and distributing elements
-separate metering and timing elements connected to automatic injector
-self-governing type
(iii) Distributor system:
-fuel pump pressurises, meters and times the fuel supply to rotating distributor
-number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump equals to the number of cylinder
-One metering element which ensure uniform distribution
* Fuel Injectors
3 main types of fuel injectors,

Blast injector: -these are superseded by mechanically operated injectors used in air injection system
Mechanically operated injector: -consist of a set of camshaft, cams and rocker gear and other cams for
controlling the timing of the fuel injection
Automatic injector: -consists of spring loaded needle valve and operated hydraulically by the pressure
of fuel -quanity of fuel is metered by the fuel pump
79
Types of nozzles:
(a) Depends on the type of combustion chamber,
Open combustion chamber:

-fuel seeks air -air swirl is created due to inclined induction port
-multi-hole nozzle injects fuel at a pressure of about 200 to 300 bar to slow moving air
-provide good cold starting performance and improved thermal efficiency
Pre-combustion chamber:
-air velocity is very much high
-single hole nozzle with 65 to 100 bar injection pressure is used
-used in high speed engine due to rapid combustion
-external heating device for easy starting of the engine
(b) Open and closed type of nozzle,
Open type:
-consists of fuel orifices and open to burner
-cheap and less efficient
ex- opposed piston two-stroke Junkers diesel engine
Closed type:
pressure drop is minimised compared to open type
(c) Different types of nozzle for different combustion chamber
(i) Single hole nozzle:

-used in open combustion chamber -size of hole larger than 0.2 mm
-very high injection pressure required
80
(ii) Multi-hole nozzle:

-no. of hole varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 1.5 to 0.35 mm
-injection rate is not uniform
(iii) Pintle nozzle: -a projection or pintle is provided in the nozzle to avoid weak
injection and dribbling
-pintle may be cylindrical or conical shape -cone angle varied from 0 to 60ᵒ
-provide good atomisation and reduced penetration
-fuel pressures are lower than single and multi-hole nozzle
(iv) Pintaux nozzle:

-injected fuel in upstream of air
-development of pintle nozzle with auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body
-reduced delay period and increased thermal efficiency
SIGNATURE
81
PRACTICAL: 9
AIM: To study about lubrication system
82
Function of Lubrication:-
(1) It reduces wear and tear of the surfaces by avoiding direct metal to metal
contact between the rubbing surfaces
i.e. by introducing lubricants between the two surfaces
(2) It reduces expansion of metal due to frictional heat and destruction of
material
(3) It acts as coolant of metal due to heat transfer media
(4) It avoids unsmooth relative motion
(5) It reduces maintenance cost
(6) It also reduces power loss in internal combustion engines
The engine lubricating system supplies oil to all moving parts. A typical engine lubricating system is
shown in Fig. below.The oil pump picks up oil from the oil pan and sends it up through the oil passages to
the main bearings of the crankshaft. Oil from the main bearings moves through oil holes drilled in the
crankshaft to the rod bearings. Oil then passes through an oil line to the cylinder head where it flows
through an oil gallery to camshaft bearings and valve train parts. The pistons, piston rings, and piston pins
receive oil thrown off the connecting-rod bearings. This oil falls on the cylinder walls thereby reaches the
pistons, rings and pins. Then the oil drops back down in to the oil pan.
Lubrication of bearings is necessary to achieve maximum service life of the engine. However, their
lubrication is quite simple and is easily met through properly designed bearings and by using oil with the
correct viscosity. The highest unit pressures and the most difficult lubrication actually occur between the
cam lobes and valve lifters. Present day motor oil formulation is based on the oil’s ability to minimize
lifter scuffing and wear. Cam lobes are not lubricated with positive pressure but depend on oil thrown
from the connecting rods and on oil, which drains back from the rocker and lifter chambers. Valve
assemblies, pistons, piston pins, oil pump-distributor drives and cam drives require only a surface film of
oil. Since the loads are relatively light the oil received from splash is usually adequate. Oil under slight
pressure is usually sent to the rocker arms. It is not the amount of pressure, but the definite delivery of oil
to the moving surface needing lubrication is important. Some engines provide an oil flow to the cam
drive. This oil helps to cushion the drive and reduce noise. Automobile engines also utilize engine oil
to operate hydraulic valve lifters, which requires the engine oil to have a different kind of characteristic.
Hydraulic lifters are manufactured with extremely close tolerances to minimize leakage. The engine oil
keeps the lifter clean, minimizing deposit formation to avoid lifter sticking.
83
Lubricants:-
In all types of machines, the surfaces of moving or sliding or rolling parts rub against each other. Due to
the mutual rubbing of one part against another, a resistance is offered to their movement. This resistance
is known as friction. It causes a lot of wear and tear of surfaces of moving parts. Any substance
introduced between two moving/sliding surfaces with a view to reduce the friction (or frictional
resistance) between them, is known as a lubricants. The main purpose of a lubricant is to keep the
moving/sliding surfaces apart, so that friction and consequent destruction of material is minimized. The
process of reducing friction between moving/sliding surfaces, by the introduction of lubricants in between
them, is called lubrication.
Good Lubricants:-
A lubricant is called good when it satisfy below requirements-

