Isobel Kai-Hui Wang (Auth.) - Learning Vocabulary Strategically in A Study Abroad Context-Palgrave Macmillan (2018) PDF

learning
vocabulary
strategically
in a study
abroad
context
Isobel Kai-Hui Wang

Learning Vocabulary Strategically in a Study
Abroad Context
Isobel Kai-Hui Wang
Learning Vocabulary
Strategically in a
Study Abroad
Context
Isobel Kai-Hui Wang
Nankai University
Tianjin, China
ISBN 978-3-319-65962-6 ISBN 978-3-319-65963-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65963-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951771
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Building Vocabulary Through Interaction 17
3 Expanding Study-Abroad Opportunities for Vocabulary

Learning 67
4 Developing Vocabulary Strategies During Study Abroad 117
5 Strategic Vocabulary Learning as a Complex Dynamic

System 169
6 Learning Vocabulary Strategically in a Study-Abroad

Context 231
References 269
Index 287
v
List of Figures
Photo 2.1 Using an electronic notebook to remember words 28

Photo 2.2 Sample of vocabulary notebook entries 28
Fig. 2.1 Xia’s strategy cycle 35
Fig. 2.2 Wu’s cluster of dictionary look-up strategies 39
Fig. 2.3 Wu’s cluster of memory strategies 45
Photo 2.3 Puzzle game 46
Fig. 2.4 Xia’s strategy combination 49
Fig. 2.5 Xia’s recycling of vocabulary learning strategies 52
Fig. 3.1 Ke’s strategies employed to select vocabulary 80
Fig. 3.2 Bo’s strategy sequence 91
Fig. 3.3 Ke’s strategy combination 97
Fig. 3.4 Bo’s recycling of strategy combination 99
Fig. 3.5 Bo’s strategy circle 101
Fig. 3.6 Ke’s strategy sequence 103
Photo 4.1 Format of a vocabulary notebook 123
Photo 4.2 Ji’s vocabulary entry ‘brief ’ 124
Photo 4.3 Qa’s vocabulary entry ‘brief ’ 126
Photo 4.4 Ten words for Week 26 (Ji, photo, VOCABlog) 132
Photo 4.5 Vocabulary entry ‘tender’ 133
Photo 4.6 Content of vocabulary notebook: ‘contrast’, ‘contact’
and ‘contract’ 135
Photo 4.7 Content of vocabulary notebook: ‘enhance’ and ‘improve’ 135
Fig. 4.1 Qa’s strategy combination 136
vii
viii List of Figures
Fig. 4.2 Qa’ strategy pair 137

Fig. 4.3 Ji’s strategy combination 147
Fig. 4.4 Qa’s strategy sequence 155
Fig. 5.1 Three levels of context 179
Fig. 5.2 Circular use of metacognitive strategies 196
Fig. 5.3 A temporal, dynamic, flexible model of strategic learning 199
Fig. 5.4 A multiple-case study design 205
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Wu’s and Xia’s strategic attempts 63

Table 3.1 Bo’s and Ke’s personal dictionary 80
Table 3.2 Bo’s and Ke’s strategic attempts 112
Table 4.1 Ji’s and Qa’s strategic attempts 165
Table 5.1 Selected studies of the effectiveness of ‘deep’
processing strategies 171
ix
1
Introduction
1.1 S
tudy Abroad and Second Language
Vocabulary Learning
The experiences of international students studying abroad are receiving
considerable attention from teachers, parents, researchers, policy makers
and programme designers as a result of the increasing internationalisation
of higher education. According to UNESCO statistics (2014), the num-
ber of international students in tertiary education increased significantly
from 2 million in 2000 to 4 million in 2012. In particular, Chinese stu-
dents have become the largest proportion of international students in
many Western countries, such as the USA, the UK and Australia. In the
case of the UK, the number of Chinese students is continuing to grow,
with a 44% increase predicted over the next decade (British Council
2013).
Chinese students choose to study abroad for a variety of reasons, from
academic to cultural to personal. In China, students mainly learn English
in the formal language classroom and English is not used as a communi-
cation tool in everyday life. Compared with the learning context in their
home country, the context of everyday life in an English-speaking coun-
try provides international students with a potentially rich environment to
© The Author(s) 2018 1

I.K.-H Wang, Learning Vocabulary Strategically in a Study Abroad Context,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65963-3_1
2
1 Introduction
acquire the target language and engage with cultural practices. Therefore,
one of the primary reasons for studying in an English-speaking country
is the desire to gain access to the target language community and improve
their English language proficiency (Wu 2014; Zhu 2016).
The transition from a non-English to an entirely English learning envi-
ronment is not easy, however. The language barrier is perceived as one of
the biggest obstacles to international Chinese students’ academic and
sociocultural adjustment (Spencer-Oatey and Xiong 2006; Gu and Maley
2008). Weak language skills have been seen to give rise to academic and
social problems among Chinese students (Turner 2006; Gu 2009).
Studies of the experience of international Chinese students have reported
significant difficulties in communicating orally and in writing academi-
cally (Holmes 2004; Zhang and Mi 2010). Vocabulary knowledge is
viewed as the basis of second language learning and use. There is also
considerable research evidence supporting the crucial role that vocabu-
lary plays in both the receptive (reading and listening) and productive
(speaking and writing) skills in association with effective communication
(Laufer and Nation 1995; Nyikos and Fan 2007; Schmitt 2010; Koizumi
and In’nami 2013). Hence, a key way of overcoming these difficulties is
for international students to expand their vocabulary and use words
appropriately in order to respond to linguistically demanding academic
and social tasks (Daller and Xue 2009; Hu 2010).
There is a growing literature about the impact of study-abroad set-
tings on second language acquisition (e.g. Freed 1995; DuFon 2006;
Arnold and Fonseca-Mora 2015; Cadd 2015; Taguchi 2015). In par-
ticular, empirical evidence suggests that the study-abroad context is
more beneficial to L2 learners’ oral fluency, vocabulary development as
well as pragmatic competence than a domestic formal classroom set-
ting (DeKeyser 1991; Lafford 2004; Segalowitz and Freed 2004;
Barron 2006; Fitzpatrick 2012; Briggs 2015). However, being in an
English-speaking country cannot guarantee vocabulary expansion and
development.
As part of my research projects on international Chinese students’
vocabulary learning experiences, I have had the opportunity to talk to,
interview and get to know Chinese students across different British
universities at different degree levels since 2010. Many of them had
1.1 Study Abroad and Second Language Vocabulary Learning 3
assumed that vocabulary growth would come naturally through access

to the target language c ommunity. However, they later realised that
only small amounts of vocabulary learning occurred while studying
and living in the UK. Drawing on their experiences, away from the
learning context, there appeared to be a variety of other factors affect-
ing their vocabulary acquisition, such as their memory capacity, moti-
vation, English language exposures, personality characteristics and
word complexity. Most importantly, I found that vocabulary could not
be learned successfully without students’ deliberate effort and personal
investment.
Learning a word well involves more than just recognising its meaning
in a particular context. According to Richards (1976, 2008), being a
more advanced second language user means having many other aspects of
word knowledge (also see Gairns and Redman 1986; Ooi and Kim-Seoh
1996; O’Dell 1997; Jiang 2004; Read 2004; Nassaji 2006; Meara 2009b;
Nation 2013):
• Knowledge of the difference between an second language (L2) word

and its first language (L1) translation, and the semantic distinctions
between an L2 word’s several meanings that are closely related (e.g.
“head ”: of a person, of a pin, of an organisation).
• Knowledge of the differences between an L2 word and other related
L2 words, such as knowing the distinctions between the different
shades of meaning that synonymous words have (e.g. “enhance”,
“enrich”, “improve”) and how an L2 word differentiates from other L2
words that are pronounced the same.
• Knowing the stylistic and register restrictions imposed on either the
meaning or the usage of an L2 word according to variations of func-
tion, situation, levels of formality as well as the language user’s atti-
tudes and emotions.
• Knowledge of collocations: knowing the collocational constraints on
how L2 words can be used together (e.g. “blond hair” but not “blond
car”).
• Grammatical knowledge of vocabulary: knowing the part of speech of
an L2 word and grammatical patterns associated to it and being able
to use it grammatically correctly in a sentence.
4
1 Introduction
• Being able to recognise the word when it is heard or met and repro-
duce it in spoken or written form correctly.
The Chinese students whom I met also mentioned many different

kinds of challenges and problems associated with their vocabulary learn-
ing and use. The most commonly reported challenges and problems are
summarised below:
• Having a limited vocabulary range

• Being not able to recognise the word when it is heard
• Being not able to say a word with correct pronunciation
• Lack of knowledge of collocations
• Lacking the knowledge to use vocabulary functionally in different
communicative situations
• Being not able to use words with precision in interactive situations
• Limited awareness and knowledge of semantic differences when L2
words refer to the similar L1 meaning
In order to improve their vocabulary learning, students need to play

a more active role in their learning process than to simply receive lan-
guage input from the study-abroad context. Vocabulary learning strate-
gies have the potential to promote, enhance and facilitate vocabulary
learning. There are many vocabulary learning strategies which have
been identified in the literature (e.g. Gu and Johnson 1996; Takač
2008; Nation 2013). In particular, emerging broadly from the Oxford
(1990) classification, Schmitt (1997) developed a series of vocabulary
learning strategies, which is considered to be the most comprehensive
classification available, including strategies for discovering and assimi-
lating new vocabulary, strategies for memorising vocabulary and strate-
gies for consolidating vocabulary.
It is also important to keep in mind that strategies themselves are not
inherently good or bad, but have the potential to be used effectively
(Cohen 1998). The effective use of vocabulary learning strategies can
help international students master both receptive and productive
English vocabulary for the purposes of more effective communication
and adapting to a new academic and sociocultural environment.
1.2 What Is Distinctive About This Book? 5
Therefore, more attention needs to be given to their experiences of stra-

tegic vocabulary learning in study-abroad contexts, and further attempts
should be made to explore how international Chinese students select
and deploy strategies to make their vocabulary learning more effective
and productive.
1.2 What Is Distinctive About This Book?

There is a large body of vocabulary learning strategy research which has
demonstrated patterns in the strategy use of certain groups of learners
(e.g. Kojic-Sabo and Lightbown 1999; Fan 2003; Barcroft 2009) or the
effectiveness of particular strategies (e.g. Brown and Perry 1991; Horst
2005; Huang and Lin 2014). Much of the work focuses on the strategies
used by learners rather than on the learners who use the strategies where
the voices of individual learners are often neglected (Meara 2009a).
However, there is considerable variation in the way learners use strategies
and the quality of strategy use appears to be related to whether strategies
are particularly appropriate for the individual learner (Schmitt 2010).
Attempts have been also made to construct typologies of vocabulary
learning strategies (e.g. Gu and Johnson 1996; Schmitt 1997; Takač
2008). The researchers tended to employ quantitative methods, with a
heavy reliance on large-scale surveys and questionnaires, to generalise L2
learners’ behaviour patterns. As a result, learners’ character traits are often
assumed to be relatively fixed and removed from their specific context
(Tseng et al. 2006; Wang 2015).
This book does not aim to define the concept of vocabulary learning
strategies or develop a typology of vocabulary learning strategy catego-
ries, but rather offers an in-depth account of how and why international
Chinese students select and combine certain strategies to enhance their
vocabulary learning; how they make use of a variety of resources, both
social and material, to support their learning; and how they manage their
strategic learning dynamically in relation to their specific sociocultural
contexts of teaching and learning (e.g. their course design, the context of
their everyday life, their assessment type and their classroom activities of
language learning). This book gives an insightful analysis of individual
6
1 Introduction
learners’ vocabulary learning experiences and strategy use, and examines

the complex interplay between students’ strategy use, their agency as a
learner and their discrete learning contexts.
While strategy researchers tended to develop typologies and separate
strategies into different functions, this book challenges this approach.
Strategies are less likely to be employed alone, but actually in complex
and interacting ways (Graham et al. 2010; Cohen 2011; Wang 2015).
Instead of looking at the isolated use of each strategy, the book recom-
bines previously separated strategies and focuses on strategy selection and
combination, such as strategy sequences and strategy clusters. More
recently, Cohen (2011, 2017) and Oxford (2017) have further suggested
that strategy researchers should go beyond the traditional categories of
strategies, such as cognitive, affective, social and metacognitive, because
many strategies can have multiple functions depending on the task and
the context, and sometimes the functions can even shift at a moment’s
notice while the learner is doing the task. It appears to be more realistic
to look at the functions that strategies play more flexibly rather than to
rigidly rely on certain categories. Thus, this book explores both complex
interactions between L2 vocabulary learning strategies and multiple func-
tions of a strategy in a given situation.
During the past 40 years, vocabulary learning strategies have been
largely defined and researched from a cognitive perspective (Fan 2003;
Gu and Johnson 1996; Schmitt 2010), but this perspective alone appears
not to provide a coherent picture nor explain the nature of strategic
vocabulary learning (Gao 2006; Wang 2015). In order to gain a better
understanding of the process of strategic language learning, one possible
solution is further suggested, namely that researchers need to explore syn-
ergies between cognitive and sociocultural perspectives and show how
they can complement each other (Oxford and Schramm 2007; Gao and
Zhang 2011). In the case of vocabulary learning strategy research, more
efforts are needed to explore learners’ strategy use from both perspectives.
Not only does this book give detailed insights to readers into previous
research from specific strategy use accounts by learners, it also provides a
more holistic view of their situated vocabulary learning experiences from
both perspectives.
1.3 Overview of the Book 7
Drawing on multiple sources of data, the book relates vocabulary strate-

gies to other concepts, such as context, agency, learning style, affect, and
metacognition and discusses their interrelationships. The implications for
effective vocabulary learning as well as recommendations for strategy
instruction are also proposed. In order to widen the scope of the current
field of vocabulary learning strategy research, this book points readers to
new research directions and suggests new methodologies for their explora-
tion. In this way, the book provides new insights into the dynamic, com-
plex and contextually situated nature of strategic vocabulary learning.
Crucially, it seeks to offer theoretical, empirical and pedagogical implica-
tions for the field of vocabulary learning strategy research. Based on the
findings from my case study and additional studies, the book also provides
a section specifically on the approaches and strategies which the Chinese
students have found particularly beneficial for learning vocabulary in order
to help them expand their strategy repertoire and maximise study abroad.
1.3 Overview of the Book

Chapters 2, 3 and 4 present empirical data and provide a fine-grained
description and interpretation of the lives of my six main participants as
they learnt English vocabulary at three different British universities, each
chapter covering a specific university context.
The six learners who took part in this study are all examples of the inter-
national Chinese students’ vocabulary learning experiences in some ways.
They can be described as creative, conscientious and proactive individuals
whose vocabulary learning experiences are well worth reading. They had
just entered the UK and had limited prior knowledge of studying in the
British higher education. They were all enrolled on a pre-university course,
called an International Foundation Programme, and experienced many
differences and difficulties within their new academic environment.
However, they invested a high level of personal effort and strategic aware-
ness in language learning, and managed their strategic vocabulary learning
both individually and interactively. Each of the chapters focuses on two
Chinese students who were from the same university site.
8
1 Introduction
Each of the three university foundation courses placed different

emphasis on vocabulary learning. On the ‘Ryder’ site, the specific content
area ‘Urbanisation and Globalisation’ was integrated into English
language teaching. Vocabulary was more likely to be learnt implicitly
through interactions with others and from reading. On the ‘Wolfson’
site, the Academic English module provided students with opportunities
to learn academic vocabulary through academic texts. In particular, the
language tutors engaged students in different vocabulary practices which
helped them develop their abilities in the use of academic vocabulary.
Compared with other two sites, the foundation course on the ‘Opal’ site
was the only one to have a specific module which focused on both general
and academic vocabulary. The language tutor provided both explicit and
implicit teaching of vocabulary as well as vocabulary learning strategy
instruction.
Each of the chapters serves to demonstrate how the Chinese students
managed their strategic vocabulary learning in relation to on-campus set-
tings (such as the course design, the lesson structure and on-campus
accommodation) and off-site settings. The accounts of three specific, dis-
crete university contexts also offer a breadth of strategic vocabulary learn-
ing experiences and provide a rich and contextualised picture of learners’
strategy use. In order to provide possible suggestions for learners and
teachers, the vocabulary strategy use of the six learners are commented
on, and issues related to strategy choice and use, productive vocabulary
development, learner agency and learner characteristics are also discussed
through engaging with recent research literature on vocabulary learning
strategies and vocabulary acquisition. Furthermore, a summary of the
vocabulary learning strategies that made a positive difference for the
Chinese students is provided at the end of each case study chapter, so that
readers can clearly see the strategies that the six students reported using
and how effectively these strategies supported their learning.
Chapter 2 describes Wu and Xia’s strategic vocabulary learning experi-
ences on the ‘Ryder’ university site. I provide a detailed description of
how they selected and combined strategies to enhance their vocabulary
learning and show the complexity of their strategy use. Their learning
styles, L2 motivation and personality varied in many ways. I show how
1.3 Overview of the Book 9
they managed their strategic vocabulary learning differently and examine

the dynamic interplay of their individual difference factors, learner agency
and their specific learning context. The effectiveness of their strategy use
is also analysed. I demonstrate the value of verbal negotiations and p layful
vocabulary practices to vocabulary development. This chapter also
engages with recent literature and highlights the issues in the appropri-
ateness of strategy use, L2 learners’ use of strategy combination and
semantic distinctions between words.
In Chapter 3, I describe the language learning experiences and vocabu-
lary practices of the two Chinese students, Bo and Ke, both inside and
outside the classroom. Compared with the other two university sites, I
examine the opportunities as well as constraints which the ‘Wolfson’ uni-
versity site offered for the two students’ vocabulary practice. I then
describe how the two Chinese students overcame the contextual con-
straints and created further opportunities for vocabulary learning. In
addition, unlike the other four participants, Bo and Ke were required to
do IELTS test and achieve a score of 5.5 or above in order to be accepted
by British universities. I continue the exploration of what effort they
made to develop their vocabulary, particularly the target words for the
IELTS test as well as academic vocabulary, and what factors influenced
their choice and effectiveness of vocabulary learning strategies. Drawing
on their vocabulary learning experiences, I provide a further discussion of
the issues in vocabulary strategies related to learning style and affect as
well as vocabulary retention.
Chapter 4 describes Qa and Ji’s study-abroad experiences and their
process of learning vocabulary on the ‘Opal’ university site. Unlike the
‘Ryder’ and ‘Wolfson’ sites, the ‘Opal’ International Foundation
Programme prioritised English language learning and, in particular,
one of the modules focused on vocabulary and their language teachers
also attempted to develop students’ vocabulary learning strategies
through more explicit strategy instruction. I provide accounts of the
role of the language teachers in strategy instruction and how the two
students responded to the different types of strategy instruction. I con-
tinue to explore how Qa and Ji enhanced their vocabulary learning out-
side the classroom and how they orchestrated their strategy repertoires
10
1 Introduction
for more successful learning. The chapter further discusses the issues
that are related to vocabulary learning strategies and strategy develop-
ment, such as how strategy instruction can be implemented to facilitate
effective use of strategies, how to develop L2 learners’ vocabulary for
everyday life and how to use vocabulary items functionally in interac-
tive situations.
Chapter 5 reports the findings from my case study and additional
studies and synthesises the overall themes of the inquiry. It presents
various conclusions based on the key issues that surfaced in the data
analysis of the previous chapters and discusses the major findings
through engaging with recent literature and commenting on theoreti-
cal, research and practical implications. A newly developed model of
strategic vocabulary learning, contributing to a better understanding of
vocabulary learning strategies from both cognitive and sociocultural
perspectives, is proposed. The chapter highlights issues that are central
to the continuing development of vocabulary learning strategy research
and shifts the focus from the quantity to the quality of strategy use and
explores the notion of effective vocabulary learning. It details how to
deal with some of the shortcomings of typical questionnaire-based
research, and proposes that an interactive web-based technique
(VOCABlog) can be considered as not only a useful research tool but
also as a learning tool to engage the younger generation participants, to
better explore their process of strategic learning and to help them
develop language learning awareness. Directions for future research are
further suggested.
Chapter 6 is a practical chapter with takeaways for language learners as
well as for practicing teachers. It offers suggestions for maximising vocab-
ulary learning during study abroad and for improving the quality of strat-
egy use. Different types of resources, such as books, websites, apps, videos,
and games, which L2 learners can make use of, to expand opportunities
for vocabulary development. This chapter provides a further account of
how to develop L2 learners’ strategies through a combination of explicit
strategy instruction in the classroom and online self-study activities out-
side the classroom. It also includes specific examples of vocabulary-related
strategies, which study-abroad learners could select in relation to their
own needs and help them expand strategies.
References 11
1.4 The Audience for This Book

The book will not only be of interest to academics but also to graduate
students and language teachers. This book is primarily intended for use
by applied linguists, second language acquisition lecturers, students and
other professionals who are working or interested in the areas of vocabu-
lary learning strategy, vocabulary learning, English for Academic Purposes
and case study research. It is also likely to become additional reading on
MA programmes, teacher training programmes (e.g. CELTA and DELTA)
and, to a lesser extent, related English for Academic Purposes courses. Its
practical recommendations are also of interest to a potentially wide range
of readers, such as Chinese students attending foreign universities or
choosing to study abroad and other advanced language learners.
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2
Building Vocabulary Through
Interaction
2.1 Introduction
The previous chapter has provided a brief introduction to the six Chinese
students. In this chapter, I will describe Wu and Xia’s vocabulary learning
experiences in the UK and offer an in-depth analysis of the narratives of
these two students. They both enrolled on an International Foundation
Programme (IFP) on the Ryder university site, and were allocated to the
same group for the module in English and Academic Skills. The sections
that follow will provide a detailed account of how they managed their
strategic vocabulary learning, individually and interactively, both inside
and outside the language classroom, and why they selected and combined
certain strategies to enhance their vocabulary learning. I will also discuss
the relationship between their strategy use, agency as learners and their
learning context(s).
Unless I can successfully put them into practices, I can’t really say that I have
learnt the word, can I? Wu (21st week)
The transition to an entirely English learning environment was not

easy. He often felt frustrated when many words were forgotten or the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65963-3_2
18 2 Building Vocabulary Through Interaction
interlocutors who he spoke to could not understand what he said. In

order to master vocabulary both receptively and productively, he realised
that it was more effective to learn vocabulary by using it. In particular, he
found that a communicative teaching approach his language teacher
operated was very useful, as it increased communicative demands for him
to practise vocabulary and improve his accuracy. He actively engaged in
various kinds of classroom activities and developed vocabulary knowl-
edge through interacting with his teacher and peers.
It’s easier to remember vocabulary when we practise it with others on a day-to-

day basis. However, it’s so difficult to find someone I could practise with outside
the classroom. Wu (7th week)
In the classroom, Wu built good rapport between his language teacher

and peers and this helped him feel more involved to ask questions and
share ideas. He tended to manage his strategic vocabulary learning
through verbal interaction with them. On the other hand, he found that
it was difficult to make more friends outside the classroom and maintain
a close friendship with local people. He became reluctant to use social
strategies due to an isolated social network and his perceived cultural
distance, although his vocabulary learning was enhanced through nego-
tiation. He had to explore other ways to promote his vocabulary learning
and varied his strategy use in relation to his specific context.
Learning vocabulary on your own is challenging. I gradually realise the power

of collaborative learning in vocabulary development. Xia (17th week)
When Xia wrote her first assignment, she found that the Chinese
meaning of many academic words which was provided by her bilingual
dictionary was very similar, and it was difficult to know the differences
between them. She had to seek further support from her teacher. She
found that her teacher was pleased with her questions which also helped
her peers learn the academic words. The constructive learning between
her, her teacher and peers developed her understanding of the words.
During the second term, her teacher also provided many opportunities
for students to socialise with each other outside the classroom. Since
then, Xia had felt closer to her teacher and peers, and the close relationship
2.2 Learning Vocabulary Strategically Through Pair or Group Work 19
and a more relaxed classroom interaction also motivated her to use social
strategies for greater learning.
Although the study-abroad experience offered me great opportunities to build

my vocabulary, I couldn’t develop my vocabulary without deliberate efforts to
learn them. Xia (5th week)
As she lived in an English speaking country, Xia believed that she was
able to expand her vocabulary in her everyday life. She often guessed their
meaning from context when she encountered unknown words, but she
rarely made a further effort to confirm her guesses. Xia soon found that
she often made incorrect inferences and guessing from context alone was
not enough to learn new words. In order to enhance her vocabulary
learning, she deliberately drew attention to the ways of how to select and
combine strategies and made use of a variety of resources to support her
learning. She also evaluated her strategic vocabulary learning and made a
continuous improvement in her strategy use.
The findings presented here challenge the way that learners’ strategy
use is treated as relatively stable and removed from their context. The
strategic vocabulary learning of these two students in the UK was not a
solely individual process, but also a contextually situated phenomenon.
Although Wu and Xia attended the same English class, they made differ-
ent strategic attempts to learn vocabulary for different reasons. I will
compare their vocabulary learning experiences in the classroom and
explore their differences and similarities in strategy use/choice and the
reasons behind them. Outside the classroom, their discrete contexts offer
a breadth of their strategic vocabulary learning experiences.
2.2 L earning Vocabulary Strategically

Through Pair or Group Work
Both Wu and Xia described similar vocabulary learning experiences at
their high school in China. Their teachers appeared to play a central role
in their English classes and focused on an explicit instruction of v ocabulary
and grammar translation. In contrast, their British teacher encouraged
students to develop their language in a more communicative way. Pair

and group work became the common classroom activities which pro-
moted discussions and interaction between their teacher and peers. When
Wu and Xia participated in these kinds of activities, they often encoun-
tered some new or unfamiliar words and made strategic attempts to dis-
cover them. In an example from one particular English lesson, the teacher,
Mary, provided students with some newspaper articles and asked them to
choose one of the articles to read. They then paired up with someone who
read a different article and told them about their story.
When her partner Tim told his story, Xia asked him to explain an
unknown word. She also checked the pronunciation and spelling of the
word with Tim again to help her keep a record of it accurately for further
consolidation. The following extract showed that Xia did not check every
unfamiliar word with her peers; rather, she asked the words which she
considered to be frequently used.
Extract 2.1
IR: When you heard unfamiliar words, do you

ask your peers for explanation?
Xia: Not often, if I stop them with many ques-
tions, they might feel frustrated, so I
only asked the words I think I can com-
monly use.
IR: How do you find Tim’s explanation?
Xia: I got a general idea from his explanation,
but I had to check if my understanding of
his explanation was correct and looked for
the precise meaning in my dictionary at
home. (Xia, interview)
From what Xia stated, she only gained a general understanding of the
word from Tim’s explanation. She did not ask follow-up questions to
confirm her understanding with Tim and tried to avoid constantly inter-
rupting the conversation. Therefore, when she interacted with her peers,
not only did she deploy strategies to learn vocabulary, but also the
c ommunication strategy which she considered necessary to maintain her

peer relationship. In order to achieve a better understanding of the word,
Xia started with a social strategy and a recording strategy during the les-
son and then followed them with a dictionary look-up strategy after the
class.
In the same activity, Wu and his partner Rita shared their stories.
Afterwards, he asked Rita whether she knew the word ‘prosperous’ which
appeared many times in the article. Rita made some guesses but Wu
sought further support from their teacher Mary:
Extract 2.2
Wu: Prosperous? What does this mean?

T: What do you think?
Wu: Have a bright future↑
T: Right when a country is prosperous, it can
have a bright future because it’s↑
Wu: Rich↑
T: Yes it’s having lots of money and success-
ful (Wu checks his iPad)what’s its noun
form?
Wu: Prosperity↑
T: Say it again?
Wu: (pronounces it)
T: prosperity↓
Wu: (repeats it) (Lesson transcript)
In Extract 2.2, instead of an explicit explanation, Mary became a

mediating agent to encourage Wu to infer the meaning first. Based on his
inference, Mary continued to provide an implicit prompt to help him
guess the word until he discovered the right meaning. Like Xia, Wu also
deployed a number of strategies in sequence, but his sequential use of
vocabulary learning strategies was based on verbal interaction with a
more capable other (i.e. their teacher), who helped Wu elaborate on his
word knowledge through asking further questions. This led to a better
learning outcome.
Wu and Xia both combined social strategies with a dictionary look-up

strategy in order to achieve a deeper understanding of a new word. Unlike Xia,
Wu checked the word during the teacher–student interaction and did not
wait to do this after the class. He explained why he made this strategy choice:
Extract 2.3
Sometimes, I still felt unsure when I compared

the Chinese translation with Mary’s explanation
at home, so the best way is to check it out imme-
diately during the lesson and ask her directly
when I have questions.(Wu, interview)
Wu fulfilled the clear purpose of managing his vocabulary learning stra-

tegically and socially. His intention was to directly check whether his under-
standing of Mary’s explanation was accurate, and he could then discuss it
with her if he had further questions. Both Wu’s iPad and Xia’s mobile were
used as important tools to support their learning during the lesson. Xia
used her mobile to record the unknown word so she could check it again
after class. Wu compared the iPad app with his electronic dictionary:
Extract 2.4
In contrast, the explanation which this app pro-

vides is simpler and more straightforward. This
helps understand a word’s meaning easily. It
also saves it automatically so it saves your time
to record it. (Wu, interview)
Extract 2.4 showed that this app was used as a mediating artefact
which combined two functions, electronic dictionary and electronic
notebook. He found the word explanation from this app easy to under-
stand. The app also automatically kept his checking history and saved
time during the activity. He often compared different dictionaries which
he had and tried to select an appropriate one or combine them for
different purposes. His dictionary use will be described in more detail
later in this chapter.
Both Wu and Xia often experienced a situation in which they did not
know how to express a word in pair/group work. Faced with this situa-
tion, Wu tended to combine social strategies, such as “discussing with his
peers” and “asking his teacher for help”, to discover the English expres-
sion of the word, with a cognitive strategy to record it in his notebook for
further review.
Extract 2.5
When I don’t know how to express a word, I often

paraphrase it to my peers and seek their help. If
they don’t know, I can also ask Mary and find it out
together […] I also record it. When I review it
after class, I try to recall the situation in my
mind and how we explored it together. It’s easier
to memorise it in context. (Wu, interview)
Although the social strategies mentioned above can be viewed as com-

munication strategies, Extract 2.5 also indicated that Wu’s intention was
to learn vocabulary. This was why he then recorded and reviewed the
word after class. In particular, relating the word to the collaborative learn-
ing process was seen as a meaningful strategy to memorise it. Therefore,
depending on learners’ intentions, these communication strategies can be
considered as social strategies for learning vocabulary.
In contrast, Xia was less likely to ask her peers for clarification and
tended to paraphrase unknown words into familiar expressions or use her
electronic dictionaries to translate Chinese to her intended English words.
As Xia mentioned in one interview, ‘my purpose was to keep the conversation
going rather than to learn a word’; therefore, the communication strategies
might not be vocabulary learning strategies, unless checking dictionaries
helped her learn the words or discover more word knowledge.
Mary sometimes arranged interactive activities to help students recall
the words which she had taught. In Extract 2.6, we see an example from
one particular English lesson which I observed. Mary divided the stu-
dents into pairs and gave each pair two different sets of vocabulary cards.
They were encouraged to work with their partner and review these words
together. Wu actively participated in this activity. He made a successful
attempt to explore the differences between ‘effective’ and ‘efficient’ through

verbal interaction with his partner and teacher.
Extract 2.6
Wu: Please select one word card

Sam: effective↑(explains it)
Wu: Do you know the difference between effec-
tive and efficient?
Sam: (defines these two words)
Wu: If I do something efficiently, do I also
need to finish it effectively? (checks his
iPad) Their definition is not clear on my
iPad
Sam: Not sure
Wu: Mary, can you tell me their differences?
T: what do you think?
Wu: We have discussed this, effective focuses
on the result[…]but not sure about
efficient?
T: (defines efficient)
Wu: efficient also needs to be effective?
T: Yes, working quickly and effectively, for
example, it’s better to buy an energy effi-
cient rice cooker. You can get nicely
cooked rice, it also saves your time and
money in electricity bill.
Wu: I see (records in his notebook) (Lesson
transcript)
In this activity, Wu found that he confused ‘efficient’ with ‘effective’ and

then tried to ask Sam to explain their differences. He also used a diction-
ary look-up strategy to compare the definition of these two words, but he
still felt not sure if they overlapped in meaning. He sought further sup-
port from Mary. Based on Wu’s understanding, Mary clarified the mean-
ing of ‘efficient’ through an example and dispelled his confusion. In relation
to Mary’s explanation, he kept a record in his notebook. He enhanced his

understanding through negotiations with his peer and teacher. Wu later
commented on his strategy use in this particular activity and recognised
the value of an interactive dialogue to vocabulary learning:
Extract 2.7
In China, I used to memorise a word list. Mary

offered me a great chance to review words with my
classmates. When I was working with them, I was
more likely to encounter some confusion or dif-
ficulties in using them. Spending time with your
confusion is important. It’s very useful to ask
my peers and Mary questions. I found that I could
learn them more deeply through discussing with
them. (Wu, interview)
Mary provided her students with opportunities to learn vocabulary in

an interactive way which helped Wu build word knowledge. Although
Mary did not offer explicit strategy instruction on social strategies, she
increased communicative demands for them to practise the use of social
strategies. In this pair work, Wu also exercised his agency as a learner and
engaged in verbal interaction with both his peer and teacher. By compari-
son with rote learning strategies, his awareness of problematic aspects of
vocabulary knowledge was more likely to be raised through the i nteraction.
Furthermore, the problem-solving processes became verbalised, and an
interactive dialogue appeared to mediate his learning towards deeper
understanding (see also Oxford and Schramm 2007).
Like Wu, Xia also reviewed words with her partner. However, inter-
acting with peers might not be always helpful. For example, in Extract
2.8, Xia made several attempts to explore ‘infrastructure’ through work-
ing with Kim. As Kim was lacking prior knowledge about the word, he
did not suggest any useful ideas about it. Although Xia then checked it
in a monolingual dictionary, she could not have a clear understanding of
its English definition. Using a monolingual dictionary requires a reason-
able level of proficiency and involves a set of skills (Nation 2001).
Xia might need to combine other types of dictionaries which helped her
gain more detailed information and aid her understanding. However, this
process could take a great deal of time. Instead, Xia sought direct support
from Mary. She provided some specific examples to help Xia understand
the dictionary definition. Most importantly, Mary provided some strate-
gic advice to help her build vocabulary.
Extract 2.8
Xia: Infrastructure↑Do you know it?

