Research Methodology for Engineers

1. Introduction
1.1 Definition of Research

The term research come into English from French word: “Cerchier”, meaning to search or seek and the prefix re,
meaning again and again.

The following is the process.

Person ------- observes again & again ------ Phenomena ------- Data collection & analysis ------
Conclusions

Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different dimensions.
Research can be broadly defined as original and creative intellectual activity, carried out in the laboratory, the library
or the field, which endeavors to discover new facts and to appraise and interpret them properly in the light of previous
knowledge. With constantly increasing understanding, it revises previously accepted conclusions, theories and laws,
and makes new applications of its findings.
In brief, research can be summarized as “a process of enquiry and investigation; it is systematic, methodical and ethical;
research can help solve practical problems and increase knowledge.” Or it is the process of using tools and techniques
to discover new truths and relationships in the world we live in, by sophisticated empirical study.

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1.2 Purpose of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main
aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Each research study
has its own specific purpose.

The purpose of research is:

• To discover answers to questions by applying scientific procedures. The scientific procedure is also developed to
increase the likelihood that the information gathered would be relevant to the question asked and will be reliable
and unbiased.

• To solve the problems that faced to our country concerning water resources and irrigation engineering.

• Used in decision making.

• Generally, research is a real life situation, the process of locating and evaluating information.

1.3 Types of Research

There are two systems of classifying research:

• Classification based on the goal or purpose of the research

• Classification based on the way research is conducted

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A) Based on goal or purpose of research; there are two types of research

 Basic research, also called fundamental or pure research- expand science and knowledge.

 Applied research - find a solution to an immediate problem.

1.3.1 Basic Research

It is a fundamental theoretical or experimental investigation to advance or improve scientific knowledge whose

immediate application is not being a direct objective.

Objectives of the basic research

Basic research embraces origin or unique investigation for the advancement of knowledge. It is designed to add an
organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.

Its objectives are:

 To provide a better understanding of the phenomenon under investigation i.e. adding to the existing body of
knowledge in the discipline - gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake.

 To discover or illustrate theories and general principles in general, basic research is carried out to understand the
basic knowledge that can be used in a wide variety of applied research.

For example, researches concerning some phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc are
examples of basic research.

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1.3.2 Applied Research

• Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to scientific
knowledge is secondary. It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industry or
business organization, where basic research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with formulation of a
theory. It is a type of research done to solve specific and practical problems and to produce knowledge and
technologies that can be used in practice. Applied research is directed towards using knowledge gained from
basic research in solving specific practical problems; and practicability is an important property of applied
research

Its objectives are:

• To solve practical problems of society, company or business organization rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge sake.

• To solve an immediate practical problems or to find a solution to some pressing practical problems.

For example, researches relating to design and testing of water pumping machine, improving natural resources
degradation, improving irrigation water requirements of crops, etc are examples of applied research.

However, in developing countries, like Ethiopia with limited research resources, applied research is given priority.

Applied research can be further classified as:

 Adaptive research

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  Strategic research

i) Adaptive research

 It is a type of research designed to adjust new technologies generated elsewhere to a specific set of
environmental conditions.

 It involves taking applied research results that developed elsewhere and adapting them to a specific situation or
environment. In adaptive research, no new scientific principle is to be developed.

 Testing of such technology are useful before going to supply to the communities.

ii) Strategic research

 It is a research aimed at solving specific research problems of strategic importance.

 It aimed at defining research strategies and priority areas in which specific applied research should focus.

For example, researches conducted to solve food security problems, policy research, credit service; effective extension
system, etc are examples of strategic research.

B) Classification based on the way research is conducted

Based on attributes to be measured and the techniques used for collection and analysis of data, there are two types of
research.

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  Quantitative research - is a research based on the measurement of quantity or amount-number. E.g. height,
weight & yield.
 Qualitative research - is conducted mainly in social sciences and is concerned with qualitative phenomena.
Interviews are used in these types of researches.