It should-
 Keep surfaces separate under all loads, temperatures and speeds, thus minimising friction and
wear.
 Act as a cooling fluid removing the heat produced by friction or from external sources
Remain adequately stable in order to guarantee constant behaviour over the forecasted useful life
 Protect surfaces from the attack of aggressive products formed during operation
Fulfill detersive and dispersive functions in order to remove residue and debris that may form
during operation
84
properties of Lubricant:
1. Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow or the internal friction of the lubricant.
-usually measured by Saybolt universal seconds (SUS) and Redwood viscometer. Also it is
expressed with centistoke (unit of kinematic viscosity) and centipoise (unit of absolute viscosity)
-expressed in two temperature i.e. -18ᵒC (0ᵒF) and 99ᵒC (210ᵒF)
2. Viscosity Index: It is used to grade lubricants. Viscosity is inversely proportional to temp. -If
temp. increases, the viscosity of the lubricant decreases and if temp. decreases, the viscosity of
the lubricant increases. -The variation of viscosity of oil with changes in temperature is measured
by viscosity index -oil to measure is compared with 2 reference oil having same viscosity at 99ᵒC.
one is paraffinic base oil index of zero and another naphthenic base oil index of 100 -high
viscosity index number indicates relatively smaller change in viscosity of the oil with
temperature. -low viscos oil is recommended for automobile engines in winter than summer. The
viscosity of a lubricant should be just sufficient to ensure lubrication. If it is more than this value,
power loss will be higher due to increased oil resistance. -VI improver are added to improve
viscosity index
3. Oiliness: It is the property of a lubricating oil to spread & attach itself firmly to the bearing
surfaces as well as provide lubricity. Generally, the oiliness of the lubricating oil should be high
particularly when it is to be used for mating surfaces subjected to a high intensity of pressure and
smaller clearance portion to avoid the squeezing out of the oil. Such a way that the metal is
protected by a thin layer of the oil and the wear is also considerably reduced. It is measured by
co-efficient of friction at extreme operating condition.
4. Flash Point: Flash point of oil is the min. temp. at which the vapours of lubricating oil will flash
when a small flame is passed across its surface. It is of two type open flash point and closed flash
point. The flash point of the lubricating oil must be higher than the temp. likely to be developed
in the bearings in order to avoid the possibility of fire hazards.
5. Fire Point: If the lubricating oil is further heated after the flash point has been reached, the lowest
temp. at which the oil will burn continuously for 5 seconds is called fire point. -usually 11ᵒC
higher than open flash point and varies from 190ᵒC to 290ᵒC for the lubricants used for IC
engines -The fire point of a lubricant also must be high so that the oil does not burn in service.
6. Cloud Point: It is the temp. at which the lubricating oil changes its state from liquid to solid. Its
temp. must high for the low temp. operability of the lubricating oil during winter.
7. Pour Point: It is the lowest temp. at which the lubricating oil will not flow or totally form wax or
solidify. This property must be considered because of its effect on starting an engine in cold
weather. Oil derived from paraffinic crudes tends to have higher pour points than those derived
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from naphthenic crudes. The pour points can be lower by the addition of pour point depressant
usually a polymerised phenol or ester. Pour point must be at least 15ᵒF lower than the operating
temperature to ensure maximum circulation.
8. Corrosiveness: The present of acid (mineral acid, petroleum acid) is harmful to the metal
surfaces. The lubrication oil should not attack chemically the materials of the engine. The
lubricant should not be corrosive, but it should give protection against corrosion. New oil has low
neutralisation number i.e. it maintains the alkaline and acid solution to make the oil neutral.
9. Oxidation stability: It is resistance to oxidation. Due to oxidation the oil will form deposits on the
piston rings and lose its lubricating property. Low temperature operation avoiding the hot-area
contact and crankcase ventilation can help in preserving the stability of oil over longer periods.
Oxidation inhibitors are used to improve oxidation stability. These are complex compounds of
sulphur and phosphorus or amine and phenol derivatives.
10.Cleanliness: Lubricating oil must be clean. It should not contain dust and dirt particles as well as
water content which promote corrosion.
11.Carbon residue: after evaporation of a mass sample of lubricating oil under specific condition
may remain as carbonaceous residue. It indicates the deposit characteristics of oil. Paraffinic oil
has higher carbon residues than the naphthenic base oil.
Lubrication system:-
various lubrication system used for IC engines are,.
(a) Mist lubrication system

(b) Wet sump lubrication system
(c) Dry sump lubrication system
(a) Mist lubrication system:-
-Used where crankcase lubrication is not suitable

- Generally adopted in two stroke petrol engine line scooter and motor
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cycle. It is the simplest form of lubricating system.

- It is the simplest form of lubricating system. It does not consist of any
separate part like oil pump for the purpose of lubrication.
- In this system the lubricating oil is mixed into the fuel (petrol) while
filling in the petrol tank of the vehicle in a specified ratio (ratio of fuel
and lubricating oil is from 12:1 to 50:10 as per manufacturers
specifications or recommendations.
-When the fuel goes into the crank chamber during the engine operation,
the oil particles go deep into the bearing surfaces due to gravity and
lubricate then. The piston rings, cylinder walls, piston pin etc. are
lubricated in the same way. -If the engine is allowed to remain unused
for a considerable time, the lubricating oil separates oil from petrol &
leads to clogging (blocking) of passages in the carburettor, results in the
engine starting trouble. This is the main disadvantage of this system.
-It causes heavy exhaust smoke due to burning of lubricating oil partially
or fully -Increase deposits on piston crown and exhaust ports which
engine efficiency -Corrosion of bearing surfaces due to acids formation
-affect thorough mixing can fetch effective lubrication
-Engine suffers insufficient lubrication during closed throttle i.e. vehicle
moving down the hill.
(b) Wet sump lubrication system:-
Bottom of the crankcase contains oil pan or sump from which the lubricating oil is pumped to
various engine components by a pump. After lubrication, oil flows back to the sump by gravity.
Three types of wet sump lubrication system,
(i) Splash system

