OVERVIEW OF THE GEOLOGIC SETTING

AND PORPHYRY Cu-Mo DEPOSITS OF SOUTHERN PERU

Xth International Congress of Prospectors and Explorers

Lima Peru
May 10 - 14, 2017

Richard M. Tosdal*, Adam T. Simmons**, Alan H. Clark***

* PicachoEx LLC, Folly Beach, SC 29439, U.S.A. rtosdal@gmail.com

** AngloAmerican, London, U.K.
***. Queens University, Kingtson, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada

INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS setting. An extensive reference list is provided

Ranging from Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa in for those interested in further information.
the northwest to the giant Toquepala deposit
in the southeast, the Paleocene to early
Eocene porphyry Cu belt in southern Perú
represents one of the world's most poorly
appreciated major concentrations of porphyry
Cu deposits in the Andes of South America
(Fig. 1). They constitute the northern extent
of a belt of similar age porphyry Cu deposits
that extends from southern Peru into northern
Chile (Camus, 2003; Sillitoe and Perelló,
2005), and lies slightly inboard of the older
Cretaceous belt, which includes in southern
Perú the Zafranal prospect (Fig. 2). Like their
late Eocene to Oligocene brethren in northern
Chile (Camus, 2003), the southern Peruvian
porphyry Cu-Mo deposits are spatially
associated with a major trench-linked fault
system in the Precordillera physiographic
province of the Andean cordillera. As with
most Andean porphyry Cu deposits, the
southern Peruvian deposits are related to
porphyry stocks intruded relatively late in the
magmatic cycle. However, unlike the Eocene
Chilean porphyries, much fundamental
knowledge about the Peruvian porphyry Cu-
Mo deposits is not known because of the lack
of geologic studies undertaken therein.
This guide outlines the geologic
framework of southern Peru as well as the
general geology of the deposits to be visited Figure 1. Porphyry copper belts of the central
during a field trip associated with the Andes showing the relationship of the
International Congress of Prospectors and Paleocene and Eocene porphyry Cu deposits
Explorers (ProExplo). It updates the initial in southern Peru to similar age deposits in
field guide prepared for the 3rd ProExplo northern Chile and to the younger late Eocene
conference held in 2003. The field guide is and Oligocene porphyry Cu deposits in
not intended to be a comprehensive northern Chile and southern Peru. Modified
discussion of the deposits and their geologic from Sillitoe (1988) and Sillitoe and Perelló
setting. Instead it is constructed from publicly (2005).
available information or from our observations
and unpublished data. The field guide serves The trip begins with the Cerro Verde-
to provide a broad overview of the deposits to Santa Rosa deposits near Arequipa, which is
be visited on this trip and their geologic operated by Sociedad Minera Cerro Verde
(subsidiary of Freeport McMoRan). The trip
proceeds south to the cluster of three
deposits near Moquegua. These deposits
include the giant Cuajone and Toquepala
mines operated by Southern Peru Copper
Corporation, and the Quellaveco prospect
being developed by AngloAmerican.
GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK
Basement to the Mesozoic and early
Cenozoic Andean arcs
A complex Proterozoic and Paleozoic
basement underlies the Andean Jurassic to
Eocene magmatic arcs and the Paleocene to
early Eocene porphyry Cu belt (Fig. 2). The
oldest rocks are the Arequipa Massif, a
complex Proterozoic terrane containing rocks
with ages between 1.8 and 1.0 Ga
(Wasteneys et al., 1995; Tosdal, 1996;
Wörner et al., 2000; Lowey et al, 2003;
Casquet et al., 2010) that underwent high
grade metamorphism at least in southern
Perú and perhaps into northern Bolivia during
the late Mesoproterozoic around 1.0 Ga
(Martignole and Martelate, 2003; Casquet et
al., 2010). These rocks are currently
considered to be an allochthonous terrane
derived from Laurentia, having collided with
the Amazon craton during the Sunsas /
Grenville orogeny (Loewy et al. 2003; Ramos,
2008, 2011). The complex history of these
rocks has imparted distinct radiogenic isotopic
compositions to rocks that have interacted
with them since their emplacement, (Barreiro
and Clark, 1984; Boiley et al., 1990; Tosdal,
1996; Loewy et al 2003; Mamani et al., 2008,
2010) which permits their distribution in the
subsurface of the Andes to be mapped and
defined.
Sedimentary basins are considered to
have formed in the late Neoproterozoic to
early Cambrian and in the late Cambrian and
Ordovician. These rocks mainly are present to
the east in the area of the modern Altiplano,
and represent rift-drift cycles that are best
understood in Chile and Argentina within the
Punoviscana basin and in the fold-and-thrust
belt of Bolivia (Ramos, 2008 and references
therein). These basins represent the effect of
rifting that detached the main mass of
Laurentia from Amazonia, leaving behind the
orphan Arequipa Massif, and the southern
extension in Chile and Argentina known as
the Antofalla craton (Ramos, 2011).
Ordovician calcalkaline granitic rocks of
the San Nicolás Batholith intruded the
metamorphic basement rocks (Mukasa and
Henry, 1990; Loewy et al., 2004), and outcrop
2
along the coast in southern Perú and in
uplifted fault blocks in northern Chile (Fig. 2).
They represent the northern extension of the
Famatimian arc that is well developed in
western Argentina (Ramos, 2008). They
furthermore are of similar age to granitoids
present in the eastern cordillera farther north
and to the east in central and northern Perú
where they intruded the Proterozoic Maraňón
Complex (Chew et al., 2007, 2016), which is
part of the Amazon craton underlying Brazil to
the east. In central Perú, these rocks are
bordered by remnants of ophiolitic rocks
(Tassinari et al., 2011), which represent the
suture between an allochthonous crystalline
Paracas terrane and the Amazon craton
(Ramos, 2011; Chew et al., 2016).
Metamorphism of the early Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks in the Ordovician
accompanied closure of the back-arc basin
and essentially the second collision of the
parautochthonous Arequipa Massif with the
Amazon craton (Ramos, 2011 and references
therein).
Overlying the early Paleozoic and older
rocks are Carboniferous to Permian rocks
known in southern Perú (Fig. 2) by various
names, but by the marine sedimentary rocks
Carboniferous Ambo Formation and rift-
related subaerial volcanic and sedimentary
rocks Permian to Triassic Mitu Group in the
vicinity of the porphyry Cu prospects. These
sedimentary rocks were deposited in basins
currently bounded by westerly striking faults
that in the field appear to be inverted growth
faults. The Mitu Group rocks are considered
related to the onset of early Mesozoic Andean
arc rifting related to the breakup of
Gondwana, with the major axis of extension
principally concentrated along the Proterozoic
suture zone in the eastern Cordillera of Perú
and Bolivia and along the early Paleozoic
basins formed between the Arequipa Massif
and the Amazon craton (Jaillard et al., 2000;
Sempere et al., 2002; Ramos, 2011).
Continental-margin rifting in the mid-
Mesozoic
Rifting of the continental margin along the
western margin of Gondwana in the middle
Mesozoic marked the onset of the Andean
orogen (Coira et al., 1982; Davidson and
Mpodozis, 1990; Benavides-Cáceres, 1999;
Sempere et al., 2002). Along most of the
leading edge of Gondwana, intra-arc and
back-arc rifts formed in a suprasubduction
zone environment as result of the steep
subduction of a cold oceanic plate and the
Figure 2. Simplified geologic map of southern Perú showing distribution of porphyry Cu mines and
prospects in the region. Modified from 1:1,000,000 scale geology map available from INGEMMET.
Note that multiple units have been combined in some of the map units on the figure; internal
contacts between those units are preserved on the simplified map.
oceanward retreat of the trench. Significant
volumes of mafic, mantle-derived volcanic
