Compressed Air Guideline

ENERGY AGREEMENTS PROGRAMME
2007
COMPRESSED AIR TECHNICAL GUIDE

Sustainable Energy Ireland Compressed Air Technical Guide
HANDY RULES OF THUMB
80-93% of the electrical energy consumed by a compressor is converted into

heat. The installation of a heat recovery unit can reclaim anywhere from 50-
90% of the available thermal energy
Every 1 bar in pressure reduction produces a 6-7% power saving
Improving the efficiency of a compressed air system should begin with a

strategic assessment of the core energy services and work its way back to
the generation station
One 4mm hole in a compressed air distribution pipe operating throughout

the year can cost €2,005 P.A. on a typical compressed air system operating at
8 bar (electricity at an average unit cost of €0.10/kWh)
A 1% reduction in compressor power consumption can be achieved through

a 4oC reduction in inlet temperature
Air velocity in the distribution main should not exceed 6 m/s
Air velocity in distribution branch lines should not exceed 15 m/s
A 50% increase above the maximum recommended air velocities increases

system energy use by approximately 2%
For areas with different production times, the use of zone isolation valves
should be considered
If a top-up compressor is being called 30-70% of the time, the economic case
for the installation of a VSD machine should be investigated
Page 2 of 40
TABLE OF CONTENTS
HANDY RULES OF THUMB ............................................................................................................. 2

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM AUDIT – A STRATEGIC WALKTHROUGH....................................... 4
1.1 BENCHMARKING .................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 PROCESS MAP....................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 METERING/MONITORING AND TARGETING ................................................................................. 7
1.4 ENERGY REQUIREMENTS.......................................................................................................... 7
1.4.1 Avoid Misuse ................................................................................................................ 7
1.4.2 Turn the Equipment Off ............................................................................................... 8
1.4.3 Pressure Considerations............................................................................................... 8
1.4.4 Education/Training....................................................................................................... 9
1.5 DISTRIBUTION ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.5.1 Line Improvements and Pressure Drops ..................................................................... 9
1.5.2 Leak Detection Programme ....................................................................................... 10
1.5.3 Dedicated Air Receivers for End Users....................................................................... 12
1.6 TREATMENT ........................................................................................................................ 13
1.6.1 Treatment Equipment................................................................................................ 13
1.6.2 Localised Air Treatment ............................................................................................. 16
1.7 COMPRESSED AIR GENERATION.............................................................................................. 17
1.7.1 Compressor Sizing...................................................................................................... 17
1.7.2 Discharge System Pressure ........................................................................................ 17
1.7.3 Control ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.7.4 VSD Compressors ....................................................................................................... 21
1.7.5 Reduce Air Temperature (ambient air) ...................................................................... 21
1.8 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE ................................................................................................... 22
1.9 PURCHASING POLICY ............................................................................................................ 24
1.9.1 Compressors ............................................................................................................... 24
1.9.2 Treatment and End Users........................................................................................... 29
1.9.3 Seek Advice................................................................................................................. 29
1.10 HEAT RECOVERY .................................................................................................................. 30
1.11 COMPRESSED AIR AUDIT OVERVIEW ....................................................................................... 31
Resources……………………………………………………………………………………32
Page 3 of 40
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM AUDIT – A STRATEGIC WALKTHROUGH

The goal of energy best practice is to aid a facility improve their market competitiveness by
reducing energy costs from the bottom line of the budget. It does this by merging the most
appropriate and efficient technology with suitable management strategies. This aids a facility
improve its overall energy efficiency, environmental performance, system reliability and in
many cases: productivity.
Best practice emphasises assessing the entire system, rather than individual components. It
adopts this holistic view of systems to identify potential energy saving opportunities and
improvements. Upgrading a compressed air system through the procurement of the most
efficient compressor technology can be productive but not nearly as valuable as a full system
assessment. By establishing a holistic approach to managing the compressed air at a facility,
savings in the region of 20-50% can often be found. As was evident during the course of the six
audits at industrial facilities, some of the largest potential savings were identified by assessing
the end user requirements and using this as the platform to optimise system performance.
A compressed air system audit begins by assessing the service requirements and moves
through the distribution network and onwards to the generation station. These deliberate and
strategic actions are often described as steps in the onion diagram (Figure 1) which emphasises
a full assessment of the core energy services as the first action taken when aiming to increase
the efficiency of a system and move onwards through the system back to the generation
station itself.
Accordingly, the layout of this document is quite deliberate – it begins by discussing the
typically efficiency opportunities seen at end users in industrial facilities and moves upstream
through the system to the compressed air generation station itself.
Figure 1 – Onion Diagram Principle in relation to a strategic assessment of a compressed air system audit
Page 4 of 40
Size of Prize
It is important to evaluate how much of site total energy usage is attributable to

Compressed Air. If detailed metering not available this can be estimated using simple
spreadsheet analysis, looking at installed capacity (kW), run hours and estimated running
load. This determines whether the site should be looking at delivering savings through
Capital investment (High Cost), Repair Replace Maintain Initiatives (Medium cost), or
Operational Change (Low/No Cost).
1.1 Benchmarking
The term benchmarking describes the process of measuring or estimating system power
consumption – in the case of a compressed air system, it refers to overall power consumption.
Before undertaking any kind of compressed air system energy efficiency improvements, a
benchmarking exercise must be carried out. Without this benchmark or baseline of energy use,
it is impossible to quantify ongoing system improvements.
Field measurements rather than estimations are the most accurate means of establishing a
benchmark. 1In existing installations, some simple measurements will serve. The most
important measurements are power consumption and flow measurements.
The next step is to determine if there are any correlations between power and key usage or
process profiles. For example: production levels; seasons; daily profiles; shift patterns; etc. This
step is vital in selecting the data to be employed for generating Energy Performance Indicators
(EPI) and often incorporates some form of regression analysis. EPI’s facilitate optimising the
supply and demand side of the compressed air system. The most popular EPI for a compressed
air system benchmark is the ratio of energy consumed per normal meter cubed of compressed
air (kWh/Nm3)2.
Moving on from overall power consumption, in order to determine the overall performance of
the compressors and the distribution network, it is necessary to gain an understanding of the
pressure at strategic points throughout the system. Pressure readings should be taken at:
• Compressor discharge points
• Before and after filters
• Before and after dryers
• At the main distribution header
• At critical users
1
It is a relatively simple exercise to incorporate field measurement into a system at the design stage
however ad hoc measurement instrumentation can be costly in existing installations.
2
It should be noted that a comparison of your system’s performance against other systems (or even
systems at your own plant) can be done, however it is a difficult exercise in data normalisation and serves
little benefit. The difficulty stems from the myriad of system requirements characteristics across dissimilar
(or similar) sites. For example, differing climatic conditions, pressure requirements, end user requirements,
control, volume requirements, and filtering and drying requirements, leads to comparison of performance
across systems cumbersome, and often renders the results meaningless.
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The simultaneous readings taken at critical users aid the identification of potential
opportunities for improvement. The ultimate goal of this exercise is become familiar with the
dynamic pressure performance of the distribution system and to fill in a system process map
(discussed in the next section).
1.2 Process Map

A process flow diagram outlining the critical components of the compressed air system should
be generated as part of any system audit. Such components should include:
• Intake Filtering Components