(ii) Splash and pressure system
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(iii) Pressure feed system
(i) Splash system:-
-In this system of lubrication the lubricating oil is stored in an oil sump. A scoop or dipper is made in
the lower part of the connecting rod. When the engine runs, the dipper dips in the oil once in every
revolution of the crank shaft, the oil is splashed on the cylinder wall. Due to this action engine walls,
piston ring, crank shaft bearings are lubricated.
-It is used for light duty engine
Fig. of Splash lubricating system
(ii) Splash and pressure system:-
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Lubricating oil is supplied under pressure to main, camshaft bearings and pipes which direct a stream
of oil against the dippers on the big end of connecting rod bearing cup and thus crankpin bearings are
lubricated by the splash or spray of oil thrown up by the dipper.
Fig. of Splash and pressure lubricating system
(iii) Pressure feed system:
In this system of lubrication, the engine parts are lubricated under pressure feed. The lubricating oil is
stored in a separate tank (in case of dry sump system) or in the sump (in case of wet sump system),
from where an oil pump (gear pump) delivers the oil to the main oil gallery at a pressure of 2-4
kg/cm2 through an oil filter. The oil from the main gallery goes to main bearing, from where some of
it falls back to the sump after lubricating the main bearing and some is splashed to lubricate the
cylinder walls and remaining goes through a hole to the
crank pin.
From the crank pin the lubricating oil goes to the piston pin through a hole in the connecting
rod, where it lubricates the piston rings. For lubricating cam shaft and gears the oil is led through a
separate oil line from the oil gallery. The oil pressure gauge used in the system indicates the oil
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pressure in the system. Oil filter & strainer in the system clear off the oil from dust, metal particles
and other harmful particles.
Gear system:-
Used for a medium sized diesel engine

-It is a forced-feed system of lubrication and uses the oil contained in the bed plate as a reservoir. A
gear type oil pump is driven from the crankshaft.
-The oil enters the pump and is carried around the pump casing by the gear teeth. It is then
discharged. The oil is prevented from returning to the inlet by the meshing of the gear teeth. Oil is
pumped from the bed plate through an oil filter and cooler into the lubricating oil manifold. A
separate pipe supplies oil to the turbocharger. A supply of cooled oil is critical for the turbocharger to
lubricate the high-speed bearings and to carry heat away from the rotor.
Fig. 43. Gear type lubrication system
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(c) Dry sump lubrication system:-
Supply of oil is carried in external tank

-Oil pump draws oil from the supply tank and circulates it under pressure to various bearings of the
engine
- Oil dripping from the cylinders and bearings into the sump is removed by a scavenging pump and
again return to supply tank through the filter
-The capacity of scavenging pump is greater than the oil pump
-Separate oil cooler to remove heat from oil is used which is either cooled by air or water
signature
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PRACTICAL: 10
AIM: to study about general automobile system
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8.1 INTRODUCTION:-
An automobile from 1894 to this date has gone through drastic changes. Many companies or
organizationswith passion have taken this field to a different level. A century back we had 50
horse power engines but nowwe have increases to level of 4000 horse power. Salute to the level
of intelligence of automobile engineers forthis drastic change.
The various parts of automobiles are

1. Power unit (automobile engines)
2. Fuel supply system
3. Engine friction and lubrication systems
4. Cooling systems
5. Chassis and Suspension
6. Transmission system
7. Steering and front axle
8. Braking system
9. Automotive electric system
8.2 VARIOUS PARTS OF AUTOMOBILES:
8.3 VARIOUS UNITS OF AUTO MOBILE:
1. Power unit (automobile engines)

An engine is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical motion. Engine are
classified based
on combustion, fuel used, cooling, application and construction.
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1) Based on combustion
a) External combustion engine.
b) Internal combustion engine.
2) Based on fuel used