and plutonic material was erupted and
emplaced in the rift basins (Jones,
1981Atherton et al., 1983, 1985), and detritus
shed from the rift margins filled the marine
basins (Benavides, 1956; Wilson, 1983,
2000). Active rifting and continental-margin
basin formation continued into the early Late
Cretaceous until the onset of extension and
opening of the southern Atlantic Ocean.
The Jurassic to Cretaceous intra-arc rift
basin along most of Perú is the Huarmey-
Canete basin (Benavides-Cáceres, 1999); the
basin in southern Perú is not well defined as
the margins have been extensively intruded
by Jurassic and Cretaceous granitic rocks and
also largely covered by Tertiary continental
sedimentary rocks (Fig. 2). However, gravity
modeling indicates that the rift continues
through the region (Jones, 1981). The
continental or northeast boundary of the rift
basin is diffuse, but broadly corresponds to
the Incaic Megafault in central Perú, the
Cincha - Luta and Incapucio faults in southern
Perú (Fig. 2), and the Domeyko fault system
including the West Fissure in Chile. Within the
basin, the Mesozoic rocks are largely of
marine origin (Benavides-Cáceres, 1999;
Jaillard et al., 2000). Paleozoic and
Precambrian rocks cropping out along the
coast in southern Perú represent the
southwestern rift shoulder (Fig. 2). A variety
of ore deposits formed during the rifting
include volcanic-hosted massive sulfides in
central and northern Perú, iron-oxide-copper-
gold deposits in southern Perú as well as
porphyry Cu deposits (Clark et al., 1990a;
Injoque et al., 1997; Injoque-Espinoza, 2002;
Winter et al., 2004; Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005;
Carlotto et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2010).
These deposits furthermore are related
metallogenically to the similar ones in
northern Chile such as Romeral, Punta del
Cobre district, and Mantos Blancos
(Bookstrom, 1977; Vila et al., 1996; Marschik
and Fontbote, 2002).
In southern Perú (Fig. 2), a magmatic arc
formed along the coast potentially as early as
the late Permian, certainly by the Triassic but
primarily during the Jurassic in what is now
the Cordillera de la Costa (Jenks, 1948;
Narváez, 1964; Clark et al., 1990a; Martínez
and Cervantes, 2003; Mamani et al., 2010).
Boekhout et al. (2012) report Middle Jurassic
U-Pb ages (~172 to 166 Ma) for andesitic lava
and detrital zircons in volcaniclastic
sandstones that have mean U-Pb ages
ranging from ~170 to 162 Ma. The marine
supracrustal rocks and associated plutonic
complexes were erupted and or intruded
through the crystalline basement terrane of
the Arequipa Massif and unconformably
overlying upper Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.
The largely medium-K calcalkaline basaltic to
andesitic volcanic rocks, known as the
Chocolate Volcanics, are intercalated with
volcaniclastic rocks derived therefrom and
locally with limestone. The volcanic rocks are
overlain and interfinger in their upper parts
with shallow marine sedimentary rock
sequences that grade upward and laterally
into Jurassic rocks of the Socosani Formation
and Yura Group which filled a back-arc
extensional basin (Sempere et al., 2002).
These rocks are common around Arequipa
and the Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa porphyry
Cu deposits (Fig. 3; Jenks, 1948). A short-
lived shortening event in the earliest Late
Cretaceous deformed the sedimentary
sequence (Vicente et al., 1989; Benavides-
Cáceres, 1999; Sempere et al., 2002).
Whereas the stratigraphy and temporal
constraints on the volcanic sequences are
generally poorly understood, considerable
work has been devoted to the plutonic
complexes that formed during the Jurassic
and early Cretaceous (Clark et al., 1990a;
Mamani et al., 2010; Boekhout et al., 2012;
Demouy et al. 2012). The oldest known
plutonic rocks are gabbroic to dioritic in
composition that crop out around Arequipa
and have Early and Middle Jurassic U-Pb
ages between ~200 and 180 Ma (Mukasa,
1986; Demouy et al., 2012); these rocks may
represent subplutonic complexes broadly
associated with the Chocolate Volcanics. A
second episode of plutonism with U-Pb ages
between ~175 to 152 Ma is more widespread
in the Cordillera de la Costa, and was
characterized by more felsic compositions
ranging from diorite to granodiorite (Clark et
al. 1990a; Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy et
al., 2012). The medium-K calcalkaline plutonic
complexes are the oldest members of the
Toquepala segment of the Coastal Batholith
of Perú (Pitcher et al., 1985; Beckinsale et al.,
1985). Radiogenic isotopic compositions of
the Jurassic volcanic and plutonic rocks
indicate varying interaction with the old
crystalline basement rocks underlying
southern Peru, with magma derived from
mafic lithospheric sources (James, 1982;
Boiley et al., 1990; Mamani et al., 200, 2010;
Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy et al., 2012).
Figure 3. Simplified geologic map of
deposits. Modified from Jenks (1948; Phelps
Dodge, 2002).
Continental-margin shortening and
magmatism leading to porphyry Cu
formation
Beginning in the earliest Late Cretaceous and
coinciding with the opening of the south
Atlantic, a fundamental tectonic and magmatic
shift characterized the Andes. The arcs
shifted northeastward with time. In central
Perú, magmatism, recorded largely by the
Lima segment of the huge Coastal Batholith
(Pitcher et al., 1985), was continuous
throughout the Cretaceous and into the early
Tertiary (Mukasa, 1986). In contrast,
available age constraints indicate a significant
gap in magmatism in the Arequipa and
Toquepala segments of southern Perú that,
based on available data lasted for 50 to 60
million years, with arc magmatism resuming in
the earliest Late Cretaceous (~90 Ma) and
continuing into the early Eocene (Mukasa,
1986; Beckinsale et al., 1985; Martínez and
Cervantes, 2003; Demouy et al., 2012;
Simmons, 2013). The eruptive products and
the upper crustal batholiths have largely
buried or obliterated the in-land margin of the
older rift basin and the Cretaceous fold and
thrust belt, except to the northwest of
the Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa porphyry Cu
Arequipa east of the Cincha – Luta fault (Fig.
2). Volcanism began at ~90 Ma with the
onset of poorly dated, on a regional basis,
intermediate composition volcanism forming
part of the Huracanne formation at the base of
the Toquepala Group (Bellido, 1979; Demouy
et al., 2012; Simmons, 2013), which is most
extensive in the vicinity of Moquegua (Figs. 2
and 4), but has been largely eroded near
Arequipa (Figs. 2 and 3). The Toquepala
Group in the vicinity of Moquegua is
subdivided into a series of formations that
generally has more intermediate composition
rocks at the base but become more felsic in
composition near the top of the volcanic
sequence. Ignimbrite dominates the upper
Late Cretaceous Toquepala Group. These
formations have various names, including the
Huaracanne, Inogoya, Parlalque, Matalaque,
and Quellaveco formations (Bellido et al.,
1979; Martínez and Cervantes, 2003;
Cervantes et al., 2005). Near Cuajone (Fig.
4) in excess of 3000m of volcanic and
sedimentary rocks composing the upper parts
of the Toquepala Group (Fig. 5) were erupted
over a 6 million year time frame between 74
and 68 Ma (Martínez and Cervantes, 2003;
Simmons, 2013).
Figure 4. Regional geologic map of the Cuajone – Quellaveco – Toquepala porphyry Cu deposits.
Modified from Bellido (1979). Coordinates in Peruvian Coordinate System (PSAD56); zone 19S.
Large plutons with principally medium-K
calcalkaline granodioritic to granitic
compositions form the roots of the arc. Near
Arequipa where the level of exhumation is
deeper (Fig. 3), plutonic rocks forming the
Tiabaya, Linga, and Yarabamba units have U-
Pb ages that range from 90 to 62 Ma
(Mukasa, 1986; Demouy et al., 2012),
essentially spanning the time frame of the
volcanic rocks sequences of the Toquepala
Group near Moguegua. In the vicinity of
Cuajone and Toquepala, U-Pb ages of the