• Compression Equipment
• Instrumentation and Control
• Cooling (either internal or external)
• Air Storage Equipment
• Drying and Filtering Equipment
• Distribution Layout (include various isolation valves, fluid traps, intermediate storage
vessels and other equipment which have inherent pressure differentials)
• Points of Use (either by name or group)
• Metering
Undertaking this exercise is vital in developing an understanding of the system. This map can
be as detailed as the operator would like but a simple block diagram will suffice. In addition,
this map should be thought of as a live document and it should be updated as more
information is gathered (i.e. pressure readings throughout the distribution network, isolation
valves (manual/automatic), etc.) and updated when any alterations are made to the system.
Figure 2 – Typically High Level Process Map of a Compressed Air System
Page 6 of 40
1.3 Metering/Monitoring and Targeting

Where possible, metering should be a part of any new production or utilities expansion or
machinery purchase - it is much cheaper to install it at the start that retrofit later.
Improvements to metering, monitoring and targeting and KPI management will typically
generate between 5-10% savings - a “size of the prize” evaluation will determine where is most
appropriate to implement metering.
The following equation can be used to justify metering expenditure:
C = Apt
100
Where: C = Justifiable Metering Expenditure (€) A = Annual Energy Cost (€)
P = Percentage Savings Expected T = Acceptable Payback (years)
1.4 Energy Requirements

Compressed air is not an efficient means of transferring energy around a facility. The usable
work delivered from an air-operated device is generally 8 times more expensive than an
electrical equivalent. Accordingly, there is often significant scope to increase plant efficiency by
reviewing end user requirements.
1.4.1 Avoid Misuse
Minimising compressed air demand can be the most effective means of mitigating the power
consumption of the compressed air system. The energy requirements served by the
compressed air can often be better served through some form of local operation. Table 1
illustrates a snapshot of several energy requirements which could be better served by
alternative means, and for a small fraction of the lifecycle costs.
Energy Requirement Compressed Air Use Alternative Use

Cool Electrical Cabinets Air Vortex Tubes Air Conditioning; Fans
Hoists Pneumatic Hoists Electrical Hoists
Area Cleaning/Debris Low Pressure Air; Brushes; Blowers;
Air Whips
Removal Vacuum Systems
Conveyor; Blowers; Electric
Transportation Compressed Air Blasts
Actuators or Hydraulics
Vacuum Systems; Vacuum Pumps;
Creating a Vacuum Compressed Air Venturi
Multi Stage Venturis.
Motors or Actuators Pneumatic Control Electric Devices3
Blowers; Fans; Air Conditioning;
Drying Compressed Air
etc.
Cool; Aspiration; Mix; Agitate; Compressed Air Nozzle
Blowers
Inflate; etc. Arrangements
Table 1 – Sample Compressed Air Uses, with more Efficient Counterpart Technology
3
Ensure the retrofitted device is appropriate. Electric devices can often have less precise torque control
and shorter operating lives than their pneumatic counterparts. Once again, it is a matter of selecting the
appropriate technology to suit the end user requirement.
Page 7 of 40
In order to determine if a pneumatic device is the correct choice, some key questions should
be asked. As a result of using compressed air, are there:
• Intrinsic safety enhancements?

• Significant productivity gains?
• Labour reductions?
If the answer to all three are “no”, then alternate means of servicing the energy requirement
should be explored.
1.4.2 Turn the Equipment Off
If compressed air is not required for long periods, isolation valves (manual or automatic) should
be installed on the line to minimise energy waste. In addition, manual valves should be
installed to isolate header lines no longer in use. Pneumatic equipment which could be
potentially left on for sustained periods when not required should also have some means of
isolating the line. Standard operating procedures should be effective to ensure that
compressed air flow to these energy requirements is isolated during non-operational periods.
This is also an effective means of avoiding parasitic loads which are often present in
distribution branches.
1.4.3 Pressure Considerations
It is a common finding across audits to identify a situation where an end user is utilising un-
regulated compressed air. A pressure regulator is a device utilised to limit the maximum end of
line pressure and is generally placed in the distribution system immediately upstream of end
users. Without this device, the energy users utilise the maximum system pressure resulting in
increased wear and tear; higher maintenance costs; and a shorter operational lifetime. In
addition, local pressure reduction reduces artificial demand (leakage and other parasitic loads).
If a situation occurs where one specific end user is dictating the pressure of the entire system, it
is often more economic to replace or modify this component rather than increase the system
pressure. For example, the bore of a solenoid stem could be increased, or the gear ratios can be
changed, or similar mechanical advantages could be exploited before taking the easier, but
more financially costly, route of increasing compressor discharge pressure at the generation
station. Other possible solutions include boosters immediately upstream of the end users or a
dedicated high pressures system.
Pressure Reduction Savings
Take for example a 150kW compressor running for 8400 hours P.A. Assume the efficiency of
the compressor is 90% and the cost of electricity is 0.10 €/kWh. If the discharge pressure
were reduced from 7.5 bar to 6.5 bar, a saving of over 6% in power consumption could be
expected which translates into an annual monetary saving of €8,400. This substantial saving
does not include the fringe savings which could be expected (reduced leaks, reduced
component maintenance, etc.). Appropriate controls can often overcome such adverse
conditions (Section 1.7.3), however in undertaking this opportunity, the discharge pressure
should be stepped down in small increments and the performance of critical end users
should be carefully monitored.
Page 8 of 40
1.4.4 Education/Training
Plant personnel often do not realise the relative cost of compressed air. However, operators
and staff can be a valuable resource when adequately informed and respond well to energy
programmes. As a result, it is vital that they receive the relevant training related to the efficient
use of pneumatic plant machinery.
1.5 Distribution
Tests and experiments have shown that for every 1 bar in pressure drop across the system, the
resulting power consumption is increased by 6-7%4 (plus the additional cost of unregulated
users). Accordingly, the distribution network can have a profound influence on the
performance of the system. There are a number of steps, which can be taken to optimise the air
distribution system.
1.5.1 Line Improvements and Pressure Drops
The system process flow map outlined in section 1.2 can help identify areas of excessive
pressure drops (e.g. plugged filters; undersized hoses, regulator and lubricators, tubes, filters;
moisture separators; after coolers; restricted supply lines; poorly designed distribution
networks; etc).
For angle connections, it is best to replace tee connections with directional angle entry
connections or swept tees. The turbulence caused by a 90o connection can cause pressure
drops resulting in backpressure sending a false ‘unload signal’ to the compressors, which can
potentially cause excessive compressor cycling.
Incorrect pipe sizing or restrictions are a major source of pressure loss in the system. For
example, the interconnecting distribution network from the compressor supply to the header
distribution piping should create no pressure loss. However, such losses are commonplace,
especially in more antiquated networks where numerous changes have occurred.
Interconnecting pipes between compressors or systems often require close attention. It is vital
that they are carefully designed to ensure that they are not sending back any false signals to
the compressor. However, such piping strategies can be beneficial where top-up air can be
provided from one system rather than operating a backup compressor.
A rings main is generally the most efficient type of distribution layout. The local feeding mains
can flow up to 15m/s. However, in order to prevent adverse pressure drops, the flow velocity in
the main header sections should not exceed 6m/s. As a rule of thumb, a well-designed and
maintained system should not have pressure drops of greater than 0.2 bar between the end of
the treatment centre and the farthest point in the system.
4
Carbon Trust GPG385 – Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
Page 9 of 40
1.5.2 Leak Detection Programme
Leaks are an unfortunate but regular feature in compressed air distribution networks. Typically,
the energy requirements served by a compressed air system are intermittent in nature;
however leaks are constant and potentially significant. The monetary cost of leaks can be quite
startling, and surprising.
Compressed Air Leaks
One 4mm hole in a compressed air distribution pipe can cost €2,005 P.A. on a typical
compressed air system operating throughout the year and at 8 bar (Figure 3). In addition to
the monetary costs, leaks can cause significant pressure drops resulting in excessive
compressor cycling. Attempts are often made to combat pressure loss in a system where
excessive leakage is a problem by increasing system discharge pressure. However, this only
exacerbates the problem by increasing the leakage rate and creating more leaks in the future.
Figure 3 – Proportionate Costs of Leaks in a Compressed Air System for Range of Pressures
Leakage levels at facilities are typically as high as 20-30% and levels as high as 50% are not
unusual. In order to move forward with any leak reduction programme, it is important to
benchmark the current leakage rate. The extent to which a compressed air system is leaking
can be easily determined during non-production hours through assessment of Monitoring &
Targeting (M&T) data (if present) or through manual pressure indicator readings in the
distribution network with some quick calculations.
Page 10 of 40
Determining Current Leakage Rate
In the absence of a compressed air M&T system capable of delivering snapshots of