a) Petrol engines
b) Diesel engines
c) CNG
d) LPG
3) Based on cooling system

a) Air cooled
b) Water cooled
4) Based on application
a) Stationary
b) Rocket
c) Automobile
5) Based on construction
a) Inline engines
b) Opposed engines
c) Rotary engines
d) V engines
e) W engines
In this practical we are going to discuss about I.C. Engines.
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil
fuel) occurswith an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the
working fluid flow circuit.In an internal combustion engine (ICE) the expansion of the high-
temperature and high-pressure gasesproduced by combustion apply direct force to some
component of the engine. The force is applied typicallyto pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle.
This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemicalenergy into useful
mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine wascreated by
Étienne Lenoir.The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which
combustion is intermittent, such athe more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines,
along with variants, such as the six-stroke pistonengine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second
class of internal combustion engines use continuouscombustion: gas turbines, jet engines and
most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engineson the same principle as
previously described.The ICE is quite different from external combustion engines, such as steam
or Stirling engines, in which theenergy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed
with, or contaminated by combustion products.Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized
water or even liquid sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs areusually powered by energy-dense fuels
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such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While thereare many stationary
applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant powersupply for
cars, aircraft, and boats.
2. Fuel supply system
The primary components of the fuel supply system are shown below. To prevent damage to the
natural gas piping system, a flexible connector should be installed between the engine and the
rigidly supported gas line in the mechanical room. The gas piping material should be black iron.
Generally, a primary and secondary gas regulator is used in series to adjust fuel supply to the
engine. Theprimary regulator, which provides gross pressure regulation of the natural gas supply,
is typically provided bythe utility. A fuel supply pressure of 2 psig is generally required for
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naturally aspirated engines; however, themanufacturer should be consulted for specific supply
pressure requirements.Standard turbocharged engines are now available from most
manufacturers with low supply pressurerequirements, although higher pressures (approximately
20 psig) used to be the standard. A manual gas shutoffcock is installed upstream of the primary
regulator. A secondary regulator fine-tunes the amount of flow tothe engine. This regulator is
usually supplied by the engine manufacturer. It is recommended that a filter beinstalled in the
fuel supply to remove 99% of all particles larger than one micron. A dedicated gas meter for the
engine is useful for recording fuel consumption and corresponding energy cost savings.As part of
the safety features designed into the gas train, redundant fuel shut-off valves automatically
ensuresthat the fuel flow to the engine is stopped when the engine is shut down either normally
or in an emergencycondition. The shut-off valve is actuated by an electric solenoid. For added
assurance, two solenoids areinstalled in series between the primary and secondary regulators.
Factory Mutual (FM), Underwriter’sLaboratory (UL), and all other governing codes and utility
requirements should be consulted for specific gastrain requirements.
3. Engine friction and lubrication systems
Oil pan: This is where Oliver hangs out when the engine isn't doing anything; the oil lounge, if
you will. Inmost cars, this pan holds about 4 to 6 quarts of oil.
Pickup tube: When the engine is switched on, it needs oil immediately. Oliver and his oil
buddies get suckedup by the pickup tube and lined up for action.
Oil pump: The pump does the sucking so that Oliver can slide up that tube against gravity and
thenpressurizes the oil. Oliver and his little oil friends get jammed in together even closer. Let's
hope Oliverremembered to put on deodorant today.
Pressure relief valve: If Oliver and his friends get too close they start to plan a riot, this relief
valve givesthem a bit of much-needed breathing space. It's the lubrication system's way of
saying, "Settle down, kids."
Oil filter: While Oliver and his friends are allowed to pass into the engine, the filter stops any
dirt and debristhe oil may have picked up on its last pass through the system.
Spurt holes and galleries: Oliver giggles every time he says "spurt holes." He's really immature.
These are thelittle holes drilled in the crankshaft or other parts of the system that allow the oil to
coat the bearings andcylinders that need to stay lubricated.
Sump: After doing his job to keep the moving parts of the engine moving, an exhausted Oliver
slides all theway down into the oil pan again, also known as the sump, to hang out until he's
sucked back up the pickup tubeand he's back on the job.
There are basically two types of oil systems in vehicles, both of which sound like types of
walruses or something
: wet sump and dry sump.
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Most cars use a wet sump system. (The more you say it, the weirder it sounds. Wet sump. Wet
sump.) Thatmeans the oil pan is at the bottom of the engine, and the oil is stored there.
Remember Oliver the oil molecule'slounge? It's kind of like he has a table next to the dance floor
at the club. And in this strange metaphor, thedancers are pistons and bearings.The advantage of a
wet sump system is its simplicity. The oil is close to where it will be used, there aren't toomany
parts to engineer or repair, and it's relatively cheap to build into a car.Some cars, especially high-
performance cars, use a dry sumpsystem. That means the sump isn't underneath theengine -- in
fact, it can be located anywhere within the engine compartment. After Oliver does his job in
theengine, he doesn't just drip into the lounge. He goes to the VIP room away from the dance
floor.A dry sump system gets you a couple of bonuses: First, it means the engine can sit a little
lower, which givesthe car a lower center of gravity and improves stability at speed. Second, it
keeps extra oil from soaking thecrankshaft, which can lower horsepower. And, since the sump
can be located anywhere, it can also be any sizeand shape.Two-stroke engines, by the way, use a
completely different type of technology. Scooters, lawn mowers andother two-stroke machines
have the oil mixed right in with the gasoline. When the gasoline evaporates in thecombustion
process, the oil is left behind to do its slick business.Sometimes you have to do this yourself,
measuring the correct amounts before filling the tank. But sometimes,as in most motor scooters,
there's an injection system that takes oil from the reservoir and mixes it with the
gasoline for you in just the right proportions.
4. Cooling systems
The cooling system forms an intrinsic part of an automobile engine. It performs multitude of
functions such asremoving excess heat from the engine, maintaining efficient temperature and
allowing engine to perform itstask within a short span of time. Ideally, automobile cooling
system keeps the engine running at an optimumtemperature whatever the operating conditions
are. Automobile Cooling System consists of components of equipment installed in vehicles for
removing heat from all the moving parts so that they can work suitablywithout melting, seizing
and overheating. More specifically, automotive cooling system makes use of coolant,lubricating
oil and fan to maintain and regulate the temperature of other parts of an engine.Basically, there
are two types of automobile cooling systems, which are widely used by the automobilesnamely:
liquid cooling and air-cooling. Liquid cooling is one of the sought after system used by most of
thevehicles today while air-cooling is mostly used by airplanes, motorcycles and lawn mowers.
The liquid-coolingsystem for automobiles offers the most positive cooling and it maintains an
optimum engine temperature.While air cooling system is feasible for only small vehicles and
equipment, as air-cooled engines do notoperate at consistent temperature and command
extensive use of aluminum to disperse heat.
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Figure illustrated above describes the functioning of cooling system of an automobile. The key
componentsused in a cooling system are pressure cap, heater hoses, thermostat, heater core,
reserve tank, lower hose,transmission cooler, water pump, fan, radiator and upper house. The
cooling system of a vehicle operates orfunctions by directing liquid coolant via passages in the
engine block and heads. After that the liquid coolantwhich flows through passages absorb the
heat from an engine. Then this fluid passes through a rubber hose toreach to the radiator. At this
stage the hot liquid is cooled by air stream entering the engine compartment viagrills. Once it
gets cooled, then it goes back to engine and same process repeats again.
5. Chassis and Suspension