Differences between quantitative and qualitative researches:

Qualitative paradigm Quantitative paradigm

Concerned with understanding Seek the facts/causes of phenomena

behaviour from actor’s own frames of
reference

Naturalistic and uncontrolled Obtrusive and controlled

observation measurement

Subjective Objective

Grounded, discovery-oriented, Ungrounded, verification oriented,

exploratory, descriptive, inductive deductive

Process-oriented Outcome-oriented

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Ungeneralizable, single case study Generalizable, multiple case studies

Research can be grouped as:

 Experimental
 Non-experimental

Experimental research: - is a type of research in which at least one variable called the experimental variable is
deliberately manipulated or varied by the researcher to determine the effect of that variation. Experimental research is
conducted under controlled condition to observe the behavior of the variable(s) of interest. It is carried out in
laboratory, greenhouse or in the field.

When we say controlled experiment, it means a situation is created which enables us to control all factors that are not
under the interest of the study or research, and measures the influence of the factor(s) of interest.

For example, “Effects of Irrigation Water Management on Sugarcane Yield at Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate.” In this
experiment the research interest is irrigation water management. All other factors like soil type and fertility, fertilizer type
and rate, variety type and seed rate, moisture/irrigation application time and method, chemical application rate, type
and method, weeding type and frequency, etc. all are out of the interest of this study/research and they are equally
applied. Then we can see irrigation water effect on the yield from the data we collected and analyzed after the
completion of the experiment.

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Under laboratory and greenhouse conditions it is possible to control all factors, thus the effects of the
treatments/experimental variables can be measured more precisely. For example, we can control temperature, light,
relative humidity (RH), moisture, etc. But under field condition, there are numerous variables, which cannot be
controlled. However, their effects are minimized by employing certain statistical techniques (i.e., blocking, replication,
covariance analysis, etc).

Non-experimental research: - Here the data are obtained not from actual laid out experiments, but from survey
research where respondents are either interviewed or provided with questionnaire to generate data. The researcher
collects data on the existing variables using the techniques of sample survey. Gathering information from secondary
sources such as archives, libraries, personal communications do not involve experimentation and they are non-
experimental researches.

Both the interview and questionnaire techniques of data collection in a non-experimental research involve careful
questionnaire format construction (closed/open end type), careful sample selection (representativeness of the sample),
should be supplemented by secondary data (from Libraries, Industries, Research Institutes, Federal and Regional
Bureaus of Water Resources and Irrigation, Central Statistics Agency/CSA, etc.)

In survey, the researcher collects data on existing variables (e.g. Irrigation water availability, crops, farmers, etc.) using
the techniques of sample survey. For example, a survey on Sugarcane landraces type and distribution in Ethiopia,
measuring width and height of Mango tree samples in an existing orchard farm is not experimental, but non-
experimental research.

At least two major types of surveys are used by researchers:

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  Descriptive
 Analytical.
A descriptive survey attempts to picture or document current conditions or attitudes, that i.e., to describe what exists at
the moment.
An Analytical survey attempts to describe and explain why certain situations exist. In this approach two or more
variables are usually examined to test research hypothesis. The results allow researchers to examine interrelationships
among variables and to draw explanatory inferences.

1.4 Research Motives

Research might have one or more of the following motives:

 Desire to get research degree along with its consequential benefits.

 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problem, i.e., concern over practical problems might initiate
research.
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work, desire to get respectability.
 Desire to be of service to society and employment conditions.