Kim: not sure
Xia: Any suggestions? I remember […] Mary said
that it relates to the services a city
provides
Kim: maybe
Xia: (checks her dictionary) what does basic
physical structures mean here?
T: For example, transportation, schools[…]
Xia: I see
T: Can you make a sentence using Infrastructure?
Xia: Ok (writes a sentence)
T: This helps you remember a word[…]you can
record the word and your sentence, it’s a
useful way to help you build vocabulary(Xia
records)who has a vocabulary notebook?
Ss: (hand up)
T: (selects one notebook) when you find new
words…you need to record something like
her e.g. their example sentences and pro-
nunciation […] (Lesson transcript)
To review the word ‘infrastructure’, Xia recorded the word in her note-
book. In particular, Mary’s suggestion promoted her vocabulary learning
and raised her strategic awareness. Mary encouraged her students to set
up a vocabulary notebook and tried to develop their recording strategies
through sharing a student’s notebook and commenting on its content.
Mary suggested that learning a word involved more than just knowing its
meaning, and students needed to enrich their vocabulary notebook with

other kinds of word knowledge (see also Schmitt and Schmitt 1995). The
strategic advice of Mary increased Xia’s knowledge of how to make use of
a vocabulary notebook, noting such in the following interview:
Extract 2.9
I’m glad that Mary told us how to use a vocabu-

lary notebook. Apart from a word’s Chinese mean-
ing, I tried to include additional kinds of word
knowledge in my notebook, e.g. its pronuncia-
tion. This can help me use the word more accu-
rately. (Xia, interview)
Mary’s strategic advice mediated the use of her vocabulary notebook

and Xia started to include more information about a word. This approach
helped her learn vocabulary both receptively and productively. Mary con-
tinued to emphasise the value of vocabulary notebooks throughout the
second term and reminded the students to build vocabulary through
working with their notebooks. In relation to Mary’s suggestion, Wu and
Xia reviewed their vocabulary notebooks after class and strengthened
their recording strategies. They both combined their electronic notebooks
with conventional notebooks outside the classroom but they used these
two kinds of notebooks in different ways for different purposes.
As mentioned above, Wu tended to check words in an electronic dic-
tionary via his iPad and each look-up was also electronically recorded. He
also selected some useful words from the electronic notebook and put
them in his conventional notebook, as he explained in the interview,
‘when I wrote them down, this process helped me remember them more
deeply’. The act of writing a word down in the notebook was deployed as
a useful strategy to reinforce his memorisation.
Wu tried to set up his conventional notebook by the date and the
source. He found that this was a more convenient way to help him recall
his memory of from which source he learned a word. He could then con-
solidate the word in relation to the particular textual context. The contex-
tualised strategy was used as a more meaningful way to enhance his
vocabulary learning (see also Horst 2005; Nyikos and Fan 2007).
In contrast, Xia used her electronic notebook as a mediating artefact to

help her regulate both recording and reviewing processes and to remind
her to recycle words on a regular basis. She photographed her electronic
notebook and explained how it worked on VOCABlog. Once she accessed
it and clicked a review button, the words which she had recorded appeared
one by one randomly (see Photo 2.1). When she remembered the word,
she pressed the bottom-right button and continued the next one. When
she forgot the word, she pressed the blue button and it then showed its
meaning and saved the word in the notebook automatically.
Every week, she also went back the word list and consolidated the
words which she had forgotten (see Photo 2.2). The word list was divided
into several sections, including a word’s Chinese translation, pronuncia-
tion, parts of speech, how frequent she had reviewed it. In particular, she
Photo 2.1 Using an electronic notebook to remember words (Xia, photo,

VOCABlog)
Photo 2.2 Sample of vocabulary notebook entries (Xia, photo, VOCABlog)

paid more attention to the words which she reviewed less frequently. For
example, in Photo 2.2 (no. 162), for ‘allocation’, it showed that she rarely
reviewed it and reminded her to recycle it on a more regular basis.
Xia also selected some of the words from her electronic notebook and
wanted to use them productively. Depending on the usefulness and dif-
ficulties of the words, Xia decided to how to review them and how much
attention needed to be paid. As she wrote:
Extract 2.10
I often selected some useful words from my

E-notebook and thought that they can be used in
my writing or speaking. Then, I wrote them in my
paper notebook[…]I highlighted academic vocabu-
lary in yellow and daily words in blue. When I
reviewed them, I focused on the yellow ones.
Compared with daily words, academic words were
more difficult to remember. (Xia, diary, VOCABlog)
Unlike Wu, Xia categorised these words again in her conventional

notebook and distinguished academic vocabulary from general vocabu-
lary. In particular, she drew more attention to the academic words which
she found more difficult to memorise than general vocabulary. As the
students attended the foundation programme in order to prepare for
their future undergraduate studies, their teacher also provided them with
academic training and enabled them to speak and write more academi-
cally. Both Wu and Xia realised that learning academic vocabulary
entailed more strategic efforts:
Extract 2.11
Recently Mary taught us many academic words. She

encouraged us to think about whether they were
used to describe a positive or a negative situa-
tion. This can bring a different association
with the words. It’s really useful to know this,
so when I reviewed the words I recorded in my
notebook and thought about whether they were pos-

itive or negative then grouped them. (Wu, diary,
VOCABlog)
Extract 2.12
I found academic words hard to be memorised as

their meaning is often abstract. Therefore, apart
from their Chinese translation, I add their
English explanation and example sentences into
my notebook. These notes help me understand the
abstract words. In order to reinforce my memory,
I also recycle the words regularly. (Xia,
interview)
In relation to their own learning needs, Wu and Xia made different

attempts to enrich their vocabulary notebooks after class. In Extract 2.11,
Mary helped her students explore the connotations of academic words.
Drawing on Mary’s suggestion, Wu found that it was useful to know a
word’s connotation which could affect word choice and vocabulary use.
To promote his learning, he made a further effort to classify the academic
words which he recorded in his vocabulary notebook according to
whether they had positive or negative connotations.
In contrast, Xia found that it was difficult to learn and recall the aca-
demic words with abstract meanings. To make their meaning clearer and
more memorable, she included additional information, including their
English explanation and example sentences, in her notebook, and tried to
review the words on a scheduled basis.
As mentioned above, Wu and Xia used their vocabulary notebooks to
build vocabulary both inside and outside the classroom and combined a
number of strategies to consolidate vocabulary, including strategies for
organising their notebooks, reviewing vocabulary in the notebooks,
reviewing and improving their notebooks. However, they made different
choice of selecting which words and what information to record, choos-
ing where to record and how to organise their recording.
The data indicated that more effective vocabulary learners were more
skilful and purposeful, being able to select appropriate strategies in relation
2.3 Participating in the Teacher’s Presentation 31
to their own learning purposes and needs (see also Gu 2003;Tseng et al.
2006). In order to adjust to a more challenging academic environment,
they made continuous efforts to review academic vocabulary and enrich
their notebooks. In particular, reviewing their vocabulary notebooks
seemed to be used as an important metacognitive strategy to develop an
awareness of what was involved in learning vocabulary and learn more
about their own problems and progress (Schmitt and Schmitt 1995).
2.3 Participating in the Teacher’s

Presentation
During the first term, compared with Xia, Wu sought many more opportu-
nities to interact with Mary during her teaching and expand his word knowl-
edge. In China, Wu’s high school teacher tended to play a central role in the
English lessons. In relation to this teaching approach, he was less likely to use
social strategies to enhance vocabulary learning. Rather, he tended to select
and record some useful information which his teacher offered.
In contrast, Mary often acted as a prompt to help students learn vocab-
ulary and opened for questions during her presentation. The following
extract is a brief sample from one particular lesson from the Ryder site.
Mary worked on a text with the students. She did not start with explicit
teaching of vocabulary; rather, she invited her students to find out the
words which they wanted to learn in the text and discuss the words. At
the time, this interaction took place; Wu worked with his teacher and
peers together to learn the word, ‘mild ’.
Extract 2.13
T: You can stop me if you want to know any

words(reads the text)
Wu: What is mild?(pronounces it inaccurately)
Mia: Mild ice cream?
T: Everybody mild(pronounces it)
Ss: Mild (repeat)
T: most flu cases can be mild, do not require

special medical care, what does mild mean?
Wu: not very serious
T: Right, not strong and symptoms are not so
severe[…] Mia wanted to say melted, some-
thing becomes soft[…] keep your language
mild. What does mild mean here?
Kim: soft
T: Good, soft and gentle, e.g. how to say
‘excuse me’ in a mild way? (Wu records)
(Lesson transcript)
As Mary was very open for questions during the presentation stage, Wu
tried to initiate the pupil-teacher dialogue and asked the unknown word
while she was reading the text. In order to improve his pronunciation,
Mary also repeated the accurate version and asked the class for choral rep-
etition. She explained ‘mild’ in a more inductive way. She set some chal-
lenges and invited the students to guess the word in relation to her example
sentences and explore its different meanings by themselves. Wu made a
guess and shared his thought in the class. The scope of the students’ exist-
ing knowledge was explored during the elicitation stage, and then Mary
explained what they really needed.
In contrast, Xia was less likely to participate in their verbal interaction.
In Extract 2.14, she indicated that she was reluctant to speak up publically
in class and select social strategies.
Extract 2.14
I felt nervous to ask questions in class. I was not

confident enough to speak in public. I can check my
mobile. If I’m still not sure, I can ask Mary after
class. I felt more comfortable sharing my ideas in
pair/group work and asking Mary questions when she
walked around each group. (Xia, interview)
Xia felt less confident and her anxiety increased when she spoke up
publically. In order to ease her anxiety, she tended to use a dictionary look-
2.3 Participating in the Teacher’s Presentation 33
up strategy when she worked in a large group and then combined a social
strategy (i.e. “asking Mary for help”) for further clarification after the class.
By contrast, she was more likely to select social strategies to support her
vocabulary learning in pair/group work, as she felt relaxed interacting with
a small number of her peers and ask her teacher questions personally. Her
strategy choice was mediated by different teaching arrangements.
Unlike Xia, Wu was able to use the demands for speaking in public
made by the communicative classroom. Interacting with his teacher and
peers verbally was seen as an important way to enhance his vocabulary
learning:
Extract 2.15
Wu: She was very open to questions. When I

asked a question, not only Mary, but also
other peers could help me and we can
explore an unknown word together.
IR: Do you find this way useful?
Wu: Yes. I like to share my guesses in class,
because they could offer useful feedback
to improve my understanding of the word.
The interactive process also reinforced
my memory of it. (Wu, interview)
In relation to this communicative teaching, he exercised his agency as

a learner to manage his strategic vocabulary learning collaboratively. He
found that their feedback developed his understanding and the input
became more memorable. From the second term, Xia also felt more will-
ing to ask questions and tried to speak up more in the class. She provided
an important reason for this change.
Extract 2.16
Xia: Mary is really nice. She often invites us

to visit her at her house.
IR: Really!
Xia: Yes. When we get closer, I feel more con-

fident to ask questions. Mary also arranges
other activities for us to meet more after
class.
IR: Do you still feel nervous to speak in
class?
Xia: No, as we become friends, I feel more will-
ing to share ideas. My peers also engage
more when I ask them questions. Mary also
tries to sit near us. This also makes me
feel more relaxed. (Xia, interview)
The extract showed that Mary made great efforts to broaden the
teacher–student and student–student interaction beyond the classroom
and created opportunities for the students to socialise with each other. She
developed a friendly and close relationship with her students and estab-
lished a more relaxed classroom atmosphere. This appeared to promote
more active participation and help Xia build her confidence in interacting
with Mary and other peers verbally with reduced anxieties in the class.
In Extract 2.17, although Xia had discussed the words with her teacher
or peers during the lesson, she found that she might still encounter uncer-
tainties and difficulties after the class. This raised her strategic awareness
of how to strengthen her learning.
Extract 2.17
I tried to discuss unknown words with Mary and

other classmates in class. The ideas they sug-
gested really help me learn the words, but I was
still not sure how to use some of them in real
situations. I realised that their explanation
may not fit in the context I work on. I needed to
consult my dictionary at home. When the diction-
ary entry was difficult to be understood, I tried
to come back to them again and ask them for help.
I recently found this way really helpful. (Xia,
diary, VOCABlog)
2.4 Comparison of Wu and Xia’s Strategy Use in the Classroom 35
Seng: classroom Seng: home
Discuss with her teacher

and peers and seek their Consult her dictionary
support
Fig. 2.1 Xia’s strategy cycle
In the class, Xia tried to explore new words through discussing with
Mary and peers together. Xia recognised the value of the explanation of
her teacher and peers. However, they would not know the exact context
in which the words she worked with after the class. Therefore, the infor-
mation they provided might not help Xia produce language in her spe-
cific context.
After class, when she felt uncertain how to use these words, she also
consulted her dictionary and deployed look-up strategies. When Xia
encountered difficulties in understanding the dictionary entry, she chose
to discuss with Mary or her peers again and sought further support in the
class. She returned to the social strategy to develop her vocabulary knowl-
edge (see Fig. 2.1). She tried to improve her vocabulary knowledge
through performing this strategy cycle across two settings.
2.4 C
omparison of Wu and Xia’s Strategy
Use in the Classroom
In their high school Chinese English classes, both Wu and Xia experi-
enced a more teacher-centred way of language teaching. They had fewer
opportunities to learn vocabulary through interaction. In contrast, Wu
and Xia were engaged in the more communicative English classroom in
the UK. They were given more freedom to decide which words they
wanted to learn and how to learn them. Strategy choice is likely to
emerge from learners’ socialisation into a language learning community
(Toohey and Norton 2003; Harish 2014). The communicative opportu-

nities which Mary provided facilitated their accesses to interactive learn-
ing. They appeared to manage their strategic vocabulary learning not
only individually, but also interactively.
Mary also played an important role in developing their awareness of
what was involved in learning vocabulary and promoted the incremental
learning of vocabulary. In relation to Mary’s strategic advice, Xia and Wu
actively engaged in the process of reviewing and enriching their vocabu-
lary notebooks. Although they designed and organised their notebooks in
different ways, they both invested a high level of personal effort in keep-
ing their vocabulary notebooks outside the classroom. In particular, their
metacognitive efforts (e.g. reviewing their notebooks) appeared to maxi-
mise the effective use of notebooks for vocabulary learning.
Although both Wu and Xia made strategic attempts to increase the
efficiency of vocabulary learning, they managed their strategic learning
differently in relation to their particular settings (including resources
and activities), as well as their perceived goals and roles. With regard to
Wu, he believed that it was an effective way to learn vocabulary through
communication. In the pair/group work, his goal was not only to com-
plete the task but also to improve and expand his vocabulary. He identi-
fied words that he thought useful while he interacted with his peers and
took the initiative to seek clarification from his peers. However, some-
times peer learning strategies (e.g. “ask peers for help”) alone were not
sufficient to help him discover the precise meaning of an unknown word
or use a vocabulary item accurately.
Wu also needed to consult a dictionary, or seek further support from
his teacher, or both. His skilful combination of strategies appeared to
enhance his learning outcome. Wu also took the initiative to ask Mary
questions about the words in which he was interested and led to more
interaction in teacher-fronted activities. He saw his role in the activities
as to create opportunities for vocabulary learning and to negotiate
understanding with Mary. Negotiated interaction between Wu and his
teacher appeared to increase his comprehension and help him improve
accuracy (see also Garton 2002; Philp et al. 2014).
By comparison with Wu’s strategy use, when Xia encountered unknown
words, she was less likely to initiate a dialogue with the teacher and seek
2.5 Outside the Classroom: Wu’s Strategic Vocabulary Learning 37
social support due to fear of speaking up publically in the class. She

tended to select dictionary look-up strategies to discover their meaning.
Xia felt more comfortable interacting with her peers and teacher in pair/
group work. However, not many words were learnt through peer interac-
tion (see also Newton 2013). Her peers were not always collaborative and
she also reduced the use of peer learning strategies due to her perceived
politeness. She recorded the words which she felt unsure or thought
important and made further efforts to consolidate them after the class.
From the second term, she was more willing to participate in class-
room interactions and seek social support due to a closer relationship
with her teacher and peers. She saw the value of negotiation in vocabu-
lary development and consciously made attempts to form social rela-
tionships with them outside the classroom. The attempts were viewed as
important affective strategies to help Xia build on her intrinsic motiva-
tion, lower her anxiety and take greater control (see also Oxford 2011).
In order to enhance her learning, she made use of both social and mate-
rial resources in and outside the classroom and generated a strategy cycle
across two settings. This cycle enabled her to work the unfamiliar words
collaboratively and negotiate understandings back and forth. Her high
level of engagement with the words also led to better understanding and
retention of the words (see also Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat 2015).
2.5 O
utside the Classroom: Wu’s Strategic
Vocabulary Learning
Wu described that he had lacked opportunities to use English in his daily
life, as English was not used as a communicative tool in China. After he
came to the UK, Wu stayed in a student accommodation and no one
around him in his flat could speak mandarin. English needed to be used
in everyday situations (e.g. in shops and on the bus). He experienced
great loneliness, but recognised that there were more opportunities for
him to practise using English in this new environment. However, when
he actually produced the language for everyday life, he found that one big
problem was the lack of vocabulary which he was able to use for effective
communication. He also encountered some other problems in association
with the use of vocabulary. In order to be able to socialise and accelerate

his adjustment to his new life, Wu became motivated to build and
improve his vocabulary, and had a great deal of investment in learning
vocabulary outside the classroom.
2.5.1 D
eveloping Vocabulary for Successful
Communication
In order to settle into a new life, Wu needed to respond to considerable

linguistic demands made upon him, for example setting up a bank
account and making new friends. Although he had studied a large
amount of vocabulary before coming to the UK, he usually remembered
the most common or the easiest ones. When he spoke to other people, he
often got short of vocabulary and found it difficult to describe his feeling
or a situation clearly and concisely. This raised his strategic awareness of
how to improve his vocabulary learning in order to be able to communi-
cate successfully in everyday situations. Wu often tried to predict the
words which he might use in some situations before they happened. The
extract below shows the efforts Wu made to discover and remember
vocabulary.
Extract 2.18
Wu: When I did not know how to express a word

or phrase, I then checked my dictionary.
IR: What kind of dictionary did you use?
Wu: A Chinese-English dictionary, but I also
found some problems, e.g. it suggested
that ‘oven’ and ‘toaster’ both mean ‘烤箱’.
IR: What did you do with its suggestion?
Wu: I checked them in an English-English dic-
tionary which provided more detailed
explanation. This can help me know their
difference and choose the proper one. (Wu,
interview)
In Extract 2.18, Wu used a bilingual dictionary to help him turn his

ideas into word forms in English. For example, ‘烤箱’was translated into
both ‘oven’ and ‘toaster’. However, he did not know which the word form
accurately conveyed his idea. In order to find out the word forms he
wanted, he also consulted a monolingual dictionary. When words had a
similar Chinese meaning, the information which a monolingual diction-
ary provided helped him find out their difference and select a more
appropriate one to use. Wu combined both bilingual and monolingual
dictionaries and deployed a cluster of dictionary look-up strategies to
help him gain a better understanding of the words and produce spoken
language (see Fig. 2.2). Nation (2013) also suggests that learners are more
likely to achieve their productive purposes if bilingual and monolingual
dictionaries are used to complement each other.
When he communicated with local people in everyday situations, Wu
often encountered some unknown words. He tended to ask the
interlocutor(s) to explain or clarify the words which caused problems in
his communication. For example, in the following extract he wrote how
Check the
Find the closeness explanaon of the
of the L2 word to
L2 words in a
the L1 word in a
monolingual
bilingual diconary
diconary
Compare the explanaon

of the L2 words given and
choose the correct word
form in L2
Fig. 2.2 Wu’s cluster of dictionary look-up strategies

he explored the word ‘refill’ and facilitated his conversation with the wait-
ress in a restaurant:
Extract 2.19
When having a dinner with my friend, the waitress

asked me if I wanted a refill. I didn’t know how
to answer her because I didn’t know what ‘refill’
is. I then asked her to explain it. I thought
this was also a great chance to learn new words
from local people. She pointed at my cup and
asked me if I wanted to put more drink. It’s a
quick and vivid explanation. Every time, when
having a meal in a restaurant, I try to use it.
After using it again and again, I can say I have
remembered it. (Wu, diary, VOCABlog)
Asking the waitress for explanation was not only a communication

strategy but also he considered it as a useful vocabulary learning strategy.
The vivid explanation which the waitress provided helped him discover
the new word. He also sought further opportunities to practise using the
word with other people. The interaction required him to engage more in
the thinking process, thus reinforcing memorisation (see also Hulstijn
and Laufer 2001). There was another problem which Wu encountered
when he spoke to local people. He found that the person who he spoke
to often could not understand what he said due to his incorrect pronun-
ciation. As he wrote:
Extract 2.20
When we live here, we NEED TO and HAVE TO speak.

Yet, people often couldn’t get what I said[…]I
bought a book to improve my pronunciation[…]After
reading it and doing some practices, I was sur-
prised to see there are vowels that are similar
but in fact are different. I found my BIG MISTAKE
was sound /eɪ/. I usually only speak /e/[…]when I

learn a new word, I always check its correct pro-
nunciation in my dictionary. After all, I need to
speak them more in my real life because practice
makes perfect.(Wu, diary, VOCABlog)
Wu’s intention to learn vocabulary was not limited in writing, reading

and listening. He wanted to use it correctly in the spoken context. When
he learned new words, he paid particular attention to their pronunciation
and checked their correct pronunciation in a dictionary. In order to
improve his pronunciation, he worked with a pronunciation book and
practised the pronunciation of individual sounds. He also made continu-
ous efforts to put them into practice and test himself whether he pro-
nounced them correctly in everyday situations.
As mentioned above, he found that it was useful to consolidate the
words which he learned earlier through practising them with others. In
particular, he tried to make British friends and wanted to improve his
English through interacting with them. However, he did not meet many
local students in his accommodation. Although he attended some social
events which were organised by the university and met some local stu-
dents, he found that it was not easy to make friends with them:
Extract 2.21
My British friends often asked me to go to pubs.

I didn’t enjoy clubbing and drinking very much,
maybe because of our cultural differences. I also
felt quite stressful to find common topics in which
we were interested. Now I only have two British
friends I stay in contact with. (Wu, interview)
Due to his perceived cultural distance and their different interests, Wu

became less willing to maintain the friendship with local people. During
the second term, Wu kept contact with two British friends. He also
sought opportunities to practise using some new words with them, and
asked them questions when he felt not sure about the words.
Extract 2.22
Wu: I tried to use some new words when I

talked to my British friends.
IR: Did you find this way helpful?
Wu: Yes. Sometimes they pinpointed my errors. I
also asked them when I was not sure how to
use the words, but it’s impossible to always
bother them. We chat for enjoyment, not for
study. They are my friends, not my teacher.
IR: That’s true.
Wu: In order to review more words, I need to
regularly look at the words in my note-
book. I don’t get many opportunities to
socialise with them, although this is a
better way to help me remember these words.
(Wu, interview)
He understood that his local friends were not his language teacher and
it was unrealistic to expect them to often help him practise new words
and correct his errors. In order to maintain a large store of vocabulary, he
needed to combine social strategies with the strategy, “reviewing vocabu-
lary repeatedly in his notebook”. Wu found that words were more likely
to be retained through practising using them than rote memorisation.
However, he lacked opportunities to socialise with his native friends and
very limited vocabulary was practised. Keeping this problem in mind, he
continuously explored how to increase his chances to practise newly
learnt words.
2.5.2 E
ngaging in Creative and Playful Vocabulary
Practices
In order to create more opportunities to practise vocabulary outside the

classroom, Wu exercised his agency as a learner and pursued new initia-
tives on strategic vocabulary learning. For example, he enjoyed reading
for pleasure in his spare time. Meanwhile, he also gained some fresh
insights into his vocabulary learning strategies through reading.
Extract 2.23
In this book, the idea, visualisation, is quite

useful for me to memorise vocabulary…When I
talked to my friends, I might not have the
situation in which I could practise the words.

So, now I try to make up the situation in my
mind. Say I wanted to memorise ‘squeamish’ I’ll
visualised a friend asking me why I disliked eat-
ing fish[…]I replied I was squeamish about eating
seafood. (Wu, diary, VOCABlog)
Wu related the idea of ‘visualisation’ to his vocabulary learning. He

imagined a person who he would like to interact with and visualised dif-
ferent situations involving himself practising using the target word(s)
with the person. He experienced these situations that he was imagining
and attempted to memorise the word(s) in relation to a specific context.
Through using his imagination, he increased opportunities to practise
using words in a ‘communicative’ way. This enabled him to manipulate
and think about the words, and thus helped him reinforce his memory of
these words (see also Yamamoto 2014).
During the second term, Wu applied a more flexible and creative
approach to his vocabulary learning and tried to make use of different
resources to help him build the rich vocabulary. He also found the process
of creative vocabulary practices more enjoyable than simple repetition. For
example, he developed his vocabulary through travelling different places
in the UK and shared his vocabulary learning experiences on VOCABlog.
Extract 2.24
This picture called ‘Suspension Bridge’…You’ll

never have idea how spectacular it is, without
wonderful sunset scenery and majestic mountains
which made me deeply impressed and unforgetta-

ble. (Wu, photo description, VOCABlog)
IR: why did you select this photograph?

Wu: There are no bridge piers beneath. This
picture helped me remember why it is called
‘suspension’…when I think of the word
again, I’ll remember the bridge, the
explanation of my friend as well as the
time my friends and I spent there…the
meaningless becomes meaningful. (Wu,
forum, VOCABlog)
Wu discovered a new word ‘suspension’ during his visit to the Clifton

Suspension Bridge in Bristol. After the trip, Wu continued to engage
himself in vocabulary learning activities and used the photograph to help
him recall the vocabulary item. He associated the word with the picture
of the bridge (there are no bridge piers beneath), and also remembered it in
relation to his friend’s explanation and the specific situation in which he
experienced. The three strategies were used in a cluster to reinforce his
memory (see Fig. 2.3). Here, the photograph was not merely a research
tool to record his learning experience, but it was also a learning tool for
him to consolidate the word. Through accessing the photograph, he built
up a visual and vivid image which helped him memorise the word more
deeply (see also Carpenter and Olson 2012).
By comparison with the early phase, there were fewer formal classes
during the third term on the Ryder site. Therefore, Wu had more free
time to learn vocabulary for pleasure. Although he still chose to repeat-
edly review the words which he recorded in his vocabulary notebook, he
felt that the learning process was dull and repetitive. As a result, vocabu-
lary rote learning became marginalised. In order to make his learning
more enjoyable, he engaged himself in some playful vocabulary practices.
In particular, he explored many different word games on his Smartphone
to motivate him to learn vocabulary. He also shared some games with
other participants on VOCABlog and described how he consolidated
vocabulary through using these games.
Remember the
Use a picture to
word in relaon to
remember the
the situaon where
word
he first heard it
Remember the word in relaon

to other people’s explanaon
Fig. 2.3 Wu’s cluster of memory strategies
Extract 2.25
Recently, I played a puzzle game[…]My mission is

to turn and rotate them into a figure […]When each
level is completed, the game will show the name
of the figure in English. For example, in animal
themes, I revised that 河马 is Hippo[…]I was
eager to see the name of the figure, to see if I
am right about the name that I had in mind. It is
an exciting way to revise some useful vocabular-
ies. Nothing too boring and nothing too hard.
(Wu, photo description, VOCABlog)
Wu photographed a word game which helped him consolidate vocab-

ulary linked to different content topics (e.g. animals and the military). He
tried to solve the word puzzle by rotating clusters of lines and shapes until
the correct image of a word (e.g. hippo and submarine) could be revealed
(see Photo 2.3). His curiosity was aroused by the puzzle game. He used it
to help him actively engaged in the process of recalling vocabulary. Most
importantly, the game offered him an interesting learning environment
and he could review vocabulary and have fun at the same time (see also
Photo 2.3 Puzzle game (Wu, photo, VOCABlog)
Dalton and Grisham 2011; Juffs and Friedline 2014). During the third
term, he continued to explore other word games and realised the impor-
tance of enjoyment which can motivate him to learn.
Extract 2.26
IR: Do you still play the game Wordfeud?

Wu: Yes. Recently I found another friend to
play it with me. His English is really
good so it’s interesting to see what words
he played and learn from him…as his oppo-
nent, I eager to learn more words from him
so I can achieve a higher score to beat
him.(Wu, interview)
Through using the game ‘Wordfeud’, the competitive relationship

which Wu established with his friend helped him generate his motivation
to build more vocabulary. His friend also became a more capable other to
2.6 Outside the Classroom: Xia’s Strategic Vocabulary Learning 47
help him enlarge his vocabulary size. They appeared to co-construct a

learning context in which his learning outcome was enhanced.
Besides word games, he also sought other ways to increase his motivation
to learn vocabulary, e.g. listening to some podcasts or watching some
English language programmes, and combined them to strengthen his exist-
ing strategy use. Because of his continuous exploration and engagement in
creative and playful vocabulary practices, he was able to keep his interests in
vocabulary learning and make his strategic learning more effective.
2.6 O
utside the Classroom: Xia’s Strategic
Vocabulary Learning
Xia used to believe that vocabulary growth could come naturally through
her everyday life in the UK. However, she soon realised that small
amounts of vocabulary learning occurred outside the classroom. In order
to develop her vocabulary, she reflected on her vocabulary learning expe-
rience and identified her own problems. Her conscious awareness of
learning vocabulary was growing. She sought out opportunities to learn
and explored different resources to support her learning.
2.6.1 R
aising Strategic Awareness of Vocabulary
Learning
During the early phase, when Xia encountered unknown words in every-
day life situations, she tended to ignore them or guess their meaning from
context. She was less likely to give deliberate thoughtful attention to
them. On VOCABlog she shared a lesson was learned from her experi-
ence of everyday life and explained how she explored the meaning of an
unknown phrase in a local shop:
Extract 2.27
Without consulting anyone, I bought this cleans-

ing lotion. I guess cleansing lotion is to mois-
turise skin […]. Until one day, one sales assistant
said ‘[…] cleansing lotion first, and comes with

this facial wash […]’ When I heard this, I thought,
what does it mean? A make-up remover? Then I
stated my doubts to her, sadly, I got a definite
‘yes’ […], during the past time, every cell in my
face was tortured by that lotion, all of these
contribute to lack of curiosity for those myste-
rious words. From that time on[…], when I wanted
to purchase products, when I found any unfamiliar
words, I always asked […]. (Xia, diary, VOCABlog)
Xia guessed the meaning of ‘cleansing lotion’ from the context. She
believed that she had correctly recognised the phrase, in fact; she did not
and, hence, understood it inaccurately. The extract indicated that it was not
effective to merely use inferencing strategies to discover the word meaning
(see also Hulstijin et al. 1996). She found it useful not only to be critical
about her understanding of unknown words, but also to check with sale
assistants as to whether her guess was accurate—and ask them for clarifica-
tion if it was not. She realised that it was necessary to increase her strategic
awareness, look for someone who had specific knowledge of the words
which she had inferred and make sure of their precise meaning with them
though using a cluster of social strategies. By reflecting on her experience,
Xia further evaluated her strategy use in order to enhance her learning:
Extract 2.28
In my opinion, guessing the meaning of new words

is a good start to explore our vocabulary […] when
I really want the exact meaning, I then need to
find for any local people near me, ask and check
with them. This may make me learn these words more
accurately and deeply. (Xia, diary, VOCABlog)
To gain a more precise and deeper understanding of new words, Xia

found it useful to start with inferencing strategies and then follow them
with social strategies (see Fig. 2.4). She raised her strategic awareness of
how to enhance her learning outcome, being able to select appropriate
strategies and combine them in sequence or a cluster.
Start
Guess the meaning in relation to context
Social strategies
Express her doubts to local people
Check her guesses with local people
Ask local people for clarification/explanation
Fig. 2.4 Xia’s strategy combination
The context of everyday life (e.g. radio programmes, everyday conver-

sations, words on the street) in the UK provided Xia with potential lan-
guage input. She realised that it was a further extension of her language
classroom. Most importantly, to build vocabulary, she needed to increase
active engagement in the process of strategic vocabulary learning. In the
light of her previous experience, her conscious awareness of learning
vocabulary was growing.
Extract 2.29
Xia: The world outside our classroom can be a

fantastic environment to learn words, e.g.
on the train, the announcement said ‘…today
the train is overcrowded…’I knew ‘crowded’
but rarely used it. I wanted to remember it
and then I stored it in my mobile.
IR: Did you make further attempts to remember
it?
Xia: Later, when I texted my friends on the train,
instead of ‘full’, I practised using ‘crowded’
in the message. This is a good opportunity
to help me remember it deeply. I also reviewed
it at home. (Xia, interview)
Xia made use of the English-speaking environment to learn new words

and reinforce her retention of the words she previously studied. She
looked at how English worked in everyday life and paid particular atten-
tion to a variety of English words and expressions which she wanted to
learn and the way British people would use them. For example, on the
train, when Xia listened to the announcement, she also gave deliberate
attention to the word ‘overcrowded’. Although she knew the word, it
could not be remembered when she needed to use it.
Attentive listening seemed to play an important role in vocabulary
building. In order to aid her retention of the word ‘crowded’, she con-
sciously deployed a number of vocabulary learning strategies, such as
“keeping a record of it” and “practising using it in the text message”. Xia
increased her strategic awareness and developed her strategy use.
2.6.2 Exploration and Utilisation of Resources
By comparison with the first term, Xia made more efforts to immerse
herself in British culture during the second term and increased her con-
tact with the milieu where learners could interact with everyday life in
order to benefit her vocabulary learning. For example, she tried to visit
different museums every week across the UK and wrote diaries on
VOCABlog about what words she had learned and how she had learned
them.
Extract 2.30
Visiting different museums is a fun way to learn

words […]. You can learn new words through explor-
ing pictures, leaflets and artefacts. Most impor-
tantly, I could ask their staff when I found
unknown words […]. They were my free ‘teachers’.
Their explanation was usually rich and included
some interesting examples. I also took photos of
these words or brought the leaflets back home […].
I often checked them in my dictionary again at
home. This could help me understand their meaning
better […]. VOCABlog is a good place to practise

new words, that’s why every week I keep writing
a diary. (Xia, diary, VOCABlog)
Xia explored the way of learning vocabulary in which she was inter-
ested and made use of different resources in a museum, both social and
material, to facilitate her learning. In particular, she developed her word
knowledge through verbal interaction with museum educators who were
seen as more capable others to help her gain a more in-depth understand-
ing of unknown words. She photographed the unfamiliar words she
encountered in a museum, and then posted the photo on VOCABlog
and explained how her understanding of the words was improved:
Extract 2.31
…I underlined the two words in this photo. I

thought they had the same meaning ‘伤口’, but
they must be different otherwise there was no
need to include both words here. I then asked
their staff to explain the differences between
these two words…He explained the words and
described in what situations I could use ‘cuts’
and ‘wounds’. His explanation really helped….
(Xia, photo description, VOCABlog)
In Extract 2.31, as ‘cut’ and ‘wound’ shared the same Chinese meaning
‘伤口’, Xia found it difficult to know the semantic differences between
these two words. Here, the verbal interaction with the museum educator
played an important role in helping her gain a clear understanding of
their differences in meaning and usage. Extract 2.30 showed that she also
combined the social strategy with other strategies in sequence to build
her vocabulary, including “discovering new words through exploring leaf-
lets and pictures” and “recording them through taking photographs or
keeping the leaflets”. Further efforts were made to consolidate them at
home, including deploying the dictionary look-up strategy and practising
using them in the diaries. The strategies which she used in the museum
• Discover the word meaning in relaon to various