A chassis consists of an internal framework that supports a man-made object in its construction
and use. It isanalogous to an animal'sskeleton. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a
motor vehicle, consisting of theframe (on which the body is mounted). If the running gear such
as wheels and transmission, and sometimeseven the driver's seat, are included then the assembly
is described as a rolling chassis.It provides the vehicle a smooth ride even when the wheels
traverse uneven terrain. This is achieved bydamping of the vibrations that get transmitted to the
chassis through the wheels. Thus a suspension system isemployed between the wheel(axle) and
the chassis. All types of suspension systems absorb the energy when jerk/impact tries to set the
suspension in motion. The absorbed energy may be dissipated or converted to otherform. By
providing a smoother working condition, the suspension enhances the life of all components
whichare mounted on the chassis, viz. the drive train, the engine and all boltings.A suspension
system also helps to improve the fuel efficiency by maintaining a continuous contact of
thewheels with the road and thereby preventing rolling slip.
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Fig. 5 Suspension System
There are various types of suspension systems in wide use in the automobile industry. They are:
Telescopic fluid filled suspension
Leaf spring suspension
Torsion spring suspension
Hydroelastic suspension
Electro actuated suspension etc.
All the above mentioned suspension types differ only by construction. Their working principle is
same, i.e. toabsorb/dampen the incoming vibration.
6. Transmission system
Transmission system in a car helps to transmit mechanical power from the car engine to give
kinetic energy tothe wheels. It is an interconnected system of gears, shafts, and other electrical
gadgets that form a bridge totransfer power and energy from the engine to the wheels. The
complete set up of the system helps to maintainthe cruising speed of the car without any
disturbance to the car’s performance. The oldest variant of thetransmission system in India is the
manual transmission that has undergone various modifications andalterations to form the present
day automatic transmission.A transmission or gearbox provides speed and torque conversions
from a rotating power source to anotherdevice using gear ratios. The transmission reduces the
higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed,increasing torque in the process. A transmission
will have multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with theability to switch between them as
speed varies. This switching may be done manually (by the operator), orautomatically.
Directional (forward and reverse) control may also be provided.In motor vehicle applications, the
transmission will generally be connected to the crankshaft of the engine. Theoutput of the
transmission is transmitted via driveshaft to one or more differentials, which in turn drive
thewheels.
Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover
output shaft(e.g. a motor crankshaft). This means that the output shaft of a gearbox will rotate at
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slower rate than the inputshaft, and this reduction in speed will produce a mechanical advantage,
causing an increase in torque.
7. Steering system
To control a moving vehicle we need a steering system. It manipulates the direction of wheel
rolling so as todrive the vehicle in that direction. Generally in most vehicles the front wheels(or
the front axle) are steered andthe rear wheels follow it. But there are vehicles where steering is
done on all four wheels or both the axes too.Steering is done with the help of a tie rod attached to
both the wheels as shown in the figure below:The steering wheel is the only control that a driver
of an automobile operates to maneuver the vehicle. Theunderlying operations may be different in
how the steering is achieved for a particular vehicle and it is no needed for a driver to understand
the full details. Different types of steering systems are:
Rack and Pinion type
Recirculating ball screw type
8. Braking system
The automotive brake system or automobile brake system is mainly used for helping the driver
control thedeceleration of the vehicle. It is one of the crucial systems, which is especially
designed for decreasing thespeed of the fast moving vehicle. A typical automotive brake system
comprises of a brake device havingdifferent components, which are used for slowing or stopping
down a vehicle. More precisely, these devicesdecrease or stop the speed of a moving or rotating
body by absorbing kinetic energy mechanically orelectrically. These automotive brake systems
automatically control wheel slips and prevent the wheels from spinning. They are widely used in
motor vehicles, buses, trucks, trains, airplanes, passenger coaches, trailers,and other types of
automobiles.Automotive brake system or automobile brake system used in automobiles has come
a long way in recentyears. The adoption of anti lock brake systems along with the introduction of
different brake parts made ofcarbon fiber, steel, aluminum etc have really provided better
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stopping performance in comparison withtraditional ones. The major manufacturers of auto

brake systems in the world are Bendix, Bosch, Delco,Continental Teves, Kelsey-Hayes,
Nippondenso, Sumitomo, and Toyota.Types of brake systems used in automobiles are:
Antilock Braking System (ABS)

Cooling Brakes
Drum Brakes
Hand brakes
Power Brakes
Servo Brakes
Calibrated Friction Brakes
Disc Brakes
Dual Circuit Brakes
Hydraulic Brakes
Semi-Metallic Brakes
Single-Line Braking System
9. Automotive electric system

The electrical system supplies electricity for the starter, ignition, lights and heater. The electricity
level ismaintained by a charging circuit.
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1) Charging
The charging system provides electrical energy for all the electrical components on the vehicle.
Themain parts of the charging system includes: the battery, the alternator, the voltage regulator
which is usuallyintegral to the alternator, a charging warning or indicator light and wiring that
complete the circuits. Thebattery provides electrical energy for starting, then once the engine is
running, the alternator supplies all theelectrical components of the vehicle. It also charges the
battery to replace the energy used to start the engine.The voltage regulator prevents vercharging.
2) Starting
The starting system consists of the battery, cables, starter motor, flywheel ring gear and the
ignition switch.During starting, two actions occur. The pinion of the starter motor engages with
the flywheel ring gear andthe starter motor then operates to crank theengine. The starter motor is
an electrical motor mounted onthe engine block and operated from the battery.
3) Ignition
A basic ignition system consists of the battery, low-tension cables, the ignition coil, distributor,
coil hightensioncable, spark plugcables and spark plugs. The ignition system provides high
intense sparks to sparkplugs to ignite the fuel charges in the combustion chambers. The sparks
must be supplied at the right time andthey must have sufficient energy over a range of conditions
to ignite the charges. The energy comes from thebattery and alternator, and voltage is increased
by the ignition coil. The system has two circuits. The primaryor low-tension circuit initiates the
spark. The secondary or high-tension circuit produces the high voltage anddistributes it to the
spark plugs.
Conclusion:-
From this experiment we learnt different components of automobile.
SIGNATURE
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PRACTICAL: 10
AIM: to study about cooling system in IC engine
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What the cooling system does for an engine.

1. Although gasoline engines have improved a lot, they are still not very efficient at turning
chemical energy into mechanical power.
2. Most of the energy in the gasoline (perhaps 70%) is converted into heat, and it is the job of the
cooling system to take care of that heat. In fact, the cooling system on a car driving down the
freeway dissipates enough heat to heat two average-sized houses!
3. The primary job of the cooling system is to keep the engine from overheating by transferring
this heat to the air, but the cooling system also has several other important jobs.
4. The engine in your car runs best at a fairly high temperature.
5. When the engine is cold, components wear out faster, and the engine is less efficient and emits
more pollution.
6. So another important job of the cooling system is to allow the engine to heat up as quickly as
possible, and then to keep the engine at a constant temperature
What is a Cooling System?