1.5 Importance Aspects of Scientific Research Methods in Engineering

From engineering points view, research can be describe as the process of using tools and techniques to generate and
adapt new technologies, by sophisticated empirical study.
Procedures to be followed in inventing new technologies:

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  Designing of prototype
 Measuring the parameters
 Testing of the parameters vs. the existing technology
 Validation of the findings

1.6 Steps in Scientific Research Methods

1.6.1 Definitions

Scientific research may be defined as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among observed phenomena. This definition contains the basic terms
necessary in defining the method of scientific research, and describes a procedure that has been accepted for
centuries.
Scientific research method is a systematic body of procedures and techniques applied in carrying out investigation or
experimentation targeted at obtaining new knowledge.
Scientific research can be summarized as follow:
 A process of rigorous reasoning based on interaction among theories, methods and findings;
 Builds on understandings derived from the objective testing models or theories;
 Accumulation of scientific knowledge is laborious/tedious plodding, circuitous and indirect;
 Scientific knowledge is developed and honed through critique contested findings, replication and convergence;
 Scientific knowledge is developed through sustained efforts, and
 Scientific enquiry must be guided by “fundamental principles”.

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1.6.2 Fundamental Principles of Scientific Research
1. Ask significant questions that can be answered empirically.
2. Link research to relevant theory.
3. Select and apply research designs and methods that permit direct investigation of the question.
4. Provide a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning that can be replicated.
5. Replicate and generalize across studies.
6. Report research publicly to encourage professional scrutiny, critique and replication.

1.6.3 Components in Scientific Research

1. Logical: Based on reasoning

2. Deterministic: All events have causes; nothing just happens without reason or is based on probabilistic form of
determination.
3. General: General understanding rather than explaining individual events.
4. Parsimonious: Discovering both factors that determine the events as well as those don’t.
5. Specific: To generalize, research must be specific and precise in measuring events.
6. Empirically verifiable: quantifiable
7. Open for modification: Utility rather than ultimate truth. No scientist has yet discovered or will discover “The Truth”.

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1.6.4 Characteristics of the Scientific Method
Five basic characteristics, or principles, distinguish the scientific method from other methods of knowing. A research
approach that does not follow these principles cannot be considered to be a scientific approach.
1. Scientific research is public. Scientific advancement depends on freely available information.
2. Science is objective. Science tries to rule out peculiarities of judgment by researchers.
3. Science is empirical. Researchers are concerned with a world that is knowable and potentially measurable.
Empiricism is derived from the Greek word for experience.
4. Science is systematic and cumulative. No single research study stands alone, nor does it rise or fall by itself.
Researchers always utilize previous studies as building blocks for their own work. One of the first steps taken in
conducting research is to review the available scientific literature on the topic so that the current study will draw
on the heritage of past research. This review is valuable for identifying problem areas and important factors that
might be relevant to the current study.
5. Science is concerned with relating the present to the future. In fact, scientists strive to develop theories because,
for one reason, they are useful in predicting behaviour. A theory’s adequacy lies in its ability to a phenomenon or
event successfully. If a theory suggests predictions that are not borne out by data analysis, that theory must be
carefully reexamined and perhaps discarded. Conversely, if a theory generates predictions that are supported by
the data, that theory can be used to make predictions in other situations.

1.6.5 Criteria for good research

 Systematic: structured with specified steps or specified sequences in accordance with well defined rules.

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  Logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction
and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the
whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that
very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
 Empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
 Replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a
sound basis for decisions.

1.6.6 Characteristics of good research

 Purpose of the research clearly defined
 Research procedure described in detail
 Research design thoroughly planned
 Limitations frankly revealed
 High ethical standard applied
 Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance
 Findings presented unambiguously
 Conclusions justified

Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the researcher is experienced

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1.6.7 Research Procedures
The use of the scientific method of research is intended to provide an objective, unbiased evaluation of data.
The typical eight-steps in scientific research process include:
1. Select a problem
2. Review existing research and theory (when relevant)
3. Develop hypotheses or research questions
4. Determine an appropriate methodology/research design
5. Collect relevant data
6. Analyze and interpret the results
7. Present the results in appropriate form
8. Replicate the study (when necessary)

Schematically, the following is a research model appropriate to all areas of scientific research (see fig. 1 below).

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Fig. 1. A Research Model

1.6.8 Research Process

The research process is cyclic in nature and consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research. The followings are desired sequencing of these steps (see fig. 2 below).