plutons are considerably fewer, and where
present are largely younger than their host
volcanic rocks; U-Pb ages around between 60
and 65 Ma are reported (Simmons, 2013,
Simmons et al., 2013) with K-Ar and Ar-Ar
ages on the batholithic rocks extending to
slightly younger ages (Clark et al., 1990a;
Martínez and Cervantes, 2003). Little
mineralized rock is associated with the Late
Cretaceous magmatic rocks, although they
form a significant host rock at all of the
porphyry Cu deposits.
Radiogenic isotopic compositions of the
Cretaceous volcanic and plutonic rocks
indicate varying interaction with the old
crystalline basement rocks underlying
southern Perú, with magma derived from
mafic lithospheric sources (James, 1982;
Boiley et al., 1990; Mamani et al., 2008, 2010;
Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy et al., 2012).
Near Arequipa however the degree of crustal
interaction between the Cretaceous magma
and the ancient crystalline basement rocks is
considerably less than is recorded in the
Jurassic intrusive rocks (Demouy et al.,
2012). Inherited cores in zircons as well as
xenocrystic zircons from the Late Cretaceous
Toquepala Group with Proterozoic and
Figure 5. Simplified
stratigraphic column
through the Toquepala
Group. Section is
measured from near
Moquegua toward the
northeast and lies to the
northeast of Cuajone.
Simplified from
unpublished mapping by
A.T. Simmons.
Archean ages demonstrate that ancient
crystalline crust also is present at depth in the
Moquegua area (Simmons, 2013).
Paleocene to early Eocene porphyry
intrusions
Porphyry Cu-Mo deposits are associated
with Paleocene and early Eocene granodiorite
and granite porphyry stocks. They constitute
the youngest intrusions in region. At Cerro
Verde – Santa Rosa, the porphyry intrusions
are dated at about 61 Ma (Mukasa, 1986). At
Quellaveco, mineralized and hydrothermally
altered porphyry intrusions intruded
episodically at ~58 Ma, 56 Ma, and 54 Ma
(Sillitoe and Mortensen, 2010; Simmons,
2013; Simmons et al., 2013). At Cuajone and
Toquepala, porphyry intrusions have ages of
~56 and 54 Ma, but contain 58 Ma xenocrystic
zircons, which suggest there was likely 58 Ma
intrusions as well (Simmons et al., 2013).
Previously published K-Ar and Ar-Ar ages for
these deposits extend to younger ages, and
record the cooling of the hydrothermal
systems (Clark et al., 1990a; Quang et al.,
2003).
Valdivia et al. (2015) summarized
changes trace element variations in the
Cretaceous to early Eocene intrusions, and
note a change in composition from normal
arc-type Sr/Y composition in the older rocks to
elevated Sr/Y compositions >20 that indicate
hydrous magmas that on a worldwide basis
commonly associated with mineralized
porphyry Cu systems (Kay and Mpodozis,
2001; Richards and Kerrich, 2007; Richards
et al., 2014). Chiaradia (2015) argues that
thickening crust is crucial to forming elevated
Sr/Y values, a feature that is common
elsewhere in the Andes (Kay and Mpodozis,
2003; Bissig and Tosdal, 2009). There is
furthermore a change in rare earth element
patterns in the southern Peruvian porphyry
intrusions to the characteristic spoon shape
(Valdivia et al., 2015) that is also associated
with mineralized porphyry intrusions (e.g.
Hollings et al., 2005).
A major trench-parallel fault system
consisting of discontinuous and subparallel
faults and splays cuts the western part of the
present outcrop of the Late Cretaceous and
Paleogene arc, and is coincident with the
edge of the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous
back-arc rift basin (Fig. 2). This fault system
is known as the Incapucio Fault in the
Toquepala-Cuajone area. The equivalent
fault near Arequipa is the Cincha – Luta
systems whose trace in the vicinity is largely
obliterated by the northwesterly elongate Late
Cretaceous plutonic rocks (Fig. 2).
Kinematics of individual faults and the overall
system is complex, with normal, strike-slip as
well as contractional strains being
accommodated at various time since the
Mesozoic (Sébrier et al., 1985; Jacay et al.,
2002; Semperé et al., 2005; Carlotto et al.,
2005, 2009). Nonetheless, post-Eocene
deformation related to shortening in southern
Peru regional and post-Oligocene counter-
clockwise rotation has not significantly
modified any of the porphyry Cu centers.
Post-porphyry Cu
Magmatism largely shifted northeastward
soon after formation of the porphyry Cu
deposits to be established in the Andahuaylas
- Yauri region in the Eocene and Oligocene
(Noble et al., 1984; Perello et al., 2003;
Carlotto et al., 2009). The northward shift is
attributed to the flattening of the subduction
zone (Sandeman et al., 1995; James and
Sacks, 1999). In southern Perú, the
Oligocene Tacaza Group is present near the
border with Chile (Fig. 2). These rocks
represent the westernmost extent of the arc of
that age and locally host hydrothermal
deposits of which the recently described latest
Oligocene to early Miocene (24-22.5 Ma)
Chipispaya porphyry Cu deposit (Valdivia et
al., 2014) is the most notable (Fig. 2).
In southern Perú, continental clastic
sedimentary rocks, the Moquegua formation,
now referred to as the Moquegua Group
(Decou et al., 2011), record the erosion and
degradation of the Cretaceous to early
Eocene magmatic arc (Fig. 2). The detritus
began filling a fore-arc basin lying west of the
porphyry Cu deposits by ~50 Ma, and
continued intermittently to ~19 Ma (Tosdal
1981; Quang et al., 2003, 2005; Roperch et
al., 2006; Decou et al., 2011). Angular
unconformities separate units within the
Group. The youngest and upper parts of the
new Moquegua Group deposited after ~19 Ma
represent pediment deposits cut into the lower
units of the Moquegua Groups; these
pediment surfaces formed as the region was
uplifted and the exoeric rivers draining the
Cordillera cut across the forearc toward the
Pacific Ocean (Tosdal et al., 1981, 1984;
Quang et al., 2005; Decou et al., 2011).
Deposition of the upper post-19 Ma parts of
the Group record the renewed volcanism in
the Cordillera and coincided with the oldest
record of supergene enrichment in the
porphyry Cu deposits (Clark et al., 1990b;
Quang et al., 2005). Parts of the Moquegua
Group interfinger and are laterally equivalent
to late Oligocene and Miocene marine
deposits of the Camaná Group present along
the coast (Decou et al., 2011; Alván et al.,
2015).
Explosive volcanism resumed in the
region at about 25 Ma, with a major pulse of
explosive volcanic activity between 25 and 19
Ma forming the extensive ignimbrites of the
Huaylillas Formation (Tosdal et al., 1981;
Quang et al., 2003). Prior to about 19 Ma,
ignimbrites are interbedded with the upper
Moquegua Group in the forearc basin but in
the Precordillera form prominent plateaus
burying a regional scale planar erosional
landscape, the Altos de Camilaca surface.
Post-19 Ma ignimbrite filling valleys cut into
the pediment gravels forming the upper units
of the Moquegua Group of Decou et al. (2011)
and fill valleys cut into the Huaylillas
Formation and older rocks in the
Precordillera. These rocks are known in
southern Perú as the Chuntacala Formation,
which was erupted between 14.8 and 13 Ma
and the Asana Formation erupted around 10
Ma (Manrique and Plazolles, 1975; Tosdal et
al., 1981; Quang et al., 2005). Tosdal et al
(1984) argued that the region by the early
Miocene was characterized by low-relief
topography with an erosional highland in the
Precordillera and an aggradational plain
formed by the Moquegua Formation that
extended to the Pacific Coast. The
widespread presence of late Oligocene and
early Miocene zircons in the marine
sedimentary rocks of the lower parts but not
the upper parts of the Camaná Formation is
consistent with this topography (Alván et al.,
2015).
Rapid broad-scale uplift of the southwest
flank of the Andes initiated in the early
Miocene and coincided with shortening,
orogen-scale uplift, 37° counterclockwise
rotation, and accentuation of the major
oroclinal bend in the Andes (Isacks, 1988;
Roperch et al., 2006; Arriagada et al., 2008;