A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per hour, will produce
4000 controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as the spark plugs ignite the fuel in
each cylinder to propel the vehicle down the road. Obviously, these explosions produce an
enormous amount of heat and, if not controlled, will destroy an engine in a matter of minutes.
Controlling these high temperatures is the job of the cooling system. The modern cooling
system has not changed much from the cooling systems in the model T back in the '20s. Oh
sure, it has become infinitely more reliable and efficient at doing it's job, but the basic cooling
system still consists of liquid coolant being circulated through the engine, then out to the
radiator to be cooled by the air stream coming through the front grill of the vehicle. Today's
cooling system must maintain the engine at a constant temperature whether the outside air
temperature is 110 degrees Fahrenheit or 10 below zero. If the engine temperature is too low,
fuel economy will suffer and emissions will rise. If the temperature is allowed to get too hot for
too long, the engine will self destruct.
How Does a Cooling System Work?

Actually, there are two types of cooling systems found on motor vehicles: Liquid cooled and Air
cooled. Air cooled engines are found on a few older cars, like the original Volkswagen Beetle,
the Chevrolet Corvair and a few others. Many modern motorcycles still use air cooling, but for
the most part, automobiles and trucks use liquid cooled systems and that is what this article will
concentrate on.
The cooling system is made up of the passages inside the engine block and heads, a water pump
to circulate the coolant, a thermostat to control the temperature of the coolant, a radiator to cool
the coolant, a radiator cap to control the pressure in the system, and some plumbing consisting of
interconnecting hoses to transfer the coolant from the engine to radiator and also to the car's
heater system where hot coolant is used to warm up the vehicle's interior on a cold day. A
cooling system works by sending a liquid coolant through passages in the engine block and
heads. As the coolant flows through these passages, it picks up heat from the engine. The heated
fluid then makes its way through a rubber hose to the radiator in the front of the car. As it flows
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through the thin tubes in the radiator, the hot liquid is cooled by the air stream entering the
engine compartment from the grill in front of the car. Once the fluid is cooled, it returns to the
engine to absorb more heat. The water pump has the job of keeping the fluid moving through this
system of plumbing and hidden passages.
A thermostat is placed between the engine and the radiator to make sure that the coolant stays
above a certain preset temperature. If the coolant temperature falls below this temperature, the
thermostat blocks the coolant flow to the radiator, forcing the fluid instead through a bypass
directly back to the engine. The coolant will continue to circulate like this until it reaches the
design temperature, at which point, the thermostat will open a valve and allow the coolant back
through the radiator.
WATER COOLING SYSTEM

In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head, valve seats
etc. Thewater when circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of combustion. This hot water
will then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and partially by the flow developed by the
forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is again recirculated through the water jackets.
There are two types of water cooling system : Thermo Siphon System In this system the
circulation of water is due to difference in temperature (i.e. difference in densities) of water. So
in this system pump is not required but water is circulated because of density difference only.
Pump Circulation System