compressed air flow during non-production times, facilities can use the Start/Stop Method.
1. Turn off all end users
2. Start the compressors and measure the time interval for the compressor to load and
unload (the compressor will load and unload due the existing leaks in the system)
3. Repeat a number of times to determine the average
Leakage (%) = [(Tx100)/(T+t)]
T = Time On Load (mins), t = Time Off Load (mins)
The leakage percentage will be below 10% in a well-maintained system, while losses as high
as 20-30% will occur on poorly maintained systems.
Locate the Leaks
Leakage can occur at any point in a compressed air system, but the most common culprits
include piping joints, drains, relief valves, drain valves, flexible hose pipes, filter and lubricator
units, pressure regulators, condensate traps and thread sealants. The best means of locating
compressed air leaks is an ultrasonic acoustic detector capable of identifying the high
frequency noise synonymous with compressed air leaks. When this technology is not available,
simpler methods such as applying soapy water to the distribution network and waiting for
bubbles to form is just as effective.
Repair the Leaks
Fixing the leaks is often as simple as tightening connections or applying sealant at strategic
points. However leaks will be found that require the replacement of faulty components. In all
instances, select the highest quality fittings, disconnects, hoses, tubes, etc. and install them as
appropriate with high quality thread sealant.
A 10% reduction in leakage, which is a modest target for leakage in any system, would often be
gained as a result of carrying out an intensive leak reduction programme.
Leak Reduction Programme
Due to the large savings associated with a regular Leak Detection Programme, the potential
savings associated with this opportunity to save energy often results in payback periods of less
than 1 year. A leak reduction program will involve identification (tagging), tracking, repairing,
recording and verification.
Page 11 of 40
The most valuable tool in combating leakage in the system are personnel who should be
brought onboard and actively engaged in the programme. Plant personnel will often become
actively engaged in a leak reduction programme. Knowing that a reduction in leaks will lead to
a more comfortable working environment will often result in more active involvement from
personnel. The goal of any programme is to make individual departments responsible for
usage. Accordingly, flow to these departments should be monitored to ensure that area
ownership is taken.
Facilities utilising significant volumes of compressed air should aggressively engage in a Leak
Detection Programme and carry out a bi-annual compressed air leakage survey.
Finally, it is important to bear in mind that one of the most effective means of reducing
compressed air leakage is to reduce the distribution pressure.
Network Installation Selection
Where possible, the distribution pipework network should be welded. This is especially
important where access to main headers is difficult or compressed air is required on a 24x7
basis making any leak reduction programme almost impossible. The potential economic losses
as a result of operating a distribution in poor condition outweigh the capital cost associated
with installing high quality connections.
1.5.3 Dedicated Air Receivers for End Users
Air receivers are beneficial in industrial applications where air pressure is subject to large
fluctuations or variations. In these situations, the increased compressed air requirement is
compensated by air from the local air receivers thus minimising idling at the generation
station. The air receivers are subsequently replenished slowly using a flow/control valve to
minimise peak energy demand on the compressor station. In addition to reduced compressor
cycling, air receivers provide protection for end users that require high pressure by minimising
the system pressure drop off while supporting the speed of transmission response in supply.
Page 12 of 40
1.6 Treatment
Compressed air system performance is typically enhanced through appropriate treatment. Air
treatment equipment is required to adequately prepare the air to meet the energy
requirements of end users. However, it is vital to marry the treatment facilities with the actual
end user requirements. Inappropriate treatment for the compressed air system can be a major
source of energy waste.
1.6.1 Treatment Equipment
Moisture and contaminants carried over from the compressed air generation facility can cause
damage to sensitive end users that require high quality air. In order to maintain the integrity
and safety of the system, compressed air must be kept moisture-free and particulate-free.
Accordingly, humid compressed air must be dried appropriately to extract the moisture from
the stream and prevent precipitation.
The technology employed to treat (filter and dry) compressed air has a significant energy
consumption implication (Table 2). Decisions based solely on capital economics often leads to
selection of the most inefficient technology rather than more energy efficient equivalents.
Pressure Filtration Added Energy

Dryer Type
Dew-point Requirements Cost
Deliquescent +10oC General Purpose 1%
Refrigeration +3 oC None 3-5%
Membrane -20 oC Before & After 28%
Waste Heat Regenerative -20 oC Before & After 3-5%
Desiccant Heatless -40 oC Before & After 10-18%
Desiccant Heated or External Blower -40 oC Before & After 8-12%
Desiccant Heatless -70 oC Before & After 15-21%
Table 2 – Typical Additional Costs for Drying
Compressed air treatment typically requires filtering and drying equipment – invariably
housed in the compressed air generation station, however situations do occur where it makes
more economic sense to only treat a portion of the air. The general rule of thumb is that the
higher the quality of air, the greater the compressed air system costs (initial capital and system
running costs). Selecting the appropriate drying technology for your requirements can achieve
significant savings over the compressor lifecycle (Table 2).
Much work has been carried out to bring classification to major contaminants. Table 3 and
Table 4 illustrate the classes and typical requirements set out in ISO 8573.1 (Air Quality
Classifications Standard). To choose the required class, assess the required dew point, the
permissible remaining levels of oil and remaining dirt particles. For examples, Class 3-4-1
would require a refrigeration dryer with a high quality coalescing filter. Accordingly, all end
users should be disaggregated according to air quality, quantity and pressure requirement.
These key parameters dictate the end user grade with the required quality determined by the
end users dryness and contamination level requirements (Table 4).
Page 13 of 40
WATER OIL
DIRT
Pressure (including Recommended
Quality Class Particle Size
Dewpoint oC vapour) Dryer
in Micron
at 7 barg mg/m3
1 0.1 -70 0.01 Desiccant
Desiccant or
2 1 -40 0
Membrane
Desiccant or
3 5 -20 1
Membrane
Refrigerated or
4 40 +3 5
Membrane
High Inlet
5 - +7 25
Temp. Inlet
High Inlet
6 - +10 -
Temp. Inlet
Table 3 – Air Contamination Classes (ISO 8573.1)
Typical Quality Classes