Eichelberger and McQuarrie, 2015). Eruption
of small-volume ash-flows of the Chuntacala
and Asana Formations accompanied uplift in
the immediate area of the porphyry Cu
deposits whereas pediment formation and
deposition of the upper units of the Moguegua
Group represent the time-equivalent rocks in
the forearc basin. Supergene enrichment of
the porphyry Cu deposits began by 38 Ma,
contemporaneous with deposition of the
Moquegua Group to the southwest and was
2
largely completed by about 10 Ma, although
local evidence for minor supergene activity
persisted into the Pliocene (Clark et al.,
1990b; Quang et al., 2005; Sillitoe, 2005). By
the late Miocene, the climate was hyper-arid,
as the mountain range became a sufficiently
elevated orographic feature to create a rain
shadow on the western flank (Tosdal et al.,
1984). The hyper-arid climate that now
dominates the southwestern slopes effectively
precluded significant additional supergene
modification, and only in-situ oxidation and
limited supergene weathering of the deposits
occurred.
THE SOUTHERN PERUVIAN CU BELT
Ranging from Zafranal on the northwest to
the Chipispaya prospect on the southeast
(Fig. 2), the western Cordillera in southern
Perú contains a significant number of
porphyry Cu-Mo-Au prospects of which three
(Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa, Cuajone, and
Toquepala) have been in production for
decades whereas a fourth (Quellaveco) is
currently under construction. Other prospects
including Zafranal, La Calara, Chapi, and
Chipispaya have been explored with
resources announced, whereas exploration
on many others prospects has not reached a
stage of resource definition. The four
operating and soon-to-be operating mines on
porphyry Cu deposits are the focus of the field
trip and this section briefly outlines their
history and general geology.
Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa
The Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa porphyry
Cu deposit near Arequipa was put into
production in 1977 by Minero Perú with
reserves of 62 million tonnes of 1% Cu in
leachable ore and a resource of 1,2oo Mt at
0.6% Cu of sulfide ore. Reserves announced
in 2012 by Freeport McMoRan are 3,920 Mt
milled ore averaging 0.38% Cu and
0.015%Mo, 108 Mt of crushed leach ore
grading 0.46% Cu, and 94Mt of run-of-mine
leach ore grading 0.20% Cu (Stegen, 2014).
The description of these deposits, the first
stop of the field trip, is adapted from LeBel
(1985 and references therein), Quang et al.
(2005), and from Phelps Dodge Mining
Company (2002) and Sociedad Minera Cerro
Verde (2007).
Geologic framework and mineralization
sequence
The Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa deposits
consist of two separate porphyry systems
separated by about 1 km (Figs. 3 and 6). The
deposits are associated with granodioritic
porphyries emplaced at about 61 Ma.
Plagioclase, biotite, and quartz phenocrysts,
typical of many Andean porphyries, dominate
the phenocrysts in the porphyry stocks. The
stocks are arrayed in a northwesterly zone,
and a similar elongation is found within the
deposits. The Cerro Verde deposit contains
hydrothermal breccias, which are localized
along the contact between the porphyry stock
and the host Late Cretaceous (~68 Ma)
Yarabamba granodiorite (Figs. 3 and 6).
Alteration assemblages typical of porphyry
Cu deposits characterize both deposits (Fig.
6). There is a central deep zone of potassic
alteration assemblage (K feldspar – biotite –
magnetite – anhydrite – chalcopyrite – bornite
with local chlorite) overlain at shallower
depths by phyllic (quartz – sericite - pyrite ±
chlorite) alteration assemblages and an outer
zone of propylitic alteration assemblage
(chlorite – epidote – calcite – pyrite ± minor
chalcopyrite). There is a notable zone of
enrichment in hydrothermal quartz forming
greater than 70% of the rock within the phyllic
alteration assemblage. The alteration
assemblages in Cerro Verde at shallow depth
were zoned about the two porphyry stocks
with a 1% Cu shell hosted in the country rock
lying between the two stocks (Fig. 7); the
stocks coalesced at depth (Fig. 6). The
location of the high-grade Cu between two
porphyry intrusions suggests multiple
episodes of intrusion and porphyry Cu
mineralization. In contrast in the Santa Rosa
deposit, the 0.5% Cu zone forms a
subhorizontal tabular cap cutting through the
host porphyry (Fig. 6).
Chalcopyrite is the dominant copper
sulfide, and at Santa Rosa the pyrite to
chalcopyrite ratio varies from 0.5 to 3.
Accessory galena, sphalerite, molybdenite
and tennantite are also present. At Santa
Rosa, the molybdenite and tennantite overlap
the margins of the 0.5% Cu shell and are
concentrated in the wall rocks. Late galena
and sphalerite occur with chalcopyrite within
the porphyry stock. The sulfides were
deposited from boiling magmatic-derived
fluids at about 400°C.
Supergene modification
Post-mineral modification of the two porphyry
Cu deposits is significant. Cerro Verde
displayed an extensive bronchantite-
dominated upper oxide copper zone that
overlay a zone of sulfide enrichment that was
3
up to 300 m thick and extended up to 465 m
below the summit of Cerro Verde (~2903
m.a.s.l.). At Santa Rosa, the supergene
sulfide enriched zone is thinner, being about
30 to 50 m thick, and only shallowly buried
about 50 m below the surface. The great
depth of enrichment at Cerro Verde with
respect to Santa Rosa likely reflects the much
more permeable breccia host to the deposits.
An area of supergene enrichment lies
between the two porphyry centers (Fig. 6).
Quang et al. (2003) demonstrated
polyphase supergene enrichment in the two
deposits, with the oldest evidence of
significant enrichment having occurred by 36-
38 Ma, followed by a younger event between
24 and 28 Ma. These two physically distinct
enrichment events at Cerro Verde were
controlled by major erosional surfaces, the La
Caldera and Santa Rosa surfaces
respectively (Fig. 6), that progressively
developed during protracted exhumation in
this part of the Andes. Supergene enrichment
at Santa Rosa apparently had a simpler
history with only a single blanket forming at
~26 Ma; the presence of a single blanket
opens the question of whether, or not, an
older early Oligocene enrichment event
happened at this center and has since been
removed by erosion. Supergene enrichment
process at these deposits appears to have
diminished in intensity with decreasing age,
but with minor supergene enrichment and
alteration happening within the Miocene (~12
Ma) and late Miocene and Pliocene (4.9 - 6.7
Ma). Oxidation of the deposit and formation
of jarosite occurred in the Pleistocene.
Cuajone
Cuajone was recognized as a potential
porphyry Cu deposits in the 1930’s (Lacy,
1991). It was first drilled in 1942. The 157 Mt
at 1.27% Cu prospect at that time was not
considered economic (Lacy, 1991).
Subsequent drilling in 1952 expanded the
resource to 417 Mt at 1.05% Cu.
Development on the Cuajone property ceased
once Toquepala began production (see
below). However, under the pressure from
the Peruvian government, Cuajone project
began to be developed, with the first
production being in mid-1976. Concha and
Valle (1999) reported reserves of 1,400 Mt at
0.64% Cu and 0.033% Mo at a cut-off of
0.40% Cu. Total resources and reserves in
2006 are reported to be 2,236 Mt at 0.56% Cu
(Southern Peru Copper Corporation, 2007).
Figure 6. Cross sections of the Cerro Verde – Santa Rosa porphyry Cu deposit showing the
distribution of rock types in upper panel and hydrothermal alteration assemblages (center panel0
and supergene zone in lower panel. Modified from Phelps Dodge (2002) and Quang et al. (2003).
Geologic framework
Lacy (1958) published the first geologic
description of the property (Fig. 7). Since
then, there have been only a few subsequent
studies of the hypogene geology of the
deposit, and this giant deposit largely remains
poorly documented and largely unknown
except for brief summaries by Manrique and
Plazolles (1975), Satchwell (1983), and
Concha and Valle (1999).