In this system circulation of water is obtained by a pump. This pump is driven by means of
engine output shaft through V-belts
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Water cooling system mainly consists of : (a) Radiator, (b) Thermostat valve, (c) Water pump,
(d) Fan, (e) Water Jackets, and (f) Antifreeze mixtures.
Radiator It mainly consists of an upper tank and lower tank and between them is a core. The
upper tank is connected to the water outlets from the engines jackets by a hose pipe and the lover
tank is connect to the jacket inlet through water pump by means of hose pipes. There are 2-types
of cores : (a) Tubular (b) Cellular as shown. When the water is flowing down through the
radiator core, it is cooled partially by the fan which blows air and partially by the air flow
developed by the forward motion of the vehicle. As shown through water passages and air
passages, wafer and air will be flowing for cooling purpose. It is to be noted that radiators are
generally made out of copper and brass and their joints are made by soldering.
Thermostat Valve It is a valve which prevents flow of water from the engine to radiator, so that
engine readily reaches to its maximum efficient operating temperature. After attaining maximum
efficient operating temperature, it automatically begins functioning. Generally, it prevents the
water below 70°C. Bellow type thermostat valve which is generally used. It contains a bronze
bellow containing liquid alcohol. Bellow is connected to the butterfly valve disc through the link.
When the temperature of water increases, the liquid alcohol evaporates and the bellow expands
and in turn opens the butterfly valve, and allows hot water to the radiator, where it is cooled.
Water Pump It is used to pump the circulating water. Impeller type pump will be mounted at the
front end. Pump consists of an impeller mounted on a shaft and enclosed in the pump casing. The
pump casing has inlet and outlet openings. The pump is driven by means of engine output shaft
only through belts. When it is driven water will be pumped.
Fan It is driven by the engine output shaft through same belt that drives the pump. It is provided
behind the radiator and it blows air over the radiator for cooling purpose.
Water Jackets Cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head, valve
seats and any hot parts which are to be cooled. Heat generated in the engine cylinder, conducted
through the cylinder walls to the jackets. The water flowing through the jackets absorbs this heat
and gets hot. This hot water will then be cooled in the radiator.
Antifreeze Mixture In western countries if the water used in the radiator freezes because of
cold climates, then ice formed has more volume and produces cracks in the cylinder blocks,
pipes, and radiator. So, to prevent freezing antifreeze mixtures or solutions are added in the
cooling water. The ideal antifreeze solutions should have the following properties : (a) It should
dissolve in water easily. (b) It should not evaporate. (c) It should not deposit any foreign matter
in cooling system. (d) It should not have any harmful effect on any part of cooling system. (e) It
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should be cheap and easily available. (f) It should not corrode the system. No single antifreeze
satisfies all the requirements. Normally following are used as antifreeze solutions : (a) Methyl,
ethyl and isopropyl alcohols. (b) A solution of alcohol and water. (c) Ethylene Glycol. (d) A
solution of water and Ethylene Glycol. (e) Glycerin along with water, etc.
Advantages of Water Cooling System (a) Uniform cooling of cylinder, cylinder head and
valves. (b) Specific fuel consumption of engine improves by using water cooling system. (c) If
we employ water cooling system, then engine need not be provided at the front end of moving
vehicle. (d) Engine is less noisy as compared with air cooled engines, as it has water for damping
noise.
Disadvantages of Water Cooling System (a) It depends upon the supply of water. (b) The
water pump which circulates water absorbs considerable power. (c) If the water cooling system
fails then it will result in severe damage of engine. (d) The water cooling system is costlier as it
has more number of parts. Also it requires more maintenance and care for its parts.
Engine cooling system The cooling system is a key to efficient engine operation. An internal
combustion engine only uses one-third of the power produced. One-third heats oil or goes out the
exhaust and one-third must be controlled by the water cooling system. 1. An engine wears out
four times faster if it continually operates at a low temperature. 2. A tractor doing the same work
will use 3.8 gallons of fuel per hour at 400 and only 2.8 gallons of fuel per hour at 1800. Warm
up your engine before putting under load. 3. Too much heat can damage an engine, increase
oxidation to the oil, and reduce the effectiveness of the additives in the oil. 4. Excessive heat may
attack seals, liners, gaskets, and sealants. 5. A thin (1/16") layer of calcium carbonate build-up
on an engine is equal to 4" of solid cast iron in heat transfer
. Antifreeze 1. Antifreeze should be changed every year unless you add chemical inhibitors to
reinforce the rust inhibiting ability. 2. Diluting antifreeze one-third to one-half with water is
usually recommended. More than two-thirds antifreeze is too much. It offers less freezing
protection rather than more. 3. Distilled or rain water is better than plain water because of the
corrosion deposits. 4. Ethylene-Glycol antifreeze in the cooling system raises the boiling
temperature substantially. This makes for greater heat dissipation. 5. Antifreeze is not a waste of
money if you consider risk factor alone. It is insurance that makes sense.
Internal combustion engine cooling over view:
Heat engines generate mechanical power by extracting energy from heat flows, much as a water
wheel extracts mechanical power from a flow of mass falling through a distance. Engines are
inefficient, so more heat energy enters the engine than comes out as mechanical power; the
difference is waste heat which must be removed. Internal combustion engines remove waste heat
through cool intake air, hot exhaust gases, and explicit engine cooling. Engines with higher
efficiency have more energy leave as mechanical motion and less as waste heat. Some waste heat
is essential: it guides heat through the engine, much as a water wheel works only if there is some
exit velocity (energy) in the waste water to carry it away and make room for more water. Thus,
all heat engines need cooling to operate. Cooling is also needed because high temperatures
damage engine materials and lubricants. Internal-combustion engines burn fuel hotter than the
melting temperature of engine materials, and hot enough to set fire to lubricants. Engine cooling
removes energy fast enough to keep temperatures low so the engine can survive.
Some high-efficiency engines run without explicit cooling and with only accidental heat loss, a
design called adiabatic. For example, 10,000 mile-per-gallon "cars" for the Shell economy
challenge are insulated, both to transfer as much energy as possible from hot gases to mechanical
107
motion, and to reduce reheat losses when restarting. Such engines can achieve high efficiency
but compromise power output, duty cycle, engine weight, durability, and emissions
. Basic principle
Most internal combustion engines are fluid cooled using either air (a gaseous fluid) or a liquid
coolant run through a heat exchanger (radiator) cooled by air. Marine engines and some
stationary engines have ready access to a large volume of water at a suitable temperature. The
water may be used directly to cool the engine, but often has sediment, which can clog coolant
passages, or chemicals, such as salt, that can chemically damage the engine.
aluminum core and the plastic tanks to seal the system and keep the fluid from leaking out. On
older copper and brass radiators, the tanks were brazed (a form of welding) in order to seal the
radiator may be run through a heat exchanger that is cooled by the body of water.
Most liquid-cooled engines use a mixture of water and chemicals such as antifreeze and rust
inhibitors. The industry term for the antifreeze mixture is engine coolant. Some antifreezes use
no water at all, instead using a liquid with different properties, such as propylene glycol or a
combination of propylene glycol and ethylene glycol. Most "air-cooled" engines use some liquid
oil cooling, to maintain acceptable temperatures for both critical engine parts and the oil itself.
Most "liquid-cooled" engines use some air cooling, with the intake stroke of air cooling the
combustion chamber. An exception isWankel engines, where some parts of the combustion
chamber are never cooled by intake, requiring extra effort for successful operation.
However, properties of the coolant (water, oil, or air) also affect cooling. As example, comparing
water and oil as coolants, one gram of oil can absorb about 55% of the heat for the same rise in
temperature (called the specific heat capacity). Oil has about 90% the density of water, so a
given volume of oil can absorb only about 50% of the energy of the same volume of water. The
thermal conductivity of water is about 4 times that of oil, which can aid heat transfer. The
viscosity of oil can be ten times greater than water, increasing the energy required to pump oil
for cooling, and reducing the net power output of the engine.
Comparing air and water, air has vastly lower heat capacity per gram and per volume (4000) and
less than a tenth the conductivity, but also much lower viscosity (about 200 times lower: 17.4 ×
10−6Pa·s for air vs 8.94 × 10−4 Pa·s for water). Continuing the calculation from two paragraphs
above, air cooling needs ten times of the surface area, therefore the fins, and air needs 2000 times
the flow velocity and thus a recirculating air fan needs ten times the power of a recirculating
water pump. Moving heat from the cylinder to a large surface area for air cooling can present
problems such as difficulties manufacturing the shapes needed for good heat transfer and the
space needed for free flow of a large volume of air.
The Components of a Cooling System
108
The Radiator The radiator core is usually made of flattened aluminum tubes with aluminum
strips that zigzag between the tubes. These fins transfer the heat in the tubes into the air stream to
be carried away from the vehicle. On each end of the radiator core is a tank, usually made of
plastic that covers the ends of the radiator,
On most modern radiators, the tubes run horizontally with the plastic tank on either side. On
other cars, the tubes run vertically with the tank on the top and bottom. On older vehicles, the
core was made of copper and the tanks were brass. The new aluminum-plastic system is much
more efficient, not to mention cheaper to produce. On radiators with plastic end caps, there are
gaskets between the
Radiator Fans Mounted on the back of the radiator on the side closest to the engine is one or
two electric fans inside a housing that is designed to protect fingers and to direct the air flow.
These fans are there to keep the air flow going through the radiator while the vehicle is going
slow or is stopped with the engine running. If these fans stopped working, every time you came
to a stop, the engine temperature would begin rising. On older systems, the fan was connected to
the front of the water pump and would spin whenever the engine was running because it was
driven by a fan belt instead of an electric motor.
Pressure cap and reserve tank: As coolant gets hot, it expands. Since the cooling system is
sealed, this expansion causes an increase in pressure in the cooling system, which is normal and
part of the design. When coolant is under pressure, the temperature where the liquid begins to
boil is considerably higher. This pressure, coupled with the higher boiling point of ethylene
glycol, allows the coolant to safely reach temperatures in excess of 250 degrees. The radiator
pressure cap is a simple device that will maintain pressure in the cooling system up to a certain
point. If the pressure builds up higher than the set pressure point, there is a spring loaded valve,
calibrated to the correct Pounds per Square Inch (psi), to release the pressure.
Water Pump A water pump is a simple device that will keep the coolant moving as long as the
engine is running. It is usually mounted on the front of the engine and turns whenever the engine
is running. The water pump is driven by the engine through one of the following:
109
A fan belt that will also be responsible for driving an additional component like an alternator or
power steering pump A serpentine belt, which also drives the alternator, power steering pump
and AC compressor among other things.
The timing belt that is also responsible for driving one or more camshafts.
Air cooling system
Air cooled system is generally used in small engines say up to 15-20 kW and in
aero plane engines.
In this system fins or extended surfaces are provided on the cylinder walls,
cylinder head, etc. Heat generated due to combustion in the engine cylinder will be
conducted to the fins and when the air flows over the fins, heat will be dissipated
to air.
The amount of heat dissipated to air depends upon :
(a) Amount of air flowing through the fins.
(b) Fin surface area.
(c) Thermal conductivity of metal used for fins.
110
Advantages of Air Cooled System