Application Classes
Dirt Water Oil
Air Agitation 5 3 3
Air Bearing 2 3 2
Air Gauging 3 3 2
Air Motors 4-1 5 4
Brick and Glass Machines 4 5 4
Cleaning of Machine Parts 4 4 4
Construction 5 5 4
Conveying, Granular Products 4 3 3
Conveying, Powder Products 3 2 2
Fluidics, Power Circuits 4 4 4
Fluidics, Sensors 2-1 2 2
Foundry Machines 4 5 4
Food and Beverages 3 1 2
Hand-operated Air Tools 5-4 5-4 4
Machine Tools 3 5 4
Mining 5 5 4
Micro-electronics Manufacture 1 1 1
Packaging and Textile Machines 3 3 4
Photographic Film Processing 1 1 1
Pneumatic Cylinders 3 5 3
Pneumatic Tools 4 4 4
Process Control Instruments 2 3 2
Paint Spraying 3 3 3
Sand Blasting 3 3 -
Welding Machines 4 5 4
General Workshop Air 4 5 4
Table 4 – Typical Application Requirements
Page 14 of 40
The following sections present a high level discussion of many of the common treatment
facilities employed in industrial facilities. For a more detailed discussion of compressed air
treatment, GPG 216 – Energy Saving in the Filtration and Drying of Compressed Air is an
excellent starting point.
Desiccant Air Dryers
Twin tower desiccant dyers are generally thought to be one of the most effective dryer types.
These dryers are split into two main groups: heatless and heated. Heatless dryers employ
compressed air to regenerate the towers while heated dryers use electrical heating elements in
the desiccant bed.
One opportunity to save energy with desiccant tower dryers is efficient management of the
dewpoint set point. The dewpoint is often needlessly set to -40oC, however a temperature of
15oC below the lowest winter temperature would suffice; in Ireland, a set point of -20oC would
typically suffice. In all situations, compressed air drying should be appropriate to the energy
service requirements and a holistic assessment of the system should be undertaken before
undertaking any treatment alterations.
Desiccant dryers rely on air or heat from the dry tower to regenerate the wet tower. The
frequency of column changeovers, and the associated amount of purge air, is set assuming the
dryer is used at maximum capacity – invariably on a set time schedule. As dryers are rarely used
to their maximum capacity, expensive purge air is wasted. Dewpoint controllers are capable of
controlling the purge cycles of towers by only engaging the purge cycle when it is required
and can be an effective cost avoidance tool.
The heatless type dryers are more expensive to operate, as they require anything from 10-18%
of the total airflow during the purging process. The heated-type does not require the same
volumes of air but do require hot air, which should be considered against the reduction in the
amount of purge air. Some tower arrangements are orchestrated in such a way that they use a
mixture of heat and heatless strategies.
If a system’s energy requirements do not require air with a low dewpoint, the regeneration of
non-duty section of the dryer can be facilitated by utilising the waste heat of compression
(before the after-cooling)5. The compressor load and cooling efficiency will determine the
actual range, however the dewpoint normally falls within -20oC to -30oC. The energy cost for
such arrangements is often as low as 3%.
Refrigerated Dryers
Refrigerated dryers offer significant savings for a compressed air plant. Moisture in the
compressed air stream is removed by condensing water vapour into a liquid. Accordingly, the
air stream is cooled to the desired dew point. This process takes place in a heat exchanger and
well designed refrigerated dryers can achieve dew points of 3oC – as long the compressed air
temperature downstream of the dryer does not drop below this temperature, no liquid water
will be present.
5
The screw compressor should be an oil free type or the air to be employed for regeneration should be
appropriately treated (which can add to the overall cost of the solution).
Page 15 of 40
It is vital to ensure refrigerated dryers are adequately maintained. A non-performing

refrigerated dryer can have dewpoint temperatures as high as 12-16oC resulting in large
quantities of water being carried over to the distribution network.
Filters
It is important to only install the type of filter(s) that are actually required. This will minimise
pressure drops – thereby reducing compressor power consumption. There are three main
types of filters: particulate filters for the removal of solid particles; coalescing filters for the
removal of lubricant and moisture; and adsorbent filters for the removal of very fine
contaminants. It is often the case that system components within the compressor station
dictate which filter type is required. For example, a particulate filter and a coalescing filer
should be installed before a desiccant-type dryer to prevent fouling of the desiccant bed.
Additional filtering may be required to maintain the integrity of components downstream (a
particle removal filter is normally used as an after-filter to prevent desiccant dust being carried
over into the system).
A watchful eye should be maintained on all pressure differentials across the treatment
components on a system. Pressure differentials should not exceed 0.3 bar across the filters.
1.6.2 Localised Air Treatment
In any system audit, the treatment regime should always be investigated. For example, it is
common to identify a situation where the entire volume of compressed air is treated (drying
and filtering) to meet the requirements of 5% of the energy requirements. In such instances,
localised treatment of the compressed air immediately upstream of the critical end user should
be investigated. The economics of such strategies are often excellent, with typical paybacks of
2 years or lower depending on the relative size of the systems.
Page 16 of 40
1.7 Compressed Air Generation

It is vital to gain an understanding of the system energy flow for this significant energy user.
Figure 4 illustrates the typical energy flow for a compressor operating throughout the year at 7
bar. It is common to find compressed air system where only 4-8% of the energy utilised during
the initial compression cycle is converted into usable energy. The most significant losses occur
during the initial compression cycle itself.
Figure 4 – Sankey Diagram illustrating the Energy Flow of a Typical Inefficient Compressor System
1.7.1 Compressor Sizing
A more thorough description of compressor types is outlined in section 1.9.1, however the key
point is that a facility should work with the vendors of generation technology to optimise a
system so that the system components work to meet the requirements of the site and not the
other way round. Inappropriate technology can fuel the costs associated with the system and
complete redesigns may often be required. During any audit, a matrix should be generated
and filled with any data related to configuration, make, capacity, pressure rating and other key
parameters.
1.7.2 Discharge System Pressure
The location of the compressor signal should be considered in any assessment. Any pressure
drops upstream of this signal must be overcome by the compressor in order to achieve the
correct set point. The compressor signal is typically located at the discharge of the compressor
Page 17 of 40
package, however certain precautions should be taken if it is located downstream of the