Museum resources in the museum
• Ask museum educators to explain unknown words

Museum
Every week
• Take a photo of unknown words or take a leaflet
Museum
• Check a diconary (s)

Home
• Pracse the words by using them in her diary

Home
Fig. 2.5 Xia’s recycling of vocabulary learning strategies
were in turn combined with the strategies used at home and she deployed
the strategy combination at regular intervals (i.e. weekly) to enlarge her
vocabulary (see Fig. 2.5).
Like Wu, Xia also used the VOCABlog as a learning tool to practise
the words which she had been exposed to earlier. The process of her stra-
tegic vocabulary learning was goal-directed. Xia intentionally sought the
ways of visiting a museum and writing a dairy on VOCABlog as oppor-
tunities to build and consolidate vocabulary. In order to achieve her
learning goals, she actively engaged with museum educators and various
artefacts. She was well aware of different learning opportunities and
resources available to her in order to develop her vocabulary. The strategic
action undertaken with a goal, a plan and evaluating knowledge all
involved her conscious awareness (see also Macaro 2006, p. 327).
Faced with a more challenging academic milieu, Xia also made use of
different types of dictionary to aid her vocabulary learning, such as bilin-
gual and monolingual dictionaries and dictionaries for thesaurus and col-
locations. Compared with her previous experience in China, Xia engaged
with a new type of assessment, an oral academic presentation, from the
second term. In order to make a good presentation, she made a deliberate
effort to prepare it. In addition to the structure and content of her

presentation, she also paid particular attention to the language she might
use in the presentation. In Extract 2.32, Xia described how she improved
the accuracy and clarity of her speech.
Extract 2.32
Xia: I try to check all the key words which I

may use in my presentation in the Cambridge
online dictionary.
IR: How do you use this dictionary?
Xia: It has a British pronunciation with an
audio recording, so I can listen to its
stress and imitate it. I also used the
COBUILD dictionary to check their collo-
cations and make sure I can use them accu-
rately. (Xia, interview)
This extract showed that Xia selected and combined different kinds of
dictionaries to serve different learning purposes. In relation to her inde-
pendent project, there were some key terms and words which she would
use in her presentation. She used the Cambridge online dictionary to
check and practise the correct pronunciation including stress.
To use them accurately, she also consulted the COBUILD dictionary
to explore their collocations and uses. She deployed a number of diction-
ary look-up strategies in cluster to strengthen her word knowledge and
help her deliver better speech. Xia selected dictionaries and managed her
vocabulary learning in relation to her learning purposes as well as differ-
ent settings.
Extract 2.33
I heard my teacher saying the word ‘succinct’. I

tried to guess its meaning and checked it in my
electronic dictionary. This dictionary provided
its Chinese translation and fewer definitions than
other dictionaries so it was quick and easy for

me to know the word and get its general meaning
during the lesson. But, I checked the word again
in the Oxford online dictionary at home. This dic-
tionary showed detailed information which helped
me consolidate the word. (Xia, diary, VOCABlog)
The electronic bilingual dictionary seemed to be more effective in the

setting where Xia was restricted by time. During the lesson, when she
heard the unknown word ‘succinct’, Xia combined several dictionary
look-up strategies which helped her save time to discover the word mean-
ing, including “selecting the electronic dictionary which only contains
few definitions as well as Chinese translation”, “scanning the definitions
given” and “looking for a general meaning of the word”. After the class,
this cluster was in turn combined with another cluster of dictionary look-
up strategies pertaining to consolidate the word, including “choosing a
dictionary which contains more detailed word information” and “enrich-
ing other aspects of word knowledge through analysing the word infor-
mation provided”. When engaging in her self-study at home, she had
more free time and thus this enabled her to make use of the Oxford
monolingual dictionary and enhance her learning.
2.6.3 S
ocial Interaction with Course Mates
Beyond the Classroom
After experiencing the benefits of using social strategies in the second

term, Xia continued to deploy more social strategies to learn vocabulary
in and outside the classroom during the third term. In particular, she cre-
ated more opportunities to socialise with her course mates, such as play-
ing basketball with them and watching matches together. She tried to
establish a closer friendship with them which also promoted comfort and
a socially supportive relationship between them.
Extract 2.34
Once you got closer, you felt more comfortable

asking them questions…they also liked to answer
you. E.g. we went to Cardiff. During our trip, I

tried to listen to how my course mates used words
and what words they used to describe different
situations. The first word I learnt was ‘margin-
alize’. I asked Tim to explain it. He gave me a
very vivid explanation. It’s useful to ask your
friends directly because they know exactly what
you want to know at that time.(Xia, diary,
VOCABlog)
I put ‘marginalize’ into my vocabulary note-

book[…]I used it on the other day. I pronounced
it and imitated him how to use it. Then I asked
him whether I used it accurately. Luckily, he
told me that I used it correctly. (Xia, forum,
VOCABlog)
When communicating with her course mates, Xia did not merely focus
on the content of their conversation, but she also paid particular attention
to the words and expressions which her course mates used and learned
vocabulary through her attentive listening. The diary extract above indi-
cated that she was more likely to seek support from her course mates
when she perceived them as personally positive. She explored the word
‘marginalise’ through asking Tim for an explanation and found this social
strategy particularly helpful because he was able to give a vivid explana-
tion of words in relation to the context. She then recorded it in her vocab-
ulary notebook. Most importantly, Xia went back to Tim again on the
other day and practised using the word. This time, she initiated a dialogue
with him and checked whether she could use the word correctly.
During the early phase, Xia did not have the confidence to speak up in
the class, and thus she was less likely to have verbal communication with
her teacher and peers. Her teacher made great efforts to develop a more
positive teacher–student relationship. She also increased opportunities to
socialise with her peers outside the classroom. As a result, Xia gradually
overcame her anxiety and enriched her vocabulary knowledge through
the verbal interaction with her teacher and peers. She was able to speak
English and practise using vocabulary with greater confidence.
Significantly, Extract 2.34 indicated that she was able to initiate and
engage in dialogues to promote her vocabulary learning.
2.7 Insights
2.7.1 Characteristics of Learners, Agency and Context
The second language motivation and personality of Wu and Xia varied in

many ways, but they both managed their vocabulary learning strategi-
cally and improved their learning. Their vocabulary learning experiences
revealed that vocabulary learning strategies were not inherently good or
poor (Cohen 2011), but the quality of strategy use was related to whether
strategies were particularly appropriate for the individual learner (Tseng
et al. 2006) and whether vocabulary learners can use the strategies effec-
tively in relation to their particular learning contexts.
Wu, for instance, memorised words better if he wrote them down.
Therefore, he selected some useful words and phrases from his electronic
vocabulary notebook and wrote them again on his conventional note-
book. By contrast, Xia preferred to use a retrieval plan which she found it
more useful to reinforce her memory of new vocabulary items. Instead of
a conventional notebook, she tended to use an electronic notebook which
enabled her to recall the words on a regular basis. In relation to their
personal interests, both Wu and Xia exercised their agency and engaged
themselves in a variety of activities, which enabled them to sustain the
effort of learning and increase their motivation in vocabulary learning
over time. For example, Wu showed a keen interest in building and con-
solidating vocabulary through using online word games. Xia really
enjoyed learning vocabulary through visiting different British museums.
In the cases examined, strategic vocabulary learning was not solely an
individual process; rather, must be understood with reference to the com-
plex and dynamic interplay of individual difference factors (e.g. personal-
ity characteristics and prior knowledge), learners’ agency and their
learning contexts (see also Wang 2015). Compared with Wu’s and Xia’s
high-school language teachers in China, the language tutor on the Ryder
site provided them with more interactive opportunities to hear, use and
2.7 Insights 57
practise the target language. Wu was extroverted in the class and enjoyed
participating in a variety of classroom interactions. As he had limited
opportunities for social interaction outside the classroom, he viewed the
classroom as an important place where he could gain more access to ver-
bal interaction. Wu actively manipulated classroom social resources and
selected many social strategies to promote his vocabulary learning.
In contrast, Xia, felt less confident to speak up in the class and was
more likely to listen to her peers and teacher when she was in a large
group. She deployed dictionary look-up strategies to help her discover
the word meaning of unknown words or combined them with social
strategies when she worked with peers in a small group. However, she
started to challenge the ways of learning vocabulary in the class since she
had found that she could learn and remember vocabulary better when
she discussed unknown words with more capable others. Xia stretched
beyond her comfort zone and expanded her social network. She exercised
her agency and sought further opportunities to interact with her peers
and teacher outside the classroom. The more interaction she had with
them, the more confident she became at using social strategies. Verbal
interaction with them appeared to help her attend to language form and
notice problems to a greater extent than just listening (see also Philp et al.
2014). She became more extroverted and consciously employed social
strategies to enhance her learning.
Not only researchers but also vocabulary learners need to shift from
focusing on the product to the quality of strategy use. According to
Schmitt (2010), it is not the actual techniques learners employed make
them strategic learners, but more importantly they need to put creative
effort into trying to improve their vocabulary learning. Learners like Wu
and Xia in one place may be motivated to use certain strategies, while in
another place, their motivation in using the strategies may be reduced.
Learner identity is not fixed, rather, socially constructed and can change
over time (Norton 2013). They may sometimes be extroverted and con-
fident and sometimes be introverted and less confident. Learners need to
be aware of and engage their multiple identities in the process of strategic
vocabulary learning. The challenge tends to be for the learners or teachers
to proactively recognise the signs of changing identities, thereby allowing
them to adapt their learning strategies to take advantage of this

phenomenon.
In order to expand their learning potential, they should exercise their
agency by developing their identities and improving a variety of capacities
(e.g. self-regulating and sociocultural capacity) towards more strategic
learners. For example, like what Xia did, they can evaluate their relative
effectiveness of strategy use in relation to particular learning situations, and
enhance their vocabulary learning by trying out new strategies that they do
not often use and by combining new strategies to strengthen existing ones.
Language teachers like Mary can arrange some social activities which
enabled students to access better social opportunities outside the class-
room and gain more confidence in using social strategies with others. It
can be also useful for teachers to provide some strategy awareness-raising
activities or sessions and make time for students to share their learning
style and strategy use and reflect on their vocabulary learning experience
in order to enhance their strategies. Furthermore, learners need to pay
particular attention to the contexts where they learn vocabulary and be
more flexible to select and combine strategies from different functions
(i.e. cognitive, social and metacognitive functions).
2.7.2 Using Strategies in Clusters and Sequences
Wu and Xia tended to select and use different strategies in clusters or

sequences rather than a single strategy throughout the academic year in
the UK. For a strategy to be effective in enhancing learning and learner
performance, it needs to be combined with other strategies, thus forming
a strategy cluster or a strategy sequence (see also Cohen 2011). For exam-
ple, Wu learned a new word during his visit to Bristol. After the trip, he
combined a number of vocabulary learning strategies to help him rein-
force his memory of the word, including “associating the word to its
visual image” and “remembering the word in relation to other people’s
verbal explanation as well as the situation where he first heard it”.
Wu tried to memorise the word in a more meaningful context rather
than simply rote repetition. The more elaborate thought made to the
new vocabulary item, the more likely that it will be retained (Schmitt
2.7 Insights 59
and Schmitt 1995; Laufer and Hulstijn 2001; Nation 2013). A single
strategy appeared to be not enough to help the new word stay in mem-
ory, and thus Wu clustered the strategies together in order to strengthen
his retention. Xia also formed a cluster of social strategies to explore
the more precise meaning of unknown words when she did her shop-
ping, including “expressing her doubts to shop assistants”, and “check-
ing her guesses with shop assistants” and “asking shop assistants for
clarification/explanation”, and switched back and force from one to
another strategy.
In strategy clusters, the learners tended to combine a minimum of
two vocabulary strategies which interacted with and complemented
each other and might be used interchangeably (see also Macaro 2004;
Cohen 2011). Apart from strategy clusters, another feature of their
strategy use is that they combined strategies in sequence to enhance
their learning outcome. For instance, during and after her visit to British
museums, Xia learned and consolidated vocabulary through the sequen-
tial use of strategies: (1) “discovering the meaning of a word at the
museum”, (2) “clarifying it with a museum educator”, (3) “taking a
photo of the word on display or taking a leaflet with the word in it”, (4)
“consulting a dictionary at home” and (5) “finally practising the word
by putting it in her diary”.
While early strategy researchers tended to construct different typolo-
gies by separating strategies into different functions, those strategy clus-
ters and sequences which have been identified seem to challenge this
approach. Wu’s and Xia’s vocabulary learning experiences reveal that
learners tend to use strategies in a more complex way, i.e. strategies can be
used in isolation, clusters or sequences. Researchers need to reunite the
separation of strategies into different functions and provide a more holis-
tic view of strategic vocabulary learning (Wang 2015).
However, using strategy clusters or sequences cannot guarantee suc-
cess in vocabulary learning. In the light of the two Chinese learners’
vocabulary learning experiences, I suggest that it would be beneficial for
learners to think more carefully about how they select, combine and
orchestrate their strategy use for more effective vocabulary learning.
Strategic vocabulary learning appears to be temporally and contextually
situated, and thus learners need to choose strategies that are appropriate
to their s pecific learning tasks and contexts. Xia, for example, to discover
the precise meaning of an unknown word, using a cluster of dictionary
look-up strategies during the class might not be as effective as after the
class, as it required a reasonable level of proficiency and great search
skills. She often found it difficult to interpret definitions and other infor-
mation in English and then needed a great deal of time to understand
the meaning through consulting other bilingual dictionaries. Although
she could gain more detailed word information through looking it up in
a monolingual dictionary, she might not have enough time to deploy
such complex strategy clusters in the classroom unless her teacher
arranged some self-study activities. When she had limited self-study time
during the class, she found it more effective to seek direct support from
her teacher or peers and use a cluster of social strategies to aid her
understanding.
Learners need to invest a high level of metacognitive efforts in the
process of strategic vocabulary learning in order to orchestrate strategy
use more effectively (Vandergrift 2003; Macaro 2006; Cohen 2011).
With reference to Wu and Xia, they both used vocabulary notebooks to
help them build and retrieve vocabulary, and selected and combined a set
of strategies to design their notebooks and implement the use of their
notebooks. However, their use of strategy clusters was not fixed through-
out the academic year. They monitored their vocabulary learning, evalu-
ated their strategy use and modified their recording strategies in relation
to their own learning purposes and needs. For example, Wu enriched his
vocabulary notebook by including additional information, words’ con-
notation, to help him use vocabulary more accurately and appropriately
in both written and spoken contexts.
Xia also evaluated her previous strategy use and added more strategies
to enhance her vocabulary learning. She included additional informa-
tion, i.e. example sentences, to make the words’ meaning more compre-
hensible, and made a further effort to devise a vocabulary study plan
which enabled her to recall the words at more regular intervals. Therefore,
metacognitive strategies (i.e. monitoring and evaluating the appropriate-
ness and usefulness of strategy use, and modifying strategy use) appear to
play an important role in maximising the effectiveness of strategy clusters
and sequences.
2.7 Insights 61
2.7.3 Shades of Meaning
Another issue highlighted by the two Chinese learners is related to shades

of meaning that are generally related but differ in specific usage. The
context of everyday life in the UK provided them with a rich sociocul-
tural milieu to use the target language. They became more aware of how
native speakers use the target words and more sensitive to different shades
of meaning. They both seemed to make a great effort to achieve a more
precise understanding of words’ meanings which enabled them to use
them successfully for communication. For example, Xia assumed that
there were no semantic differences between the words, ‘cut’ and ‘wound’,
as they shared the same Chinese translation ‘伤口’. However, she started
to question herself whether they could be used interchangeably when she
saw how native speakers used these two words.
Wu tended to use his bilingual dictionary to help him translate the first
language to the second language for productive use. Yet, the dictionary
often suggested a set of English words (e.g. ‘oven’ and ‘toaster’) which
matched to the same Chinese meaning (e.g. ‘烤箱’) and he felt uncertain
which word is more appropriate to convey his idea. Like Xia and Wu,
other Chinese-speaking learners also found it difficult to notice the differ-
ences in their precise meaning and specific usage when a set of second
language words share the similar first language concept (Jiang 2004;
Chiu 2009). Shades of meaning are likely to cause errors or confusion in
their communication. The experiences of the two Chinese learners sug-
gest that it would be useful to employ a strategy or strategy clusters which
could help learners explore the precise meaning of second language words.
With regard to Wu’s strategy use, using a bilingual dictionary alone
may not be able to help learners notice semantic differences when second
language words refer to the same first language meaning. It is useful to
combine bilingual with monolingual dictionaries or thesauruses and
deploy a cluster of dictionary look-up strategies, such as “comparing and
contrasting their word knowledge” (e.g. English language definition, syn-
onyms and collocations), to help them master finer shades of meaning.
Xia’s vocabulary learning experience also suggests that semantic devel-
opment could be enhanced through consulting someone who had spe-
cific knowledge of the words (e.g. language teachers, shop assistants and
museum educators). Social strategies can be also used to supplement

other strategies, and helped learners to overcome the limitations of only
using cognitive strategies. For instance, the use of inferencing strategies,
or dictionary look-up strategies, or both in combination with the social
strategy, “asking for assistance”, could help learners gain a more precise
understanding of unknown words and enrich their pragmatic meaning.
Language teachers could also employ pair or group work activities and
encourage second language learners to explain and debate shades of
meaning through working with others. This interaction requires learners
to engage more in the thinking process, thus promoting learning and
reinforcing memorisation (see also Stanley 2015). Teachers should pro-
vide explanation and make both direct and indirect correction when it is
necessary and scaffold learners to further vocabulary development.
2.8 Conclusion
This chapter has presented the strategic attempts made by Xia and Wu to
expand and develop their vocabulary, in response to linguistically demand-
ing academic and social tasks in the UK. Their strategy use, the context of
teaching and learning, their agency and own learner characteristics (e.g.
previous learning experiences, personality and motivation) were closely
interrelated. They paid particular attention to the contexts where they
learned vocabulary and involved a high level of personal effort and ‘invest-
ment’ (after Norton 2000). These two Chinese learners not only com-
bined strategies which assumed the same function, but also assumed
different functions (i.e. cognitive, metacognitive, affective and social) for
more effective vocabulary learning. Cognitively, they gave deliberate
thoughtful attention to the vocabulary items which they were interested
in or had difficulty with, and actively deployed a wide range of vocabulary
learning strategies both inside and outside the classroom. Socially, they
also sought opportunities to engage with the users of the target language
for greater learning, and affectively, made further efforts to increase their
enjoyment of vocabulary learning. Metacognitively, Wu and Xia orches-
trated strategy use for more successful learning. The following table sum-
marises the strategic efforts that Wu and Xia invested and also made a
positive difference to their vocabulary learning and use (Table 2.1).
2.8 Conclusion 63
Table 2.1 Wu’s and Xia’s strategic attempts

Wu’s strategic attempts Xia’s strategic attempts
To improve word knowledge: To improve word knowledge:

“Being critical about his understanding of “Seeking direct support from her
unknown words and checking with his teacher and keeping a record of
teacher as to whether his guess was the words”
accurate” “Consulting both bilingual and
“Initiating the pupil-teacher dialogue and monolingual dictionaries”
asking his teacher to explain or clarify “Discussing the target words with
unknown words” her teacher again if it was
“Discussing unknown/unfamiliar words necessary”
with both his peers and teacher”
To build vocabulary: To build vocabulary:
“Checking words in an electronic “Paying particular attention to
dictionary and recording each look-up how a variety of English words
electronically” and expressions worked in
“Selecting useful words from the electronic everyday life and the way native
notebook and writing them in his speakers would use them”
conventional notebook with the context” “Guessing the meaning from
“Monitoring and evaluating his use of context and checking her guesses
vocabulary notebook, and enriching his with native speakers/her teacher”
notebook by including additional “Practising using the target words
information” in writing”
To help him explain shades of meaning: To help her use unknown words
productively:
“Looking up the words in a monolingual “Consulting monolingual
dictionary” dictionaries or thesauruses”
“Comparing and contrast their English “Asking someone who had specific
explanation” knowledge of the words for
assistance”
“Recording the target words and
meaning, and then practising the
words by using them in her
diary”
To test himself whether he could use To manage her strategic
words correctly: vocabulary learning more
effectively:
“Practising using them in everyday “Orchestrating strategy use in
situations” relation to different settings”
“Asking the interlocutor (s) for help” “Monitoring and evaluating her
strategy use”
“Utilising both social and material
resources”
(continued)
Table 2.1 (continued)
Wu’s strategic attempts Xia’s strategic attempts
To make the word more memorable: To make the word more memorable:
“Imagining a person who he would like to “Recording the words in the
interact with and visualising different notebook and categorising words
situations involving himself practising into different groups”
using the vocabulary items with the “Reviewing the words in relation
person” to their example sentences”
“Connecting fun and vocabulary learning “Recalling them on a regular basis”
with online words games and engaging “Socialising with her peers outside
himself playing with words” the classroom, asking them for
help and practising using the
words with them”
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3
Expanding Study-Abroad Opportunities
for Vocabulary Learning
3.1 Introduction
Chapter 2 revealed the complexity of strategy use, which was in a dynamic
relationship with individual difference factors, learner agency and each
individual learner’s specific context. The previous chapter also demon-
strated the value of negotiation and collaborative dialogue to vocabulary
learning as well as the considerable effort which Xia and Wu made to
maximise communicative opportunities for vocabulary development. In
this chapter, I will describe Bo’s and Ke’s strategic vocabulary learning
experiences both inside and outside the classroom in the UK and offer an
in-depth analysis of the stories of these two learners.
In terms of language development, I’m not sure to what extent I really benefit
from my study-abroad experience. I realise that my vocabulary size is regressing.
Bo (10th week)
Bo’s parents decided to send him to the UK for higher education when
he just completed junior middle school in China. Since then, they made a
lot of effort to prepare him to the best universities in the UK. Bo also gave
a strong commitment to English language learning and academic
preparation. He had been to distinguished foreign language school in his
province for three years. The course which he took was especially designed

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65963-3_3
68 3 Expanding Study-Abroad Opportunities for Vocabulary...
for the students who were planning to study abroad and aimed to develop
their English language skills and prepare them for future degrees. All the
subjects were taught by either native or non-native teachers through the
medium of English. He also had a personal native English-speaking teacher
and they practised English everyday. He acknowledged that his English pro-
ficiency improved considerably during that period. In contrast, although
studying and living in an English-speaking country, Bo found that his oral
fluency and vocabulary size were regressing during the early period when he
took the foundation course in the UK. The improvement in English did not
match his expectation and he was disappointed by small vocabulary gains.
I became more aware of different types of vocabulary used for different pur-
poses. I’m starting to wonder if it’s still effective to deploy the same strategies to
learn these different types of vocabulary. Bo (18th week)
Bo tended to deploy a series of strategies to learn vocabulary in China,

including recording new words in his notebook, practising using them with
his personal language tutor and reviewing the words on a regular basis. After
coming to the UK, he experienced various types of contact with English, such
as reading academic texts in English, writing emails in English, listening to
other people’s conversations and speaking English with native speakers outside
the classroom. He found that there were some words which more frequently
appeared in academic texts, some words were specifically subject-related and
some words were more common to be used in spoken language. As he became
more aware of different types of vocabulary, he started to question his previ-
ous strategy use and considered what his learning purposes were, what aspects
of vocabulary knowledge he needed to work on more in relation to his learn-
ing purposes and how to learn different types of vocabulary more effectively.
I spent so much time memorising many English words in China, but there is
only a small amount of vocabulary now I can remember to use in everyday situ-
ations. Ke (4th week)
In China, Ke’s high school language teacher emphasised the importance

of memorisation in vocabulary learning and encouraged students to
remember a certain amount of vocabulary everyday in order to enlarge their
vocabulary size. Memorising word lists was also a part of his daily routine.
Rote memorisation and repetition were also the most frequent strategies
which he used to build vocabulary outside the classroom. He was proud of
the progress which he made on his vocabulary size. However, like what Wu
mentioned in the previous chapter, Ke also found that he had a limited
vocabulary to use when he communicated with local people in everyday
3.1 Introduction 69
situations in the UK. He realised that memorising a large number of words

did not mean that he was able to remember to use them and he needed to
make a further effort to improve his productive use of vocabulary.
I think I use a word grammatically correctly in a sentence, but sometimes I
don’t know why native speakers found it awkward. Ke (19th week)
By comparison with his previous learning experience, Ke gained many

more opportunities to use vocabulary either in written or spoken contexts.
However, native speakers often responded that they were not clear what he
means exactly or they felt awkward about his use of certain words or
phrases. In particular, his British tutors commented on his written assign-
ments that he needed to improve his vocabulary use and check his gram-
mar. Before submitting his assignments, he always did proof reading, and
tried to make sure that vocabulary and sentence structure were grammati-
cally correct. Yet, according to his tutors’ comments, he found that it was
difficult to improve his vocabulary use and make it sound more native.
Bo and Ke had distinctly different prior experience in learning English and

tended to adopt a different approach to learn vocabulary in China. The find-
ings presented above also indicated that their strategic vocabulary learning was
not fixed over time. Rather, their strategy use and learning approach appeared
to change as they moved from the Chinese to the British context. They both
enrolled on the International Foundation Programme (IFP) in Science and
Engineering on the Wolfson university site, and were allocated to the same
group for the module in English and Study Skills. The context of teaching and
learning on the Wolfson site differed from the context on the Ryder site in
many ways, such as contact hours per week, the number of Chinese students
in the foundation year and the design of their English module.
This chapter will explore how these two learners managed their vocabulary
learning strategically in relation to their particular context of teaching and
learning. The sections will describe how they made use of the opportunities
which the Wolfson site offered and overcame the contextual constraints to
support their vocabulary learning, and in what way and for what reasons they
selected and combined strategies to improve their use of academic language.
I will discuss the issues related to strategy choice and use, and effective vocab-
ulary learning through engaging with recent research literature. I will also
provide a summary of the vocabulary learning strategies that made a positive
difference for these two learners at the end of this chapter.
3.2 Strategy Choice and Use in the Classroom

Their British tutor Elaine tried a variety of ways to teach vocabulary in
the English and Study Skills module. Both Bo and Ke said that Elaine
provided more various kinds of vocabulary learning activities than their
language teachers in China. In particular, Ke described that his high
school teacher tended to follow the same teaching methods with similar
procedures to teach vocabulary. The high school teacher integrated
vocabulary teaching with intensive reading through the use of their high
school textbooks, and played an emphasis on her own presentation,
focusing on the translation, explicit explanation and grammatical forms
of vocabulary. He had fewer opportunities to work and discuss with his
teacher and peers due to the heavy teaching load and its time-consuming
nature. The most frequent strategy which he used in the English class was
the recording strategy, “recording the words which the teacher empha-
sised and her explanation in his textbook”. By contrast, the British tutor
varied her teaching methods and combined both implicit and explicit
vocabulary instruction. Bo and Ke deployed different strategies to sup-
port their vocabulary learning. The extracts analysed here are selected to
illustrate different methods of vocabulary instruction and, within them,
to address the issues relating to L2 learners’ strategy choice, strategy use
and vocabulary learning.
3.2.1 Reading Plus Vocabulary Instruction
One way in which the language tutor Elaine helped students acquire new
vocabulary was through reading. In particular, she provided them with
opportunities to build vocabulary through reading authentic materials
(e.g. newspapers, magazines, advertisements and texts from the Internet)
and aimed to motivate them to learn vocabulary and stimulate their
thinking and discussion about target words.
In an example from one particular English lesson, students were given
a newspaper article about Steve Jobs’ achievements and a list of word defi-
nitions. They were asked to read the article and match the definitions
with a group of target words from the article. Elaine also provided each
3.2 Strategy Choice and Use in the Classroom 71
pair of students with an Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary and encour-

aged them to use the dictionary or talk to their peers to check the words
which they felt unsure. The following extract shows the strategies Bo used
to infer the meaning of the target words as well as the attempts he made
to complete this vocabulary task.
Extract 3.1
Bo: The easiest one was ‘mourner’. I knew the

meaning of ‘mourn’ and ‘er’. ‘Mourn’ plus
‘er’ mean the person who mourns someone’s
death. I confirmed my guess by analysing
its meaning in the text again.
IR: any other words you knew already?
Bo: Yes, ‘license’. Driving licence means 驾照,
but in the text, it says ‘Jobs licensed
the system…’, here it’s not a noun, it’s
a verb, so I guessed that it means ‘to
allow something that can be used
officially’.
IR: Is there any word you felt unsure?
Bo: Yes, I wasn’t sure about ‘intuitive’. I
first guessed its meaning in relation to
the given context. I found that there were
two definitions provided which can match
the context containing ‘intuitive’. I
can’t decide which one was intuitive’s
definition. I had to wait for Elaine’s
explanation.
IR: Why don’t you check it in the dictionary?
Bo: I knew that checking the Oxford diction-
ary was useful but very time-consuming. I
may check it if I do this exercise after
class as I would have more time to do
this.(Bo, interview)
Bo tried to discover the meaning of the target words on his own and
deployed a number of inferencing strategies, including “analysing the
word meaning by breaking the word up into word parts (i.e. from
‘mourner’ to ‘mourn’ and ‘er’), isolating parts of its meaning, and extend-
ing its meaning”; “analysing the meaning of the words in relation to the
context containing the words”; “finding equivalents in Chinese by means
of his mental lexicon”; “identifying the part of speech of a word in the
given context and analysing its meaning in relation to its part of speech”.
As we have seen in Extract 3.1, Bo’s inferences were not always successful
when he approximated the word meaning in relation to the textual con-
text. He tried to guess the meaning of ‘intuitive’ in relation to its local
context immediately as soon as he saw the word but drew little attention
to the wider context (i.e. beyond the sentence level). As a result, he was
still not sure about its meaning.
Ke also found two definitions that could be matched with one target
word by reading the sentence containing it. Unlike Bo, Ke made a further
effort to explore the word meaning.
Extract 3.2
IR: so how did you figure out the meaning of

‘cutting-edge’?
Ke: The sentence containing ‘cutting-edge’ is
‘Pixar was also cutting-edge’ so I think
there must be something else which was also
‘cutting-edge’. I decided to read the pre-
vious paragraphs more carefully and look
for more clues.
IR: Have you found the clues?
Ke: Yes, it says that the windowing system
was a very new idea. As it was much easier
to use than other systems, it took over
personal computing. Here, new can also mean
modern, and people really liked to use this
easy system, it means advanced so I think
‘cutting-edge’ means ‘modern and advanced’
not ‘attractive’. I also checked it in the

dictionary and then confirmed my guess.(Ke,
interview)
Compared with Bo, Ke looked beyond the local context containing

the target word (i.e. ‘cutting-edge’) and made more successful inferences
in relation to the broader context (see also Hu and Nassaji 2014). He
searched for and used clues (e.g. new and easier to use) that existed in
the textual context to help him with the meaning of the target word.
He also looked up the word in the dictionary and checked if his infer-
ences were correct. Unlike Ke, Extract 3.1 showed that Bo did not
check the dictionary while he was doing the vocabulary task. He com-
mented that using an English to English dictionary can be beneficial
but is more time-consuming. He considered when would be a better
time to use a monolingual dictionary in relation to his prior knowledge.
He preferred using it after the class as he would have more free time to
consult it. As we can see, both Bo and Ke employed a metacognitive
strategy to help them plan what strategies they would use in relation to
their specific context.
Later on, Bo and Ke were paired by Elaine to compare their answers,
but they did not use English to interact with each other until Elaine
encouraged them to discuss their answers in English.
Extract 3.3
T: Discuss with your partner…I want you to

talk in English…
Ke: 你是怎么想的?(what do you think?)
Bo: ‘intuitive’ 这个词我不确定, 你呢?(I’m not
sure about ‘intuitive’ how about you?)
T: I want to hear you both speak English, ok?
Ke: ok…I think it’s No.9((Reads the definition))
Bo: How about No. 10? The text says ‘these are
post-PC devices that need to be easier to
use than a PC, more intuitive’ Here ‘easier
to use’, I think it’s No.10, means ‘simple

and intelligent’
Ke: You can have a look at the whole paragraph,
the writer says what thing is intuitive.
It’s the system operated by touch so I
think it’s No. 9. Let’s check it in the
dictionary and see what the dictionary
says. ((Checks the dictionary))
Bo: ((Checks his mobile))它是直觉的意思 (reads
its Chinese translation)
Ke: 你可以看一下它的英文解释 (you can look at its
English explanation)‘based on feelings…
easy to use’ so it’s obvious, direct, so
it’s No. 9 not No. 10.
Bo: 嗯应该是 (yes, should be) No. 9. (Lesson
Transcript)
In Elaine’s class, there were 11 students in total with 7 Chinese stu-

dents and 4 non-Chinese international students. Most Chinese students
preferred to sit with co-nationals even though Elaine tried to mix them
up with other nationalities. When group or pair work involved Chinese
students only, the students tended to communicate in their mother
tongue rather than English. With regards to Bo and Ke, they were
originally from the same province in China and were living in the same
flat on the Wolfson site. They became very close friends and always sat
next to each other in the class. However, this also limited their opportu-
nities to speak English.
In this particular activity, Elaine monitored peer interactions among
students and had to intervene to stop them from speaking Chinese. As we
can see, Bo and Ke figured out the definition of ‘intuitive’ through inter-
action in English. In particular, Ke seemed to play an important role in
Bo’s learning. He engaged Bo in the process of inferring the word mean-
ing from the wider context and suggested combining the inferencing
strategy with a dictionary look-up strategy (i.e. “making use of the dic-
tionary’s English definition to analyse the word meaning”) to confirm
their inferences.
After the students discussed their answers, Elaine provided them with
her feedback. The following extract shows how she explained the target
words in a more communicative way and indicates a number of strategies
she used to increase students’ participation and thinking in the learning
process.
Extract 3.4
T: Right, graceful, thin, and attractive?