Following are the advantages of air cooled system :
(a) Radiator/pump is absent hence the system is light.
(b) In case of water cooling system there are leakages, but in this case
there are no leakages.
(c) Coolant and antifreeze solutions are not required.
(d) This system can be used in cold climates, where if water is used it
may freeze.
Disadvantages of Air Cooled System
(a) Comparatively it is less efficient.
(b) It is used in aero planes and motorcycle engines where the engines are
exposed to air directly.
Signature
111

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Energy Conservation & Utilization System

The air conditioning comparison mainly of four mainly,

Refrigeration can be classified as:

1. Vapor cycle, and

Vapor cycle refrigeration can further be classified as:

1. Vapor compression refrigeration

2. Gas absorption refrigeration

Ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle

For an ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle, it consists of 4 main processes:

= 14 x 4.187 x (308.5 – 296.6) / 5

The condenser or cooler consists of pipe in which refrigerant is come in to

Fig: 5 Expansion devise

Evaporator is removes heat of the circulating refrigerant. In evaporator refrigerant

 Observation Table:For capillary tube,

T₁= Inlet Temperature of compressor.(℃)

T₂= Outlet temperature of compressor.(℃)

T₃= Outlet temperature of condenser.(℃)

T₄= Outlet temperature of expansion device.(℃)

T₅= Brine temperature.(℃)

Here, For reading 1,

Fig.4 Pressure Vs COP graph.

(1)Refrigeration and Air-conditioning-P L Ballaney.

 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES:

 Based on combustion of fuel:

i) External Combustion Engine:

ii) Internal Combustion Engine:

 Based ignition of fuel:

i) Spark ignition engine :

ii)Compression ignition engine :

 Based on fuel used:

i)Diesel engine:Diesel is used as fuel

ii)Petrol engine:Petrol is used as fuel

iii)Gas engines:propane, butane or methane gases are used.

 Based on working cycle:

i)Four stroke cycle engine:

The operation is as follows -

N = brake speed, rpm.

= (L × 9.81) × 0.133 Nm.

 Specific Fuel Consuption:

 Head supplied by fuel:

Hf =FC × 42630 KJ/hr.

 Heat equivalent to BP:

HBP = BP × 3600 KJ/hr.

 Heat equivalent to IP:

HIP = IP × 3600 KJ/hr.

Brake thermal efficiency:

Air head across orifice,

 Apparatus:Single cylinder Diesel Engine test rig.

Fill up sufficient diesel in diesel tank.

Fill up water in manometer upto half of the manometer height.

Release the loading screw so that there is no tension in the rope.

As engine picks up speed, start the water to the brake drum.

Note down cooling water and calorimeter water flow rate.

Note down the temperatures from the channels 1 to 5.

 Calculation: For 2Kg load.

= (L × 9.81) × 0.133 Nm.

= (2 × 9.81) × 0.133 Nm.

 Specific Fuel Consuption:

= 1.64 Kg/Kw hr.

 Head supplied by fuel:

Hf =FC × 42630 KJ/hr.

=0.668 × 42630 KJ/hr.

By this Graph, we find the FP.