treatment instruments. For example, the control range pressure setting should be reduced to
allow for the associated pressure drop. In addition, provision should also be made for
exceeding the maximum allowable discharge pressure in the event of pressure differential
becoming excessive.
1.7.3 Control
The control system employed at the compressor station is one of the most critical determinates
of energy consumption for the system. Effective control of the compressed air demand profile
is required to ensure efficient system operation, low maintenance costs and optimum
performance. A high performance control system is capable of running efficiently at periods of
high and low demand operating within a fixed pressure regime and delivering the required
volume of air. The primary objective of the control system is to run the minimum number of
compressors and turn off any equipment that is not required.
During any system audit, it is important to assess the demand profile. If the load is typically
transient in nature, there may be a case for advanced and sophisticated system controls. On
the other hand, if a facility’s profile highlights short bursts of significant demand, then there
may be a case for some form of system or local storage. Accordingly, it is vital to assess both
individual compressor control and system compressor control strategies.
Individual Compressor Control Strategies
Figure 5 illustrates two alternate compressor controls, which maintain a minimum system
pressure of 6.0 bar. The system pressure is monitored so that when the pressure reaches a
maximum pressure, the compressor output is reduced, and when the minimum system
pressure is reached, the compressor is increased. The difference between the two pressure
levels is termed the pressure range. The more antiquated control systems were slow and
imprecise and they were characterised by wide control ranges. The new and more accurate
control systems are far more precise. A smaller control range lends itself to a far lower average
discharge pressure, which means significant power savings. In addition, tighter control of
discharge pressure has additional benefits including less leakage and an increase in production
quality control.
Figure 5 – Impact of Control on System Pressure
Page 18 of 40
There are five main types of controls, which can be employed for individual compressors:
Start/Stop This is the simplest of all four controls. It can be employed for reciprocating or
rotary screw type compressors where the motor is turned on or off in response to
the discharge pressure. This type of compressor is employed where energy
requirements are infrequent, as repeated stop-starts of a motor will cause it to
overheat and require more frequent maintenance.
Load/Unload This is one of the most common control strategies employed for rotary screw
compressors. The motor runs continuously but it unloads the compressor when
the discharge maximum pressure is reached. The system is ‘loaded’ (compressed
air is directed into the distribution system) when the system pressure minimum
set point is reached. An unloaded rotary screw compressor will continue to use
15-35% of full load energy while providing no useful work.
Modulating This form of compressor control throttles the inlet air to meet the compressed air
load. This form of control can be employed for screw and reciprocating
compressors however it is more common for centrifugal machines.
Multi-step (Part Load) Compressors can be designed to operate in stages so that the power
consumption is proportional to the compressor output requirement. Such
partially loaded conditions can achieve significant savings and this form of
control is found on reciprocating compressors.
Variable Speed This form of control is gaining a wider acceptance as the industry begins to reap
Drives the rewards of recent advances in technology. A detailed overview is outlined in
section 1.7.4.
System Control Strategies
In addition to individual compressor control, system compressor control strategies are required
when a number of compressors are employed to generate the required flow of compressed air.
These kinds of strategies are best suited to demand profiles B, C and D in Figure 6.
The more antiquated form of control – involving pressure switches, which turned compressors
on and off, as required – should be avoided as it leads to excessive system pressures (often as
much as 1.5 bar). More energy efficient control strategies have emerged in recent times which
can aid a facility reduce power consumption considerably.
Sequencing Controls Sequencers orchestrate the actions of a number of compressors to meet demand
as energy efficiently as possible by operating on a tight pressure range for the
system. It does so by sequencing or staging individual compressor capacity to
meet system demand. One compressor is designated as ‘master’ and additional
compressors provide ‘top-up’ or trim (Figure 6). Periods of operating as master
compressor should be shared amongst the pool of compressors to reduce
maintenance costs.
Network Controls This newer form of system control orchestrates the actions of multiple
compressors individually and in terms of the system. Accordingly, individual
controllers are networked together sharing operating information and other
pertinent data. This is currently one of the most efficient means of controlling
system pressure on the market ensuring the most efficient compressors perform
the duty cycle for the system.
Page 19 of 40
Figure 6 – Optimum Compressor Sequencing Strategies to meet Demand Profile
Flow/Control Valve
A Flow/Control Valve serves to separate the supply side from the demand side of the
compressed air system. These components facilitate operating compressors close to their
optimum pressures in order to maximise their efficiency so that the pressure on the demand
side can be minimised to meet actual energy requirements. Careful consideration is required as
to the size parameters for these components as they can be a source of excessive pressure
drop due to poor sizing considerations.
Air Receivers
Storage or air receivers placed at strategic points in a system, which accommodate transient
events, is a form of system control. This can be an effective tool in minimising compressor
power consumption when a slow replenishment of these storage devices can be facilitated
using an appropriate flow/control device . Higher-pressure supply air is fed into these storage
vessels at a predetermined rate and available to meet variations in load thereby suppressing
the instantaneous demand profile. This suppression has the effect of reducing instantaneous
compressed air requirements while maintaining a reliable source of compressed air at a lower
pressure. It should be noted that using receivers can only supplement compressors during very
short periods of high demand.
Page 20 of 40
It is important to install zero loss drain traps and ensure they are fitted with special acid
resistant coating for oil free systems. Such automatic traps reduce maintenance. As identified
in one of the facilities, if air receivers are located outdoors, trace heating technology should be
employed to prevent icing during the cold season.
1.7.4 VSD Compressors
Traditionally, a number of compressors provide the base load at a facility with one compressor
providing top up. A standard compressor operating in this top up mode cannot ramp up and
down to track transient demands; airflow is typically controlled by a valve that modulates
between open and closed positions. Unfortunately, this method results in a higher discharge
pressure, lower part load efficiencies, and increased overall power consumption. Accordingly, a
strong economic case can often be made for installation of Variable Speed Drive (VSD) motor
for the compressor at facilitates displaying inherently variant demand profiles for the top up
compressor (demand profiles C and D in Figure 6).
Capable of being fitted to reciprocating, rotary vane and screw machines, VSD motors control
over a close pressure band minimising artificial demand and the need for control valves. These
units are capable of a more dynamic air discharge to meet the demand at the required
pressure. It does this by varying the speed of the compressor motor, which dramatically
reduces energy consumption. In addition, the compressor is enabled with software to sense
when it should be taken offline. Other benefits include reduced wear and tear of the
compressor; compressor lifecycle extension; and increased compressor stability due to smooth
start-ups.
VSD motors can be integrated into existing machines however VSD controllers and motors
supplied in conjunction tend to offer superior performance. It should be noted that if a unit is
likely to be operated at 100%, a VSD compressor should not be procured; tests have shown a
performance reduction in VSD compressors when 100% loaded. From experience, a case can
often be made for the installation of a VSD compressor when loads for the top-up compressor
lie in the 30-70% range.
1.7.5 Reduce Air Temperature (ambient air)
It is common to find the compressors located in a utilities building where it is drawing warm air
from neighbouring utilities equipment (boilers, etc.). Compressors should be located in a well-
ventilated area, or capable of drawing inlet air from ambient conditions where possible. A 1%
reduction in compressor power consumption can be achieved through a 4oC reduction in inlet
temperature6.
6
GPG 385 – Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
Page 21 of 40
1.8 Preventive Maintenance