Ss: ‘svelte’
T: yes. Can you quickly read through the arti-
cle? Look out for ‘svelte’, highlight it
and see what ‘svelte’ is referring to…
Ss: ((read the article, Bo and Ke highlight
some information in the text, Ke also checks
the dictionary provided))
T: right, what does it describe as being
‘svelte’?
S1: song↑
T: the songs? the songs are ‘svelte’↑
Ke: ((reads the article))iPod
T: Yes, it’s the iPod, could songs be ‘svelte’?
Ss: no
T: no, what could be described as being
‘svelte’?
Ke: machines
T: yes, good, could you describe a woman as
‘svelte’? ((Bo notes down))
Ss: yes ((Bo notes down))
T: Do you think it is a positive word or a
negative word?
S2: negative↑
Bo: positive ((Ke checks the dictionary
provided))
T: Is ‘attractive’ positive? Do you think they
would describe Steve Jobs being ‘svelte’
when he was dying and ill? ((Bo checks his

mobile))
Ss: no ((Bo notes down)). (Lesson Transcript)
Elaine did not give students much information of ‘svelte’ at the begin-
ning. Rather, she asked them to work on another task (i.e. reading the
article and finding what was described as being ‘svelte’ in the article) in
order to find out how well they knew its meaning. As we have seen in
Extract 3.4, not every student really understood its meaning, although
they matched the word with the right definition. Instead of explaining
the word explicitly, asking probing questions was used as a key strategy to
promote students’ thinking. In addition, when the students provided an
inaccurate answer, she repeated what they had said and encouraged them
to notice and correct the error on their own. This way of teaching and
explaining vocabulary appeared to stimulate students’ further inquiries
about the meaning and use of the word and encourage them to study it
more deeply.
Extract 3.5
R: what did you look up in the dictionary?

((shows his actions in the video recording
of classroom observation))
Ke: When Elaine asked us whether svelte is posi-
tive or negative, I wasn’t sure about it,
because I haven’t thought about this ques-
tion before. I want to look at the diction-
ary’s sample sentences and find out the answer
in relation to the sample sentences.
R: Did you find the sample sentences helpful?
Ke: Yes, when I saw the first sentence, I was
still not sure. It said a woman is ‘svelte’
and sophisticated. I think it can be nega-
tive or positive. But when I looked at
another sentence, it said it’s amazing…,
normally we use ‘amazing’ to describe some-

thing good so I think ‘svelte’ is a positive
word. (Ke, interview)
In the light of Elaine’s question, Ke made a further effort to explore the

word’s connotation. He deployed a pair of strategies, “using the context
of the dictionary’s sample sentence to analyse the word’s connotation”
and “searching for clues that existed in the sample sentences to help him
with the connotative meaning”, in sequence. Bo was also inspired to
think beyond the denotative meaning of the target word (i.e. the literal
meaning of the word) by Elaine’s probing questions and highly motivated
to resolve his uncertainty:
Extract 3.6
R: what did you look up in the dictionary?

((shows Bo’s actions in the video record-
ing of classroom observation))
Bo: It was really interesting to know if a word
is positive or negative. When Elaine gave
us her sample sentence, I guess it’s posi-
tive, because we would use a positive word
to describe a woman. But this was just my
guess, and I really wanted to know whether
my guess was correct so I accessed to an
online dictionary via my mobile.
R: why didn’t you using the dictionary pro-
vided by Elaine?
Bo: It’s much easier to use the online diction-
ary and it also provides you with the
Chinese translation.
R: Did the online dictionary help you check
your guess?
Bo: Yes, its Chinese translation was 苗条而优雅
的, so it’s definitely positive.
R: Why did you check your mobile again ((shows

his actions in the video recording))
Bo: Elaine gave another sample sentence and I
was wondering if it can be negative in some
cases, so I looked for more sample sen-
tences from the online dictionary.
R: Could you tell me a bit more how you dis-
covered svelte’s connotation from the sam-
ple sentences?
Bo: I first translated the sentences in Chinese
and then figured out its connotation by ana-
lysing the specific context. (Bo, interview)
Unlike Ke, Bo selected a different dictionary which was considered to

be more convenient. The online dictionary which Bo chose also con-
tained the Chinese translation of the target word which helped him more
easily discover its connotative meaning. He employed a series of
vocabulary-related strategies to check his inferences, including “using the
Chinese translation to analyse the word’s connotation”, “interpreting the
dictionary definitions by thinking of equivalents in Chinese” and “using
the context of the dictionary’s sample sentence to analyse the word’s con-
notation”. He also combined the dictionary look-up strategies with a
number of recording strategies to enhance his learning:
Extract 3.7
I think it’s (a word’s connotation) very useful

information to know so I highlighted the sen-
tence containing the word in yellow and wrote
down Elaine’s feedback on the paper. So I could
use it to review the word after class. (Bo,
interview)
When Bo recognised the usefulness of a word’s connotation, he decided

to record his teacher’s feedback for further review outside the classroom.
He did not record the word and its connotative meaning in a separate
notebook, rather, highlighted the word in the text and recorded the use-
ful information next to the sentence containing it.
3.2.2 Vocabulary Self-Study Activities
The language tutor, Elaine, also used some self-study activities and proj-
ects, such as using vocabulary in a written project and preparing a vocab-
ulary lesson, to get students actively involved with vocabulary learning
processes both in and outside the classroom. Compared with teacher-led
activities, the students were given much more freedom to select what
words they would study and how to learn them in those activities. They
were encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. One of the
self-study activities, namely ‘Designing Your Dictionary’, was found par-
ticularly useful by both Bo and Ke. The aim of this activity was to help
students revise the words which they had learned about a certain topic. In
the activity, they were asked to choose words which deserved their special
attention and create a dictionary on their choice. They decided what
information they wanted to include in the dictionary and designed the
format and components of a dictionary entry. Table 3.1 demonstrates
that Bo and Ke used different ways to record and organise vocabulary and
design their dictionary in relation to their own learning goals.
Creating a personal dictionary involved a range of skills, such as word
selection, recording vocabulary, and dictionary use. Bo and Ke also
deployed a group of vocabulary-related strategies in order to operationalise
the skills effectively while making their personal dictionary. For example,
their tutor did not select the words for revision. Rather, the students were
given opportunities to develop a skill of selecting words in relation to their
own needs. To operationalise the skill, the strategies were used in sequence
by Bo, including “reviewing notes taken in lessons and identifying the key
words which the teacher highlighted”, “skimming the reading materials
used in the class and identifying the words that were new to him” and
“ranking words in terms of their frequency and choosing the words which
he considered to be more frequently used”. By contrast, Ke’s strategies
associated with word selection were presented in the figure below:
Table 3.1 Bo’s and Ke’s personal dictionary

Bo Ke
Goals To revise words and relevant To record useful words
information learned from To expand word knowledge
the class
To reinforce memory of the
words
Dictionary A4 paper kept in a portfolio Electronic notebook
format file
Word The words highlighted by the Academic vocabulary for
selection teacher writing
Unfamiliar words Useful words for conversation
High frequency
Dictionary Use tables to arrange An overview word list for each
layout different components topic
Each table covers vocabulary Arrange components of each
in relation to a certain topic word entry systematically
A column for additional
comments
Content English definitions created by Both English and Chinese
Bo definitions created or
Visual image drawn by Bo adapted by Ke
Collocations Sample sentences with Chinese
Sample sentences made by Bo translations
Additional comments (e.g.
word origin, synonymous
words)
S Skim the reading materials and idenfy the academic

vocabulary in relaon to his prior knowledge
S4 Look up the word in a

S2 Disnguish between formal and informal vocabulary diconary and analyse the
by analysing the textual text
diconary’s sample sentences
to check if it is a formal or an
informal word
S3 Skim the reading materials and idenfy the words
and phrases which he would use in everyday
conversaon
Fig. 3.1 Ke’s strategies employed to select vocabulary

In Fig. 3.1, Ke used S1, S2 and S3 simultaneously in a cluster and then

followed by S4. As we can see, the two students played an active role in
managing their strategy use when choosing which words to be recorded
in their personal dictionary and their vocabulary-related strategies were
not deployed in isolation, but in interacting ways.
Table 3.1 also showed that the layout and content of their dictionary
differed in many ways. The following interview extracts further reveal
that their learning goals and styles played an important role in influenc-
ing their choice of designing and organising their personal dictionary.
Extract 3.8
To revise the words learned earlier, I think mak-

ing my own definitions and sample sentences of
them would be a more effective way to deepen my
understanding of the words rather than just sim-
ply copying a dictionary’s…I always like to write
down things, for me, when I use my hand to draw
tables for recording vocabulary and write down
their definitions, it could help me understand
and remember them better. To memorise the words
more deeply, visuals work best for me. I also
like drawing cartoons, so I like drawing pic-
tures about the words. This way really helps me
remember them. (Bo, interview)
Extract 3.9
Apart from Elaine’s explanation, I try to include

more information about the words I think impor-
tant in my dictionary, so I try to add other
meanings of the words. I also selected some good
sample sentences from different dictionaries and
highlighted their collocations in context…I pre-
fer to list different word knowledge so I use
OneNote to help me organise each entry into dif-
ferent sections. I feel more comfortable and
easier to review the words when their informa-
tion is sorted systematically. (Ke, interview)
Bo’s main goals of creating a dictionary were to enhance his understand-

ing of new words learned from the class and also memorise them. In order
to achieve the goals, he made a great effort to think about the words and use
them by defining them in his own words and making sample sentences.
Extract 3.8 also indicated that Bo was a kinaesthetic (i.e. preferring using
hands and sense of touch to learn) and visual (i.e. preferring using charts,
graphs, pictures to learn) person. The strategies, including “writing down
the words” definitions and sample sentences”, “using tables to organise
word knowledge” and “drawing pictures about the words and memorising
them in relation to their visual images”, which he selected to record vocabu-
lary were influenced by his learning styles (i.e. kinaesthetic and visual).
Compared with Bo, Ke whose style preference was more logical (i.e. prefer-
ring systems and sequences) and detail-oriented. Hence, he arranged differ-
ent types of word knowledge, such as the word meaning and sample
sentences, in sequence with his detailed explanation and organised each
word entry by the same features.
As we have seen, Bo and Ke acted on their own initiative to build
vocabulary knowledge and discover vocabulary-related strategies that
were appropriate to them. However, a self-study activity does not mean
without social support or interaction with others. Elaine monitored stu-
dents’ performance throughout the activity and provided feedback regard-
ing the content of their dictionary and strategy use. In particular, while
Bo was writing definitions of the selected words or making sample sen-
tences, she helped him notice and correct his own mistakes. Bo stated in
the follow-up interview that ‘because of Elaine’s suggestion, I realise that I
need to review my definitions and example sentences after class and check if I
made any mistakes.’ Elaine’s help raised his awareness of self-correction
and he also attempted to review and improve his word entries outside the
classroom.
Furthermore, all students were given opportunities to display their per-
sonal dictionary in the class and make a short presentation on their lay-
out, content as well as reasons for designing in such way. Sharing each
other’s dictionaries could be a useful way to develop the students’ aware-
ness of other possible strategies and strengthen their existing strategy use.
For example, Ke gained some insights from Bo’s dictionary, and realised
that using pictures can be a more direct and powerful way to help him
understand the word meaning. Although he was not good at drawing
pictures, he decided to search for some Google images that helped him
understand abstract words and add the images in his personal dictionary.
In the self-study activities, Bo and Ke showed great initiative to build
their vocabulary knowledge, but they also encountered some challenges
of managing their own learning and dealing with problems without the
direct control of their teacher. As a consequence, they experienced not
only positive but also negative emotions. Their emotional state was not
static, involving a fluctuation of emotions. Therefore, apart from problem-
solving skills, taking control of their emotions appeared to be also crucial
in self-regulated situations.
Extract 3.10
When I actually wrote a word definition in English

or made an example sentence, I realised it’s not
easy though I think I understood the word’s mean-
ing. I had to spend lots of time thinking how to
define in my own words and how to put my words in
a sentence. Sometimes I felt very frustrated
when I spent so much time on thinking, in par-
ticular, we only had limited time to make our
dictionary during the English lesson, but I
didn’t like to copy a dictionary’s definition. I
preferred to define a word by myself and then
checked a dictionary afterwards. I felt very
happy when I defined it correctly. When my defini-
tion was wrong, I felt quite upset but this also
motivated me to find out why I made this mistake
and helped me to remember its meaning more deeply.
(Bo, diary, VOCABlog)
Extract 3.11
R: Do you find it ((creating a personal dic-

tionary)) helpful?
Ke: Yes, definitely. I would get bored if Elaine
teaches all the time. I like to have some
individual time to consolidate vocabulary.

This works for me.
R: Did you encounter any difficulties when you
created your dictionary?
Ke: Yes. I met lots of difficulties, especially
when I using a dictionary. Firstly, I found
quite stressful to decide which words
should be included in my dictionary. I took
quite a lot of time to select words that
were important to me. I wanted to focus on
academic vocabulary, but I wasn’t sure if
some words were academic words or not. I
felt very happy when a dictionary showed me
if a word was formal or informal.
R: When the dictionary didn’t show you whether a
word was formal or informal, what did you do?
Ke: I felt quite disappointed. I then looked at
the dictionary’s sample sentences and
guessed it in relation to context. Sometimes
I also had to check other dictionaries and
look for further insights. I felt very
frustrated when I was still not sure after
checking a number of dictionaries. Then I
thought it’s the time to seek some help.
(Ke, interview)
Instead of copying a dictionary’s definition, Bo challenged himself by

defining vocabulary in his own words. While he experienced frustration
when he encountered difficulties in constructing a word’s definition in
English, he responded to it positively. He made a further effort to consult
a dictionary and compared his definition with the dictionary’s definition.
There was a fluctuation between positive and negative emotions depend-
ing on if his definition was correct. He tried to activate a positive attitude
when a negative emotion occurred. Although he felt upset when he made
mistakes in his own definition, he recognised the value of error in lan-
guage learning which made learning more purposeful, improved his
motivation, and promoted memorisation.
Students need to make their own decisions on word selection, dictionary

design and dictionary content. With regards to Ke, he found that decision-
making can be stressful and further action needed to plan to help him tackle
his stress. For example, he decided to review the importance of each word
for him and draw particular attention to academic vocabulary. However,
making a plan of further action or having a clear direction does not mean
that the learner could maintain a positive emotion over time. Extract 3.11
showed that negative emotions, such as feeling disappointed and frustrated,
frequently occurred while he decided to find out the formality of words by
making use of a dictionary. Like Bo, Ke also responded to these negative
emotions positively, but in a different way. Every time when a negative emo-
tion appeared, he then thought about other solutions and planned for other
strategies, for example, “analysing the formality of words by reading the
dictionary’s sample sentences and interpreting the context containing the
words” and “asking his teacher to check if his inferences were accurate”.
3.2.3 D
eveloping Vocabulary-Related Strategies
for the IELTS Exam
Unlike the Ryder and Opal sites, the International Foundation Programme
on the Wolfson site required students to do IELTS at the end of the pro-
gramme. Apart from coursework, their IELTS results were also a major
factor in deciding whether the students were accepted by a British univer-
sity. Therefore, the English module was not only designed to improve
students’ English for general and academic purposes, but it also included
some lessons to help them prepare for their IELTS tests during the second
academic term. Vocabulary makes up 25% of a candidate’s marks for
IELTS writing and speaking and also plays a crucial part in listening and
reading. Therefore, Elaine integrated vocabulary into other language
skills, such as speaking, listening, reading and writing. With regard to
vocabulary, her main role was to help students develop their vocabulary
learning strategies that they can use to build vocabulary for IELTS outside
the classroom rather than merely teaching vocabulary due to a limited
number of IELTS preparation lessons. Taking an IELTS speaking lesson
as an example, Elaine encouraged students to start by expanding their
vocabulary for certain topics, such as education, technology and crime,
and also let them brainstorm possible strategies for building vocabulary.
Extract 3.12
T: Say, for example, crime, what do you do to

build a wider range of vocabulary for this
topic? ((points to Bo))
Bo: Google a word list for IELTS crime vocabu-
lary and try to memorise the words
T: Did you try this way before?
Bo: Yes, I found it quite useful but boring
T: Boring↑did you remember all the words from
the list?
Bo: Yes, I tried to remember one by one.
T: Instead of remembering all of them, my sug-
gestion is that you can select some of them
you might use or feel comfortable to use in
the speaking test. They might have more
than one meaning so look up them in a dic-
tionary and try to remember them in rela-
tion to the dictionary’s sample sentence.
Bo: it would be nice if I could remember fewer
words
T: yes you could, because I’m sure you won’t
use all of them in a 15-minute test.…
T: Have you tried to use a mind map?
S1: Yes
S2: No
T: I would suggest you could try it. For exam-
ple, ((draws on the white board)), any words
you could come up with connected to crime?
Ss: theft burglar murder…((make suggestions))
T: see, you actually knew lots of words already,
now you can create sub maps for this topic,
e.g. types of crimes…it’s very easy to see
how these words are connected, right?
Ss: Yes
T: You can use mind maps to help you review
your words after class…. (Lesson Transcript)
Extract 3.12 demonstrated that Elaine did not simply describe or teach
certain vocabulary-related strategies. Rather, she started by raising students’
awareness of the strategies (e.g. “searching for and selecting a useful word
list connected to a certain topic on the Internet”; “making use of the word
list and memorising words in order”) that they had already used. Students
were asked to talk about their experience of using familiar ones and then
the teacher tried to provide suggestions that helped students improve their
strategy use in relation to their actual needs and problems. For example, Bo
found that it was boring to remember words from a word list, although it
helped him expand his vocabulary. Elaine then suggested ways that can
motivate Bo to learn and strengthen his existing strategy use, including
“selecting and remembering some words that he considered important and
useful for the IELTS speaking test rather than all of the words in a list” and
“learning different meanings of a word as well as its use by analysing its
sample sentences rather than focusing merely on the word itself ”.
Elaine also introduced some new or unfamiliar strategies that students
can use to help them build and recall vocabulary. For example, Extract 3.12
described a skill of creating mind maps and strategies associated with this
skill, such as “choosing a topic and brainstorming any words in relation to
the topic”, “grouping words that are connected and creating branches and
subtopics” and “using mind maps to review words and the relationship
between words”. Elaine engaged students in the process of creating mind
maps while she was describing this skill. Furthermore, students were given
opportunities to create their own mind map and practise strategies during
the lesson. In order to learn more words, Bo and Ke worked together to
brainstorm words related to a particular topic (i.e. environment).
Afterwards, they created their own mind map. In the follow-up interview,
Bo and Ke were asked to describe how they made their mind map and
comment on its usefulness and they stated:
Extract 3.13
I started by putting words into two big groups,

problems and solutions. I also created some sub-
groups, e.g. problems, there are some words
related to human activity, and some words are
related to natural disaster. I tried to use
ifferent pictures, colours and shapes to dis-

d
tinguish different groups and sub-groups…I found
it helpful. I will use mind maps to build vocabu-
lary for the IELTS test. I think I’m a visual
learner, so I find that using a mind map helps me
remember words more deeply than a word list,
because it’s very visual. (Bo, interview)
Extract 3.14
I found that I consistently added topics under the

main topic and created sub-maps under each topic,
so it’s important to keep the structure flexible.
I decided to build mind maps in Word on my laptop
because I could edit and organise my mind maps
very easily…Mind mapping actually takes lots of
time, but it really helps me recall vocabulary. I
think I won’t use it to learn new words, but when
I need to review the words that were learned
before, I like to use mind maps. (Ke, interview)
In the light of Elaine’s strategy instruction, both Bo and Ke tried to use

a mind map to build vocabulary, but they also personalised their mind
map and managed their strategic learning to suit their own learning styles
and needs. In Extract 3.13, Bo created a variety of his own visuals and
used different colours to make his mind map. He evaluated his strategy
use and explored his identity as a learner. As he was a visual learner, he
realised that he benefited more from visual means than a word list and
decided to continue to use mind maps to help him expand vocabulary for
the IELTS test. By contrast, Ke focused on the content rather than the
presentation of a mind map and used Microsoft Word to manage its
structure. He evaluated the effectiveness of mind mapping. He found the
process of using a mind map time-consuming but very helpful for recall-
ing vocabulary. He further thought about when a mind map should be
used in relation to its weakness, strength and his own needs.
Although Elaine provided a few IELTS preparation lessons throughout

the second term, she gave them practical opportunities to develop their strat-
3.3 Contextual Constraints 89
egies in the classroom and raised their awareness of strategies for learning
vocabulary outside the classroom. The following sections will focus on Bo’s
and Ke’s strategic vocabulary learning beyond the classroom and also explore
the impact of Elaine’s strategy instruction on their strategy development.
3.3 Contextual Constraints

Three quarters of the foundation students were from China on the Wolfson
university site and Chinese students were most dominant in Science and
Engineering studies. Both Bo and Ke stated that they did not expect to take
class with so many Chinese students and be involved in little interaction
with foreign students. As mentioned earlier, in China, Bo was taught
through English-medium instruction in high school. He also had a per-
sonal native English-speaking teacher and attended one-to-one English-
speaking practice sessions every day. He had ample opportunity to interact
with speakers of the target language and practise using vocabulary. He
acknowledged that he had made a significant improvement in mastering
vocabulary both receptively and productively during that period:
Extract 3.15
In China, my English tutor provided me with many

communicative opportunities to speak English and
practise words. I felt that I made more progress
in learning and using words there than in the UK.
(Bo, interview)
In contrast, he realised that his vocabulary learning was regressing dur-

ing the period when he took the foundation course in the UK. The learn-
ing milieu of the Wolfson site also appeared to have undermined his
effort to manage strategic learning interactively after class. As he noted in
the following interview,
Extract 3.16
Most coursemates are Chinese, and we live in the

same student hall […]. My flatmates are also
Chinese, we still speak Chinese […] Our classes

start from 9 to 5 Monday to Friday, and our
accommodation is quite far from the town so I
have little time to go out and learn words from
local people. (Bo, interview)
Bo explained that the large number of Chinese students in the

accommodation was also an important aspect of the milieu which
reduced English-speaking opportunities for him. Because of the inten-
sive tuition and geographical position of his accommodation, he also
lacked free time to build more vocabulary by socialising with local peo-
ple after class.
Compared with Bo’s prior educational experience, Ke had fewer
opportunities to communicate in English in China and English was
not used as the medium of instruction for academic subjects in his
high school. His language teacher focused on the translation, gram-
matical forms of vocabulary as well as examination practice in the
English class. Ke anticipated rich and diverse language experience
which he could gain in the UK. However, the contextual constraints
(e.g. heavy recruitment of Chinese students on the Wolfson site and
intensive tuition) which Bo stated in the interview also limited Ke’s
access to authentic interaction with other users of the target language.
The following section will describe the deliberate effort that Bo and Ke
made to open up opportunities for vocabulary learning after class and
provide a micro-analysis of how strategies were selected and combined
in relation to their different learning situations, learning goals and
out-of-class settings.
3.3.1 B
o: Creating Out-of-Class Opportunities
for Interactive Learning
Bo was aware that he had limited opportunities to practise vocabulary.

He therefore made further effort to increase social-interactive opportuni-
ties with his language teacher and coursemates after class and combined
different strategies to consolidate the words learned earlier (see Fig. 3.2).
For example:
Extract 3.17
I had few opportunities to meet local people […]

but I think my teacher can be my local ‘friend’
[…]. I often review my vocabulary notebook. When
I felt unsure about anything after I checked in
dictionary, I tried to see her in her office and
ask her. She helped me expand my word knowledge.
(Bo, diary, VOCABlog)
After class, Bo attempted to retrieve vocabulary by reviewing his

vocabulary notebook and consulting a dictionary. However, he did not
stop there; he went on to ask his teacher and sought further explanation
from her in order to broaden his word knowledge. Bo deployed a number
of strategies in sequence across two out-of-class settings in order to
strengthen and enrich previous knowledge (see Fig. 3.2).
Some of the intercultural communication literature has indicated that
Chinese students expect the teacher-student relationship to be relatively
hierarchical and tend to have a distant relationship with their teachers
due to the impact of cultural values, such as power distance (e.g. Spencer-
Oatey 1997; Hu et al. 2016). It is interesting that Bo considered the
language teacher as his local friend and tried to develop a close and open
relationship with Elaine. Because of a friend-like relationship with Elaine,
Bo felt more willing to talk about problems encountered in language
learning and seek support from her.
Review words and other word informaon displayed on the

notebook
Seng:
At accommodaon
Consult a diconary and search
arch for clues that helped him
resolve uncertainty
Seng:
Teacher’s office Seek further informaon/explanaon from the teacher in
order to enrich word knowledge
Fig. 3.2 Bo’s strategy sequence

Bo also formed a study group with two international students (non-

Chinese) taking the same English class outside of class in order to increase
opportunities to practise English and enhance language learning. They
booked a group study room on the Wolfson site and met once a week to
review class notes and share more information on class topics. With
regard to vocabulary learning, each member selected five important
words in relation to the class topics and taught the words to other mem-
bers. Bo described how he strengthened his knowledge of particular
words in his diary:
Extract 3.18
This week our topic is on Museum. The five words

I chose to teach my group members were statue/
sculpture, dedicated, curator, and display. I was
not sure the difference between stature/sculpture,
so before teaching them, I checked them on Google
and compared their explanation. I then found
some useful pictures that helped me and my group
members understand their difference. Dedicated,
it’s a new word I learned from the class and I
think it’s a very useful word, so I looked at
dictionary’s example sentences and found out how
to use it. I told them how I used it and also
asked them to give some suggestions on how they
would use it in other situations… When I heard
that Elaine said the word curator, I found its
Chinese translation 馆长 (a person in charge of a
museum)in my dictionary. But when I read the
reading material Elaine provided, I realised the
role of a curator can vary across museums. In the
meeting, I taught what responsibilities a cura-
tor could take to expand our knowledge. (Bo,
diary, VOCABlog)
Before teaching vocabulary to his group members, Bo reviewed the

words learned from the English class and thought deliberately which
words needed to be consolidated. For example, he selected ‘statue’ and
‘sculpture’ which were considered synonymous in order to fine-tune his
understanding of the meaning for each word, whereas ‘dedicated’ was
worth consolidating for productive use. The understanding of ‘curator’
which he partly knew needed to be enriched.
Extract 3.18 indicated that Bo selected strategies in order to achieve his
different learning purposes. He deployed “exploring the semantic differ-
ences by analysing the words’ explanation provided on Google” and “using
visuals to enhance his understanding of the words” in sequence for fine-
tuning the meaning of the two synonymous words (i.e.‘statue’ and ‘sculp-
ture’). In order to master ‘dedicated’ productively, he analysed some sample
sentences containing the word and worked out its usage. He also practised
using the word with his group members and explored how it can be used
in other contexts. Furthermore, he enriched knowledge of ‘curator’ by
consulting different resources (i.e. dictionary and additional reading
materials) and strengthened his understanding through teaching his group
members what he had discovered about the word. As we have seen in Bo’s
data, apart from interacting with his group members, Bo also took the
opportunity to practise using newly learned words in his diaries.
Based on each week’s class topic, they also created a discussion ques-
tion in which they were interested and then tried to express and justify
their opinions in English. During their discussion, they needed to use as
many of the newly learned words as possible.
Extract 3.19
R: Do you think that your group discussion

helps you develop vocabulary?
Bo: Yes, definitely. We all encourage each other
to use some newly learned words. If someone
uses a newly learned word, the other two
clapped. Personally I feel very motivated.
When I try to use a new word, I need to
think about how to use it in relation to
the specific context I am talking about and

you can also get immediate feedback on your
use from your group members. It’s boring to
memorise word lists everyday, but this way
is fun. Even though you think you remember
them, you may still forget to use them when
you need them. Most importantly, when using
a word, I need to think its meaning more
precisely, correct pronunciation as well
as its grammatical rules.
R: When you aren’t sure how to pronounce it,
what do you do?
Bo: I normally ask my group members. As we are
in a discussion, I don’t have much time to
check a dictionary about its pronunciation
or use. Sometimes we are all not sure, we
then look up a dictionary or other sources
together and try to find out the answer.
(Bo, interview)
Bo found that many words that he had learned through using word lists
cannot be recalled for use. Compared with memorisation of word lists, he
highlighted the strengths of verbally interactive activities. Working with his
group members collaboratively stimulated him to recall newly learnt words
for use. He also saw “practising using new vocabulary items in group dis-
cussions” as an important strategy for high-level mastery of vocabulary, e.g.
knowing their correct pronunciation, contexts of use and word associa-
tions. When trying to use the target words, Bo actively and thoughtfully
processed the words and also asked specific feedback about his vocabulary
use. In addition, he also commented on his affective state during the use of
word lists and the group discussion. He got bored when trying to remem-
ber a long list of words on his own, by contrast, encouragement and sup-
port from group members kept him motivated.
As mentioned above, Bo was satisfied with the outcome of the use of
social strategies in China and was willing to deploy them in the current
milieu (See Extract 3.15). Although Bo’s English-speaking opportunities
were limited on the Wolfson site, he exercised his agency as a learner and
created learning opportunities to develop his vocabulary through inter-
acting with others. Therefore, the data suggested that his previous learn-
ing experience and agency in terms of his will and efforts also seemed to
be important aspects that were able to influence his strategy choice and
use (see also Benson 2001; Gao 2010).
3.3.2 K
e: Using Online Resources to Enrich
Vocabulary Learning Experiences
Although Ke tried to memorise a large number of vocabulary before

coming to the UK, echoing those of Bo, he found that he had a limited
vocabulary that could be recalled for use in both spoken and written
contexts in the UK. As mentioned above, Ke also lacked opportunities to
speak and practise English both inside and outside the classroom on the
Wolfson site due to a high number of Chinese students in the foundation
course as well as the university accommodation. In order to accelerate his
academic and social adjustment in the UK, Ke decided to make an effort
to expand his vocabulary and look for opportunities to help him develop
the active use of vocabulary.
Owing to the intensive tuition and geographical position of his accom-
modation, Ke had limited contact with the wider British community
outside of the university. He tried to make use of a variety of reading
materials which were available online and increased exposure to the target
language. He used to read online articles on different topics and selected
some useful words to study each time, but he found that only a few words
could be remembered after a period time:
Extract 3.20
I tried to learn new words through reading the

latest BBC news. I spent lots of time studying
them, but they just can’t stick in my memory […]
The articles I read next time tended to focus on
different topics so I had few chances to meet
them again […]Elaine focuses on one topic in her
English class each week. I am also trying to look

for some interesting online articles which are
related to the same topic and focus on real life
events and read on them during a week. This way
could help me enhance my understanding of some
words I learned before and reinforce my memory of
them. (Ke, diary, VOCABlog)
In order to reinforce his memory of the vocabulary items learned from

Elaine’s class, Ke purposefully chose some authentic articles according to
class topics (e.g. education and global warming), and read them on the
same topic rather than a wide range of topics each week. His intention
was to increase opportunities to meet topic-related vocabulary repeatedly
over a period of time. When he met the same words again in reading, he
used the textual context to gain further insights into the words and enrich
his understanding. Repeated exposure also helped him remember them
more deeply. He also provided a specific example of how he consolidated
topic-related vocabulary through reading online articles:
Extract 3.21
I looked for articles that were particularly

related to the topic of crime on Google and then
quickly read through the articles. Then I tried
to find out which articles contained more words I
learned earlier from Elaine’s class. I read the
articles more closely and underlined the words I
learned before. I thought about their meaning
and grammar again in each context and noted down
any additional information about them. To expand
my word bank, I also used a visual thesaurus
which showed how these words were related to
other words. (Ke, diary, VOCABlog)
For example, penalise, in this photo, the visual

thesaurus helped me recalled another word penalty
which was the noun form of penalise. It also
showed that punish was its synonym. Then I checked
punish in an online dictionary and used its

definition and example sentences to explore any

differences between these two words […]. (Ke,
photo description, VOCABlog)
Extract 3.21 showed that Ke utilised different online resources (i.e.

online texts, an online dictionary and a visual thesaurus) to enhance his
vocabulary learning. He also selected and combined different strategies to
achieve different purposes of vocabulary learning. He searched for articles
which were related to the same topic on the Internet and made a further
effort to scan the articles and select the ones in which were newly
learnt and topic-related, and frequently appeared. In order to consolidate
the target vocabulary, he deployed S1, S2 and S3 in a cluster (see Fig. 3.3).
He then employed S4 and S5 in sequence for the purpose of enriching his
vocabulary knowledge (see Fig. 3.3).
While Ke had difficulties gaining access to the wider British com-
munity after class, he invested his effort to explore available opportuni-
ties for consolidating vocabulary on the Internet. He made use of a
variety of online learning resources, such as 6 Minute English at BBC
Learning English, TED Talks and YouTube. Apart from accessing
authentic texts online, he also looked for audio and video resources on
particular topics. He increased opportunities to meet vocabulary items
repeatedly in a multimedia environment. While he was listening, read-
ing or both, he consciously focused on the newly learnt, topic-related
Cluster: S1, S2, S3 Sequence: S4

S4, S5
S1 Consolidate the word

ord meaning by interpre
ng S4 Recall the word form and
a its meaning in rela
on
the textual context containing
ontaining the word to its synonym by means of
o his mental lexicon
S2 Consolidate the use

se of the target word by
analysing the gramma
cal
a
cal rules of the sentence
containing the word
S5 Explore any seman
c differences
d between
S3 Record addi
onal informa
on about other seman
cally similar words by analysing their
aspects of word knowledge dic

onary’s defini
ons and sample sentences
Fig. 3.3 Ke’s strategy combination

words that reoccurred and studied different aspects of vocabulary

knowledge in context, including their written and spoken form, mean-
ing, collocations and grammar.
3.4 Building Vocabulary for the IELTS Test