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Fig. 2. Research process

1.6.9 Research methods/techniques and methodology

Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique.

Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making
observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like.

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For instance, the difference between research methods and techniques of data collection can better be understood
from the details given in the following chart (see table 1 below).

Table 1. Difference between research methods & techniques

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From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the methods that generate
techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and when we talk of research methods
we do, by implication, include research techniques within their scope.

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Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These
methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships
between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of research.

Research methodology. Is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically.

In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his/her research problem along
with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but
also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the
mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but
they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they
mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and
they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to
certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his/her methodology
for the problem as the same may differ from problem to problem.

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Chapter Two: Research Planning

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Chapter Two: Research Planning

2.1 Introduction

Research required at any level and then planning is required for research. Research planning involves detailed
description of:

 Activities to be undertaken;
 Manpower, funds and facilities required, and
 Methods of implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the project.

Therefore, properly planned experiment is said to be half- executed or completed (as illustrated in the fig. 3 below).

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Fig. 3. Research design

Research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study and hence scheme of the
research. It is a planned sequence of the entire process involved in conducting a research. It is a mapping strategy.

It is essentially a statement of the object of the inquiry and the strategies for collecting the evidences, analyzing the
evidences and reporting the findings. A research proposal must tell a reader, reviewer, supervisor or donor what is
proposed to be done, how to proceed about it, and why the proposed strategy is needed.

The general principles to be followed for planning research are:

 Identification, definition and selection of problems and areas on which research is focused;

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  Identification of the key activities involved in the proposed research;
 Arrangement of the program, and
 Coordination, monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the project.

Based on the above general principles, there are about seven steps in the planning processes:

 Step 1. Problem identification is required.

 Step 2. Rank each of the problems with respect to their distribution (importance) - who suffer most, importance of
the technology and severity of the problem, helps us to identify the most important one.

 Step 3. To identify the causes of each problem and construct a flow diagram for each one. The cause and effect
relationship was drawn for further analysis.

 Step 4. Analyzing of intervention points based on cause and effect relationship.

 Step 5. Possible solution should be forwarded to the problems.

 Step 6. Evaluation of the possible solutions if available elsewhere in terms of profitability, compatibility with the
system in the area and ease of technology used by end-users.

 Step 7. For researchable solutions, prepare outline for trials and diagnostic studies and estimate the resources
required.

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2.2 Writing Research Proposal

Most students and beginners/young researchers do not fully understand what a research proposal means, nor do they
understand its importance.

To put it directly, one’s research is only as good as one’s proposal.

Proposal lexically means a course of action, activity, etc., proposed. Thus, a research proposal may be defined as “a
written document requesting both authorizations and funds to undertake a specific project in the laboratory, library,
field, etc.” It is a plan which contain steps what must be done, is a document that describes an idea that has not been
researched.

The theoretical setting of research has consequences for scientific proposal writing. It enables a universe of discourse,
which mandates accuracy and clarity, and objective-oriented points of view. There is no a hard and fast format in
scientific research writing. It varies from one organization to another. Though the format varies, the essence expressed in
different format remains the same.

All research proposals must address the following question:

 What you plan to accomplish?

 Why you want to do it?
 How you are going to do it?

The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your reader that you have an important research idea, that
you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound.

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2.2.1 Purpose of Proposal Writing

 Ideas and procedures are clearly defined and spelled out.

 Gaps and errors are easier to recognize and correct when the plan is seen on paper than the plan is in one’s
mind.
 A written proposal can be studied by anyone whose advice is desired or whose approval is required.
 A written proposal constitutes a permanent record of the procedures that should be followed and referred in the
course of the study.