Figure 7. Geologic map of the Cuajone porphyry Cu deposit. Coordinates in Peruvian Coordinate
System (PSAD56); zone 19S. Modified from Manrique and Plazolles (1975), Concha and Valle
(1999), Southern Peru Copper Corporation (2007a) and Simmons et al. (2013).

The Toquepala Group including basalt,
andesite and quartz porphyry, is present in
the Rio Torata, which crosses the
northwestern part of the deposit (Fig. 7 and
8). Late Cretaceous diorite (66.7 ± 1.7 Ma;
Park in Concha and Valle, 1999) and
granodiorite (64-65 Ma in Simmons et al.,
2013) intruded the Toquepala Group volcanic
rocks. These plutons form part of the
Yarabamba batholith (Simmons et al., 2013)
that is widespread in the in the region (Fig. 4).
Unlike the other two deposits to the south
(see below), the batholithic rocks are not a
major host to ore. Most of the ore is hosted in
the temporally related porphyry stocks and
immediate volcanic wall rocks (Manrique and
Plazolles, 1975).
At least four intermediate composition
porphyry stocks intruded the Toquepala
Group rhyolitic and andesitic host rocks (Figs.
7 and 8). The porphyries are spatially and
temporally related to the porphyry Cu deposit
(Manrique and Plazolles, 1975). The oldest,
mapped in the mine as intrusive andesite (Fig.
7) is pervasively altered to a potassic
assemblage of biotite ± K feldspar that is
largely barren. An extensively altered and
mineralized early quartz-phyric porphyry,
mapped as LP1 porphyry, intruded the
intrusive andesite unit, and is temporally
associated with the bulk of the Cu-sulfide
deposition (Concha and Valle, 1999). It lies
beneath the Quebrada Chuntacala (Fig. 7),
which bisects the main part of the deposit. A
second but less altered quartz phyric
porphyry, mapped as BLP porphyry, forms an
inter- to late mineral intrusive suite. It
underlies unconformably post-mineral
Figure 8. Cross sections of the Cuajone mine showing the distribution of rock units, hydrothermal
alteration assemblages, and supergene enrichment, oxide Cu and leached-oxide zone. Modified
from Clark et al. (1990b) and Southern Peru Copper Corporation (2007a).
ignimbrites and sedimentary rocks in the
interfluve between Quebrada Chuntacala and
Rio Torata (Fig. 7). Marginal breccias to the
inter- to late mineral BLP porphyry are
variably mineralized due to the presence of
clasts of older well-mineralized porphyry; the
breccias are intimately associated with the
margins of these stocks (Concha and Valle,
1999). Highly altered andesite dikes within
the deposit, which are volumetrically minor,
clearly must represent small early to
intermineral intrusions related to the larger
porphyry units. Simmons et al. (2013) report
essentially identical U-Pb ages 55.6 ±0.6 and
56.2 ±0.7 Ma for these three intrusive units
that are intimately associated with Cu
deposition in the porphyry deposit.
Collectively the U-Pb ages indicate intrusion,
hydrothermal alteration, and Cu precipitation
over a short duration of time, as it becoming
evident in most porphyry Cu deposits on a
global basis. The youngest porphyry
intrusions, mapped as LP3 porphyry (Fig. 7),
cut the northern part of the porphyry ore body
and outcrop on the margins of the Rio Torata.
These weakly altered rocks are latest mineral
to post-mineral (Concha and Valle, 1999), and
were emplaced almost 2 million years after
the main Cu event at 53.5 ± 0.4 Ma (Simmons
et al., 2013). Clark et al. (1990a) report an
Eocene age of 52.4±1.9 Ma for sericite from a
quartz-chalcopyrite-pyrite veined rock in the
Rio Torata, which records the finally cooling of
the hydrothermal system.
Late Oligocene and Miocene sedimentary
and volcanic rocks unconformably overlie the
Eocene igneous rocks. The oldest rocks form
the Huaylillas Formation. The basal
ignimbrites of the formation filled a
paleovalley to the southeast of the deposit at
about 22.8 ± 0.8 Ma (Tosdal et al., 1981;
Quang et al., 2005). The top of the formation
consists of regionally extensive ignimbrites
that form the planar benches on either side of
the Cuajone deposit. These ignimbrites were
erupted about 19 Ma, and buried the highest
of the supergene
enriched zones and leached and oxidized
rocks that overlay it. Subsequently, a valley
was cut down across the northwest trending
axis of the deposit, and filled with a sequence
of ignimbrites and sedimentary rocks known
as the Chuntacala Formation (Manrique and
Plazolles, 1975; Tosdal et al., 1981;
Satchwell, 1983). These rocks were
deposited across leached and oxidized rocks
as well as secondary enriched rocks (Clark et
al., 1990b). The paleovalley began to fill at
about between 14.8 and 14.2 Ma (Quang et
al., 2005), and effectively prohibited further
enrichment of the deposit.
Mineralization sequence
Hydrothermal alteration assemblages at
Cuajone are typical for most porphyry Cu
deposits. An early biotite ± K feldspar
preserved in the intrusive andesite represents
the oldest hydrothermal event mapped in the
mine (Manrique and Plazolles, 1975; Concha
and Valle, 1999). Phyllic alteration
assemblages (Fig. 8) of quartz – sericite
dominate the porphyry units in the upper
levels of the deposits (Concha and Valle,
1999). Quartz veins contain chalcopyrite –
pyrite ± bornite and minor enargite. The
oldest veins carry bornite and the younger are
more pyritic. The assemblage of bornite –
pyrite ± enargite seen in some veins at high
levels suggest local transition to high
sulfidation type assemblages commonly found
in porphyry Cu deposits where pervasive
sericitic alteration has destroyed the buffering
capacity of the host rocks. A transitional
assemblage of sericite - chlorite lies between
the pervasively biotite altered rocks and the
phyllic alteration assemblages and between
the phyllic and propyllitic alteration
assemblages. Typical potassic alteration
assemblages of biotite – magnetite – quartz –
K feldspar – anhydrite – Cu-Fe sulfide lie at
depth. Late molybdenite - quartz veins cut the
Cu-bearing veins. Within areas of less intense
hydrothermal alteration, late stage mixed
argillic – phyllic assemblages (intermediate
argillic assemblage) composed of smectite
clays – chlorite – sericite (illite) overprint the
higher temperature assemblages but did not
remove Cu (Satchwell, 1983). Clearly the
evidence for two intrusive events each
carrying an associated hydrothermal fluid has
complicated the simple hydrothermal picture
of the deposit.
Manrique and Plazolles (1975) note that
the distribution of sulfides and Cu grade is
very regular both laterally and vertically,
except where the younger and less
mineralized intrusions diluted the Cu ore
grade. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite,
molybdenite and lesser amounts of sphalerite,
galena, and enargite constitute the hypogene
sulfide mineral assemblage. Molybdenite is