Bo and Ke were required to take the IELTS test at the end of the founda-
tion programme, and a minimum score of 6.0 on the nine band IELTS
scale was needed for unconditional entry at the Wolfson University or
other British universities. By contrast, Wu, Xia, Ji and Qa were guaran-
teed a place on their university bachelor’s degree, if they could success-
fully pass their foundation course. We have seen in the previous section
that the IELTS preparation lessons that Elaine offered tried to expand
students’ vocabulary and develop their language skills for the purpose of
helping them achieve a higher IELTS score. However, the number of the
IELTS preparation classes was limited. Students needed to devote a great
deal of time and effort to improving their language skills outside the
classroom.
In order to perform well in the IELTS test, Bo made various strategic
attempts to enlarge the size of his vocabulary. In particular, He found a
useful website which was used as a learning tool to help him enlarge the
target words for the IELTS test, remember them and enrich word knowl-
edge. As he wrote on VOCABlog:
Extract 3.22
I have discovered a good website which contained

lots of short texts. The useful words which may
appear in the IELTS test were highlighted. It
also included other information about these words
[…]. I can learn them by relating them to the
text and example sentences. This helped me under-
stand them more easily […]. I can listen to every
sentence repeatedly. This helped me remember
them and also improved my listening. (Bo, diary,
VOCABlog)
3.4 Building Vocabulary for the IELTS Test 99
The extract above showed that Bo focused on the words which were
highlighted, and learned them in relation to the textual context and sam-
ple sentences. S6 was used as a more meaningful way to enhance his
vocabulary learning (Horst 2005; Nyikos and Fan 2007). S6 was fol-
lowed by S7 in order to improve recognition of their spoken form and
reinforce his memory of the words (see Fig. 3.4 below).
However, after using this strategy sequence for a period of time, Bo felt
that the learning process was dull and repetitive, and attempted to com-
bine other strategies to make his learning more enjoyable:
Extract 3.23
Although the website is helpful, listening to it

every day is boring […]. Recently our teacher
holds a ‘help class’ once week. We meet in the
evening and talk about the topics we like […].
Besides using the website, I always practise
some words which I learned from the website with
other peers. I really enjoy this and attend the
class every week […]. I can also ask my teacher
when I’m not sure how to use vocabulary. I can
remember and understand the words better when
using them. (Bo, interview)
In order to increase students’ English-speaking opportunities, their

teacher provided an extra class after their formal classes, and Bo tried to
Strategy Sequence
ce (at home) Strategy Pair (in the ‘help class’)
S6 Study the highlighted words in rela on to the S8 Prac se using newly learnt words with
textual context and sample
le sentences” peers
S7 Use audio recordings of the short texts to

S9 Seek further support from his teacher
listen to the target words repeatedly and
about the use of words
understand them in context
Every week
Fig. 3.4 Bo’s recycling of strategy combination

attend this every week. He switched between S8 and S9 in a pair in order
to reinforce his memory and understanding of the target words (see
Fig. 3.4). Most importantly, he enjoyed consolidating vocabulary through
interacting with his peers and teacher. Bo deployed the strategy pair with
the strategy sequence to build and consolidate the vocabulary for the
IELTS test (also see Extract 3.22). Based on his verbal interaction with
others, he performed this strategy combination every week across two
settings, thus forming a recycling of strategy combination.
As we saw in the previous section, Elaine involved students in activities
which helped them raise their awareness of possible strategies for
vocabulary learning and provided opportunities for them to try out new
strategies in the classroom. Bo practised various vocabulary-related strate-
gies outside the classroom in order to enhance his learning outcome. In
the ‘help class’, Elaine also encouraged students to share their experiences
with using and evaluating language learning strategies for the IELTS test.
As a consequence, Bo monitored his strategy use and recorded problems
that he encountered when using particular strategies. He then shared his
problems in the ‘help class’ and sought further support from his peers and
teacher:
Extract 3.24
I found ‘mind maps’ very helpful. When I made my

own word associations, this process really helped
me recall the words I learned. I often need to
change the word connections or add more content
after I learned more words. The problem was that
I found it difficult to edit after you drew a word
map on the paper unless you drew a new one […]
In the help class, when I talked about this prob-
lem, my classmates gave me lots of good sugges-
tions, e.g. one suggested that I could download
a mind map tool which could help me edit my con-
nections very easily […] Elaine knew that
I enjoyed drawing word maps, so she suggested
that I could use a drawing paper roll which would
give me enough space to edit and extend my mind
maps. The paper roll really helps. I now carry

it everywhere and edit my word maps whenever I
want. (Bo, diary, VOCABlog)
In Extract 3.24, Bo practised using mind maps which his teacher pre-
sented in class and recognised its usefulness for helping him recall topic-
related vocabulary. Meanwhile, he also discovered a specific problem
when he needed to modify his word network. In the ‘help class’, he
reflected on his own learning and asked for suggestions on how to deal
with the problem. He gained helpful insights from both his peers and
teacher and also identified which strategy worked for him. He decided to
make use of a drawing paper roll to help him build and edit word net-
works rather than a mind mapping software as he enjoyed drawing things
on paper.
To develop strategies for effective vocabulary learning, Bo circulated
use of strategies whereby he used strategies in sequence and also returned
to the strategies in the same order (see Fig. 3.5). Elaine provided further
Practise using
strategies
Identify which
Monitor
strategies
strategy use
work best
Seek support
Evaluate
from teacher
strategy use
and peers
Record problems
encountered when
using a particular
strategy
Fig. 3.5 Bo’s strategy circle

opportunities for students to reflect on their strategy use and her feed-
back which addressed individual needs also helped Bo develop his own
strategy repertoire.
Ke, in contrast, did not attend the ‘help class’, but like Bo, he also tried
out different vocabulary-related strategies and identified possible strategies
that might work best for building vocabulary specifically for the IELTS
test. He devised an elaborate vocabulary study plan which contained a plan
of strategies used to perform different vocabulary tasks and achieve differ-
ent goals. Before finalising the plan, he made a deliberate and continuing
effort to monitor and orchestrate his strategy use and improve his plan.
In the light of IELTS preparation classes, Ke found it more efficient to
focus on the specific topic-related vocabulary that commonly appeared in
the IELTS test rather than spending a considerable amount of time study-
ing every unknown word encountered. He made use of an IELTS vocab-
ulary book which was recommended by his peers. The book included a
number of word lists which were organised by common topics appeared
in the IELTS test, such as education, technology and the arts. Ke described
how he studied the words in an interview:
Extract 3.25
When I studied the words in this vocabulary book,

I didn’t just memorise word by word, but actu-
ally I spent lots of time thinking the words in
relation to their example sentences. Firstly I
need to understand their meaning(s) by relating
their Chinese translation and English explana-
tion to their example sentences […] I also needed
to find out how they were actually used in con-
text by analysing their example sentences. Then
I tried to review the information again and
remember them […]it’s not an easy process.
(Ke, interview)
When using the word lists, Ke did not simply memorise individual
words without understanding. Rather, he deployed a sequence of strate-
gies that entailed sophisticated thinking about target vocabulary items in
context (see Fig. 3.6).
Understand the meaning of the words by thinking both their Chinese transla
on and
English explana
on and analyse the given context containing the words
Use clues that existed in the sample sentences

ces to analyse the usage of the words in
the given context, such as where and when to use
us the words
Remember words by reviewing them and their word knowledge in context
Fig. 3.6 Ke’s strategy sequence
To consolidate the target words, Ke decided to make his own dic-

tionary. As mentioned earlier, he created a personal ‘dictionary’ to help
him review the words learned from the English class. This experience
enabled him to gain further insights into how to make a useful diction-
ary for him and what useful strategies he could use to review vocabu-
lary. He created another dictionary which contained the vocabulary
specifically for IELTS, and organised the target words by common
IELTS topics rather than in an alphabetical order. He recorded the
words that he still found unfamiliar after studying the vocabulary book
and included pictures and additional information about their word
knowledge, such as their meanings, synonyms, and sample sentences
(also see Table 3.1 and Extract 3.9).
Ke also identified both problems and limitations associated with the
use of the vocabulary book as well as his personal dictionary. Firstly, he
found that studying the word lists and making his own dictionary
were both very time-consuming.
Extract 3.26
Everyday I spent about 2 hours studying 20 words

from my vocabulary book. In particular, it took
me lots of time to understand their meaning in
different sample sentences […]I also spent another
hour recording additional information about the
words in my personal dictionary. I often felt
frustrated because the learning process was so

complex and time-consuming. (Ke, interview)
Ke increasingly experienced frustration because processing the vocabu-

lary items from his vocabulary book and making his own dictionary were
time-consuming. He did not stop using word lists and recording vocabu-
lary in his dictionary. Rather, he re-organised his study time in order to
deal with his frustration.
Extract 3.27
I used to spend a big chunk of time studying my

vocabulary notebook and creating my personal
dictionary. I felt bored and exhausted […] I made
a study plan. I try to study my vocabulary note-
book in the early morning, because I feel most
energetic at that time. I then do some other
activities that are less intensive throughout
the day, like listening BBC news. I then feel
motivated to make my own dictionary in the eve-
ning. (Ke, interview)
In Extract 3.27, Ke divided his available time during the day into study
blocks and combined both intensive study and less intensive tasks in
order to boost his concentration and motivation. Furthermore, while
studying the vocabulary book and making his own dictionary helped him
enlarge his vocabulary size and enrich word knowledge of the target
words, he noted that he still had a limited vocabulary that could be
recalled for the IELTS speaking and writing. As essay and speaking ques-
tions were highly topic-related in the IELTS test, he tried to created sto-
ries based on different topics and practised using newly learned words.
Extract 3.28
[…] I made up a story in relation to this topic

‘place’. I started by thinking a very interesting
place I’d like to go. Then I prepared my
luggage for
flight, but something happened to me […] This plot

can cover those topics like ‘talking about an occa-
sion you are late’. Then the story kept going to a
garden city […] I tried to use new words which I
learned in relation to these topics while I was cre-
ating the story. I found this way really interest-
ing. I used lots of my imagination; meanwhile I
found that I remembered new words more quickly and
deeperly through this way. I really enjoyed using
this way to build my vocabulary. (Ke, diary, VOCABlog)
Ke used his own imagination to create different stories and practised

using newly learnt vocabulary words in order to enable productive use of
the words. By creating interesting stories he could build emotional and
sensory contexts around new vocabulary and he also used his imagination
to actively engage himself in the learning process. He tried to consolidate
the target words through creating stories after recording words in his dic-
tionary. This was also considered an important strategy to increase him
motivation to memorise vocabulary.
By evaluating different strategies, he developed his own strategy reper-
toire and orchestrated use for more effective vocabulary learning. Ke
finalised his study plan which contained when and how to use the vocab-
ulary book, how to record vocabulary in his personal dictionary and how
much time he wanted to spend creating a story. He implemented his
study plan on a daily basis. Ke reported that the improved plan helped
him set clear goals for vocabulary learning and maintain motivation to
build and consolidate vocabulary continuously.
In a follow-up interview, Ke was asked to clarify whether stories were
created verbally or in written form. He stressed that it was more useful to
describe stories in verbal form than writing stories. As he explained in
the interview:
Extract 3.29
When using a new word in my writing, I used a lot

of time to think how to use it in a grammatically
correct way, but when I spoke English, I cared
less about my grammar and just used new words to

create my stories. I also recorded myself while
I spoke and listened to my recording. I could find
more mistakes when I practised using new words in
speaking […] The words became more memorable
after I corrected my own mistakes. (Ke,
interview)
Compared with writing a story, Ke found that he made more gram-

matical errors when he described it orally. When using newly learnt words
in speaking, he tended to draw more attention to the meaning of words
and his fluency rather than the grammatical accuracy in vocabulary use.
He became more aware of his weaknesses by listening to his recording
and the effort he made to improve his vocabulary use also contributed to
better retention of new words.
During this period, the IELTS test became an important aspect of the
academic milieu to interact with Bo’s and Ke’s strategy choice and use.
Their strategic vocabulary learning became more goal-directed (see also
Huang and Andrews 2010). In order to perform well in the IELTS test,
they both had a great deal of investment in expanding and developing
vocabulary. However, their strategy use also varied substantially depend-
ing on their learning styles, vocabulary tasks and learning purposes. As
we have seen in this section, building vocabulary for the IELTS test was
not easy and they both encountered problems in recalling vocabulary,
using vocabulary and maintaining motivation to learn vocabulary. In
order to deal with the problems, Bo and Ke made further efforts to evalu-
ate their existing strategies and modify their strategy use.
3.5 Insights
3.5.1 Context
This chapter provides a detailed narrative description of the strategic

learning process of Bo and Ke during the foundation year. The micro-
analysis of strategies could help in better understanding the complexity of
strategy use. Oxford (2017) also recommends going beyond simple
3.5 Insights 107
f requencies of strategies and stressed the value of learner narratives which

could uncover the cognitive and affective complexity at the heart of lan-
guage learning and strategy use. We have seen that the strategic v ocabulary
learning of Bo and Ke was not static. Rather, they adjusted their vocabu-
lary strategies to the learning environment both inside and outside the
classroom and varied their strategy use across different settings. In addi-
tion to the learning context, various individual factors were considered
when selecting and combining strategies, particularly their learning style
and affective reactions to vocabulary learning.
The context of teaching and learning on the Wolfson site differed in
many ways from the Ryder site, such as opportunities to speak English
both in and outside the classroom, their classroom activities for vocabu-
lary learning, their course design, and their assessment. The contextual
variations between the two sites appeared to influence the learners’ strat-
egy choice and use. For example, Chinese students were dominant in the
IFP programme as well as the student accommodation on the Wolfson
site. Consequently, they had limited opportunities to speak English. In
particular, when group or pair work involved Chinese students only, both
Bo and Ke rarely deployed social strategies to practise English vocabulary
items orally. By contrast, we have seen in Chap. 2 that Wu and Xia gained
more access to communicative practices in English and were more likely
to enhance their vocabulary learning through verbal interaction with
speakers of the target language.
Compared with the Ryder site, the English module on the Wolfson site
provided more varied vocabulary instruction which increased opportuni-
ties for Bo and Ke to practise vocabulary-related strategies and explore
their own strategy repertoire with the support of their teacher and peers.
For instance, in the self-study activities, they took responsibility for their
own vocabulary learning without the direct control of their teacher and
frequently employed metacognitive strategies in order to manage their
strategic learning more effectively. As we can see, learners should not be
treated as isolated individuals and their strategy selection and perfor-
mance are context-dependent (see also Gu 2012; Norton 2013). However,
the context cannot determine their strategy performance. This is because
their success at selecting an effective strategy or deploying a strategy com-
bination in the given context also depends on many other factors (see also
Cohen 2011).
3.5.2 Learning Style
While the learning context of Bo had many similarities with Ke’s (e.g.
having the same modules, assessment and vocabulary instruction), this
chapter has shown considerable individual differences in their strategy
use. In particular, one of the factors that influenced the strategy selection
of both Bo and Ke was their learning style preferences. For example,
when creating their personal dictionary, Bo enjoyed drawing pictures to
strengthen his understanding of new words and help him memorise the
words as he was a more kinaesthetic and visual learner. Ke also selected
strategies according to his learning style preferences. By contrast, he liked
being more detail-oriented and logical and thus included more detailed
explanation of the target words in his personal dictionary and organised
the content of his dictionary systematically.
Learning styles refer to the way an individual prefers to absorb,
process and retain new information and skills (Reid 1995). Based on
his 20-year experience, Cohen (2011, p. 49) has proven three catego-
ries of style preferences that are useful to language learners (see also
Oxford 2001):
• Sensory/perceptual style preferences: e.g. being more visual, more audi-

tory or hands-on
• Cognitive style preferences: e.g. being more abstract-intuitive or more
concrete-sequential; being more inductive or deductive
• Personality-related style preferences: e.g. being more extroverted or
introverted
There is a growing literature about the relationship between learning

style preferences and strategies (e.g. Oxford and Ehrman 1995; Carson
and Longhini 2002; Wong and Nunan 2011; Ma and Oxford 2014).
Learning styles are more general approaches of language learning but
strategies need to be specific enough so that it can be operationalised. The
research literature above highlights the benefit of using strategies that are
compatible with learners’ learning styles, since their style preferences
allow them to make their learning more effective and enjoyable and con-
trol their strategies more easily.
3.5 Insights 109
In this chapter, the data also revealed that Bo and Ke tended to learn
better when they consciously selected appropriate strategies in relation to
their learning style, consistent with the previous studies. Therefore, in
order to enhance learning outcome, it would be important for learners to
work with their learning styles and recognise their strength when they plan
for specific strategic actions. As we can see, the two learners’ awareness of
their learning styles was raised when performing vocabulary self-study
activities, participating in group discussions on strategy use and writing
diary entries on VOCABlog. However, the recognition of their style prefer-
ences which they showed was still limited. Further efforts can be made to
uncover their learning styles and heighten their awareness of style prefer-
ences, such as using a questionnaire (e.g. Learning Style Survey by Cohen
et al. 2002) and keeping learner diaries (see also Ma and Oxford 2014).
3.5.3 Affect
The data also revealed that affective factors, such as emotion and motiva-
tion, influenced the two learners’ vocabulary learning and strategy use.
While emotion has received relatively little attention in the second language
acquisition literature, it appears to play an important role in the process of
vocabulary learning. Both Bo and Ke reported that they experienced nega-
tive emotions (e.g. annoyance because clues that a dictionary provided were
unhelpful), or positive emotions (e.g. satisfaction with the clues), or both
during the use of a given strategy or a strategy combination. In addition,
they were more like to produce negative emotions, such as feeling frus-
trated, disappointed, and dull, particularly in the following situations:
• when their strategic attempts were unsuccessful

• when a strategy or strategy combination was found not useful
• when the operation of a strategy/strategy combination was time-
consuming and complicated
• when difficulties or problems in using a strategy or strategy combina-
tion were encountered
• when a strategy/strategy combination was used repeatedly over a
period of time
Cohen and Wang (2017, under review) have made an attempt to cap-

ture the richness of learners’ affective behaviour during the learning and
use of language and have suggested that moments of negative emotions
that may affect motivation – even leading to a learner’s decision to quit
studying a given language. In this chapter, Bo and Ke did not give up
learning vocabulary when they experienced negative emotions. However,
moments of negative emotions tended to undermine their motivation to
continue to use certain strategies or learn vocabulary. Consequently, they
both deployed affective strategies to increase their motivation to study or
consolidate vocabulary, such as “using positive self-talk to tell himself he
can learn from mistakes” and “dividing his available time into study
blocks and combining both intensive study and less intensive tasks”. The
data highlights the value of affective strategies in support of vocabulary
learning (see also Oxford 2011; Bown 2006).
Affective reactions were also seen to have a functional value because
either negative or positive emotions themselves can serve as motivators
for the students to persevere in a vocabulary task, consistent with the
finding from the study of Cohen and Wang (2017, under review). For
example, Ke felt frustrated when he was not able to figure out the register
of a particular vocabulary item by analysing a dictionary’s sample sen-
tences. The negative emotion was experienced, which immediately trig-
gered the taking of a course of action. He then became motivated to
resolve the problem and planned for further action (i.e. seeking further
support from his teacher). Bo and Ke both attempted to channel affective
reactions into strategic action which drove or motivated them to evaluate
their strategy use or plan for further action. As a consequence, they made
continuous efforts to enhance their learning outcome, such as “evaluating
strategy use”, “strengthening existing strategies by combining other strat-
egies”, and “modifying previous strategy use by replacing some ineffective
strategies with others that were found more useful”.
3.5.4 Reinforcing Vocabulary Retention
One big problem both Bo and Ke faced was that many words were not
able to be recalled for communicative use after learning, although they
3.5 Insights 111
might know their meaning when they saw or heard them. Bo’s retention
of newly learnt words benefited greatly from practising using vocabulary
frequently with his private language tutor in China. He realised that his
retention of newly learnt words as well as previously-known words was
regressing during the first academic term in the UK due to very few com-
municative opportunities to retrieve the target words in production.
With regard to Ke, he devoted a considerable amount of time to mem-
orising word lists with the direct study of the words in China, such as
their meaning, spelling, and parts of speech. He believed that he had
retained many words through doing series of word retrieval exercises.
Unlike Bo, Ke had fewer chances to practise using vocabulary in both
written and spoken contexts outside the classroom in China. After com-
ing to the UK, he felt surprised that he only had a small number of words
that can be recalled and actively used in writing or speaking.
A number of factors that could contribute to long-term retention of
vocabulary have been suggested in the literature (e.g. Cohen and Aphek
1980; Laufer and Osimo 1991; Barcroft 2007; Webb 2007; Walters
2015), including:
• repetition on vocabulary learning

• learning techniques (e.g. the keyword method)
• deep thought processing of words
• gains in a variety of aspects of word knowledge
• word recall in context
In the light of the two learners’ vocabulary learning experiences, each

factor alone might not influence a long-term retention. However, their
retention of vocabulary can be reinforced by a combination of these fac-
tors. In particular, this chapter indicated that their retention was improved
by increasing repeated exposures to the target words, promoting both
receptive and productive learning as well as fostering elaborate manipula-
tion and processing of the target words. They also made deliberate and
continuous efforts to create vocabulary learning opportunities and
strengthen their strategy use for ensuring both the quantity of repetitions
on newly learnt words and the quality of word processing (see also Laufer
and Osimo 1991).
3.6 Conclusion
This chapter has involved a micro-analysis of Bo’s and Ke’s strategic
vocabulary learning in the UK. It has also looked at the complex inter-
play of their strategy choice, learning environment, learning style, and
affective factors, examined the way that strategies actually combined in
different learning situations, and scrutinised the ways in which they
strengthened their existing strategies. Bo and Ke lacked opportunities
to speak and use English both inside and outside the classroom. While
they gained limited access to the meaningful language input and expo-
sure that everyday speech activities provided, their agency in terms of
their will and effort played an important role in enhancing their out-of-
class vocabulary learning experiences.
Bo and Ke identified what resources were available in their learning
environment and made use of the resources that they considered useful
for their vocabulary learning. Furthermore, different types of vocabulary
instruction that their language teacher provided drew their attention to
various aspects of word knowledge and helped them raise their awareness
of vocabulary-related strategies. Bo and Ke also tried to discover their
own problems in vocabulary learning and use, and deployed strategies to
improve their learning outcome. They evaluated the effectiveness of
selected strategies and developed their own repertoire of strategies over
time. The following table summarised the strategic efforts that Bo and Ke
invested and also made a positive difference to their vocabulary learning
and use (Table 3.2).
Table 3.2 Bo’s and Ke’s strategic attempts

Bo’s strategic attempts Ke’s strategic attempts
To help them discover the word meaning:
“Analysing the word meaning by “Looking beyond the local context
breaking the word up into word parts, containing the target word and
isolating parts of its meaning, and inferring the word meaning in
extending its meaning” relation to the broader context”
“Making use of the dictionary’s
English definition to analyse the
word meaning”
(continued)
3.6 Conclusion 113
Bo’s strategic attempts Ke’s strategic attempts

To help them find out a word’s connotation:
“Using the context of the dictionary’s “Using the Chinese translation to
sample sentence to analyse the word’s analyse the word’s connotation”
connotation” “Interpreting the dictionary
“Searching for clues that existed in the definitions by thinking of
sample sentences to help him with the equivalents in Chinese”
connotative meaning” “Using the context of the
dictionary’s sample sentence to
analyse the word’s connotation”
To help them record vocabulary:
“Drawing pictures about unknown words “Arranging different types of word
and memorising them in relation to knowledge systematically and
their visual images” including a detailed explanation
“Challenging himself by defining of the words”
vocabulary in his own words” “Searching for some Google images
“Writing down the words’ definitions that helped him understand abstract
and sample sentences” words and adding the images into
“Consulting a dictionary and comparing his his electronic notebook”
definition with the dictionary’s definition”
To help them consolidate newly learnt vocabulary:
“Reviewing the words learned from the “Searching for articles which were
English class” related to the same topic and
“Consulting a dictionary and searching selecting the ones in which the
for clues that helped him resolve target words frequently appeared”
uncertainty, and seeking further “Reading the articles during the
explanation from the teacher” week, consolidating the meaning of
“Looking for additional explanation of the the target words by interpreting the
words and instances of their use on Google” textual context containing them”
“Teaching the words to his group “Consolidating the use of new
member, and practising using them in a words by analysing the
group discussion” grammatical rules of the
“Practising using the words in his diaries” sentences containing the words”
To help them reinforce word retention:
Making use of a language learning “Dividing his available time during
website which contained BBC news and the day into study blocks”
forming a recycling of strategy “Devising a study plan for recycling
combination, including: vocabulary”
“Studying the highlighted words in “Creating a personal dictionary
relation to the textual context” which contained the vocabulary
“Using audio recordings to listen to items specifically for IELTS”
the target words repeatedly’; “practising “Using his own imagination to
using the words in the “help class” create different stories and
“Seeking further support from his practising using the target words
teacher” in the stories”
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4
Developing Vocabulary Strategies
During Study Abroad
4.1 Introduction
The previous chapter detailed the challenges Bo and Ke encountered in
vocabulary learning and use as well as the vocabulary-related strategies
that they used to enhance their learning while studying in the UK. Drawing
on their data, a range of issues regarding vocabulary learning, strategy
choice and use, such as learning styles, affective control and retention of
vocabulary, were also highlighted. In this chapter, I will describe Ji’s and
Qa’s strategic vocabulary learning experiences on the Opal site. Compared
with the foundation programme on the other two sites, the ‘Opal’ foun-
dation programme was the only one to provide a module which specifi-
cally focused on vocabulary and incorporate strategy instruction into
explicit instruction of vocabulary throughout the academic year. The
effect of different types of strategy instruction on the students’ vocabulary
learning strategies will be explored. This chapter will provide a further
account of how Ji and Qa made use of out-of-class opportunities and
resources to support their vocabulary learning and analyse their strategies
for learning and using vocabulary in two different settings (i.e. a home-
stay setting and a student residential hall).

I.K.-H Wang, Learning Vocabulary Strategically in a Study Abroad Context, https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-319-65963-3_4
118 4 Developing Vocabulary Strategies During Study Abroad
It’s not an easy task to master all the subtle nuances of the meaning and usage of
each word. It’s often through interacting with native speakers that I learn how
to use words correctly, though some of the words are simple words. Ji (7th week)
Ji was the only participant who stayed with a British family during the
academic year. The homestay setting provided opportunities for her to
practise English in everyday situations with native speakers. The host par-
ents often pointed out the language errors she made in daily conversa-
tions and also enriched her knowledge of vocabulary. The more she
interacted with the host family the more confusion and uncertainty she
encountered in vocabulary. She sought further support from the host
parents who served as an important resource, helping her overcome lan-
guage problems and fine-tuning the understanding and use of vocabu-
lary. The homestay setting offered her a rich environment where she
could learn the appropriateness of vocabulary use as well as the British
culture.
I find it’s time-consuming (and annoying) to look up many words in a diction-

ary every three or five minutes during my writing. Ji (25th week)
Throughout the academic year, Ji needed to complete a variety of writ-

ten assignments in different subjects, such as Intercultural Communication,
Foundation Economics, and Foundation Media studies. While writing
the assignments, one of the big challenges she confronted was to make
effective use of vocabulary. She tried to learn a large number of words,
including their meaning, parts of speech and grammar, when she was a
high school student in China. However, she often felt unsure about how
to use previously learnt words or whether they were used accurately and
appropriately in specific contexts. In order to ensure the quality of writ-
ing, she had to frequently check the words that she was uncertain in a
dictionary. She also experienced frustration as her writing speed became
significantly slow. She was then motivated to take further strategic action
that helped her improve the active use of vocabulary.
It is not easy to work out the precise meaning of words in context, even though
I knew these words. Qa (5th week)
4.2 Strategy Instruction in Vocabulary 119
Qa read every day since he came to the UK and made a great effort to
determine the intended meaning of words and phrases in a given con-
text. In particular, he found it difficult to infer the precise meaning of
unfamiliar words in context. In order to make correct inferences, he
needed to take a lot of conscious strategies to operationalise the process
of inferring words effectively. Apart from unfamiliar words, there were
some words that Qa knew their core meaning, but was not able to recog-
nise their less common meanings, especially subject-related vocabulary.
He read a lot of books and academic articles in different subjects, such as
Tourism, Economics and Mathematics. He often cannot determine the
meaning of technical words by means of his mental lexical. He then
made deliberate attempts to discover and understand their specialised
meanings.
I like learning vocabulary through movies/ TV programmes. It doesn’t mean it’s

an easier way than rote learning. I still need to devote a lot of time and effort
to learning words when I watched them. Qa (15th week)
Many second language learners claim that watching English pro-

grammes and movies is a useful and interesting way to provide authentic
L2 input and develop their knowledge of vocabulary. However, they were
less likely to describe in detail how they make use of television, movies or
videos to enhance their vocabulary learning. In this chapter, Qa demon-
strated that the process of vocabulary learning required considerable
effort and constant time rather than simply watching English videos. He
provided a detailed account of what strategies he deployed and how he
used the strategies to build, improve and consolidate vocabulary through
and after viewing English movies and programmes outside the
classroom.
4.2 Strategy Instruction in Vocabulary

The vocabulary module taken two semesters was taught by their language
teachers, named Eva and Ruth, and each of them taught the module in
one semester. Students were taught not only general and academic
v ocabulary but also vocabulary-related strategies in the vocabulary class

throughout the academic year. In particular, Eva and Ruth placed an
emphasis on strategy instruction on strategies for recording vocabulary
and dictionary look-up strategies.
4.2.1 Implementation of Vocabulary Notebooks

in the Classroom
During the first semester, Eva introduced how to make use of vocabu-
lary notebooks and also provided a clear guideline which directed the
use of vocabulary notebooks and helped students store and retrieve
vocabulary on a regular basis. The aim was to develop students’ strate-
gies for learning, consolidating and recalling vocabulary independently
outside the classroom. The implementation of vocabulary notebooks
involved explicit explanation of the benefits of keeping vocabulary
notebooks and description and examples of certain vocabulary learning
strategies that can be used to help students record, organise, review and
recycle vocabulary. The following extract is a brief sample from one
particular lesson from the Opal site. Students were asked to work with
their peers to recall new words that they had learned during the week.
Eva then wrote the ten key words on the whiteboard and discussed with
her students what information can be included in a vocabulary
notebook:
Extract 4.1
T: Have you ever used a vocabulary notebook?

Ss: Yes
T: What information do you think we should put
in the notebook?
S1: meaning
T: English explanation or a translation?
S1: English
S2: both…
T: Why English explanation is more helpful?
S3: sometimes I find that the Chinese transla-

tion is too simple to understand the word…
T: yes [...] a translation can be also mis-
leading. It would be useful to check its
English explanation in a reliable English
dictionary, e.g. Oxford advanced learner’s
dictionary. It provides more detailed and
accurate information…anything else we can
add to the notebook?
S2: pronunciation
T: good, pronunciation is important; many
students ignore the stress within a word….
(Lesson transcript)
This teacher-led discussion allowed students to recognise the benefits of

including various aspects of word knowledge in a vocabulary notebook,
such as monolingual dictionary definitions of target words, pronuncia-
tion, part of speech, synonyms and collocations. In addition, Eva explained
why sample sentences needed to be included in a vocabulary notebook:
Extract 4.2
T: is there anyone who wants to put sample

sentences?
Ss: [[raising hands]]
T: why do you think it’s helpful?
S1: it’s easy to remember the word in a
sentence
T: yes we often find that words are easier to
remember in a meaningful context than a
list of isolated words.…
T: where do your sample sentences come from?
Yourself or a dictionary?
S2: from my dictionary. The Cambridge diction-
ary’s example sentences are more accurate.
If I write sentences, I’m often not sure if
they are correct.
T: right, the dictionary’s sample sentences

are normally offered by English language
experts, more reliable […] and showed how
the word is actually used in real life…is
there anyone who wants to write sample sen-
tences of your own?
S3: [[raises his hand]]
T: why do you think writing your own sentences
would be helpful?
S3: it would test myself if I really master the
word. And when I use the word, I could
remember it more deeply. If I just copy dic-
tionary’s sentences, I still don’t know how
to use it by myself. (Lesson transcript)
In Extract 4.2, Eva helped students identify the vocabulary learning

strategies that they could employ to promote vocabulary learning, such
as “recording dictionary’s sample sentences in the notebook”, “creating
their own sentences using the target words and including them in the
notebook” and “making use of sample sentences to remember the target
words”. She offered an opportunity for students to discuss the strengths
and weaknesses of the strategies. The intention was to raise their strate-
gic awareness and encouraged them to take responsibility for strategy
selection. She further introduced a particular format that students
could use to organise the notebook (see Photo 4.1) and highlighted
that the more students can work and interact with the word, the better
they can learn it.
Eva asked the students to use this format to record ten new words from
each week’s vocabulary lesson, and she also collected and commented on
their notebooks every week. Based on Eva’s comments, the students were
also encouraged to retrieve the target words weekly and add further infor-
mation in their notebook to enrich their word knowledge.
Both Ji and Qa organised their notebooks according to the format
above and practised using a variety of vocabulary learning strategies that
Eva introduced. Below we can see an example of a particular vocabulary
notebook entry that Ji provided on VOCABlog.
Photo 4.1 Format of a vocabulary notebook (Ji, photo, VOCABlog)
The format that Eva suggested assisted Ji in initial organisation of her

notebook. Photo 4.2 showed that Ji included different kinds of informa-
tion written in blue ink about the word ‘brief’ in the notebook, such as its
L2 definition, L1 translation, L2 synonyms, part of speech and colloca-
tions. The following extract provided a further description of how Ji
recorded the target word as well as the rationale behind her strategy
choice:
Extract 4.3
R: How did you define ‘brief’?

Ji: I started by explaining it in my own words
and wrote my own explanation in the note-
book. Then I checked if the dictionary’s
definition matched my own explanation. I
underlined any errors I made in red. This
Photo 4.2 Ji’s vocabulary entry ‘brief’ (Ji, photo, VOCABlog)
could help me remember the meaning more

deeply and accurately.
R: Do you include L1 translation in your
notebook?
Ji: Yes. I tried to translate its dictionary’s
English definition into Chinese because my
own translation was more detailed than the
one-word L1 translation provided by a
bilingual dictionary.
R: How about sample sentences?