2.2.2 Quality of a Research Proposal

 The research proposal should not be too long, nor should it be crowded with too many technical terms or
scientific jargons - it have negative effect on the decision of the reviewers.
 Research proposal should be:
 clear, simple, and carefulness, brief, should be financially and economically feasible - more impressive than
voluminous ones;
 technically capable;
 the proposed budget should be reasonable - not ambitious or too low, and
 soundness of the methodology to be adopted.

The researcher should also give a serious thought to the style and language of the proposal. Commonly accepted
standards of proposal preparation should be employed. It must also be prepared in such a way that grammatically
correct sentences are used. The proposal should/must be edited for style and language.

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No matter how important it is in terms of soundness of methodology and financial feasibility, a proposal with
grammatical errors would have unavoidable effect on the decisions made by reviewers.

2.2.3 Choose a Topic

The first step in a research process is the choice of researchable problem for investigation. A topic may be defined as
an area within a given field of study that the researcher would like to explore in his/her research.

Potential sources of research topics are:

 Own personal/professional experiences;

 Inference from theory and professional literature, and
 Technological and social changes.

Things to bear in mind when choosing research topics:

 How much choice you have?

 Your motivation
 Regulations and expectations
 You subject and field of study
 Previous examples of research projects
 The size of your topic
 The time you have available
 The cost of the research

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  The resources you have available
 Your need for support
 Access issues
 Methods for researching

Research topics may be of:

 Indicative type
 Hanging type
 Question type

Indicative titles: - are the most common type of research titles. They state the subject of the proposal rather than
expected output.

Examples;

 Minimum tillage practice as an alternative on furrow irrigation system at Metahara and Tendaho Sugar Factories
 Rainwater harvesting as an adaptation strategy to climate change
 Managing water in agriculture for food production and other ecosystem services

Hanging titles: If the title written in the form of indicative form becomes too long, it can be written in the hanging form.
Hanging titles have two parts: a general first part followed by a more specific second part separated by a colon (:) or
hyphen (-).

Examples;

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  Alleviation of poverty in low-potential areas of Ethiopia: the impact of agricultural credit
 Performance of irrigation: an assessment study at different small scales in Ethiopia
 Integrated water management: emerging issues and challenges

Question types: are titles that are used less commonly than others. However, they are acceptable where it is possible to
use few words.

Example;

 Does irrigation water matters for rural poverty alleviation?

 Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty in low-potential areas of Ethiopia?

2.3 Basic Components of a Research Proposal

Research proposals may differ in style of presentation depending upon the financing agencies; however, all share some
common features as regarding their contents. The following are the major components of research proposals.

2.3.1 Title/Project Title

2.3.2 Abstract/Summary

2.3.3 Study Background

2.3.1.1 Introduction

2.3.1.2 Problem Identification and Formulation

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 2.3.1.3 Research Questions/Hypothesis

2.3.1.4 Objectives Setting

2.3.1.5 Significance of the Study

2.3.1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

2.3.4 Literature Review

2.3.5 Research Methodology/Research Methods and Materials

2.3.6 Work Plan/Time Frame

2.3.7 Research Budget

2.3.8 References

2.3.1 Title

It is also known as the topic. The title is the most widely read part of the proposal. It should be concise enough to easily
capture the attention of the reader. It should be clear, short, unambiguous and explicit (reflect content and the
problems to be solved).

The title should contain the key words. The words you use in your title should clearly reflect the focus of your proposal.
The most important words come first, and then the less important words. It should contain the name of the
author/researcher and advisor.

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  Try to remove words from your title that really are not necessary for understanding.

 Try and use only a single sentence for your title.

 A good title contain as few words as possible, describe the contents of the paper accurately, describe the
subject as specifically as possible.

 Easy to understand and does not promise more than what is in the paper.

Example;

 Land degradation (this title is very broad). To make this title more specific we write as: “Current Status and Future
Trends of Land Degradation in the Arsi-Bale Massifs.”

2.3 2 Abstract/Summary – Optional

It is the executive summary of the research proposal. It should present highlights of the main aspects of the proposal
concisely and clearly. A good informative abstract starts by starting the problem to be solved through the work
proposed, specifying the significance of the problem.