Preventative Maintenance is an important tool that should be employed to mitigate energy
consumption and achieve components’ energy saving potential. A number of potential
problems can arise in systems that are not regularly maintained (i.e. reduced compressor
efficiency; increased leaks; excessive pressure differentials; poor air quality; reduced equipment
lifecycles; etc.). The main areas, which should be incorporated into any maintenance regime,
are discussed below:
Equipment Actions
Compressors Ensure all belts are adequately tensioned and working effectively every
400 hours of operation (too tight – can lead to excessive wear, too loose
– can lead to slippage and energy waste).
Ensure the operating temperature is ‘as per specification’
Ensure all lubricants are ‘as per specification7’
Inspect oil levels daily and take action as appropriate (ensure the
correct volume is maintained as too much can be equally as damaging
as too little).
Ensure the lubricant filters are changed ‘as per specification’.
Ensure all heat exchanger and intercooler surfaces are clean and foul
free. Poor motor cooling can have a multitude of adverse effects such
as increased motor temperatures and windings resistances; shorter
motor life; increased downtime; increased maintenance; etc.).
Filters Inlet filters should be cleaned to ensure the compressor is not
subjected to excessive and undue loading stress levels.
Inspect and clean ‘as per specification’ or when the pressure differential
dictates (pressure drop should not exceed 0.3 bar).
Dryers Inspect and clean ‘as per specification’ or when the pressure differential
dictates. The pressure differential should not exceed 0.3 Bar.
Ensure the dryer inlet temperature does not exceed 35oC.
Check pressure dew point against specification and service
requirements.
Water Cooling Inspect all key parameters associated with the water-cooled systems
System
Inspect fans and pumps to ensure they are operating at peak
performance
Separators Inspect and clean ‘as per specification’ or when the pressure differential
dictates (pressure drop should not exceed 0.7 Bar however an earlier
change often makes economic sense).
Air Receivers Check and clean all drain traps (an open trap is a substantial
compressed air leak, a drain trap stuck in closed will cause condensate
to become backed up resulting in carry over to the end users).
Distribution Inspect for leaks (section 1.5.2)
7
Utilising low-grade lubricants can have an extremely adverse effect on the performance of a compressor
leading to increased wear and tear; lower generation efficiency and a reduced lifecycle.
Page 22 of 40
Training for the efficient operation of a compressed air plant should be considered as part of a
holistic approach to the management of the system. Such a training schedule should include
an action plan to aid operators, maintenance, facility managers and management staff to:
• Benchmark the Performance of a Compressed Air System
• Identify Compressed Air Leaks
• Identify Preventative Maintenance Tasks/Checklist
• Undertake System Analysis
• Understand Controls
Ultimately, those undertaking the course should understand the components in a system and
how they interact to dictate the system’s operation and energy consumption. Any training
package should have some form of follow-up evaluation to ensure participants are employing
the intellectual capital leveraged from the training.
Figure 7 – Acceptable pressure losses throughout compressed air system8
8
Acceptable pressure losses may be significantly less depending on equipment utilised in the plant. The
figures quoted in this figure merely serve as a guide for a typical system.
Page 23 of 40
1.9 Purchasing Policy

Successful management of a compressed air system is not limited to operation and
maintenance. Adequate structures must be put in place to ensure that any future purchases of
components are based on lifecycle economics. The capital costs which are initially paid during
the procurement stages for compressor components pale in significance to operating costs
(Figure 8). Accordingly, it is vital that the lifecycle costs associated with these pieces of
equipment are evaluated before any decisions are made. This applies to all components on the
system, not just those in the compressor station.
Typical Cost of a Compressed Air System over a

Ten Year Period
Maintenance
10%
Capital Cost
15%
Energy Cost
75%
Figure 8 – Typical 10-year Lifecycle Costs of a Compressed Air System9
Pressure Reduction Policy

As equipment is being refurbished/replaced/purchased, there should be a policy of reducing
pressure requirements. For example, some companies have a programme of replacing 6 bar
actuators with 4 bar actuators when machines are being refurbished.
Nitrogen
If Nitrogen is generated on site, it may be possible to recover some compressed air from
the N2 system, depending on usage and generation profile.
1.9.1 Compressors
It is vital to select a compressor to match the load at your facility. Operating oversized
compressors as a means of generating compressed air is extremely inefficient as the intrinsic
performance characteristics of compressors lead to a larger energy requirement per volume of
compressed air generated at part loads. Smaller compressors with appropriate and suitable
9
GPG 241 - Energy Savings in the Selection, Control and Maintenance of Air Compressors
Page 24 of 40
control for the facility’s requirements should be procured and installed to service the facility’s
requirements. This generally prepares a plant for any ad hoc additions to the compressed air
system going forward.
Figure 9 –Pressure Limitations Vs Flow Capacity for Three Compressor Groups
The capacity of the system requires careful consideration during the procurement stages. For
example, the capacity should not be taken as simply the sum total of the maximum user
requirements; the median air consumption for all end users should be summed to determine
the system capacity. In addition, periods of high short-term demands should be supplied with
air from local air receivers strategically located throughout a facility. Be mindful of vendor
specifications of performance; they are typically based on ideal conditions, which may bare
little in common with physical plant conditions.
Another point for consideration is whether or not to procure lubricated compressors. For
example, oil-free rotary screw and reciprocating compressors tend to be more expensive to
operate, higher initial costs and higher maintenance. However, the treatment facilities required
for lubricant compressors can often lead to inefficient systems if not properly maintained. A
detailed survey of the end use requirements and existing equipment should be carried out
before making this decision.
There are many different types of compressors, however in most cases, multiple-stage
compression results in more efficient operation. Multiple-stage means that the final discharge
Page 25 of 40
pressure is generated over several steps. Efficiency is significantly increased as a result of the
cooling of air between stages, thereby reducing the volume and work required to compress
the air. The three main types of compressors are Reciprocating Compressors, Rotary Screw
Compressors, and Centrifugal Compressors. A brief overview for each of these types is
discussed below; for a more detailed discussion, consult GPG 241 - Energy Savings in the
Selection, Control and Maintenance of Air Compressors.
Page 26 of 40
Figure 10 – Comparison of Common Compressors (Good Practice Guide 241)
Rotary Screw Compressors
Rotary Screw Compressors are the most common compressors used in industry today and do
have many inherent advantages over reciprocating compressors including a lower capital cost;
lower maintenance costs; smaller size and reduced vibration and noise.
Rotary Screw machines generally have an oil carry over of around 4ppm, however the air can be
appropriately treated for oil-free requirements. Inherently oil free machines can be procured
where required. As with all compressor purchases, a full lifecycle economics investigation should
be carried out before selecting the appropriate technology.
Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressors were historically the most commonly used compressors. However,
the higher capital and maintenance costs have reduced their market dominance in recent years.
Despite this, it is generally accepted that multi-stage version of these units are the most efficient
compressor type.
Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors are generally only suitable for high volume applications with little
variance in the demand load. These compact units are available in two, three and four stage
compression technology. Generally centrifugal compressors are three stage units – which tend
to be more efficient than rotary screw compressors – with inherent efficiencies approaching
those of double-acting reciprocating compressors.
Care should be taken at plants near river estuaries or ponds; freezing fog can potentially blind
the elements of fine filters employed for centrifugal compressors. In such cases, appropriate
protection should be taken – for example installation of swirl prefilters or heated face elements.
Vane Compressors
Vane Compressors can be found in higher demand applications however they are not normally
the first choice for industrial compressed air supply applications. Typically, vane compressors
don’t have actual receivers, but are designed to run continuously. This on-off control responds
to signals from pressure switches
Discriminating Vendor Components
Evaluating brands of compressed air components can be a daunting task. Discriminating

through the performance criteria associated with pneumatic equipment can be difficult as
vendors often publish data at conditions that benefit their products. In order to differentiate
bids from vendors in a meaningful manner, vendors should be asked to quote at the same inlet
conditions, operating pressure etc to enable easier analysis (i.e. performances quoted to
ISO1217 (Displacement Compressors Acceptance Tests)). An educated buyer can discriminate
through this information by prudent examination, meaningful discussion with vendors and
where necessary, discussion with energy experts.
1.9.2 Treatment and End Users
As discussed previously, end user requirements have a profound impact on the holistic
performance of a compressed air system. Accordingly, it is vital to ensure that certain measures
are taken to ensure no adverse effects result from the procurement of unsuitable equipment. In
all cases, vendors should work with facilities to ensure the maximum performance of the system
can be assured.
System components should be selected based on pressure drop; pressure requirement; airflow
rate and temperature – this information should always be available from vendors. Aftercoolers,
separators, filters, dryers, regulators, lubricators, hoses and connections should be selected to
have the minimum possible pressure drop for rated conditions.
A number of end user components (valves, etc.) have internal leaks as part of the design. Where
possible, a purchasing policy should be generated to ensure that such devices are not purchased
and more energy efficient equivalents are sought.
1.9.3 Seek Advice
Engaging a qualified third party specialising in compressed air during the procurement stages
should not be overlooked. The augmentation of practical experiences, industry knowledge and
cost saving exercises gained from a number of other sites is always of considerable benefit.
Page 29 of 40
1.10 Heat Recovery