Ji: I decided to write my own sample sentences
R: why?
Ji: the more you use the word, the better you
master it. Even though you might not use it
correctly, Eva normally gave me feedback
to help me improve my sentence. (Ji,
interview)
As we can see from Extract 4.3, Ji did not simply employ the strategies
that Eva introduced in the class, rather, she developed a set of strategies
in relation to her own purposes and needs, such as “defining and explain-
ing the target word in her own words”, “comparing the definition in a
dictionary with the definition produced by herself ”, “producing the L1
translation of a dictionary’s L2 definition”, “writing her own sample sen-
tences using the target word” and “checking if the word was used accu-
rately in relation to her teacher’s feedback”. Ji continued to work with her
notebook and reviewed vocabulary notebook entries on a regular basis.
She added additional information written in red ink (see Photo 4.2), for
instance, the dictionary’s definition, multiple meanings and sample sen-
tences, in order to enrich her word knowledge.
By contrast, Qa tended to find the information, such as L2 definition,
collocations and sample sentences, from a monolingual dictionary rather
than producing the information on his own (see Photo 4.3). He tried to
consolidate the target words which he learned from every week’s vocabu-
lary lesson by consulting the dictionary. He read and interpreted dictionary
entries, and then selected and recorded the information that he found use-
ful. For example, he stated in the interview that the reason why the colloca-
tions, ‘brief analysis’ and ‘brief comment’ (see Photo 4.3), were recorded in
his notebook was because he intended to use them in academic writing.
Eva also collected students’ vocabulary notebooks once a week and
then provided corrective feedback to any incorrect information in red
ink, for example, ‘a brief description of ’ rather than ‘a brief description
about’ (see Photo 4.2) as well as suggestion that helped them improve
their vocabulary entries, for example, ‘Can you write a few more sample
sentences?’ (see Photo 4.3).
Photo 4.3 Qa’s vocabulary entry ‘brief’ (Qa, photo, VOCABlog)
After using their vocabulary notebooks for a period of time, both Ji

and Qa commented on VOCABlog that keeping a vocabulary notebook
was a useful way to enhance their vocabulary learning and reinforce their
memory of the target words. As Ji wrote,
Extract 4.4
Eva encouraged us to return to our notebooks as

often as possible. To consolidate the words I
learned earlier, I tried to explain them in my
own words and write example sentences using them.

I also improved my vocabulary entries before Eva
collected the notebook and reviewed the words
again after she provided feedback. Working with
the notebook enabled me to think and see the tar-
get words repeatedly. My word knowledge has also
developed through reviewing the notebook. (Ji,
diary, VOCABlog)
As indicated in Extract 4.4, Eva made continuous efforts to implement

the use of notebooks during the first semester and Ji also acted on her
own initiative to seek opportunities for processing the target words at a
deeper level and recycle the words regularly. While Qa also found keeping
a notebook helpful, he felt that the learning process was repetitive, and
the way that Eva asked them to include certain kinds of information and
checked their vocabulary notebooks weekly demotivated him to continue
using the notebook:
Extract 4.5
Eva asked us to record the information she sug-

gested, such as parts of speech and synonyms but
I think it is not effective to use the same for-
mat for every word, for example, HIV, it’s a word
I want to know and record in the notebook, but I
wouldn’t include its English definition and I
think I just need its Chinese translation…She
asked us to hand in our notebooks and checked if
we included enough information. Keeping a note-
book has become a task for me now, and I don’t
enjoy keeping it very much. (Qa, diary, VOCABlog)
Unlike Ji, Qa thought that the implementation of the use of vocabu-

lary notebooks was rigid and controlled. He preferred to make more
choices and decisions about which words should be included, what infor-
mation to put and how to arrange vocabulary entries in the notebook, in
relation to his own needs.
4.2.2 D
eveloping Learner Autonomy in Vocabulary
Learning
During the second semester, the vocabulary lesson was taught by a

different teacher, named Ruth. Like Eva, Ruth still asked students to
keep vocabulary notebooks during this semester, but she gave them
more freedom to decide which words and what information to include
in their notebooks. In the first week, she engaged students in a strat-
egy-sharing activity in which they worked in pairs to discuss how
effective they felt that their vocabulary notebooks had helped them to
learn vocabulary, what strategies that had been used during the first
semester they found useful, and what attempts they wanted to make
to improve their vocabulary notebooks, an example of which is the
following extract:
Extract 4.6
Qa: I find that the format that Eva suggested

is useful to enrich vocabulary knowledge,
but I think it would be more effective to
keep our arrangement flexible.
Mark: Yes, I agree. I had actually known some
words that Eva taught. I don’t need to
include all the information that she sug-
gested, e.g. the meaning. We could sim-
plify the information and just include
the information that we think
necessary.
Qa: It’s a good idea to take out some unnec-
essary information. Sometimes I found
that it was more useful to include tables
and graphs.
Mark: I believe you will also feel more willing
to recycle the words when you have less
information, do you think so?
Qa: I’m not sure but now I have already felt

stressful to review a large amount of
information and very reluctant to return
to the notebook. I’m thinking how to
motivate myself to continue to use it.
(Lesson transcript)
The students were given opportunities to reflect on their experiences of

keeping vocabulary notebooks. In Extract 4.6, Qa and Mark evaluated
the effectiveness of their vocabulary notebooks and raised a number of
issues when recording vocabulary items in their notebook, as follows:
• The notebook was arranged largely depending on their teacher’s sug-

gestion rather than their own needs.
• The words that they selected only from class activities and materials.
• Some information that was recorded in the notebook was unnecessar-
ily complex and repetitive.
• They lacked motivation to keep and use their vocabulary notebook.
They tried to seek possible solutions to improve the quality of vocabu-

lary notebooks through the discussion. In particular, they recognised
that a more personalised arrangement could increase not only the effec-
tiveness of their notebook but also their motivation to keep their
notebook.
Ji also shared her experience of using a vocabulary notebook with her
partner and commented on the implementation of vocabulary
notebooks:
Extract 4.7
Ji: I learned many words by keeping my

notebook.
Jane: I found using Eva’s format to keep the
notebook was really time-consuming. Did
you spend lots of time making your vocab-
ulary entries?
Ji: yes, me too. I tried to make two to three

words’ entries every day, not ten entries
in one day.
Jane: Eva also asked us to review the notebook,
did you do this?
Ji: yes, I tried to include more information
I thought useful every time when I
reviewed my notebook. Sometimes I also
felt frustrated because doing the same
thing every day and wanted to give up.
I’m happy that Eva checked our notebooks
every week, because this pushed me to
continue working with my notebook. I hope
Ruth will also check our notebook. (Lesson
transcript)
As we can see from the extracts above, Ji and Qa made different

responses to the implementation of vocabulary notebooks. Qa intended to
involve more personal choice in the design of his notebook, while Ji found
that the notebook arrangement and vocabulary-related strategies which
Eva taught worked well for her. During the first semester, the students
were required to keep vocabulary notebooks and their teacher checked
their notebooks every week. The requirement encouraged Ji to make con-
tinuous efforts to consolidate vocabulary but appeared to demotivate Qa
to use the notebook. Both Ji and Qa experienced negative emotions, such
as stress and frustration, when they found the task time-consuming and
overwhelming and considered stopping keeping their notebook.
The students’ comments on the implementation of vocabulary note-
books also provided insights that helped Ruth enhance her strategy
instruction. Below were some changes which Ruth introduced to the
implementation of vocabulary notebooks during the second semester:
• Encourage students to record the words that they were interested in or

found useful – not necessarily ones related to the class
• Tell students to arrange their notebook according to their styles and
needs
• Ask students to compare the content of their notebook with other peers
once a week and evaluate the usefulness of their notebook in the class
• Encourage students to review the target words and ask them to create
stories using the target words
• Get students to work in pairs and ask questions to guess each other’s
words
• Ask students to share useful ways that they discovered to sustain moti-
vation for keeping vocabulary notebooks
In the second semester, the students became more responsible for select-
ing which words to be included in their notebook and arranging their vocab-
ulary entries. In order to help them master vocabulary productively, the
students were given further opportunities to practise using the words that
they recorded in their notebook in the class. In addition, they made attempts
to explore which affective strategies can be used to improve motivation for
using vocabulary notebooks independently outside the classroom.
In the following extract, Ji described how she made use of her vocabu-
lary notebook to facilitate vocabulary learning:
Extract 4.8
R: Do you still select the words from the

vocabulary class and record them in your
notebook?
Ji: Yes, I choose some words that Ruth high-
lights in the class. She is also ok for us
to include any words that interest us. Now
I also add some words that I’m more likely
to use in everyday life. For example, ‘ten-
der’, I learned it from my homestay
parents.
R: Why do you want to record ‘tender’?
Ji: When my homestay parents used the
word ‘tender’to describe steak, I found
that it was the first time I heard this
word. When I knew it means ‘soft’, I
wanted to remember it. I think it’s a very

useful word to describe the texture of
food.
R: What information did you put for ‘tender’?
Ji: I still used the format which Eva sug-
gested. I think it works best for me. I
always include extra space where I can add
additional information. (Ji, interview)
With regard to Ji’s word choice, she tended to select words that were
taught and emphasised by Ruth. In addition, when interacting with
native speakers, she paid particular attention to what language they used
and recorded the words that she found useful for her daily conversation
(see Photo 4.4). She continued to use the format which Eva suggested to
help her arrange her vocabulary notebook and enrich word knowledge.
Photo 4.5 illustrates a particular vocabulary entry that Ji posted on the
VOCABlog:
Photo 4.4 Ten words for Week 26 (Ji, photo, VOCABlog)

Photo 4.5 Vocabulary entry ‘tender’ (Ji, photo, VOCABlog)
Like what she did in the first semester, Ji still reviewed her vocabulary
entries on a regular basis and coloured the newly added information in
red. In order to improve the effectiveness of the notebook, she used not
only written explanation but also tables and pictures to illustrate some
additional word knowledge. For example, in addition to the target word
‘tender’, Photo 4.5 demonstrates a mind map made to present a group
of other words in relation to the texture of food.
Ji also mentioned that she became not motivated enough to go
through the notebook and recycle the words regularly. In the second
semester, she started to display each week’s ten new words in isolation
from context and increased her motivation by challenging herself to
recall the words’ meaning and other aspects of word knowledge without
seeing their vocabulary entries (also see Photo 4.4). After the recall
attempt, she became clearer what she remembered or forgot and more
purposeful to revisit the vocabulary entries.
Unlike Ji, Qa was no longer following the format suggested by Eva in
the second semester. He used different ways of organising words in rela-
tion to his own purposes and needs:
Extract 4.9
I pretty enjoy designing my own vocabulary note-

book. I don’t use a fixed format to record words.
The way I record a word depends on why I want to
record it and what information I particularly want
to know. For example, there are some words I can
recognise when I see them but I can't remember them
when I need to use them […]. When I record them in
my notebook, my main purpose is not to store their
meaning, but to help me remember them. I also
uploaded two photos which showed how to record the
words I felt confused with. (Qa, interview)
Apart from new words, Qa also paid particular attention to the words
that he already knew but found difficulty with. For instance, as he stated
in his diary above, he recorded some familiar words that he found diffi-
cult to remember as well as to distinguish with other words. He played an
active role in arranging the target words in his notebook. He provided a
sample of the content of his notebook on VOCABlog, and the photo-
graphs demonstrated two different ways of recording the target words
(see Photos 4.6 and 4.7).
With regard to ‘contrast’, ‘contact’ and ‘contract’, Qa was likely to con-
fuse their meaning as they appeared to have similar spellings. He made a
table to illustrate their meaning. In a follow-up interview, he was asked to
give a further account of what attempts he made to distinguish their
meaning and he stated:
Extract 4.10
I used their Chinese translation to distinguish

their meaning. Sometimes, English explanation is
clearer, but in this case, the Chinese meaning is
more straightforward, for example, ‘contract’
the English explanation is ‘a legal document…
’but in Chinese, just one word, ‘合同’it’s simple
and clear. I also included some additional exam-
ples to help me understand their meaning in con-
text […] In order to reinforce my memory, I tried
to review them again. I used colour pens to high-

light differences in their spellings and memo-
rised their meaning in relation to their spelling.
I also highlighted the words that were used with
the target words. (Qa, interview)
Photo 4.6 Content of vocabulary notebook: ‘contrast’, ‘contact’ and ‘contract’

(Qa, photo, VOCABlog)
Photo 4.7 Content of vocabulary notebook: ‘enhance’ and ‘improve’ (Qa, photo,

VOCABlog)
S1 Compare the L1 translaon and L2 explanaon of target words and determine which
ones he used to define the words
S2 Use the Chinese translaons of the three words to look for their semanc differences
S3 Use addional examples to help him understand their semanc differences
S4 Idenfy differences in their spellings and remember the words by relang their spellings
into their meaning
S5 Study the words in context and find out how they were used
Fig. 4.1 Qa’s strategy combination
The main purpose of recording the three words in the notebook was to
help Qa distinguish their meaning when he saw or heard them. Extract
4.10 showed that Qa deployed a number of strategies in order to achieve
the purpose (see Fig. 4.1 below). Both Extracts 4.9 and 4.10 indicated
that Qa kept the organisation of his vocabulary notebook flexible. Based
on his own purposes and needs, he decided what information should be
included for a particular word or a group of words.
In order to help him distinguish the meaning across the three words,
Qa employed S1, S2 and S3 in sequence. He made a continued effort to
memorise the words and enrich other kinds of word knowledge by using
S4 and S5 in a pair.
With regard to ‘enhance’ and ‘improve’, the two words were frequently
used in his writing and the main purpose of recording them was to fine-
tune his understanding of semantic distinctions between them and thus
he was able to choose the right word that best conveyed his intended
meaning in his writing. Qa realised that some academic words he learned
had similar meanings, but he was not sure whether they could be inter-
changeable, for example, ‘enhance’ and ‘improve’. He described the strate-
gies he used to find out their semantic differences in the following extract:
Extract 4.11
I checked them in both Cambridge and Oxford

online dictionaries, as I wanted to seek their
sample sentences as many as possible. It wasn’t
useful to look at their Chinese translation and
English definition, as their meaning was very
similar[…] I read their sample sentences over
and over again and tried to explore their seman-
tic differences in context. From the sample sen-
tences, I also found out some clues that could
confirm my guess. (Qa, forum, VOCABlog)
Before recording ‘enhance’ and ‘improve’ in his notebook, Qa checked

these two words in online dictionaries and used their Chinese transla-
tion as well as English definition which were provided by the dictionar-
ies to look for their semantic differences. However, the dictionaries’
definitions of the two words were similar and thus he was not able to
fine-tune their meaning. He then decided to use their sample sentences
and deployed a strategy pair to help him identify their semantic differ-
ences (see Fig. 4.2).
Qa also recorded these two words and put further information in his
vocabulary notebook in order to consolidate his understanding of their
semantic distinctions (see Photo 4.7). The information that he recorded
in the notebook included his own explanation of semantic differences
between the two words in L1 as well as the sample sentences which he
considered as the best sentences to help him understand their semantic
S1 Analyse the meaning of the words by repeatedly reading the sample

sentences as well as the context containing the words
S2 Use clues that existed in the sample sentences to check his

inferences
Fig. 4.2 Qa’ strategy pair

differences. In addition, he included some useful collocations that were

likely to be used in his writing.
Compared with the strategy instruction provided by Eva, Ruth was less
likely to teach certain strategies that the students were supposed to use for
recording vocabulary in their notebook. In order to help them develop as
more autonomous learners, the students were given more opportunities
to discuss their own experiences of using vocabulary notebooks with
other peers, evaluate their strategy use and improve existing strategies.
Both Ji and Qa also became more motivated to continue working with
their notebook outside the classroom as they were encouraged to make
their own choices about the organisation of vocabulary notebooks and
take control of their own learning. In order to enhance their learning
outcome, they played a more active role in selecting words, arranging
vocabulary entries and reviewing their vocabulary notebook in relation to
their own purposes and styles. The data indicated more purposeful and
flexible strategy use when using their notebook to consolidate
vocabulary.
4.2.3 Improving Learner Strategies in the Use

of Dictionaries
In the second semester, Ruth integrated dictionary skills training

into her vocabulary class. The aim of the training was to promote
students’ strategic awareness and develop their ability to use diction-
ary appropriately and effectively both inside and outside the class-
room. The training sessions which she offered are briefly described
below:
• Types of dictionaries and functions: introducing different types of dic-

tionaries, such as paper, online, monolingual and bilingual dictionar-
ies, making students more aware of advantages and disadvantages of
each type of dictionary, allowing students to evaluate dictionaries and
plan when to use a dictionary and which dictionary to use
• How to use a monolingual dictionary: helping students identify stages in
the process of dictionary use as well as useful strategies that they would
use while consulting a monolingual dictionary and giving students

opportunities to practise using the strategies.
• Using dictionaries for understanding text: providing students opportu-
nities to discover and discuss strategies that they had used for perform-
ing reading comprehension tasks, helping them become more aware of
problems they encountered while using a dictionary and find solutions
to the problems, and providing suggestive feedback that helped stu-
dents develop their strategies
• Consulting dictionaries for producing text: providing students opportu-
nities to discover and discuss strategies that they had used for perform-
ing writing tasks, helping them become more aware of problems they
encountered while using a dictionary and find solutions to the prob-
lems, and providing suggestive feedback that helped students develop
their strategies
• Vocabulary learning through dictionary use: engaging students in vocab-
ulary practice and providing them opportunities to share and discuss
dictionary-related strategies that they had used to enrich word knowl-
edge and enhance vocabulary learning, and suggesting other helpful
dictionary-related strategies
In China, Qa and Ji rarely received guidance on dictionary use and

also paid little attention to dictionary-related strategies, although they
frequently used dictionaries. They both showed positive attitudes towards
the dictionary training provided by Ruth. Through the training sessions
they realised that the process of dictionary consolidation was not simple
and it was necessary to improve their skill in dictionary use. In particular,
they became more aware of their problems that lay in before, during and
after dictionary consultation and gained insights of dealing with certain
kinds of problems as well as insights about their strategy use.
With regard to Qa, he used to favour the mother tongue translation
when checking the meaning of unknown words in a dictionary since he
did not need to spend time interpreting the English explanation.
However, through participating in dictionary training tasks he found that
the mother tongue translation provided by his dictionary app, named
YD, caused many problems in both comprehension and production. In
his diary, he recognised the importance of a monolingual L2 definition,
and also indicated that he needed further strategies in order to discover

the precise meaning of a look-up item.
In one particular training session, students were asked to find out the
meaning of the five target words which were embedded in sentences and
underlined. Ruth provided each student with an Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary and allowed the students to use dictionary apps,
online dictionaries, monolingual or bilingual dictionaries. After the stu-
dents completed the task, Ruth arranged students into pairs to share their
ideas as their strategic choice. In Extracts 4.12 and 4.13, Qa and his
partner Sue reflected on when to use a dictionary and what strategies they
used to find the meaning of ‘transform’:
Extract 4.12
I first looked at the sample sentence. It says

‘new technology transforms the way we communi-
cate’ I guessed it means ‘change’ as we all know
new technology, like iPhone and iPad, changes
the way of how we contact people. I then checked
YD, its Chinese translation is ‘改变’so I was
sure it means ‘to change’. (Lesson transcript)
To discover the word meaning, Qa used two strategies in sequence,

including “guessing the word meaning from the given context” and “find-
ing its Chinese equivalent by means of a dictionary app”. Here, the L1
translation ‘改变’ provided a general meaning of ‘transform’, but it
appeared to be too simple to identify its exact meaning. Apart from
‘transform’, this L1 translation can also correspond to different English
words, e.g. ‘change’, ‘vary’ and ‘alter’. Extract 4.12 indicated that Qa was
not able to identify semantic differences between ‘change’ and ‘transform’
when he mainly relied on its L1 translation. By contrast, Sue made a
further effort to work out the precise meaning of ‘transform’:
Extract 4.13
I found more information. I first used the sample

sentence to guess its meaning. I also thought it
might mean ‘change’ from this context, I guessed

it’s a more positive word, as it changed in a
good way. Then I looked at the word ‘transform’,
it consists of ‘trans’ and ‘form’, ‘trans “trans-
fer” translation’, ‘from one place to another
place’, ‘from one language to another language’,
so ‘transform’ I understood it as ‘from one form
to another form’ so I guessed it must be a big
change…Then I used both online Oxford and
Cambridge dictionaries. The Cambridge’s defini-
tion is better, very detailed [...] it means ‘to
change completely’, mainly regarding to ‘the
appearance and character’ and most importantly,
it tends to change in a positive way. I also
looked at a couple of example sentences to confirm
my guess again. (Lesson transcript)
Sue placed an emphasis on the pre-consultation stage and deployed a

number of strategies to support the look-up process at a later stage. The
strategies were:
• guessing the word meaning from the given context

• analysing the connotation that was associated with the word in the
given context
• analysing the word meaning by breaking the word up into word parts
(e.g. from transform to trans and form), isolating parts of its meaning,
thinking of other words related to the word part (e.g. transfer as related
to trans) and extending its meaning
Unlike Qa, Sue chose monolingual rather than bilingual dictionaries

and also evaluated the quality of the definitions provided by two different
monolingual dictionaries in order to seek more detailed explanation of
the target word. She made use of the Cambridge dictionary and employed
two strategies to check her previous inferences and ensure an accurate
understanding of the word, including “searching for clues that existed in
the English definition to help her with the meaning of the target word”
and “relating the English definition to the sample sentences to enhance
her understanding”.
Through sharing their memories of their strategy use Qa became more

aware of his own weakness in dictionary use and had the opportunity to
learn some potentially useful strategies from his peer:
Extract 4.14
It was great to hear that Sue talked about how

she actually worked out the word meaning in
detail. I realised that I still have a lot of
room to improve. Like what she did, I should try
more attempts to guess the meaning by myself
before checking a dictionary. A dictionary may
not be always helpful, for example, the L1 trans-
lation provided by YD can be too simple and con-
fusing. I need to compare several dictionaries
and select the best one. (Qa, interview)
In the light of Sue’s strategy use, Qa recognised the importance of a

pre-consultation stage and thought more carefully about when to consult
a dictionary and which dictionary to use. In particular, he gave more care-
ful consideration to the Chinese translations of English words provided
by a bilingual dictionary. In order to improve his performance, Qa found
that it would be more useful to deploy inferencing strategies (“guessing
the word meaning from the given context”) and metacognitive strategies
(e.g. “evaluating the quantity and quality of information that dictionaries
provided”) in combination with dictionary look-up strategies.
Qa and Ji also encountered various problems during the look-up pro-
cess. Although they looked up unknown words in a dictionary or diction-
aries, they still found not easy to work out the correct meaning of the
words. For example, in another training session, Ruth chose an article for
students to read, and gave more freedom for them to select the words that
they wanted to look up and use whatever dictionary they needed. The
students were asked to find the appropriate meaning of the vocabulary
items they selected from the article and then to compose sentences which
should contain the items. After determining the word meaning, Ruth
asked each student, in turn, to explain one word and talk about how they
made use of dictionaries to discover its meaning. Through eliciting their

actual use of dictionaries, a series of problems associated with the look-up
process also emerged. The following example shows a particular vocabu-
lary item that Ji chose to explain in class, a number of problems she
encountered in performing the task and also the attempts that Ruth made
to help her improve her strategy use:
Extract 4.15
Ji: my word is ‘latch’. It’s a new word to me. I

checked it in a Longman online dictionary. I
found its meaning but I think the definition pro-
vided by the dictionary didn’t fit the context
T: tell us how the Longman dictionary defines
‘latch onto’
Ji: it says ‘latch’ means to fasten a door…
((Ji was asked to use the computer at the
teacher’s station in the front of the room
and show the dictionary entry to the whole
class))
T: How about ‘latch onto’?
Ji: The dictionary also explains ‘on the latch’.
It means closed but not locked. Even it’s
a noun here, but I think when ‘latch’ is a
verb, it can be also used with ‘on’. So I
guess ‘latch onto’ means close but this
meaning doesn’t fit the text
T: can anyone help her?
S1: I checked ‘latch onto’ in a Cambridge online
dictionary. It means ‘to become connected
to something’ or ‘to become interested in
something’
T: what does ‘latch onto’ mean in the text?
Ji: [[reads the sentence]] I think both
Cambridge’s meanings work here, ‘they will
latch into it quicker…’, so we could say
they’ll be connected to it or they’ll be

interested in it […]I’m not sure
T: Let’s quickly read through the article
together and look out for this word […] I
don’t want you just to read what’s in the
text. Tell me what you understand from
the text, […] so how ‘latch’ is used in
the text and why do they mention ‘latch
onto’?
S2: elderly people also use modern technology
like young people
T: right can you find how older people respond
to new technologies? (Lesson transcript)
When Ji was asked to share her new word with the class, she empha-
sised the word, ‘latch’, which she had trouble with. As we can see from
Extract 4.15, Ji first looked up the word meaning in the Longman dic-
tionary and tried to match the meaning in a given dictionary entry with
the textual context. However, she encountered a problem in finding the
desired meaning in the dictionary entry. Ruth’s question ‘How about latch
onto?’ prompted her to think about further information about the phrasal
verb ‘latch onto’. An attempt should be made to explore the meaning of
the word combinations appeared in the text rather than focusing on the
words in isolation. She then guessed the meaning of ‘latch onto’ by relat-
ing it to the phrase, ‘on the latch’. She tried to verify her inference in rela-
tion to the textual context, but the meaning she had identified did not
match the context again.
Ruth invited other peers to help Ji to find the meaning of ‘latch onto’
in the original text. One of the students suggested two possible meanings
provided by a dictionary entry. While she analysed its meaning in relation
to the context, the extract above indicated that the immediate context
containing ‘latch onto’ that she made use of was not able to help her
determine the most appropriate meaning. Her teacher encouraged stu-
dents to go beyond the local context of the phrase and extend their strat-
egy use. She posed a series of questions (e.g. ‘why do they mention latch
onto?’, see Extract 4.15) to guide them to seek further contextual clues in
the text. The purpose was to help students to select an appropriate defini-
4.3 Ji: Vocabulary Learning in a Homestay Environment 145
tion in the Cambridge dictionary by making use of the contextual clues

and to adjust the definition to the context.
In dictionary training sessions, Ruth provided a variety of opportuni-
ties for her students to practise using a dictionary or dictionaries both
individually and interactively. The data showed that Qa and Ji became
more aware of their problems at different stages of dictionary consulta-
tion through sharing and discussing their look-up process in the class. To
improve their dictionary use, they gained insights from both their teacher
and peers as the strategies that they could use to guess the meaning of the
look-up item, understand the dictionary entry, verify and apply look-up
information.
4.3 J i: Vocabulary Learning in a Homestay

Environment
Ji stayed in university accommodation for the first two months, but she
found that the opportunities for speaking English and interacting with
native speakers were very limited in the residential hall environment.
Most of her flatmates were Chinese and they preferred to communicate
with Ji in their mother tongue. The interaction with home students was
also restricted to routine short dialogues, e.g. ‘how are you doing?’ and
‘Fine, thank you, how are you?’. In order to increase opportunities to
interact with native speakers, she moved out of the university accommo-
dation and into a host family. During her stay, Ji’s host parents provided
extensive opportunities for her to engage in their family activities, experi-
ence British culture and communicate with native speakers. Ji also took
advantages of the opportunities to enhance her vocabulary learning and
improve her vocabulary use.
4.3.1 V
ocabulary Growth and Development
of Vocabulary Knowledge
Ji’s host parents were retired and their children had already left home. Ji
said that they took very good care of her and treated her as one of the
family. They often invited her to join them in everyday activities, such as
walking the dog, shopping, gardening and going out for meals. Ji viewed
these activities as providing opportunities for her to improve English and
also took up interaction opportunities to build vocabulary. For example,
Extract 4.8 has shown earlier in the chapter that Ji consciously noticed
the unknown word ‘tender’ spoken by the host parents and made a fur-
ther effort to record and remember it by making use of her vocabulary
notebook. In her dairy, she provided a more detailed description of how
she learned new words through the help of her host parents:
Extract 4.16
My host parents are so kind. We often spend lots

of time interacting in English. They’re very
willing to explain the words I’m interested. I
like their explanation. They try to explain words
slowly and repeatedly. This helps me understand
their explanation. Sometimes they just simply
point to the objects or use very simple words to
explain a word. Sometimes they use their body
language or their life experience as an example
to explain a word. So it’s simple and vivid. I
have learned many useful words from them, e.g.
carpet, raincoat and trainer. I also added them
into my vocabulary notebook and reviewed them
once a week. Most importantly, I tried to use
them with my host parents. They are the words we
often use in our daily life, so I get quite lots
of opportunities to practise them with my host
parents. (Ji, diary, VOCABlog)
Extract 4.16 indicated that the homestay experience offered a rich

environment where Ji was exposed to target language input, particularly
unlimited exposure to everyday vocabulary, which was more typically
used in her daily life. She also deployed a number of strategies to learn the
words which she felt curious about.
Figure 4.3 showed that Ji employed S1 to discover the unknown/unfa-
miliar words in the communicative contexts, followed by S2. During the
S1 Ask the host parents to explain unknown/unfamiliar words
S2 Record the useful words in her vocabulary notebook
S3 Recycle the words regularly
S4 Practise using the words with the host parents
Fig. 4.3 Ji’s strategy combination
use of S1, host parents also used various strategies to help her understand
their explanation of the words, including slower speech, repetitions,
actual objects, body language, simplifications and their real-life examples.
We have seen in the previous section that Ji had developed her recording
strategies through both Eva’s and Ruth’s strategy instruction sessions.
Since then she tried to deploy her recording strategies after she learned
words from her host parents, with particular reference to fresh vocabulary
items (e.g. see Extract 4.8). Furthermore, she combined S3 with S4 in
order to enhance her vocabulary learning. Interaction with host parents
appeared to be an important source of vocabulary learning outside the
classroom. Ji also benefited from her host parents’ corrective feedback on
semantic distinctions between words, as indicated in the following
extract:
Extract 4.17
The other day I talked to my homestay mom ‘I hope

I had a brother like your son’. Then she cor-
rected me by saying I should say ‘I wish I had…’
instead of ‘I hope…’. She further explained to me
the difference between the two. Though both words
indicate desire, ‘hope’ is used in anticipation
and that there is a possibility of fulfilment,
whereas ‘wish’ tends to denote something which
cannot be obtained. While I am writing this
diary, I look up both words in the Oxford Advanced
Dictionary and what it says confirms what she told

me. I always use ‘I hope…’ I thought I already
mastered this simple word very well, but never
tried to distinguish it from ‘wish’. This exam-
ple shows talking to native speakers does improve
my English. (Ji, diary, VOCABlog)
As we saw earlier, Ji had put in a great deal of effort to record and

memorise words, including their synonyms, but she had paid little atten-
tion to semantic distinctions across the words with similar meanings. In
Extract 4.17, the host mother explicitly pointed out the error Ji made and
explained why it was necessary to use ‘wish’ rather than ‘hope’ in the par-
ticular context. The explanation enriched her understanding of the two
words.
Ji made a further effort to verify the information provided by her host
mother through using the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. She
also described how she made use of different dictionaries to find out the
semantic distinctions between ‘hope’ and ‘wish’ during one interview:
Extract 4.18
I actually checked ‘hope’ and ‘wish’ in several

dictionaries, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner
dictionary, the Longman dictionary and the
Cambridge dictionary. I compared their definitions
and found only the Oxford dictionary which clearly
indicated their differences […]Through working
with my classmates in our (dictionary) training
sessions, I understand that each dictionary has
its own strengths and weaknesses. Often we need
to consult more than one dictionary and pick the
most useful dictionary according to our particu-
lar learning context. (Ji, interview)
Ji had the opportunity to work with her peers when solving

vocabulary-related problems, and they also shared and reflected on
their dictionary look-up strategies in the dictionary training sessions
(e.g. Extract 4.15 above). Strategy-sharing made her realise that great
effort would be required to use a dictionary or dictionaries in order to
assist her vocabulary learning outside the classroom. In this particular
case, as we saw in Extract 4.18, Ji appeared to reach a better understand-
ing of the dictionary consultation process. She learned to select dictionar-
ies. She examined entries for the same word in different dictionaries and
determined which dictionary provided more useful information that
helped her explain semantic differences between synonymous words.
In order to use words more effectively, she realised that her under-
standing of the meaning of synonymous words needed to be fine-tuned.
In addition to consulting a monolingual dictionary, Ji found that the
explicit feedback that her host parents provided was particularly helpful
in explaining semantic differences that lay behind synonymous words.
However, host parents did not always correct her English during their
interactions because in some cases they focused on the negotiation of
ideas for communicative purposes:
Extract 4.19
Of course it’s a bit unrealistic to expect my

homestay parents to pinpoint my errors and cor-
rect me all the time. Understanding each other’s
ideas became more important sometimes. Therefore,
I have to be very attentive while listening to
how they express themselves, how they respond to
questions or carry on a conversation. Attentive
listening helps me notice repeated word choices
and familiar patterns in daily conversations.
(Ji, diary, VOCABlog)
Apart from host parents’ explicit feedback, Ji was aware that more
deliberate efforts were needed to maximise the possibilities for vocabulary
learning. In particular, she exercised her agency as a learner and con-
sciously observed her host parents using English in everyday situations
through attentive listening for her own development of the target lan-
guage. Her attention was not only paid to their word choices, but also
their regular patterns that can be used to produce vocabulary in everyday

situations.
Ji shifted the emphasis from knowing the denotative meaning of
individual words (i.e. their dictionary’s definition) to their correct and
appropriate use in communicative contexts. When she participated in
everyday activities, attempts were made to explore how words were
used by her host parents to carry out certain social functions, such as
making requests, responding questions and expressing thanks. For
example, in the following interview extract, Ji explained how she
learned ways of making requests in English through interacting with
her host parents:
Extract 4.20
Ji: my host parents often say ‘could you please

pass me…?’or ‘could you bring me…please?’
to me. They are very polite. You know, in
China, older people don’t use ‘please’ to
young people. It’s also quite weird to say
‘could you’ and ‘please’ to my parents,
because we’re so close.
R: yes[…]have you thought about why your host
parents use this way to make requests?
Ji: yes, I think it’s part of their culture. It’s
important to know how British people make a
request because I don’t want them to con-
sider me rude. Sometimes I also ask my host
parents if my expression is appropriate.
R: Do you find their feedback helpful?
Ji: yes, very helpful, they often help me improve
my expressions and tell me what words and
phrases can be more appropriate in a given
context. My host father also often provides
examples of situations in which I need to
be more polite and explains why some expres-
sions sound more polite. (Ji, interview)
Ji was aware that there were cultural differences in ways of expressing

requests and tried to observe what expressions were more appropriate
to make requests in English through socialising with her host parents
on a regular basis. She also analysed the expression which her host par-
ents used and identified what made the expression of request more
polite, such as choices of words and phrases and the level of directness.
Ji used the everyday interaction with host parents as a powerful resource
for her to learn contextually appropriate ways to convey intended
meaning.
When she was uncertain about the appropriateness of her language use
in a given context, Ji sought further advice from her host parents and
their feedback seemed to enrich her pragmatic knowledge and improve
her performance in the target language.
4.3.2 Increasing Confidence to Communicate
Not only did the host parents get Ji involved in their day-to-day interac-
tions, but also they provided further opportunities for her to meet and
socialise with other British people, for example, holiday parties and visit-
ing their friends. Hence, compared with her previous experience of living
in university accommodation, Ji gained greater access to speakers of the
target language in order to speak and practise English. In particular, Ji
highlighted the linguistic, cultural and social benefits of engaging in
church activities, as the following interview transcript indicates:
Extract 4.21
I learned some words and English idioms in our

weekly bible study class. I preferred to ask my
group members to explain unknown words and idi-
oms, because they knew where the idioms came from
and the history, culture and stories behind the
idioms. I found their stories very interesting
and the stories really helped me understand the
idioms […] I also enjoyed participating in social
gatherings after the Service. I made good English
friends there. I tried to use new words and idi-

oms with them and got more opportunities to prac-
tise my speaking. The more I spoke to British
people, the more confidence and fluency I gained in
communicating English […]So I became more engaged
in interactive activities in the classroom. (Ji,
interview)
As we can see, in addition to the homestay setting, a range of church

activities provided Ji with rich target language and cultural input. She
built her vocabulary and learned idioms through studying the bible.
Compared with other strategies, such as “using a dictionary to look up
the meaning of unknown words or idioms” and “inferring the meaning
of unknown words or idioms from the textual context”, she preferred to
consult church members. She explained that the feedback they provided
was not only on the meaning of words and idioms but also their origins
and cultural knowledge that improved her breadth and depth of vocabu-
lary knowledge. Ji also used the Bible stories told by her church members
to develop her interest in learning idioms and help her understand the
confusing idioms.
Ji had much more interactive opportunities to practise using vocabu-
lary words, because her social networks with English speakers expanded
through her participation in social activities at church. Most importantly,
through these interactions with English speakers, she gained greater con-
fidence in using new words and communicating in English both inside
and outside the classroom. As a consequence, she also increased willing-
ness to enrich vocabulary knowledge through interacting with native
speakers, such as her teacher, host parents and church members.
4.4 Q
a: Watching English Programmes
for Vocabulary Learning
While studying on the Opal site, Qa tended to meet academic vocabulary
(e.g. ‘approach’ and ‘analysis’) and technical words for his subject (e.g.
‘budget’ and ‘gross’). He was also able to use many academic and t echnical
4.4 Qa: Watching English Programmes for Vocabulary Learning 153
words in writing assignments, class discussion and oral presentation. As

mentioned in the previous section, he also made use of his vocabulary
notebook to review the academic words that he had studied.
Qa had assumed that he would meet more British people once he was
in an English-speaking environment and his vocabulary size would
increase naturally through interacting with them. However, he found
that he lacked opportunities to socialise with British people outside the
classroom and did not have enough general vocabulary to participate in
small talk or other social situations (e.g. inviting someone out and
joking).
Qa enjoyed watching movies, sitcoms and dramas in his free time and
believed that English television programmes can be a rich source of input
of everyday English. However, learning vocabulary words and phrases
through watching English television programmes was not simple and
involved deliberate effort and considerable time. Qa also monitored his
strategy use and made continuous attempts to improve his choice and
utilisation of vocabulary-related strategies in order to enhance his learn-
ing outcome.
4.4.1 U
sing a Sitcom to Learn Colloquial Words
and Expressions
Compared to movies and dramas, Qa found that sitcoms (i.e. situation

comedies) were a better learning resource for a number of reasons:
• Sitcoms are a comedy series which Qa found funny and more

enjoyable.
• An episode lasted for a shorter period of time, so it kept him motivated
and was easier for him to understand the storyline.
• Sitcoms were more likely to provide him with everyday English.
Qa first decided to build his vocabulary through watching the American

sitcom, named ‘The Big Bang Theory’. This was the sitcom that he had
enjoyed watching over the years. He was very familiar with its characters
and storyline. In addition, he downloaded the same episodes with both
Chinese and English subtitles, and the subtitles helped him understand
the vocabulary items appeared in the episodes. When he heard a word or
expression in which he was interested, he tended to pause the video to
note down it for further consolidation. Qa photographed a particular
scene and described the attempts he made to learn the phrase ‘get in line’
on VOCABlog:
Extract 4.22
The expression ‘get somebody in line’ really

made me feel for it, although the Chinese sub-
title didn’t clearly show its meaning, from this
particular situation, I thought that it was quite
a vivid expression to describe somebody has done
something wrong, crazy… from the speaker’s voice
and facial expression, I could also feel that it
expressed the speaker’s discontent and complaint.
Then I checked the Oxford online dictionary to
see whether my understanding was right, expect-
edly, the dictionary’s definition confirmed my
guess. From its example sentence, I thought it
could be used to express the speaker’s discon-
tent. So after learning this phrase, when I face
a similar situation, I often try to use it. This
makes me easily remember this expression. So
here’s my experience. Watch the sitcom and pick
up the words you have feeling for, record them in
my notebook, check a dictionary if necessary,
and review them regularly, finally, try to use
them in a proper situation. (Qa, photo descrip-
tion, VOCABlog)
Qa paid particular attention to colloquial expressions that native

speakers used in everyday situations. In this case, when he thought that
‘get in line’ was a useful expression, he grasped the meaning of this phrase
in relation to the Chinese subtitle as well as the immediate context. In
addition, he tried to use the speaker’s intonation and facial expressions to
S1 Select the words or phrases in which Qa was interested

and interpret their meaning in a given context
S2 Consult a diconary to check the meaning of unknown

words or phrases if necessary While viewing
S3 Record the words and phrases in a vocabulary notebook
S4 Recycle the words and phrases regularly