It covers the purpose, expected outputs, beneficiaries, and expected impacts of the work. A good technique is to write
a draft abstract/concept note before writing the main proposal. This gives you an outline for your proposal of the key
component and thus guides the writing of the complete proposal.

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2.3.3 Study Background

2.3.3.1 Introduction

It provides a brief and concise theoretical background with regard to the existing knowledge/the issues at hand to our
title. The theoretical background should cover the importance or significance of the study, its rationale or justification.
The problem(s) to be addressed should be clearly stated, including what has been done and why it should be
addressed urgently. The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a
specific research problem.

Statement of the problem constitutes the scientific justification for the study. The problem statement should make
convincing argument that there exists not sufficient knowledge to explain the problem and its possible alternative
solutions.

The significant content of the justification is that no work has been carried out to solve the stated problem, or that little
work has been carried out to try to solve the stated problem. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed
research. Cite previous projects and studies that are similar to what you are proposing.

2.3.3.2 Problem Identification and Formulation

Once the topic is identified the next step will be to clearly define the research problem.

Points to be considered when selecting a problem:

 A subject that is overdone should be avoided.

 Controversial subjects are not recommended.

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  Too narrow or too broad or vague problems should not be selected.
 The subject selected should be familiar and feasible.
 The importance of the subject should be considered.
 The qualification and training of the researcher.
 The cost involved and the time factor.

Note that a problem well defined is half solved! Effective problem statement answers the question why does the
research need to be conducted. If the problem is well defined, it helps the researcher to:

 Differentiate relevant data from irrelevant ones.

 To lay boundaries within which to study.
 To be on the right track.

Steps in defining research problem:

 Understanding the nature of the problem more clearly (by discussing it with others…).
 Survey of available and relevant literature.

This enables the researcher to:

 Find out what data available for operational purposes.

 Find out if there is a gap in theories.
 Find out whether the existing theory is applicable to the problem under study.

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  Develop the idea through discussion.
 Rephrasing and formulating research problems - researchable questions.

2.3.3.3 Research Questions and/or Hypothesis

After a general research area has been identified and the existing literature reviewed, the researcher must state the
problem as a workable hypothesis or research question. A hypothesis is a formal statement regarding the relationship
between variables, and it is tested directly. The predicted relationship between variables is either true or false.

On the other hand, a research question is a formally stated question intended to provide indications about something,
and it is not limited to investigating relationships between variables. Research questions are generally used in situations
where a researcher is unsure about the nature of the problem under investigation. The intent is merely to gather
preliminary data. However, testable hypotheses are often developed from information gathered during the research
question phase of the study.

2.3.3.4 Objectives

The next step after the statement of the problems is setting up the objectives. Informs the reader/evaluators what the
researcher wants to achieve through the study. It must be stated clearly and specifically under the heading of major
and specific objectives. The general objective provides a short statement of the scientific goal to be pursued by the
research. The specific objectives are operational in nature. These are the objectives against which the success of the

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research will be judged. Specific objectives should originate from the general objective and may be stated in action-
oriented such as:

 to determine
 to find out
 to assess
 to measure
 to express

The wording of objective determines the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve them. Make sure that
the objectives are SMART (as described in fig 4 below).

Fig. 4. Mode of objectives setting

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2.3.3.5 Significance of Study

Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area under investigation.

2.3.3.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

Explain things that you are not doing and why you have chosen not to do them – boundary of the problem to be
investigated.

2.3.4 Literature Review

It means locating literature in a variety of sources, reading it carefully and thoroughly, evaluating the content, breaking
it down themes and organizing it into themes along the investigation. Sometimes the literature review is incorporated
into the introduction section. However, most scholars/professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more
thorough review of the literature.

Some questions that a literature review can answer see fig. 5 below).

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Fig. 5. Configuration of questions that literature review can answer

 Reviewing literature: - builds on the platform of existing knowledge (as described in the figs. 6 & 7below).