Due to a large quantity of energy released to atmosphere during the normal compression cycle,
there is significant scope to recover the air/water utilised to cool the compressed air. Typically,
80-93% of the electrical energy consumed by a compressor is converted into heat. The
installation of a heat recovery unit should be considered as these units can reclaim anywhere
from 50-90% of the available thermal energy. These units are available for both the air-cooled
and the water-cooled compressors. However despite this large reserve of energy, most facilities
do not have any form of heat recovery system installed.
In order to consider upgrading a compressor system for a heat recovery unit, there must be
neighbouring and an appropriate thermal energy requirement. Such thermal energy
requirements would include: space heating; industrial process heating; water heating; or boiler
feed-water preheating (Figure 11).
Figure 11 – Heat Recovery Options (Good Practice Guide 238)10
Air-Cooled Rotary Screw Compressors
Packaged Air-cooled rotary screw compressors are ideal for heat recovery options and generally
only require a small number of modifications. Ambient air is passed across the system’s
aftercooler and lubricant cooler where it is heated as it extracts the heat from both the
compressed air and the lubricant.
When employed for space heating, they generally only require the additional ducting, an
additional fan to overcome any back pressure on the compressor cooling fan setup, and some
10
Good Practice Guide 238 offers an excellent overview of assessing the benefit of employing heat recovery
for a compressed air system.
Page 30 of 40
sort of thermostatic damper control to maintain thermally comfortable conditions. As a general

rule, for every 2m3/min of capacity at full load, there is just over 10 kW of available energy. The
recovery efficiency of typically 80-90% for such arrangement and air outlet temperatures of 15-
20oC above ambient air inlet temperatures are typical11.
Another option is the extraction of waste heat from the lubricant coolers found in packaged
water cooled reciprocating or rotary screw compressors to generate hot water. A heat exchanger
can be employed to extract the waste heat and generate water, which can be utilised for a
variety of processes at the plant. Additional controls may be required to ensure the operator can
vary the heat extracted from the unit.
Water Cooled Compressors
Although not as common due to the additional stage of heat exchange required to recover heat
from water-cooled compressors, optimising a water-cooled compressor system for recovery can
still be an economically attractive option. Typical heat recovery efficiencies range from 50-60%.
Many water-cooled compressors tend to be quite large meaning there is typically vast quantities
of heat available from these machines.
1.11 Compressed Air Audit Overview
A full system audit will highlight the true ‘cost’ of compressed air and detail a programme of
opportunities that should be followed to improve the efficiency and productivity at a facility.
Compressed Air audits can be carried out by in-house personnel however a ‘fresh pair of eyes’ in
the form of a specialised compressed air expert should always be considered. Several firms
specialise in compressed air audits and will have augmented a great deal of experience and
knowledge from other facilities. While it is an additional expense to secure the services of
compressed air experts, the recommendations which result from these investigations usually
means they pay for themselves within a short period of time.
The quality and comprehensiveness of audits can vary greatly. Accordingly, some simple rules of
engagement are advised. An auditor should be fully system (and component) independent and
display complete vendor impartiality. In addition, a compressed air system audit should go
beyond merely focusing on the compressor station but focus on the holistic performance as laid
out in this document.
There are various categories of audits. It is often the case that a more thorough audit will be
required incorporating some intensive data mining to determine the appropriate technology or
control which would lead to the most economically justifiable savings. The extra time and
expenses are often justifiable as the opportunities highlighted during these audits frequently
pay for themselves in a relatively short period of time.
11
When air is drawn in from ambient conditions, some form of frost protection may be required. If the air is
drawn in from an indoor area (and the recovered air is released in a different area), care must be taken to
ensure the static pressure in the compressor room is not overly reduced as this has an adverse affect on
compressor efficiency.
Page 31 of 40
RESOURCES
I Useful Compressed Air Websites
II Good Practice Guides
III Self Assessment Template
Compressor Types
Page 32 of 40
I Useful Compressed Air Websites
Organisation Link Details (From web-site)

SEI www.sei.ie
Since 1915, the Compressed Air and Gas Institute (CAGI) has been
the leading organization representing manufacturers of compressed air
Compressed Air system equipment, including air compressors, blowers, pneumatic
http://www.cag
and Gas tools and air and gas drying and filtration equipment. For over 80
i.org
Institute years, the Institute has been working to improve production, proper
use and increased distribution of equipment used in compressed air
and gas systems.
BCAS is the UK trade association for manufacturers, distributors

and end users of compressed air and vacuum products and services.
BCAS actively represents the interests of members and the
British http://www.brit compressed air industry to both UK Government, European and
Compressed Air ishcompresseda international institutions. BCAS was formed in 1930 at the instigation
Society irsociety.co.uk of Government, the primary purpose to provide a forum for British
manufacturers to encourage the manufacture of products for import
substitution. The inaugural meeting was held January 8, 1930 at the
Institution of Civil Engineers.
FL0069A - Everyone's Guide to Saving Energy in Compressed Air

http://www.the GPG385 - Energy efficient compressed air systems
The Carbon
carbontrust.co. GPCS369 - Compressed Air Leakage Reduction Through the Use of
Trust
uk/energy Electronic Condensate Drain Traps
ECG040 - Compressing Air Costs - Generation
Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs) enable a business to claim

100% first-year capital allowances on their spending on qualifying
plant and machinery. There are three schemes for ECAs:
- Energy-saving plant and machinery
- Low carbon dioxide emission cars and natural gas and hydrogen
refuelling infrastructure
Enhanced - Water conservation plant and machinery
http://www.eca
Capital
.gov.uk
Allowances.
Businesses can write off the whole of the capital cost of their
investment in these technologies against their taxable profits of the
period during which they make the investment.
This can deliver a helpful cash flow boost and a shortened payback
period
Substantial energy savings in all industries where compressed air is

used in production
1. faster cylinder speeds, depending on cylinder configuration. In
optimal applications, speeds can be as much as 200-300% faster.
http://www.x- 2. energy cost reductions of more than 30%.
x-Pneumatic
pneumatic.com
3. air exhaust cuts of almost 1/2, reducing air filter needs
4. noise level reductions in the production unit
5. other cost reductions with reduced air needs, simpler valve set-
up, no need for speed regulators
Page 33 of 40
Organisation Link Details (From web-site)
Technical database
During the course of a year we are repeatedly asked similar
questions, some technical and some pretty fundamental. To assist
compressed air users everywhere, we have compiled a Technical
Database. Browse Technical Database >>
Dictionary of Compressed Air Terms.
http://www.cas The History of some Compressor types.
Cashflo hflo.co.uk/index The Properties of Air.
.html
The Discovery and make-up of our Atmosphere.
An Introduction to Compressed Air Dryers.
A Theoretical Energy Calculation for a compressor.
Safety, Health and The Environment with respect to the
compressed air user.
UK Statutory Legislation
The Compressed Air Challenge is a voluntary collaboration of

industrial users; manufacturers, distributors and their associations;
consultants; state research and development agencies; energy
efficiency organizations; and utilities. This group has one purpose in
http://www.co mind - helping you enjoy the benefits of improved performance of
Compressed Air
mpressedaircha your compressed air system.
Challenge
llenge.org More about the Compressed Air Challenge.
Click here to purchase the BestPractices Manual. If you are a CAC
Sponsor, please refer to the Secure Sponsor Area of this website to
purchase the BestPractices Manual.
Page 34 of 40
A number of Good Practice Guides (GPG’s) have been published by the Carbon Trust. These are
freely available on www.carbontrust.co.uk or www.energymap.ie. The textual description of
each guide outlined below is taken from the carbon trust website.
Good Practice Guide 216: Good Practice Guide 238:

Energy Saving in the Filtration and Heat Recovery from Air Compressors
Drying of Compressed Air.
This guide offers advice on practical ways of
This guide provides advice on practical ways recovering and utilising waste heat from air
of improving the energy efficiency of compressors. An outline procedure,
filtration and drying operations. The guide illustrated with examples, is provided for
starts by describing the contaminants that assessing the likely benefits of recovering
may be present in air, and gives guidance on waste heat. Worked examples of some of the
selecting the level of treatment appropriate calculations involved are included to assist
to the application. The different equipment in assessing the economics of a particular
available for treating air are described, with situation.
details of associated energy costs and
energy-saving opportunities.
Case studies are included which

demonstrate the savings that can be made.
This guide will help plant engineers, energy
managers and industrial users of
compressed air to minimise the energy costs
associated with treating air through best
practice. It complements Energy
Consumption Guide (ECG) 42, ‘Compressing
Air Costs - Treatment’.
Page 35 of 40
Good Practice Guide 241: Good Practice Guide 385:

Energy Savings in the Collection and Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems
Maintenance of Air Compressors.
Compressed air is often described as the
This guide shows how to select, control and fourth utility. Despite it being an expensive
maintain plant to bring down the cost of form of energy, compressed air is essential
generating compressed air. It describes how in many industries. There are many
to carry out a thorough assessment of site opportunities to make a compressed air
compressed air requirements. Guidance on system more efficient.
plant selection is provided, exploring
opportunities to reduce operating, energy Many industrial users of compressed air
and capital costs at the design stage. It could reduce their cost of compressed air by
emphasises that small differences in plant over 30% with minimal investment. This
efficiency can save far more than the initial guide looks at managing the air system,
difference in capital cost. reducing misuse of air, the distribution
network, compressor selection and control,
The guide also covers efficient control air receivers, air treatment and condensate
options and necessary maintenance for management. This 36-page guide includes a
long-term reliability and energy efficient glossary and a useful series of checklists.
operation. Case studies throughout the text
provide practical examples of the savings
that can be achieved. The information is
drawn together in a worked example of
specifying and analysing quotes for air
compressor installation. The guide covers
stationary compressor installations
generating pressures between 5 and 14
barg and will be of particular benefit to
maintenance and plant engineers.
Page 36 of 40
SELF ASSESSMENT TEMPLATE
A template for entering the details of a compressed air system has been
developed. The spreadsheet can be found on SEIs website at:
www.sei.ie/energyagreements.
The input fields have drop-down menus to assist with correct filling. Data entered
can assist with understanding the associated costs of compressed air, and can also
be a useful reference when using external consultants in the assessment of system
performance.
Enter compressor details, storage, filters, dryers, etc. Also input end use
requirements for the site.
Page 39 of 40
This document is an output from SEI’s Energy Agreements Programme Special

Working Group on Compressed Air 2007.
The following companies participated in the special working group:
Company Representative(s) Role

Astellas Ireland Ltd, Dublin Alan Timms Participating Company
Boliden Tara Mines Dónal O Murchú Participating Company
Intel Ireland James Clancy / Kevin Geoghegan Participating Company
Pfizer Little Island Martin O'Connor Participating Company
Vistakon Johnson & Johnson Patrick Liddy / John Coffey Participating Company
Xerox Europe, Dundalk Tom DeLasa / Padraig Murphy Participating Company
RPS Ltd. Elmer Morrissey / Richard Morrisson Consultant
FDT Ltd. Michael Clancy Consultant
Air Technology Ltd. Eric Harding Consultant
Lokalenergi Bo Kuraa Consultant
SEI David McAuley Project Leader
The guide can be downloaded from SEIs website: www.sei.ie/energyagreements
Content prepared by:
Unit 3,
University Technology Centre,
Curraheen Road, Cork.
Date: July ‘07
Tel: 021 - 4804600
Fax: 021 – 4804658
Page 40 of 40

Compressed Air Guideline

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ENERGY AGREEMENTS PROGRAMME

COMPRESSED AIR TECHNICAL GUIDE

HANDY RULES OF THUMB

80-93% of the electrical energy consumed by a compressor is converted into

Every 1 bar in pressure reduction produces a 6-7% power saving

Improving the efficiency of a compressed air system should begin with a

One 4mm hole in a compressed air distribution pipe operating throughout

A 1% reduction in compressor power consumption can be achieved through

Air velocity in the distribution main should not exceed 6 m/s

Air velocity in distribution branch lines should not exceed 15 m/s

A 50% increase above the maximum recommended air velocities increases

HANDY RULES OF THUMB ............................................................................................................. 2

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM AUDIT – A STRATEGIC WALKTHROUGH

It is important to evaluate how much of site total energy usage is attributable to

• Compressor discharge points

• Before and after filters

• Before and after dryers

• At the main distribution header

1.2 Process Map

• Intake Filtering Components

Figure 2 – Typically High Level Process Map of a Compressed Air System

1.3 Metering/Monitoring and Targeting

The following equation can be used to justify metering expenditure:

1.4 Energy Requirements

1.4.1 Avoid Misuse

Energy Requirement Compressed Air Use Alternative Use

• Intrinsic safety enhancements?

1.4.2 Turn the Equipment Off

1.4.3 Pressure Considerations

Pressure Reduction Savings

1.5.1 Line Improvements and Pressure Drops

1.5.2 Leak Detection Programme

Compressed Air Leaks

Determining Current Leakage Rate

In the absence of a compressed air M&T system capable of delivering snapshots of

1. Turn off all end users

3. Repeat a number of times to determine the average

Leakage (%) = [(Tx100)/(T+t)]

T = Time On Load (mins), t = Time Off Load (mins)

Locate the Leaks

Repair the Leaks

Leak Reduction Programme

Network Installation Selection

1.5.3 Dedicated Air Receivers for End Users

1.6.1 Treatment Equipment

Pressure Filtration Added Energy

Typical Quality Classes

Desiccant Air Dryers

It is vital to ensure refrigerated dryers are adequately maintained. A non-performing

1.6.2 Localised Air Treatment

1.7 Compressed Air Generation

1.7.1 Compressor Sizing

1.7.2 Discharge System Pressure

package, however certain precautions should be taken if it is located downstream of the

Individual Compressor Control Strategies

Figure 5 – Impact of Control on System Pressure

System Control Strategies

Figure 6 – Optimum Compressor Sequencing Strategies to meet Demand Profile

1.7.4 VSD Compressors

1.7.5 Reduce Air Temperature (ambient air)

1.8 Preventive Maintenance

• Benchmark the Performance of a Compressed Air System

• Identify Compressed Air Leaks