Post viewing
S5 Pracse using the words and phrases in everyday

situaons
Fig. 4.4 Qa’s strategy sequence
work out the speaker’s implied intention behind the phrase. To confirm
his inferences, he looked up the phrase in the online Oxford Dictionary.
He made use of the dictionary’s definition to check its meaning and also
analysed its sample sentence to help him understand its subtle pragmatic
meaning. As indicated in Extract 4.22, Qa deployed a number of strate-
gies in sequence to build colloquial words and phrases while viewing each
sitcom episode and post viewing, and he also used this strategy combina-
tion on a regular basis (see Fig. 4.4).
After using this strategy combination over two months, Qa also identi-
fied a number of problems with this learning arrangement.
• There were many academic words occurred in the sitcom, especially

scientific terms, but very few of the words were learned through
watching it. Qa thought that he was less likely to use the words in
everyday situations. Although they were new to him, he paid little
attention to them while watching.
• The Big Bang Theory was considered as a useful resource for learning
American English, but Qa was also aware that there were differences
between American and British English, such as in pronunciation and
spelling. Since Qa studied and lived in the UK, he was more willing to
learn British English.
• Qa felt less motivated to return to his vocabulary notebook and recycle

the colloquial words and phrases that he had recorded. As a conse-
quence, he realised that many of the words which had been learned
were forgotten quickly.
• As Qa had little contact with speakers of English, he had limited
opportunities to practise using the colloquial expressions which he had
been learned.
4.4.2 Improving in the Use of Vocabulary-Related

Strategies
As mentioned above, Qa evaluated his vocabulary learning experience

using the American sitcom and pointed to a number of problems that he
encountered in this learning arrangement. In order to enhance his learn-
ing outcome, he sought solutions to deal with the problems. First, he
tried to watch a few episodes of different British sitcoms and then chose
a British sitcom, named ‘My Family’, which he enjoyed, involving words
and phrases that he was more likely to use in everyday situations, and also
containing both Chinese and English subtitles.
Instead of watching each episode only one time, he learned vocabulary
items through watching it repeatedly. He described the efforts that he
expanded to improve his strategy use and increase his motivation to learn
vocabulary in an interview:
Extract 4.23
Qa: When I watch an episode the first time, I

usually watch it without a pause.
R: Why?
Qa: This is my first time to watch My Family, so
I need to watch an episode to know its
plot. While watching, I keep in mind any
words or phrases I want to learn. This also
makes me feel more curious to know them.
Then when I watch it for a second time, I
pause at particular scenes and study the

words or phrases.
R: Do you still include new words or phrases
in your notebook?
Qa: No. Now I take screenshots of relevant scenes
which contain the words or phrases I want to
learn. I then remember them in relation to
particular scenes. I find this way useful. It
helps me remember words more easily.
R: Do you practise using the words you had
learned?
Qa: I have few opportunities to use them, so I
try to watch the episode again without any
subtitles to test me if I remember the words
I had learned. When I know them, I feel very
satisfied with my achievement and then often
watch another episode to learn more words.
Sometimes I need to go back to the screen-
shots when I can’t recognise the newly
learnt words and then watch the episode
once again to test myself. (Qa, interview)
During the initial stage of viewing, Qa aimed to achieve a general

understanding of the plot of an episode by making use of both Chinese
and English subtitles. As we can see from Extract 4.23, he did not study
the words or phrases in which he interested immediately while watching
it. Rather, he continued to watch it without pause. His curiosity for
exploring the words or phrases appeared to be aroused during this
process.
When he watched it the second time, he studied them deliberately in
relation to the subtitles, the immediate context and the context of the
story. In addition, he captured the screenshots of relevant scenes where
the target words or phrases occurred and remembered them in a more
meaningful context rather than in isolation. His memory was also more
likely to be reinforced when he saw them in a specific context. He also
said in the interview, ‘vocabulary notebook does not necessarily have to
be a paper one. Ruth encouraged us to create a notebook in our own way.

I can keep all the screenshots I took in one folder. This can be my visual
notebook to store spoken words’. It seemed that his teacher stimulated
his interest in actively capturing and recording useful vocabulary as part
of social activities rather than purely relying on classroom tuition.
As Qa had limited opportunities to practise using new colloquia words
and phrases with English speakers outside the classroom, he tried other
alternative ways to enhance his retention. He turned off both Chinese
and English subtitles and tested himself on the words and phrases that he
had studied through watching the episode again. When he recognised
them, a positive emotion (i.e. satisfaction with the achievement) that he
experienced served as a motivator for him to plan for further strategic
action. If he cannot remember them, he returned to the previous strate-
gies which helped him reinforce his memory of the target words, includ-
ing “using the screenshots of particular scenes to remember vocabulary
items in context” and “testing himself on the target words and phrases
through watching the episode”. In his last diary, Qa reflected on the expe-
rience of using sitcoms as a resource for vocabulary learning:
Extract 4.24
Although I enjoy learning words through watching

sitcoms, it’s not that easy as we think. I need
to try many different strategies and then find
the ones that work for me. Through testing
myself, I know I have remembered many new words
and phrases. I feel quite proud of myself. But I
don’t have many real life opportunities to use
them, so I still don’t know if I could use them
appropriately with native speakers. (Qa, diary,
VOCABlog)
In order to enhance his vocabulary learning, Qa found that continu-

ous efforts were needed to evaluate the effectiveness of the learning pro-
cess and find more appropriate strategies in relation to his own needs. He
expressed satisfaction with better word retention he achieved by improv-
ing his choice and utilisation of vocabulary-related strategies. However,
4.5 Insights 159
he also raised further concern regarding the problem which he might

encounter in using the target words and phrases productively in real-life
situations.
4.5 Insights
There are three particular aspects of Ji’s and Qa’s vocabulary learning
experiences which have been highlighted in this chapter: the impact of
strategy instruction in vocabulary strategies, opportunities for vocabulary
learning beyond the classroom, and building vocabulary for everyday
life. I will provide further insights into these aspects in this section.
4.5.1 Strategy Instruction
We have seen in this chapter that the foundation programme on the Opal
site provided students with both explicit and implicit strategy instruction
about vocabulary learning throughout the academic year. With regard to
the Wolfson site, the instruction about strategies specifically for building
IELTS vocabulary was delivered explicitly over a short period (see Chap.
3). On the Ryder site, the students were not explicitly taught vocabulary-
related strategies, but sometimes their teacher embedded suggestions for
use of vocabulary strategies into language tasks when appropriate (see
Chap. 2).
As reported in Chap. 2, while Mary’s strategy suggestions raised Xia’s
and Wu’s awareness of some vocabulary-related strategies, she provided
limited practical support for their strategy development. In addition, the
students did not get much opportunity to practise strategies and reflect
on their own strategy use in the classroom. By contrast, the explicit strat-
egy instruction on both Opal and Wolfson sites, which essentially
involved explicit description and modelling of vocabulary strategies, stu-
dents’ strategy-sharing/strategy discussions, teacher feedback on strategy
use and additional strategy practice, appeared to play a more important
role in developing the students’ new strategies and strengthening existing
ones (see also Chamot 2008; Cohen 2011). The students (i.e. Bo, Ke, Ji,
Qa) were given opportunities to experiment and practise new strategies.

As a result, they expanded their repertoires of vocabulary learning strate-
gies which helped to enhance their learning outcome.
The length of strategy instruction can also affect the effectiveness of the
treatment, as students need time to fully understand how and when strat-
egies can be used as well as considerable opportunities for guided practice
(Nyikos and Fan 2007; Plonsky 2011). On the Wolfson site, only four
hours were dedicated to conducting vocabulary strategy instruction
within one month. The students lacked opportunities to reflect on how
the strategies they had learned were used for their own styles and needs.
Furthermore, the instruction focused on strategies for building IELTS
vocabulary (e.g. making a mind map to review IELTS vocabulary).
Although Bo and Ke found the instruction helpful in expanding vocabu-
lary for the IELTS exam, they were less likely to transfer new strategies
they had learned to other language tasks (e.g. learning general vocabulary
and remembering subject-related vocabulary) outside the classroom.
Therefore, for strategy instruction to be effective, besides the total length
of the instruction, it would be useful to allot appropriate time to differ-
ent strategy training activities, e.g. awareness raising, teacher demonstra-
tion, practice and evaluation (see also Plonsky 2011). Students also need
assistance evaluating strategies that they had learned, identifying whether
the strategies are useful for real language tasks, and applying them to new
contexts (Rubin et al. 2007; Cohen 2011; Oxford 2011).
By contrast, on the Opal site, Ji’s and Qa’s language teachers (i.e. Eva
and Ruth) offered the strategy instruction in vocabulary on an ongoing
basis from the first to the second semester, with a particular focus on the
use of vocabulary notebooks and dictionaries. As Ji and Qa were given
plenty of time to practise new and existing strategies and evaluate the
effectiveness of their strategies, they became more aware of when and
how to use strategies and apply them across L2 learning tasks. In particu-
lar, continuous efforts they made to keep vocabulary notebooks and con-
sult dictionaries enabled them to discover their own problems in using
vocabulary-related strategies and also helped them identify their specific
needs.
With regard to the implementation of vocabulary notebooks on the
Opal site, Eva and Ruth used different approaches to conduct strategy
4.5 Insights 161
instruction, but in a complementary manner. Eva tended to explicitly

introduce and model strategies that students could use to build v ocabulary
through keeping notebooks. In order to enhance their learning outcome,
she asked students to store and retrieve vocabulary on a regular basis, and
encouraged them to practise their strategies. She also weekly took their
notebooks to check their progress and gave comments to help them
improve their strategy use. As we have seen from this chapter, this teacher-
oriented approach expanded their repertoires of strategies as to how to
record and review vocabulary strategically, but it also undermined Qa’s
motivation to maintain their vocabulary notebooks. Qa was willing to
have more freedom to organise and plan his strategy use rather than being
overly reliant on the teacher’s decision.
The ultimate goal of strategy instruction is the successful autonomous
use of vocabulary-related strategies. During the second semester, Ruth
continued to implement the use of vocabulary notebooks in class, and
also provided dictionary skills instruction. Students were given more
opportunities to make own interpretations and share ideas about their
strategy use. Based on their actual needs, Ruth provided input and feed-
back. In particular, the findings of Ji and Qa have underscored the value
of strategy-sharing/discussion in their strategy development (see also
Oxford and Schramm 2007; Mizumoto and Takeuchi 2009; Hourigan
and Murray 2010).
When Qa and Ji shared their experiences as to how to keep vocabulary
notebooks and consult a dictionary, their problem- solving processes
became verbalised. Here, an interactive or collaborative dialogue with
more capable others (i.e. their teacher and peers) was seen as an impor-
tant mediational tool to scaffold them from other-regulation to self-reg-
ulation (Mitchell and Myers 1998; Oxford and Schramm 2007; Wang
2015). For example, the feedback Qa received from his peers on his
recording strategies helped him improve his vocabulary notebook. He
also made further efforts to fine-tune his recording strategies through the
scaffolding of his teacher (e.g. teacher questions). Ruth spent less time
teaching strategies. Rather, she engaged students in different interactive
activities and allowed them to play a more active role in the process of
strategy selection and evaluation. As a consequence, Ji and Qa were able
to use their own initiative to engage in purposeful strategy use outside the
classroom and enhance the effectiveness of their strategy use in relation to

their personal needs and own learning styles.
4.5.2 Building Vocabulary for Everyday Life
Research has shown that language learners benefit from a study abroad
experience, since it offers them the opportunity to use the target language
outside the classroom (Alcón-Soler 2015; Briggs 2015; DuFon 2006).
However, living in a study abroad context does not guarantee a signifi-
cant vocabulary growth and accurate use of vocabulary items. With
regard to Ji and Qa, they both gained little access to the social networks
of English speakers outside the classroom and hence had limited exposure
to spoken English as well as opportunities to improve vocabulary. When
they communicated with local people, they encountered difficulties in
expressing themselves and lacked the necessary vocabulary.
In order to enhance their language performance in daily conversations,
Ji and Qa tried to expand opportunities for vocabulary learning beyond
the classroom. As we have seen from this chapter, Ji actively engaged in
everyday activities with her host parents and also extended social net-
works of target language speakers. While students and teachers generally
assume that interactions with native speakers benefit language learning,
researchers (e.g. Segalowitz and Freed 2004; Cadd 2012; Flores-Salgado
2016) have revealed that such interactions may not result in expected
language gains and the extent to which the interaction contributes to lan-
guage development is related to a variety of factors, such as the quantity
and intensity of the interaction. In addition to participating in day-to-day
interactions with native speakers, Ji’s strategic learning experience indi-
cates that vocabulary learning and development necessitate further efforts
to improve and strengthen the quality of interaction. As revealed in the
data, the efforts she made to maximise the benefit of interaction were:
• Consciously noticing unfamiliar words spoken by native speakers and

observing how they used vocabulary items in everyday situations, such
as word choices, grammatical rules and conventional expressions
• Asking native speakers to explain or clarify unknown/unfamiliar words
4.5 Insights 163
• Seeking native speakers’ feedback on her semantic appropriateness,

grammatical accuracy and pragmatic knowledge
• Making use of a monolingual dictionary to verify the feedback pro-
vided by native speakers
• Making use of her vocabulary notebook to record, review and recycle
the vocabulary items learned from the interaction with native speakers
• Deploying strategy combinations to learn vocabulary during and after
the interaction with native speakers
Ji’s case highlighted a number of factors that facilitated the process

of vocabulary learning and enhanced learning outcome, including the
amount of oral interaction with target language speakers, noticing,
conscious strategy use, the effective use of learning resources and rep-
etition (see also Nation 2001; Schmitt 2010; Gao 2010; Palfreyman
2014).
Unlike Ji, Qa did not invest much time and effort in increasing social
contact with local people; rather, the way which he used to build vocabu-
lary and colloquia expressions was through watching English-language tele-
vision programmes. In particular, Qa used sitcoms as an important resource
providing everyday English as well as a tool to motivate himself to learn
vocabulary outside the classroom. Previous research suggests that watching
L2 television extensively, especially across episodes of the same programme,
can increase exposure to recurrent vocabulary items as well as the potential
for vocabulary learning (Schmitt and Carter 2000; Rodgers and Webb
2011; Lin and Siyanova-Chanturia 2015). However, there appears to be a
lack of research examining what actually happens to language learners
when they make use of English-language television programmes to learn
vocabulary. Qa’s vocabulary learning experience revealed that the process of
acquiring vocabulary items through watching sitcoms was not simple. He
was confronted with a variety of challenges and problems during the pro-
cess. As reported in this Chapter, he made continuous, strategic efforts to
solve problems and make learning more effective and enjoyable.
While Qa tried to view episodes of a single programme (i.e. The Big
Bang Theory) regularly, the amount of colloquial, spoken vocabulary
learned was not as great as was expected. He evaluated the effectiveness of
his learning process and planned for further strategic action. He played a
more active role in programme selection and selected a more appropriate

sitcom, named My Family, according to his interests and needs. A series
of metacognitive strategies which Qa deployed appeared to play an
important role in improving vocabulary learning and his strategy use. In
order to enhance his learning outcome, cognitively, he also maximised
opportunities to enrich word knowledge while watching and recycle the
target words after watching.
Furthermore, affect was closely related to cognition when Qa learned
vocabulary through watching the sitcom, and the negative emotions (e.g.
frustration and annoyance) which he produced also influenced his learn-
ing motivation (see also Oxford 2011). In order to sustain his motivation
to learn, Qa improved the utilisation of vocabulary strategies and com-
bined cognitive strategies with affective strategies either simultaneously
or in sequence.
4.6 Conclusion
This chapter provides details on how the strategic awareness and vocabu-
lary strategies of Ji and Qa developed through different forms of strategy
instruction and a further account of how their strategies actually worked
for them outside the classroom. The explicit strategy instruction that
their language teachers offered helped the two learners expand their rep-
ertoires of strategies. A variety of factors that were also identified appeared
to affect the effectiveness of strategy instruction, such as the length of
strategy instruction, types of activities, the role of the teacher and learn-
ing style preferences. Both Ji and Qa lacked colloquial, spoken vocabu-
lary to participate in everyday activities and exploited their out-of-class
context to identify different sources of input of everyday English and
authentic vocabulary use (i.e. interaction with native speakers and
English-language television programmes). However, their attempts to
learn and remember vocabulary were not always successful and encoun-
tered various problems during their learning process. In order to enhance
their vocabulary learning, they sought solutions to deal with their prob-
lems and continued to improve their strategy use. The following table
4.6 Conclusion 165
Table 4.1 Ji’s and Qa’s strategic attempts

Ji’s strategic attempts Qa’s strategic attempts
Using a vocabulary notebook to help them consolidate vocabulary:
“Selecting the words highlighted by “Selecting the words that he had
her teacher in class as well as the already known but had difficulty with
words that she found useful for and grouping them”
daily conversation” “Identifying spelling differences
“Defining the target words in her between words and remembering the
own words and comparing a words by relating their spelling into
dictionary’s definition with the their meaning”
definition produced by herself” “Recording his own explanation of
“Writing her own sample sentences semantic differences across
using the target word” synonymous words in L1 as well as the
“Checking with her teacher if the words’ sample sentences”
word was used accurately” “Recording some useful collocations
“Recording various aspects of word that were likely to be used in his
knowledge, e.g. multiple meanings writing”
and collocations” “Studying the words in context and
“Evaluating the effectiveness of her finding out how they were used”
vocabulary notebook and trying “Evaluating the effectiveness of his
different ways to improve the vocabulary notebook and exploring
notebook” possible ways to improve the
“Reviewing her vocabulary entries notebook”
on a regular basis and colouring
the newly added information”
“Making mind maps to link the new
words with those she had already
known”
“Increasing her motivation by
challenging herself to recall the
target words without seeing their
vocabulary entries”
Use a dictionary/dictionaries to discover the word meaning:
“Matching the meaning in a “Guessing the word meaning from the
dictionary entry with the textual given context at a pre-consultation
context’“Verifying her inference in stage”
relation to both the immediate “Evaluating the quantity and quality of
context containing the target word information that different dictionaries
as well as its wider context” provided at a pre-consultation stage”
“Selecting an appropriate “Searching for clues that existed in the
dictionary’s definition by making English definition to help him with the
use of various contextual clues” meaning of the target word”
To learn vocabulary through To learn vocabulary through watch

interacting with native speakers English-language sitcoms
(continued)
Ji’s strategic attempts Qa’s strategic attempts

“Consciously noticing unknown “Pre-watching a few episodes of
words spoken by native speakers, different sitcoms and then choosing an
their word choice as well as their appropriate sitcom”
vocabulary use” “Guessing the meaning of the target
“Asking native speakers to explain word in relation to the L1 subtitle as
unknown words, semantic well as the immediate context’
differences across synonymous “Using the speaker’s intonation and
words, pragmatic meaning and facial expressions to work out the
idioms” speaker’s implied intentions behind
“Making use of a monolingual the target words”
dictionary to verify native speakers’ “Consulting a dictionary to check the
feedback” meaning of the target word if
“Recording useful words in her necessary”
vocabulary notebook” “Capturing the screenshots of relevant
“Practising using the target word scenes where the target words
with native speakers” occurred and remembering them in a
particular context rather than in
isolation”
“Turning off both Chinese and English
subtitles and testing himself on the
target words that he had studied
through watching the episode”
“Evaluating his strategy use and
improving his choice and utilisation of
vocabulary strategies”
summarised the strategic efforts that Ji and Qa invested and also made a
positive difference to their vocabulary learning and use (Table 4.1).
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5
Strategic Vocabulary Learning
as a Complex Dynamic System
5.1 Introduction
Chapters 2, 3 and 4 have offered a detailed account of the vocabulary
learning experiences of six pre-university Chinese students in the UK and
examined the interplay between their strategy use, agency and their dis-
crete learning contexts. The case studies form the basis of the empirical
part of this book and my additional related studies were also included in
this chapter to provide further insights into the vocabulary strategies of
Chinese study-abroad learners, with regard to the quality of their strategy
use and strategy functions.
This chapter will synthesise the findings from research conducted to
form the overall themes of the inquiry. I will also discuss some key issues
that emerged from my studies through engaging other relevant research
literature and then propose a conceptualisation of strategic vocabulary
learning as a complex dynamic system from both cognitive and sociocul-
tural perspectives. Next, the chapter will examine the challenges of typi-
cal questionnaire-based research for exploring contextually situated
characteristics and complexities of strategy use, and a combination of
qualitative methodologies will be highlighted to enrich the understand-
ing of the process of strategic vocabulary learning. In the light of my

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65963-3_5
170 5 Strategic Vocabulary Learning as a Complex Dynamic System
research projects, the final section of the chapter will suggest future direc-
tions in researching strategies for learning and performing vocabulary.
5.2 C
ognitive Perspectives on Strategic
Vocabulary Learning
During the past forty years, vocabulary learning strategies have been
largely defined and researched from a cognitive perspective. One promi-
nent cognitive approach that explains the process of strategic learning is
Anderson’s (1985, 1990) cognitive information-processing model.
Drawing on his model, strategies are regarded as knowledge, moving
from declarative (i.e. conscious and fact-oriented) to procedural (i.e.
autonomous and habitual) through a practice phase (O’Malley and
Chamot 1990). Strategies are viewed as cognitive in nature, in particular,
consciousness distinguishes strategies from non-strategic processes
(Cohen 1998, 2011). With regard to vocabulary learning strategies, the
cognitive perspective emphasises certain mental processes that language
learners actively engage and further operationalised in facilitating the
internalisation, storage, retrieval, or use of the target vocabulary items,
such as analysing, inferencing, remembering, elaboration and transfer
(Gu and Johnson 1996; Oxford 1999; Schmitt 2010). Macaro (2006)
further suggests that strategies are conscious actions that are task-specific
and directed towards the achievement of goals.
From a cognitive perspective, the depth of processing theory (Craik
and Lockhart 1972) also plays an important role in guiding vocabulary
learning strategies research on vocabulary retention. The theory suggests
that the deeper, the more involved learners are in manipulating the target
words, the better they would be retained. Compared with ‘surface’ pro-
cessing strategies (e.g. ‘repetition’ and ‘rote memorisation’, see Gu 2003),
previous research (e.g. Nyikos 1987; Ellis and Beaton 1995; Sagarra and
Alba 2006) has demonstrated that learners’ vocabulary retention was
more likely to benefit from certain ‘deep’ processing strategies. Such strat-
egies (e.g. ‘the use of mnemonic associations’ and ‘the semantic process-
ing method’) provide learners with the opportunity to more actively
manipulate and deeply process target words, contributing to better reten-
tion (see a summary of representative studies in Table 5.1).
5.2 Cognitive Perspectives on Strategic Vocabulary Learning 171
Table 5.1 Selected studies of the effectiveness of ‘deep’ processing strategies

Study Participants Method Results
Cohen 26 trained The study was conducted Student performance
and English- through learners’ was better when
Aphek speaking self-report using previously-
(1980) learners of longitudinally over a formed associations
Hebrew (23 five-week period. than when the
males and 3 students used a new
females) association, no longer
used an association,
or used no association
at all.
Success rate across all
four tasks for recall of
words that were
learned through
association was
generally high.
Brown Six intact classes A control-group design The combined
and (three were was used in this study. keyword-semantic
Perry upper level The students received strategy increased
(1991) and three 4 days of instruction. vocabulary retention
were lower Both recognition and and had a better
level) from the cued-recall instruments effect than employing
English were used to measure the strategies (i.e. the
institute at an effects after treatment. keyword method and
American semantic processing)
university alone.
The keyword method
for acquiring new
vocabulary was
particularly effective
for lower-proficiency
learners.
Laufer Thirty university The students were taught The consistent use of
and students of 60 words during 10 second-hand cloze
Osimo English for weeks prior to the test. improved long-term
(1991) Academic 30 target words retention of words.
purposes underwent an The second-hand cloze
(native additional practice of an embodied some
speakers of experimental task (i.e. characteristics of
Hebrew and the second-hand cloze), other memorisation
Arabic) while the other 30 did strategies, but it also
not. Their long-term overcame their
retention of words was shortcomings.
tested in a recall test.
Several studies have also produced inconsistent findings regarding the

effectiveness of associative strategies, however. For example, Wang et al.
(1992) found that long-term rate of forgetting was faster for learners
instructed to use the keyword method by comparison with the rote learn-
ing, although the keyword method appeared to reinforce short-term
vocabulary retention. The keyword method entails linking the L2 word
and an L1 keyword that looks or sounds similar, and then creating an
interactive image between the keyword and the L2 word. Associative
strategies, especially the keyword method (Atkinson, 1975), are highly
depended on individuals’ imagination and learning styles, and require
time and effort to look for and form an association between word form
and meaning. Hence, studies (e.g. Schmitt 1997; Fan 2003; Mizumoto
and Takeuchi 2009) showed that repetition and rote memorisation
tended to be favoured over associative strategies by vocabulary learners.
In my study, although none of the learners used the keyword method,
Wu, Bo and Ji associated target words with visual images to enhance their
vocabulary outcome. Wu formed mental images of target words and
made further attempts to imagine everyday interactive situations involv-
ing himself using the words with other people. With regard to Bo and Ji,
they enriched their vocabulary notebook by adding pictures of target
words. The pictures were either drawn by the learner or taken from the
Internet. They consolidated previously learnt words in relation to their
pictures. Consistent with the depth of processing theory, the learners per-
formed an extensive analysis of target words while linking the image and
the actual meaning, thus reinforcing their memory of the words (see also
Cohen and Aphek 1980). Visual images also served semantic elaboration
which promoted vocabulary comprehension (see also Szczepaniak and
Lew 2011; Carpenter and Olson 2012). However, my study indicated
that the effect of such strategies in developing full knowledge of a word,
e.g. knowledge of collocations, knowledge of word form and grammati-
cal functions, did not appear to be powerful, though the use of these
strategies contributed to vocabulary retention and understanding.
While previous studies suggested that rote memorisation was favoured by
Chinese learners, all six learners in this study seldom used this strategy and
were more likely to learn and remember vocabulary in relation to a variety
of contexts, such as reading, listening, spoken, and reading-while-listening.
5.2 Cognitive Perspectives on Strategic Vocabulary Learning 173
Compared with spoken and listening contexts, less frequent words

occur more frequently in a written text, and the learner seems to have
more time to infer and analyse unknown words and think about which
strategy to apply (Takač 2008; Graham and Santos 2015). Strategies
which are used to acquire vocabulary from the context of reading have
attracted much attention in vocabulary learning strategy research, named
‘contextualised strategies’ (Nyikos and Fan 2007), for example, “using
contextual clues to figure out the word meaning” and “remembering the
word in relation to the textual context containing the word”.
The findings from my study showed that both understanding and
acquisition of vocabulary items were improved through reading by means
of contextualised vocabulary learning strategies (see also Fraser 1999;
Nassaji 2003; Horst 2005). In particular, compared with decontextualised
rote memorisation, the Chinese learners in my study stressed that learning
words from context provided a more meaningful way to acquire the mean-
ings of target words, their collocations as well as grammatical functions
(see also reviews in Nyikos and Fan 2007). However, using contextualised
strategies alone cannot guarantee successful vocabulary learning, and
some problems which they encountered were also identified as follows:
• They tended to pay attention to the meaning of new words but ignore
their form (e.g. their pronunciation and spelling).
• They lacked sufficient knowledge to infer word meaning from
context.
• They made errors in inferencing the meaning of unknown words.
• A new word was unlikely to be learned through a single encounter, and
thus vocabulary gains from written and spoken contexts were relatively
small.
The findings are consistent with the literature which addresses the
effectiveness of inferencing strategies in vocabulary learning when learn-
ers engage in reading (e.g. Coady 1993; Hulstijin et al. 1996; Wesche and
Paribakht 2000).
Successful word inferencing involves available contextual cues as well
as the learner’s linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge (Dubin and
Olshtain 1993). In my study, the learners who lacked sufficient discourse,
topical and cultural background knowledge encountered difficulty in

contextual guessing during reading or speaking. Our recent study (Cohen
and Wang 2017, under review) found that the Chinese learners, who
were able to activate appropriate linguistic knowledge (such as grammati-
cal knowledge, morphological knowledge, and knowledge of L1 or/and
L3) in combination with available contextual clues, were more likely to
infer word meaning successfully than those who only relied on contextual
clues during an English vocabulary task. Schema theory addresses the
importance of previously acquired knowledge, named background
knowledge, in cognitive processes, e.g. reasoning and inferencing, and
suggests that the learners’ background knowledge constitutes the main
guiding context which supports inferencing and understanding target
words (Nassaji 2007).
Coady et al. (1985) proposed that most of the sight vocabulary con-
sisted of high-frequency words that were well learned with repeated expo-
sure. According to their theory of vocabulary acquisition, low-frequency
words can be also learned through incidental contact in context (with the
help of some strategy training) via extensive reading after automaticity in
high-frequency words has been achieved (Coady 1993; Tozcu and Coady
2004). A series of studies have confirmed that both L1 and L2 learners
are able to incidentally acquire vocabulary through reading and greater
vocabulary gains occur when encountering unknown words repeatedly in
context (Jenkins et al. 1984; Horst et al. 1998; Pigada and Schmitt 2006;
Webb 2007).
However, in my study, apart from Wu and Qa, the other four learners
rarely read for pleasure outside the classroom and encounters of target
words were not enough to acquire target words. To increase their vocabu-
lary gains, they consciously noticed and discovered unknown words in
reading and made a further strategic effort. For example, Bo combined
repetition strategies (e.g. “remembering the word by repeating the context
containing the word”) with inferencing strategies to increase encounters of
target words. Furthermore, the six learners deployed strategies to learn
vocabulary from not only the context of reading but also spoken, audio and
video contexts. In particular, Qa’s data indicate that unknown words, espe-
cially colloquial expressions, can be learned through repeatedly watching
subtitled television programs, with the help of vocabulary-related strategies,
5.3 Sociocultural Perspectives on Strategic Vocabulary Learning 175
e.g. dictionary look-up strategies and recording strategies. Therefore, inten-