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Fig. 6. Platform of existing knowledge vs. expected new research finding

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Fig. 7. Platform of existing knowledge vs. expected new research finding

Sources of Information:

 Books
 Journals
 Summaries or abstracts
 Proceedings
 Dissertations
 Reports and policies
 Knowledgeable persons
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  Publications of international organizations
 Unpublished sources

Importance of literature review:

 To gain background knowledge of the research topic - to know whether the problem has been studied -
identification of knowledge gaps.
 To know the recommendations of the previous researchers for further study.
 To identify data sources, appropriate methodology, research design and methods of measuring.
 To learn how others structured their reports.

Plan your literature review like this:

 Decide on what information is useful.

 Determine how you should organize what is gathered.
 Set up an ordinary recording or note-taking system.
 Skim or read the material.
 Summary of important points should be recorded on the card.

Thus, literature review serves several important functions: ensures that you are not ‘reinventing the wheel’, gives credits
to those who have laid the groundwork for your research. It demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem and
your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature.

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It also demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question.
Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a
new model as the conceptual framework for your research.

Literature review convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution
to the literature (i.e., resolving important theoretical issues or filling a major gap in the literature). Always refer to the
original source!

It is generally best to start globally and then narrow it down to the specific research question you have.

GENERAL

SPECIFIC

You want to synthesize and merge what others had done, not just string a bunch of quotes together.

E.g. ---- (Kebede, 2010; Abebe, 2009; Jemal, 2008) => Yes

 Kebede (2010) says --------

 Abebe (2009) believes ------ Not good

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  Jemal (2008) says ----------

Most students’ literature reviews suffer to the following problems:

 Lacking organization
 Lacking focus, unity and coherence
 Being repetitive and verbose
 Failing to cite influential papers
 Failing to keep up with recent development
 Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
 Citing irrelevant or trivial references
 Depending too much on secondary sources

Therefore, your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to your proposal.
Literature review should be concerned with literature that is specific to the topic of the research proposal. Only
pertinent information should be included in the review. Any relevant local information obtained from formal literature
and personal communications should be included as long as the researcher feels that it would have positive
contribution towards the overall development of the proposal.

It is very important that the researcher refer all activities in the bibliography. Otherwise, if he/she uses somebody’s work
without acknowledgment, he/she would be accused for plagiarism or intellectual piracy. Moreover, any person who
wants to read and know more about the quoted idea can do so if the source is properly indicated.

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2.3.5 Materials and methods/methodology
 This part is the heart of the proposal.
 The methods are central to scientific research, and are largely descriptive.
 Methodology generally addresses issues related to data collection, sample size and sampling techniques, data
analysis, etc. It should explain how each specific objective will be achieved.
 This section is an essential prerequisite for validating the results because of interpretation, explanation and
meaningfulness.
 An accurate, clear and valid methodology is required so that Peers can
 Replicate the experiments described.
 Modify them with the assurance that the modification is different from the original in particular way.
 Apply them under different methods, or
 Compare the research and so extend the research reported with other and so extend the research
further.
 Give full details to show with what and how the research activity is to be carried out.
 The materials and methods to be employed vary according to the type of investigation being made.
 Make sure that the experimental design or methodology selected is the best to meet the objectives of the
research.
 Materials and methods normally include:
 Site/location characterization
 Equipment and tools

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  Procedure of investigation
 Data to be collected: methods of data collection and analysis
 Design to be used
 Replication number over sites and years
 Meteorological data
 Number of people/farmers participating
 Duration of the study

2.3.6 Work Plan/Time-frame

 There are three steps in the formulation of work plan.
i) Analysis of tasks
ii) Time estimate of each tasks
iii) Synthesis of the plan

Table 1. A sample to synthesis a 12-month research project plan

Months

Activity July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Literature x x x x x x x x x x x x
search

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Develop x
proposal

Research x x
designing

Pilot study x

Field work data x x x

collection

Data analysis x

Report write up x x

Report x x
circulation for
comments

Dissemination x x x
workshop

2.3.7 Research Budget

 The steps in presentation of budget should proceed in the following manner.