present in quartz veins or is disseminated in
the rock (Concha and Valle, 1999).
Supergene modification
The secondary enrichment blanket at
Cuajone was only about 20 m thick, the
thinnest of all the deposits (Fig. 8). It appears
to be a single blanket-like horizon that dipped
gently to the west. Immediately above the
sulfide-bearing enriched zone was a 40-m
thick oxide Cu zone overlies the secondary
sulfides, derived from the weathering of
secondary Cu sulfides (Clark et al., 1990b).
On the southern side of the deposit, the
enriched zone tapers to a wedge about 150 m
below the unconformity at the base of the
22.8 Ma ignimbrite that forms the lower
Huaylillas Formation. A distinct hematitic
horizon beneath the unconformity suggests
the past presence of supergene sulfides that
have now been leached and transported to
lower elevations. Tosdal et al. (1984)
concluded that this unconformity represented
an early stage of the formation of the early
Miocene Altos de Camilaca surface, a
regionally extensive pediplane that influenced
supergene enrichment in each of the
deposits.
On the northwest side of the deposit, the
14.8 Ma Chuntacala Formation
unconformably overlies the secondary sulfide
and oxide Cu zones (Fig. 8), effectively dating
the end of supergene enrichment. Sillitoe
(2005 on figure 18) reported an age for
supergene enrichment at Cuajone to pre-date
the Huaylillas Formation, and to be
contemporaneous with deposition of the
upper Moquegua Formation. Clark et al
(1990b) concluded that supergene enrichment
clearly began prior to the Oligocene, and was
probably largely complete by about 22.8 Ma
with the final formation of the Altos de
Camilaca surface. Further enrichment likely
occurred during the down cutting of the valley
that was subsequently filled by the
Chuntacala Formation, however, this was
likely minimal (Clark et al., 1990b). The
limited enrichment at Cuajone in comparison
with Quellaveco and Toquepala derives
directly from the fact that the deposit was
largely covered by ignimbrites, which
disrupted the paleohydrology, thereby limiting
the efficacy of the supergene enrichment
process.
Quellaveco
Quellaveco was recognized as potential
porphyry Cu deposits in the 1930’s (Lacy,
1991). It was explored by Northern Peru
Mining and Smelting Co. between 1947 and
1952, Southern Peru Copper Corporation in
2
1970 before being nationalized and explored
further by Minero Perú in 1972 (Candiotti de
los Rios, 1995). Announced reserves at that
time were 405 Mt at 0.8% Cu (Estrada, 1975).
Subsequent exploration by Anglo American
Exploration Perú S.A has defined a geological
resource of 1,670 Mt at 0.56 % Cu (cut-off at
0.3 % Cu) with reserves of 979 Mt at 0.63 %
Cu, 0.021 % Mo and 2.19 g/t Ag, including
213 Mt @ 0.95 % Cu. The details of the
deposit are summarized from Estrada (1975),
Toropoca (1979), Guerrero and Candiotti
(1979), Kihien (1975, 1995), Candiotti de los
Rios (1995), Sillitoe and Mortensen, (2010)
and Simmons (2013).
Geologic framework
The Quellaveco deposit is bisected by the Rio
Asana, and hypogene and supergene sulfides
outcrop on the floor and flanks of the modern
river valley (Figs. 9 and 10). The deposit is
hosted by a sequence of andesite overlain by
the felsic ignimbrites of the Toquepala Group
that were intruded by a large ~60 Ma
granodiorite batholith. The calcalkaline
volcanic rocks of the Toquepala Group
include two members (Kihien, 1995). Quartz-
feldspar phyric rhyolites of the Quellaveco
Rhyolite form the base of the sequence.
Andesite and basaltic-andesite flows and
breccias of the Samanape Andesite
discordantly overlie the older volcanic rocks.
Tonalite, granodiorite, and quartz monzonite
intrude the volcanic rocks. A series of
porphyritic granodiorite stocks intrude the
volcanic and plutonic rocks. These rocks are
most closely associated in time and space
with the porphyry Cu deposit. Late quartz
latite dikes cut the complex. Available
chronologic data suggest three distinct ages
of porphyry intrusion (Sillitoe and Mortensen,
2010; Simmons, 2013). The oldest but
volumetrically smallest porphyry unit
containing with highest Cu grade was
emplaced at ~58 Ma. The volumetrically most
abundant and mineralized porphyry units
carry most of the contained Cu were
emplaced between 56 and 57 Ma. A weakly
mineralized set of porphyry intrusions was
emplaced at ~54 Ma.
On the north bank of the Rio Asana, the
deposit is unconformably overlain by
unwelded ignimbrites of the Miocene (ca. 13
Ma) Chuntacala Formation (Tosdal et al.,
1981) and 10-Ma tuff forming the Rio Asana
Formation (Figs. 9 and 10). These rocks filled
a paleovalley that paralleled the current Rio
Asana on the north. On the south bank, the
Figure 9. Geologic map of the Quellaveco porphyry Cu deposit. Coordinates in Peruvian
Coordinate System (PSAD56); zone 19S. Modified from Simmons (2013).
oldest members (~13 Ma) of the Chuntacala
Formation are preserved in small depressions Mineralization sequence.
in the exhumed early Miocene Altos de Porphyry Cu-style veins and alteration is
Camilaca surface at elevations of about 4000 elongated northwest to southeast (Figs. 9 and
m. Ignimbrites of the Chuntacala Formation 11). The hypogene alteration at Quellaveco
throughout the Precordillera fill paleovalleys is complex, as the rocks have been exposed
cut into the regional Altos de Camilaca to several generations of hydrothermal fluids.
surface and overlying Huaylillas Formation. Thus, distinguishing the timing of the wall rock
The ash flows of the Chuntacala Formation alteration relative to the rock types and their
preserved the secondary sulfide horizon that related vein paragenesis is exceptionally
developed during the Miocene. difficult. Nonetheless patterns of alteration
Seven main hypogene alteration mineral
assemblages are identified: a) biotite - K-
Feldspar; b) chlorite over biotite – K feldspar;
c) chlorite over biotite - K-feldspar with
overprinted quartz-sericite; d) biotite – K
feldspar with overprinted quartz - sericite; e)
epidote - chlorite; f) epidote - chlorite with
overprinted quartz - sericite; and d) quartz -
sericite (Fig. 11). Felsic mineral sites are
altered to hydrothermal K feldspar, quartz -
sericite and minor epidote, whereas the mafic
silicate sites are commonly altered to biotite,
chlorite, epidote and in cases of extreme
intense alteration quartz – sericite.
The majority of alteration assemblages
dominated by K-feldspar and biotite are
located within and around early porphyry units
and adjacent into the older regional
granodiorite. This alteration assemblage
typically does not extend far into the host
granodiorite with a minimum penetration of
approximately 300m from the nearest early
porphyry intrusion. Minor K-feldspar - biotite
assemblages are spatially associated with
some of the intermineral dike complexes.

Figure 10. Cross sections of the Quellaveco deposit showing the distribution of rocks and
supergene enrichment, oxide Cu and leached-oxide zone Modified from Clark et al. (1990b) and
Simmons (2013).

2
Figure 11. Geologic map of hydrothermal mineral assemblages at Quellaveco. Geologic contacts
from figure 9 are shown in dashed lines. Coordinates in Peruvian Coordinate System (PSAD56);
zone 19S. Modified from Simmons (2013).

Chlorite or quartz - sericite overprinted K- deposit. Epidote and chlorite dominated

feldspar - biotite mineral assemblages are
mainly restricted to the periphery of the early
porphyry units where these rocks intruded the
granodiorite unit. Quartz and sericite
dominated hypogene alteration assemblages
are mainly restricted to the area around the
intermineral dike complex at shallow levels in
the deposit, and can be mapped on the valley
walls at higher elevations above the current
mineral assemblages are, for the most part,
restricted to the granodiorite within the lateral
extents of the deposit and to the late porphyry
units that intruded older porphyry units. Fluid
inclusion thermometry indicates the K-silicate
alteration and Cu-Mo sulfides were deposited
from high-temperature saline, magmatic-
derive hydrothermal fluids (Kihien, 1975,
1995). Fluids responsible for some of the
quartz-sericite alteration were of intermediate
temperature (>300°C).
Some general points can be inferred from
the hypogene alteration distribution. Firstly, K-
feldspar and biotite mineral assemblages are
in general temporally associated with older
porphyry phases (i.e. Early and Earliest
Porphyries) and dominate at depth within the
system. Quartz-sericite dominated
assemblages are temporally associated with
intermineral porphyry units and dominate the
upper levels within the overall system;
presumably these assemblages are underlain
at depth by potassic mineral assemblages.
Epidote and chlorite dominated mineral
assemblages are spatially associated with the
distal parts of the Quellaveco resource and
temporally associated with the very youngest
porphyry units.
Supergene alteration
An irregular secondary enrichment zone
about 50 to 60 m thick developed on the
hypogene sulfide ore body (Estrada, 1975;
Clark et al., 1990b). It consists of two zones:
an upper zone of moderate to strong
enrichment overlying a lower Cu grade zone
that presumably represents a downward
transition into the hypogene ore (Fig. 10). On
the north slopes of the Rio Asana (Fig. 10), a
10.1 ± 0.3 Ma ignimbrite of the Rio Asana
Formation, and a 13.0 ± 0.4 Ma ignimbrite of
the Chuntacala Formation and an underlying
conglomerate, which locally contains exotic
oxide Cu, unconformably overlie leached and
oxidized rocks and subjacent secondary
enriched zone (Clark et al., 1990b; Quang et
al., 2005). The relationships indicate that the
last stage of secondary enrichment occurred
in the Miocene. Based on the complex
geometry of the secondary enrichment zone
and the reconstructed paleogeomorphology
(Tosdal et al., 1984; Quang et al. 2003), the
enrichment blanket is thought to be the
product of two or more superposed
enrichment phases (Clark et al., 1990b). The
presence of perched horizons of chalcocite
and hematitic rich leached zones provide
support for the polyphase enrichment history.
The enrichment occurred at least in Miocene
during the down cutting of broad valleys into
the deposit but likely began prior to the final
formation of the Altos de Camilaca surface.
Supergene ages reported in Sillitoe (2005 on
figure 18) indicate enrichment in the early
Miocene but also local supergene activity
contemporaneous with the Pliocene and
younger Barroso Group.
2
Toquepala
Toquepala was recognized in the 1930’s
as a porphyry Cu prospect by Carl
Schmedeman (Lacy, 1991) based upon the
surface outcrops of leached and limonite filled
veinlets that locally contained copper oxides
and carbonate minerals. The Cerro de Pasco
company drilled the property through 1942
and outlined a resource of 9 Mt of 4.21% Cu
at a cut-off grade of 3%. In 1949, the
information and property became part of
Northern Peru Mining and Smelting Co. and
an exploration program outlined a 363 Mt at
1.05% Cu ore body. Mattos and Valle (1999)
report reserves of 300 Mt at 0.83% Cu and
0.07% Mo in sulfide ore and 700 Mt at 0.2 Cu
in leachable ore. The current reserve figures
do not take into account past production
reported to be 558 Mt of 1.03% Cu (Mattos
and Valle, 1999).
Geologic framework
Richard and Courtright (1958) first
described the geology of the deposit (Fig. 11).
Subsequent study of the deposit has been
sporadic, and includes description of Zweng
and Clark (1995; see also Clark et al., 1990a),
Mattos and Valle (1999), and Southern Peru
Copper Corporation (2007b). The porphyry
Cu-Mo deposit is associated with a complex
intrusive center dominated by several dacite
stocks, a dacitic diatreme complex, and
extensive hydrothermal breccias. These
rocks were emplaced into Paleocene quartz
monzodiorite pluton (U-Pb age of 61.4 Ma;
Simmons et al., 2013; 40Ar-39Ar age of about
55.5 Ma; Clark et al., 1990; Laughlin et al.,
1968) and still older rhyolitic and intermediate
volcanic rocks. The volcanic rocks are known
as the Serie Alta, Toquepala Series, and
Quellaveco quartz porphyry, which are
subdivisions of the Quellaveco Formation of
the Toquepala Group (Richard and Courtright,
1958; Bellido, 1979). The deposit lies about 1
to 2 km northeast of the Micalaco Fault, which
is a subsidiary strand of the Incapucio Fault
system that lies still farther to the southwest.
The deposit consists of a sequence of
alteration and mineralization events that are
spatially and genetically related to the
multiphase dacitic intrusions. Southern Peru
Copper Corporation (2007b) refers to these
as dacite porphyry with an U-Pb age of 56.8 ±
0.6 Ma and dacite agglomerate with an U-Pb
age of 56.2 ± 0.8 Ma (Simmons et al., 2013).
Complex hydrothermal events occurred
between the two intrusions, with extensive
Figure 12. Geologic map of the Toquepala Mine. Coordinates in Peruvian Coordinate System
(PSAD56); zone 19S. Modified from Richard and Courtright (1958), Zweng and Clark (1995) and
Simmons et al., (2013).