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 i) Study the sequences of research activities or work plan.
ii) Estimate the cost of each activity.
iii) Group similar expenditure items together.
iv) Allow for inflation.
v) Present a detailed periodic budget.
vi) Present a budget summary covering all years of the project.

Examples for logistics preparation

Table 2. Personal cost

Qualification Quantity Duration Payment rate Total cost

(No.) (in days, months) (per day/month) (Birr)

Technical
assistant

Daily laborer

Guard

Sub-total

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Table 3. Equipment and supplies cost

Item Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

(Birr)

Seed

Pesticides

Fertilizers

Glassware

Barrels

Meters

Sub-total

Table 4. Stationery

Item Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

(Birr)

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Record books

Lined paper

CD

Flash

Computer and
accessories

Printer

Sub-total

Table 5. Travel cost and perdiem

Rate per day Total days Total costs

Description
(Birr)

Researcher

Technical assistants

Field assistants

Enumerators

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 Driver

Sub-total

Table 6. Field offices and laboratories

Area m2 Cost per m2 Total area Total costs

Description
(Birr)

Field offices

Laboratory

Green house

Sub-total

Table 7. Human resource development and training

Number Budget per person Total costs

Description
(Birr)

Ph.D

M.Sc

B.Sc

Development agents

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 Farmers

Sub-total

Table 8. Transportation facilities

Item Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

(Birr)

Land cruiser

Toyota pickup

Motorcycles

Bicycles

Sub-total

Budget for consultancy

 Estimated budget is allocated for different consultancy work.

Miscellaneous expenses
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  Any other expenses, as required

Table 9. Budget Summary

SUB-TOTALS
(Birr)
ITEMS

Personal cost

Equipment and supplies cost

Stationery cost

Travel cost and perdiem

Field offices and laboratories

Human resource development and training

Transportation facilities

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Budget for consultancy

Miscellaneous

Total

Contingency (5-10%)

GRAND TOTAL

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2.3.8 References (bibliography/literature cited)
Cite references for individuals who carried out the researches. We are going to acknowledge individuals, give
responsibility for individuals in reference section.
Two points are important to consider in reference section.
1. List only significant and published references - not write unpublished materials, need to be published in journals,
sometimes we use unpublished materials, short note is not used in scientific paper, handout also not used in scientific
paper.
2. Check all parts of every reference as against the original publication before the manuscript is submitted.

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There are generally three types of reference styles.
1. Name and Year System (Harvard system) - is very popular & used in many journals and books.
E.g. Young, S.K. 2000. How to write and publish a scientific paper. 4th ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press.
2. Alphabet (Number system) - is citation by number from an alphabetized list of references in the main text,
modification of name & year system, alphabetized list of reference & the author name.
E.g. 1. Abebe, 2000, 2. Bekele, 2004
3. Citation Ordered System – is the system of citing references in order that they appear in the paper and year of
publication.

Journal article:

1. Author (s)
2. Year
3. Title of journal article
4. Name of journal (italics)
5. Volume number of the journal
6. Pages range in journal article

Book:

It is similar with journal but different in:

 Instead of name of journal we use publisher, place of publisher (specific place & country), and page of books.
 If the book is editor we use in place of author we use editor (eds.) (both editor & author exists).

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Conference report:
• It is used for local & domestic publisher
• Editors (eds.)
• Name of proceeding
• Volume number
• Pages
• At the end: in the proceeding-----------------

Electronic sources/internet sources:

 Start using website- http//www.------ acceded date & year

Citation in the text:

 At the beginning. E.g. Author (2000) stated that--------------.

 At the middle. E.g. ------ (Kebede, 2005) -------.
 At the end. E.g. ----------- (Kebede, 2005).

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