brecciation and chalcopyrite and molybdenite
introduction. A large pebble breccia followed
intrusion of the dacite agglomerate unit. The
early Cu-rich veinlets are most abundant in
the oldest porphyry, but these veins cut all the
porphyry intrusions. The dacite porphyry unit
is the largest intrusion and dominates the pit.
Barren tourmaline breccia cuts the porphyry
stocks and early Cu-rich veins. Tourmaline
breccias are common also in the hills
surrounding the open pit, and are a
widespread phenomenon in the deposit area.
Some quartz – sericite - pyrite alteration
accompanied breccia formation, but little
copper was deposited at this time. Late
dacite porphyry dikes intrude the tourmaline
breccia within the pit (Zweng and Clark,
1995).
Late to post-mineral latite porphyry (U-Pb
age of 54.3 ± 0.6 Ma; Simmons et al., 2013)
intruded all older igneous and hydrothermal
units at. The effect of the late activity is to
dilute the Cu endowment of the deposit
(Zweng and Clark, 1995).
Mineralization sequence
Early Cu-rich veins accompanied
widespread potassic alteration of the
porphyries, with the intensity of alteration
decreasing with age, as is common in
porphyry Cu deposits (Gustafson and Hunt,
1975; Zweng and Clark, 1995). The veins
contain biotite, K- and Na-feldspar as well as
chalcopyrite - bornite or are barren quartz with
accessory anhydrite. They were deposited
from high temperature >400°C fluids with at
least 35% wt. percent NaCl equivalent
(Zweng and Clark, 1995). The veins are
furthermore well developed deep in the
deposit at elevations below approximately
2,550 m.a.s.l. Their sinuous character makes
them analogous to the early “A-veins” at El
Salvador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). Zweng
and Clark (1975) suggest that only a limited
amount of Cu in the Toquepala system was
deposited in association with the early veins.
Tourmaline veins and breccias cross cut
the early Cu-rich veins. These veins and
breccias lack appreciable sulfide, and were
accompanied by quartz - sericite and
tourmaline - quartz alteration of the wall rock.
Fluid temperatures are interpreted to have
been lower, and about 390°C and only
saturated in NaCl (Zweng and Clark, 1995).
The net result of this stage of alteration is a
large upward-flaring tourmaline breccia that
localizes the vertical axis of the Toquepala
deposit. Zweng and Clark (1995) suggest
that the tourmaline breccia stage at
Toquepala may correlate, on a much grander
scale, with similar veins that make up the
transitional stage at El Salvador (Gustafson
and Hunt, 1975). The root of the pipe is
suggested to be at an elevation of about 2000
m.a.s.l. above the apex of a deeper porphyry
(Zweng and Clark, 1995). Emplacement of
the central tourmaline breccia furthermore
provided a vertical permeability framework to
the deposit that enhanced the upward rise
and sulfide deposition during the main stage.
Main stage alteration and mineralization
consist of chalcopyrite - molybdenite veins
responsible for the vast bulk of the metal
endowment at Toquepala. Quartz-
molybdenite-chalcopyrite and chalcopyrite-
pyrite are the dominant veins. Molybdenite is
also present as the matrix to irregular
vertically oriented breccia and as a coating on
fracture. Sparse magnetite veins deep in the
system post-date molybdenite deposition.
Zweng and Clark (1995) suggest an upward
enrichment of copper relative to molybdenum
deposited during this stage. This enrichment
is reflected in the abundance of quartz –
molybdenite - chalcopyrite veins in the deeper
portion of the deposit and their diminished
2
presence and the dominance of chalcopyrite -
pyrite in the shallow portions of the deposit.
Main stage sulfides were deposited from
fluids with an average temperature of about
335°to 360° C and about 35 wt. % equivalent
NaCl.
Late-stage alteration consisting of quartz –
sericite - pyrite veins and texturally destructive
albite - sericite, quartz – sericite - pyrite ±
andalusite alteration selvages is similar to that
found in most porphyry Cu deposits. High-
sulfur and arsenic-rich minerals (bornite and
tennantite-pyrite) and throughgoing vein
fabrics are characteristic. Fluids associated
with this stage are of lower temperature,
being about 300° C, and salinity in the range
of 7 to 8 wt. % NaCl.
A 300 m in diameter and >500 m in depth
pebble breccia and numerous pebble dikes
represent one of the latest events in the
deposit. For the most part, these are post-
mineral and dilute the overall Cu grades.
Chalcopyrite has been seen in the matrix of at
least 1 pebble dike, thereby implying that
pebble dikes probably developed at episodic
times over the course of the deposit
formation.
Supergene enrichment
Toquepala had the thickest and most
extensive record of supergene enrichment of
the three southern porphyry Cu deposits
(Richard and Courtright, 1958), but virtually all
of the zones have been removed by mining.
The oldest record of supergene sulfide
enrichment was preserved between 3525 and
3100 m.a.s.l., and lay within 40 to 75 m below
a regional early Miocene erosional surface,
the Altos de Camilaca surface (Tosdal et al.,
1985; Clark et al., 1990b). A supergene age
in Sillitoe (2005 on figure 18) is consistent
with this interpretation. The most extensive
zone had a broadly planar but very irregular
upper surface that slopes gently from north to
south across the hypogene sulfide deposit
between elevations of 3,350 and 3,250
m.a.s.l. The zone had deep roots that were in
excess of 150 m deep. Clark et al. (1990b)
concluded that the extensive and thick
enrichment zone formed in the Miocene after
19 Ma and before 11 Ma. Formation of the
enriched zone accompanied uplift of the
western slope of the Cordillera. Richard and
Courtright (1958) and Anderson (1982)
reached a similar conclusion.
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