tional vocabulary learning should complement incidental learning, and the
use of vocabulary learning strategies, especially repetition strategies, appears
to have a positive effect on vocabulary gains (see also Nation 2013).
5.3 S
ociocultural Perspectives on Strategic
Vocabulary Learning
More recently, several researchers (e.g. Gao 2006, 2010; Huang and
Andrews 2010; Harish 2014) have approached language learner strate-
gies from a more sociocultural perspective. Vygotsky (1981) did not deny
that individuals were guided by their own mental processes. However, he
argued that these alone cannot provide a coherent picture and suggested
the social origins of strategies.
In Vygotsky’s view, strategies (what he called ‘higher mental functions’,
such as reasoning, analysis, evaluation and planning) are mediated by
culturally constructed artefacts and sociocultural practices (Donato and
McCormick 1994; Oxford and Schramm 2007). The operation of cul-
tural artefacts (or what Vygotsky named ‘tools’), both physical and sym-
bolic, imbued with social meaning, plays an important role in the
reconstruction of mental functions and consequently gives rise to a fun-
damental transformation of higher mental functions (Wertsch 1985;
Lantolf and Thorne 2006).
Huang and Andrews (2010), for instance, emphasised that choice of
language strategies were mediated by cultural artefacts, especially learn-
ing tasks. The researchers investigated the use of strategies for dealing
with 11 language tasks by Chinese-speaking senior secondary students in
their English classes. They found that the students modified their learn-
ing goals in response to different language tasks and varied their strategy
use according to their task goals (e.g. to understand the meaning of words
or to improve reading ability). In addition, the nature of the tasks, includ-
ing task types (i.e. non-communicative and communicative tasks), stages
of tasks (i.e. pre-, during-, and post-task stages), and demands of tasks
(e.g. requiring students to use the target language in reading and writing
contexts), influenced which strategies were selected.
From a sociocultural perspective, Gao (2006) explored the impact of

context on the development of vocabulary learning strategies. Results
showed that Chinese students studying in Britain adopted different strat-
egies from those studying in China, and adjusted their strategies in order
to adapt to a new learning context in the UK. In particular, there were
three types of contextual resources that mediated the students’ strategy
selection and use, including social agents (such as language teachers and
friends), learning discourse (e.g. viewing English as a tool to raise people’s
social status) and objects (e.g. assessment methods). Strategy develop-
ment appeared to be greatly influenced by the social context and emerge
from learner’s socialisation into a language learning community (Toohey
and Norton 2003).
Vygotskian sociocultural theory stresses the important role that social
interaction and cultural institution(s), e.g. schools and classrooms, play
in the individual’s cognitive growth. The concept of the zone of proximal
development (ZPD) was conceived by Vygotsky as a metaphor to repre-
sent the way in which less capable learners could be directed from their
actual developmental level to the level of their potential development
towards becoming more strategic learners. During this transformational
process, interactive or collaborative dialogue with more capable others is
used as an important mediational tool to scaffold the learner from other-
regulation to self-regulation (Mitchell and Myers 1998). Strategy instruc-
tion is often linked with mediated learning and the ZPD, and the role of
strategy instruction in language classrooms is also examined from a socio-
cultural perspective in the literature.
Strategy instruction which involves more knowledgeable others (i.e.
teachers and peers), various kinds of assistance and scaffolding as well as
guided practice, can raise learners’ strategic awareness and help them
expand their strategy repertoire (Lenski and Nierstheimer 2002; Zhang
2008; Oxford 2011). As has been discussed in Chap. 4, compared with
more implicit strategy instruction in class, explicit strategy-based instruc-
tion, which involved explicit description and modelling of vocabulary
strategies, students’ strategy-sharing/strategy discussions, teacher feed-
back on strategy use and additional strategy practice, seemed to be more
useful in the development of vocabulary- related strategies (also see
Griffiths 2008; Cohen 2011; Oxford 2011; Graham and Santos 2015).
5.3 Sociocultural Perspectives on Strategic Vocabulary Learning 177
All the participants in my study acknowledged the value of social inter-

actions to vocabulary development and managed their strategic vocabu-
lary learning not only individually but also socially while studying in
Britain. Wu, Qa, Ke tried to explore what interactive opportunities avail-
able in the classroom, or outside the classroom, or both, and made use of
the opportunities for more effective learning. Bo, Xia, Ji made further
attempts to maximise their communicative opportunities outside the
classroom and improved their vocabulary learning through interacting
with proficient speakers of the target language.
The six participants deployed social strategies or combined social strat-
egies with other strategies to enhance learning outcome, for example,
“discussing with peers to enrich the understanding of vocabulary items”,
“asking someone who had specific knowledge of the word which had
been inferred to verify the inference” and “practising using newly learnt
words with native speakers to fine-tune the use of the word”. Oxford
appears to be the first scholar to view social strategies as a form of social
mediation. According to Oxford (1999, cited in Oxford and Schramm
2007, pp. 52–3), social strategies help higher order functions (e.g. analys-
ing and synthesising, named ‘cognitive strategies’; monitoring, planning
and evaluating, named ‘metacognitive strategies’) to be internalised
through verbal interaction with more capable others. The problem-solv-
ing processes become verbalised, and an interactive dialogue can mediate
language learning towards better learning performance.
Some scholars (e.g. Leeke and Shaw 2000; Gao 2003; Flores-Salgado
2016) have suggested that interacting with proficient speakers of English was
a useful social strategy to explore unknown words and develop vocabulary
knowledge when international students were studying abroad. My study fur-
ther revealed that social strategies played an important role in supplementing
other types of strategies and helped learners to overcome the limitations of
only using cognitive strategies (see also Wang 2015). For instance, the use of
inferencing strategies, or dictionary look-up strategies, or both in combina-
tion with the social strategy, “asking someone who had specific knowledge of
the word for assistance”, could help the learner gain a more precise, accurate
understanding of the word and enrich the pragmatic meaning.
In different circumstances, the data also indicated a number of factors
that motivated the learners to select social strategies, including their
ersonality, learning styles, learning beliefs, prior knowledge, enjoyment,

p
as well as their social networks. In particular, from a sociocultural per-
spective, the process of interaction itself (e.g. strategy-sharing through
peer discussion) engaged their personal agency in generating more ques-
tions and raising their strategic awareness (see also Ushioda 2007), and
this in turn increased their motivation to use more social strategies.
5.4 U
nderstanding Vocabulary Learner
Strategies from Both Cognitive
and Sociocultural Perspectives
Those researching from a sociocultural perspective have criticised the
fact that cognitive researchers treat strategies as individual phenomena.
However, in some of these studies, they appear to over-emphasise the
influence of context on strategy use, and not enough attention has been
paid to the dialectic between the individual and the social, and between
learners’ own strategic attempts and their sociocultural settings (e.g.
Jang and Jimenez 2011; Li 2014). Gu (2003) suggests that choice, use
and effectiveness of vocabulary learning strategies are dependent upon
both the learner him/herself (e.g. learning style and prior knowledge)
and the learning context (e.g. the classroom climate and the availability
of input and output opportunities).
In order to gain a better understanding of the process of strategic
vocabulary learning, one possible solution is further suggested, namely
that researchers need to explore synergies between the two perspectives
and show how they can complement each other (Oxford and Schramm
2007, p. 66). Gao and Zhang (2011) have used concepts of agency from
a sociocultural perspective, and metacognition from a cognitive perspec-
tive, to re-interpret and analyse the previous study (Gao 2010). Here,
they attempt to understand strategic language learning from both per-
spectives and claim that strategies refer not only to learners’ strategic
attempts to regulate their cognitive and metacognitive learning process
but also to the efforts to strategically manage a range of different socio-
cultural contexts in order to achieve their learning goals.
5.5 Context, Agency and Strategy Use 179
As we have seen in the discussion above as well as the data analysis

presented in previous chapters, it is clear that both cognitive and socio-
cultural approaches have value which contributes to a rich understanding
of learner strategies and strategy development. The following sections will
provide a more holistic view of strategic vocabulary learning and further
discussion on the choice and use of vocabulary-related strategies in rela-
tion to context, agency, and learner characteristics.
5.5 Context, Agency and Strategy Use

This book presents a series of case studies which investigated the processes
of strategic vocabulary learning of six Chinese students who in pairs had
studied at three British universities. In the cases examined, strategic
vocabulary learning is not solely an individual process; rather, it is a tem-
porally and contextually situated phenomenon. The findings of this study
indicated a dynamic interaction of three dimensions: (a) the learners’ use
of vocabulary strategies, (b) their agency as a learner who managed stra-
tegic vocabulary learning and (c) various levels of context which played a
mediational role in strategy choice (see Fig. 5.1).
Culture-a macro-contextual level
Milieu - an intermediate-contextual level

Chinese
culture
Teaching &
Learning Setting - a micro-contextual level
Everyday life
British The immediate learning situation
culture
Social
Fig. 5.1 Three levels of context

‘The Chinese learner’ is often viewed as culturally determined. Many

scholars have shown that the preferred language/vocabulary learning
strategies of Chinese learners tend to be a combination of memorisation
and repetition, and traditional Chinese culture and values (e.g. the
Confucian educational tradition) seem to have a significant impact on
their learning approaches and strategy use (e.g. Kember 1996; Watkins
and Biggs 1996; Jiang and Smith 2009; Li and Cutting 2011; Chien
2014). However, all these approaches cannot be used to stereotype the
Chinese learner, and there are considerable individual differences among
Chinese learners (Gu 2003; Gao 2010).
With regard to the intercultural experience of student sojourners, the
influence of cultural and educational backgrounds in their learning
approaches seems to be less influential when they have more exposure to
the host culture. Culture identities are constructed through social inter-
action and negotiation with new values and practices (Zhu 2016). A
study by Sun and Richardson (2012) was conducted at six British busi-
ness schools to compare the British and mainland Chinese students with
regard to their perceptions and approaches to studying in UK higher
education. The study revealed that there were no significant differences
between the two groups in their learning approaches. There was also no
evidence in the Chinese students for a distinctive approach to studying
that combined memorialisation with understanding. Like British stu-
dents, Chinese students were also less likely to use learning approaches in
isolation. Rather, they tended to combine different approaches to study-
ing. The authors argued that variation in students’ approaches to study-
ing appeared to be attributed to characteristics of their educational
context (e.g. teaching methods).
In my study, the Chinese learners experienced differences in teaching
and learning between the home and host cultures, such as differences in
the teaching style, classroom interaction and teacher-student role. The
surrounding milieu and the immediate setting are both embedded
within the broader context of the host culture at a macro level (see
Fig. 5.1). Although the Chinese learners encountered a variety of chal-
lenges in adjusting to the new learning culture, the study-abroad expe-
rience also provided them with the opportunity for culture learning
and self-development.
The findings of this study challenge the way that Chinese learners’
strategy use is treated as relatively fixed. The six learners’ strategic vocabu-
lary learning was not static, but they exercised their agency as a learner by
actively changing and developing their vocabulary learning strategies
appropriate to the host culture. Gao (2010) focused on interactions
between strategy use and ‘macro contextual elements’ such as popular
societal discourses, economic conditions or policies. By contrast, this
book shifts the focus from the mediation of context in strategy develop-
ment at a macro level to a more micro level, examining the interplay of
language learners’ strategy choice, their milieus, and specific settings.
The data indicate that individual learners appear to choose strategies in
relation to their milieu at an intermediate-contextual level (see Fig. 5.1).
The ‘milieu’ (adapted from Bourdieu 1984), which is extended beyond
the immediate setting, refers to surrounding communities where lan-
guage practices are socially constructed (see also Halliday 2007; Norton
2013). This study reveals that the milieu encompasses:
• Milieu of teaching and learning, involving teaching approach, learning

activities, course design, module content, teaching arrangement and
assessment
• Milieu of everyday life, involving opportunities for and constraints on
the practice of the target language
• Social milieu, involving social networks and social relationships
The three university contexts created different milieus of teaching and

learning for vocabulary learning. Each of the foundation courses placed
different emphasis on vocabulary in relation to their own course design
and goals, and approaches to teaching vocabulary also differed according
to their learning objectives, the need of their learners and assessment. As
we have seen from the previous chapters, the contextual variations across
three sites influenced the six learners’ strategy choice and use. In addition,
teaching contents and teaching approaches were closely related to the prac-
tices of the classroom, such as vocabulary tasks, learning interactions, and
the relationship between teacher and pupils. The data have suggested the
interrelationships between the learner’s strategy choice and a plethora of
classroom practices.
The milieu of everyday life provided the six learners with potential
opportunities to build and practise vocabulary beyond the classroom, for
example, English TV programmes, everyday conversations, and local travel.
However, studying abroad did not guarantee success in vocabulary learning
and a significant vocabulary growth. The data revealed that the success of
vocabulary learning depended largely on to the way in which individual
learners responded and reacted to these opportunities. For example, both
Xia and Qa had believed that English vocabulary can gain and expand
naturally by studying and living in an English-speaking country, but with-
out deliberate attention and study of unknown words they soon realised
that only small amounts of vocabulary learning seemed to occur.
Xia raised her strategic awareness of vocabulary learning through
reflection on her previous experience and increased active engagement in
the learning process. In particular, she became very interested in learning
vocabulary through visiting British museums and saw this way as a fur-
ther extension of the language classroom. She deployed a sequence of
strategies that entailed sophisticated thinking about target vocabulary
items in context and made a further effort to consolidate the words on a
regular basis. With regard to Qa, he enjoyed learning vocabulary through
watching English television programmes, but meanwhile identified some
problems during the learning process. In order to enhance his learning
outcome, he made continuous attempts to improve his utilisation of
vocabulary strategies and involved a high level of investment in vocabu-
lary learning and practices.
The discrete contexts of six learners seemed to be two sides of the same
coin, which could both facilitate and restrict their accesses to the target
language community (see also Toohey and Norton 2003; Palfreyman
2006).With regard to their social milieu, on the one hand, their data
indicated that the study-abroad context provided them with diverse
encounters with target language speakers. On the other hand, some learn-
ers also addressed their lack of experience in practising vocabulary with
speakers of the target language outside the classroom due to a variety of
contextual constraints. In particular, Bo and Ke gained little access to the
social networks of English speakers as result of the heavy recruitment of
Chinese students on campus and intensive tuition. Furthermore, Wu also
noted in Chap. 2 that he found it difficult to interact with local people
and maintain their friendship due to different lifestyles and his perceived
cultural distance. Their limited social network with English speakers
appeared to undermine their effort to manage strategic learning interac-
tively after class.
The findings of this study are in consistent with the results of another
study on long-term student sojourners by Wang (2018). Using interview
data collected from both Chinese students and British teachers and ques-
tionnaire data collected from a wider sample of the Chinese students, I
investigated the transitional experiences of international Chinese stu-
dents in the UK. This study showed that language barriers brought great
stress when they attended social events and spoke to local friends. Also,
the more the Chinese students interacted with local people, the more
cultural and lifestyle differences they found. They found it difficult to
build a social network with British people or develop into a lasting friend-
ship. Because of their isolated social network, they lost many opportuni-
ties to practise the target language with local people and exchange ideas
for greater learning. Although some studies showed that there was a social
development among Chinese students when they stayed longer in the
host country (e.g. Spencer-Oatey and Xiong 2006; Gu and Maley 2008;
Li 2012), Wang’s study further suggested that Chinese s tudents were still
adjusting to the social life after they completed an undergraduate degree
in the UK and the transition to the host environment which they under-
went appeared to be slow and continuous.
At a micro-contextual level, individual language learners also manage
their strategic vocabulary learning in relation to their specific settings (see
Fig. 5.1). The term ‘setting’ is used here to refer to the immediate learning
situation, involving such as the learner, place (e.g. classroom, on-campus
accommodation and restaurant), time, social resources (e.g. teacher, peers
and host parents) and material resources (e.g. dictionary, word lists and
vocabulary notebook). As I have indicated in Chaps. 2, 3 and 4, the six
learners varied their strategy use across different settings. With reference
to Qa, for example, when watching an English film in the cinema, he
made every effort to interpret the meaning of unknown words in relation
to the context of the story as well as the visual context, such as facial
expressions and gestures. At home, he tried to download a film with
an English subtitle before watching it, since he was able to pause the
video at any time to look up unknown words and note them down for
further consolidation. Learners’ strategy choice appears to depend on
what resources being available and accessible to them in particular set-
tings (Palfreyman 2006), most importantly, how they perceive and
respond to the resource (s).
Learners are provided with potential resources for language learning,
either social or material, by their sociocultural settings. The resources
appear to have no essential meaning if they are not aware of the potential
for language learning and not able to understand their affordance. In this
study, Wu intended to expand opportunities to enlarge his vocabulary
size outside the classroom. When having a meal in a local restaurant, Wu
perceived the menu and the waitress as useful learning resources, thus
utilising the resources and taking further strategic action to build vocabu-
lary. However, not every learner invests effort at discovering those affor-
dances. In a similar setting, some learners may only perceive the menu as
the listing of food names and the waitress as the person who provides
service at their tables. Therefore, perceptions of affordances are not fixed.
Learners can create new and different meanings through participation in
various cultural activities in order to achieve their learning goals. Mercer
(2015) also shows how learners interpret the affordance of a resource that
can make the crucial difference in learning.
The results of my case studies revealed that more effective learners were
more strategic, being able to choose appropriate strategies in relation to
their particular settings, and exercise their agency by discovering and
making use of a variety of resource, both social and material, to support
their learning. In the case of Xia, during the lesson she was more likely to
consult her teacher or peers directly than dictionaries in order to discover
the precise meaning of an unknown word, as she did not have enough
time to choose the correct entry in the dictionary and understand the
dictionary definition. By contrast, when shopping at a department store
or a supermarket, she found it more effective to deploy inferencing strate-
gies and then check with sale assistants who had specific knowledge of
unknown words as to whether her guess was accurate.
As we can see, whether learners can take advantage of potential lan-
guage learning opportunities in a study-abroad context depends primarily
on their agency (see also Mercer 2015). While contexts, which can enable
or constrain the learning opportunities, appear to play an important role
in influencing learners’ strategy choice, they cannot determine their strat-
egy choice (see also Norton 2013; Oxford 2017).The data clearly indicate
that effective learners are able to act as active, self-regulated agents who
not only display their willingness to engage with language learning
opportunities, influence and change their contexts, but also overcome
their contextual constrains and take control of own learning through fur-
ther strategic action. In the six cases examined, the learners’ exploration,
discovery and personalisation of vocabulary strategies are seen as the exer-
cise of agency in order to maximise their vocabulary learning in the
study-abroad context.
As a self-regulated agent, eventually the learner should be able to con-
struct their learning experiences and refine their own strategy repertoire
towards autonomy. However, agency is not simply achieved by an indi-
vidual’s choice (van Lier 2008; Fogle 2012; Mercer 2012). As we saw in
Chap. 4, learner agency appeared to be socioculturally mediated and can
be hindered or developed through participation in classroom activities.
During the first semester, Ji and Qa received more teacher-directed
instruction on how to make use of notebooks to build vocabulary. While
their teacher Eva helped them expand recording strategies, the way of
requiring all learners to use a certain way of organising vocabulary items
seemed to undermine their motivation to keep vocabulary notebooks. In
particular, Eva’s control in terms of the content and organisation of the
notebook conflicted with Qa’s initiative to design his own notebook.
During the second semester, their teacher Ruth provided them with more
opportunities to share their experience of using notebooks with other
peers and evaluate their strategy use. The learners were also given freedom
to arrange notebooks in relation to their own needs and interests. Both
interaction and negotiation with their peers or teacher stimulated the
exercise of their personal agency in actively selecting strategies that
worked best for them.
The wider, cultural context at a macro-contextual level, learners’ sur-
rounding milieus at an intermediate-contextual level and their particular
classroom and out-of-class settings at a micro-contextual level appear to
be interrelated (see Fig. 5.1). The learners’ strategy choice is constructed

and reconstructed within the dynamic interaction of their agency and
different levels of contexts. This shift from treating vocabulary strategies
as relatively decontextualised phenomena to a more holistic view of stra-
tegic learning in relation to agency and context is considered as an impor-
tant development in future strategy research.
5.6 L earner Characteristics and Vocabulary

Strategies
Studies in the field of vocabulary learning strategies have identified vari-
ous learner characteristics that affect the selection of strategies, and have
addressed considerable variation in the frequency and types of strategy
use with regard to individual learners’ gender (e.g. Catalán 2003; Seddigh
and Shokrpour 2012; Ahour and Abdi 2015), proficiency level (e.g. Fan
2003; Tılfarlıoğlu and Bozgeyik 2012; Wanpen et al. 2013), personality
(e.g. Wakamoto 2000; Naveh et al. 2011)and affective factors (e.g.
Schmidt and Watanabe 2001; Mizumoto 2013). While attempts were
made to identify ‘good learning strategies’ used by successful language
learners in early studies (e.g. Rubin 1975; Naiman et al. 1978), those
studies into the relationships between learner characteristics and strategy
use have argued that strategies which are useful to one learner, may not
be necessarily useful to another learner. Many researchers would now
agree that strategies are not inherently good or poor. The quality of strat-
egy use is closely related to whether strategies are appropriate for indi-
vidual learners’ characteristics (Tseng et al. 2006).
We have seen in earlier chapters that individual learners’ characteris-
tics, particularly learning styles, personality characteristics, emotions, and
motivation, were not fixed, but, rather, were situated and dynamic over
time. The results of the case studies highlighted the interplay among
strategy choice, learner characteristics and context, and suggested that
both personalising and contextualising the use and management of
vocabulary strategies have the potential to make vocabulary learning
more enjoyable and enhance learning outcome (see also Griffiths and
Inceçay 2016; Oxford 2017).
5.6 Learner Characteristics and Vocabulary Strategies 187
5.6.1 P
ersonality and Learning Styles in Relation
to Strategies
In the cases examined, the six Chinese learners’ personality appeared to

be connected with their certain learning styles (see also Komarraju et al.
2011; Griffiths 2013). While individual learner characteristics tend to be
viewed as relatively stable over time, the personality and language learn-
ing styles of the learners in this study were diverse and contextually situ-
ated, and their choice of vocabulary strategies was further influenced by
their dynamic interaction with their learner characteristics.
On the Ryder site, Wu was talkative and relaxed in the classroom and
preferred to engage his teacher and peers in conversation to learn and prac-
tice vocabulary, whereas Xia was more introverted and reluctant to speak
in whole-class situations but more willing to work out the word meaning
on her own or practise vocabulary with her peers in a small group. Wu and
Xia also consciously selected and combined vocabulary strategies in rela-
tion to their personality and preferred learning styles. As indicated in
Chap. 2, Wu was more likely to initiate a pupil-teacher dialogue and ask
both the teacher and peers to explain the meaning of or verify the use of
unfamiliar words. By contrast, Xia tended to use dictionary look-up strate-
gies to check the meaning of unknown words, or dictionary look-up strat-
egies with social strategies (e.g. “checking her understanding with her
peer”) if their teacher arranged a pair/group discussion afterwards.
It is interesting to note that Wu became more introverted when inter-
acting with his British friends outside the classroom due to his perceived
cultural distance, although he actively participated in verbal interactions
with other language learners in the class. Meanwhile, he was also imagi-
native, creative and open to alternative ways of improving vocabulary. He
tried to stretch the resources of particular settings and experimented with
various new strategies to enhance vocabulary learning (e.g. “visualising
different situations involving himself practising using the vocabulary
items with other people”). With regard to Xia, during the third term, she
was more sociable and outgoing since their teacher had provided plenty
of opportunities for them to socialise with other peers outside the class-
room, in order to build a stronger personal relationship among them and
increase their confidence to speak English. As a result, she became more
comfortable to have verbal communication with her teacher and peers

and deployed a varied range of social strategies to enrich her vocabulary
knowledge both inside and outside the classroom.
On the Wolfson site, both Bo and Ke were conscientious and had a
great deal of investment in expanding and developing vocabulary, but
they also made different strategic attempts according to their own learn-
ing styles. Bo was a more kinaesthetic and visual person, whereas Ke’s
style preference is more logical and detail-oriented. As indicated in Chap.
3, the strategy development of Bo and Ke benefited greatly from vocabu-
lary self-study activities. Compared with teacher-led activities, the learn-
ers were given more opportunities to understand their preferred learning
styles as well as more freedom to choose vocabulary strategies that were
compatible with their styles, thus reinforcing effective strategy use (see
also Ma and Oxford 2014).
Their previous language study also seemed to play an important role
in shaping their learner characteristics. In China, Bo had ample oppor-
tunity to verbally interact with native English speakers. Through these
experiences, he built up his confidence and fluency and became more
extroverted. As a result, he enjoyed consolidating vocabulary through
working with others, especially native speakers, and benefited from social
activities. He expected to gain further opportunities to practise vocabu-
lary with local people during study abroad, but a variety of contextual
constraints limited his access to authentic interaction with native speak-
ers (see Chap. 3). In order to enhance his learning outcome, he became
a more active agent who devoted a great deal of effort to seeking and
creating out-of-class opportunities for interactive vocabulary learning
(e.g. attending extra classes and forming a discussion group after school).
By contrast, Ke’s language teachers provided very few communicative
opportunities for him to learn vocabulary with others. Instead, he spent
significant time doing vocabulary exercises after class, which, in turn, led
him to feel more comfortable to study vocabulary independently. He
continued to work alone after class in the UK and personalised vocabu-
lary strategies to meet his own learning preference. He was also self-
disciplined and was able to sustain effort throughout the academic year,
although he indicated that vocabulary learning was a difficult, time-
consuming and intensive process.
On the Opal site, Qa took little initiative to expand vocabulary outside

the classroom during his early phrase in the UK since he had assumed
that being in an English-speaking country could help him increase vocab-
ulary size naturally. However, he realised after a period of time that he
actually lacked vocabulary to participate in social situations. Qa displayed
relaxed equanimity and a great willingness to change and improve in the
face of the problem. Eva’s strategy instruction also appeared to raise his
awareness of what knowing a word would entail and what possible strate-
gies could be used for recording a target word, but the data indicated that
Qa did not enjoy much the implementation of the use of vocabulary
notebook (see Chap. 4). He found it too rigid whereas he preferred a
more flexible approach. During the second term, Elaine allowed the stu-
dents to make more decisions, in terms of the content, organisation and
use of notebooks, and thus Qa was more willing to invest effort. He
became increasingly conscious of making deliberate, strategic efforts to
learn and use the target words.
By contrast, Ji’s response to Eva’s implementation of vocabulary note-
books was generally positive while she found that the process of review-
ing vocabulary was time-consuming. She liked instruction and activities
that provided structure and clear directions to work with. Sternberg et al.
(2008) also referred this kind of learner as ‘executively oriented’. However,
the data indicated that she did not simply reply on the teacher’s model.
Rather, she kept her options relatively open and constantly sought ways
of improving her notebook and strategies according to her own needs.
In order to accelerate her sociocultural adjustment, she invested time
and energy in expanding vocabulary and enriching her word knowledge.
As we can see in Chap. 4, she actively pushed herself to become more
sociable and interactive while she used to have little confidence to speak
English outside the classroom. She tried to participate in day-to-day
interactions with her host parents and made a further effort to extend her
social networks of target language speakers. She selected a variety of social
strategies in relation to different social situations and purposes. She was
often creative with her strategy use and was able to combine them with
other strategies in order to reinforce vocabulary retention.
A closer look at their study-abroad experiences indicates complex,
fluid connections among personality characteristics, learning styles,
vocabulary strategies and contextual factors. The findings in this study

support the argument that learner characteristics are dynamic, multiple,
changing, even sometimes contradictory (Norton 2013; Dörnyei and
Ryan 2015), and thus stereotypes should not be used to judge learners’
behaviour and ability. Personalising vocabulary strategies to suit personal-
ity and learning styles could help individual learners facilitate their learn-
ing performance. However, in many circumstances, language learners
also need to develop their personality, stretch their learning styles, and
stay flexible with their strategy use in response to different contexts,
learning goals and changing life experiences.
5.6.2 E
motion and Motivation in Relation
to Strategies
The stories of the six Chinese learners highlighted the role of affect, espe-
cially learners’ emotion and motivation, in strategic vocabulary learning.
Their emotion, motivation and strategies appeared to be interrelated. On
the one hand, both emotional states and motivation of vocabulary learn-
ers can influence their strategy choice. On the other hand, strategies can
be also deployed to manage their affective side of learning.
Compared with other affective factors, such as motivation, belief, and
volition, emotion has received relatively little attention in the second lan-
guage acquisition literature. Nevertheless, more recently, attempts have
been made to stress the importance of emotion in language learning and
use. For instance, Dewaele’s (2013) findings showed that multilinguals
faced the daunting challenge of communicating emotions in a foreign
language and argued that apart from purely linguistic skills, emotional
aspects of foreign language learning also importantly contributed to their
multilingual performance and personal growth. Subsequently, using an
innovative method named the idiodynamic method, Gregersen et al.
(2014) uncovered one specific emotional reaction, language anxiety, and
revealed the powerful effects of emotion, either positive or negative, on
language learning process. With regard to emotion in the language learn-
ing strategy literature specifically, scholars such as Oxford (1990, 2011),
Bown (2006), and others have underscored the potential value of learners
managing their emotions through affective strategies in support of lan-

guage learning. However, few studies have taken a closer look at individual
learners’ emotional experiences of vocabulary learning and have examined
the regulation of emotions during the vocabulary learning process.
The data of my study shed particular light on the importance of emo-
tion in vocabulary learning. As we have seen the data analysis presented
in previous chapters, the emotional states of the six learners were ongoing
and dynamic and tended to be related to their engagement in the lan-
guage classroom and language activities outside the classroom as well as
their motivation to learn vocabulary or use certain strategies. Sometimes
they experienced positive emotions, such as pleasure, curiosity, excite-
ment, and confidence, which could foster their engagement in vocabu-
lary learning or broaden their strategy repertoire. Sometimes they also felt
frustrated, confused, anxious, and stressful, and these negative emotions
could undermine their motivation to learn, and reduce their strategic
efforts and task persistence – even leading to their decision to withdraw
their effort from learning vocabulary.
I also agree with Mercer (2015) that we need to avoid generalising
emotions as positive or negative. Rather, it is more useful to consider the
function of an emotion for an individual learner for a particular purpose
in a specific context. To examine the function of emotional reactions
further, Cohen and Wang (2017, under review) used verbal report proce-
dures to perform a micro-analysis of emotional states from moment to
moment on a vocabulary task. In this study, we showed that emotions
were linked with motivation and demonstrated a functional value of
emotional reactions in serving as motivators for the participants to plan
further strategic action and persevere in the task. While the participants’
emotional experiences varied when they were doing the task, they were
more likely to experience what were typically referred as negative emo-
tions, such as frustration, annoyance, and confusion than positive emo-
tions. We found that those negative emotions did not only have negative
correlates, but also in 33% of the cases, the negative reactions were able
to prompt the participants to think about other solutions and plan out
their next move.
With regard to the six learners’ vocabulary learning experiences, their
language teachers played an important role in regulating their emotions
and increasing their motivation in the classroom. For example, on the

Ryder site, the language teacher of Xia and Wu made continuous efforts to
promote comfort and a socially supportive relationship between the
teacher and peers. Xia gradually overcame her anxiety when she spoke up
in the class and indicated a high willingness to develop her vocabulary
knowledge through verbal interactions with her teacher and peers during
the later phase. Unlike the classroom setting, individual learners need to
take more responsibility for managing their own learning and greater affec-
tive control beyond the classroom. Strategies for optimising emotions and
motivation seem particularly crucial in self-regulated learning situations.
Drawing on the six learners’ data, it is clear that learning vocabulary
successfully is not simple and requires considerable time and constant
strategic efforts over time. According to Ushioda (2008, p. 212), learners
who are able to sustain their own pleasure, enjoyment, interest and chal-
lenge of learning are likely to display much higher levels of involvement
in learning and interact with the learning process more effectively. In
order to facilitate their vocabulary learning, the Chinese learners deployed
strategies that helped them directly cope with their negative emotions,
for example, using positive reinterpretation, “thinking that spending
time with my confusion is an important way to learn target words more
deeply”, and using positive self-talk, “telling myself that trying out new
words and making errors is inevitable, and I can learn from my errors”.
Furthermore, strategies were also used to promote their positive emotions
and increase their motivation to learn, for example, setting goals and
challenges, “increasing my anticipation and motivation by challenging
myself to recall the target words without seeing their vocabulary entries”.
As we have seen from the previous chapters, the learners also employed
a wide range of strategies which were not usually considered as affective
strategies, but also play an affective role (see also Oxford 2017). For exam-
ple, interacting with more capable others (e.g. teachers, peers, museum
educators) and seeking social support were seen as a useful affective strat-
egy to help them manage learning difficulties and attenuate their negative
emotions (such as frustration, anxiety and sadness), although this strategy
was typically referred as a social strategy. Also, working and practising
target words collaboratively through negotiation was not only used as a
social strategy to enrich their word knowledge and reinforce their memory
5.7 Metacognition, Goals and Strategy Use 193
but also as an effective strategy to build their intrinsic learning motivation

and confidence. Through negotiation with others, learners’ motivation
can be mediated by the social setting, and a sense of ‘personal agency’ can
also develop in the interactive learning process (Ushioda 2007, p.13).
Managing time effectively and making strategic plans which were typically
regarded as metacognitive strategies that the learners frequently deployed
to help them cope with their stress during their vocabulary learning.
Sometimes the learners who participated in my case studies felt less
motivated to use a strategy or a strategy combination on a regular basis,
although they found it useful. They realised the importance of enjoy-
ment, which can motivate them to learn and enhance their learning out-
come. In this respect, it seems to be difficult to continue using a strategy
without pleasure. Leeke and Shaw (2000) also reported that two-thirds of
their participants gave up making vocabulary lists or marginalised the use
of vocabulary recording procedures since they felt the recording process
repetitive, bored or no longer enjoyable.
In my study, the Chinese learners made a further effort to improve
their strategy use in relation to their personal interests and learning styles
in order to sustain their motivation to use certain strategies, e.g. “making
use of a vocabulary notebook to review vocabulary” and “learning target
words through listening to an English television programme repeatedly”.
Most importantly, they also explored some more creative and enjoyable
strategies of learning vocabulary (e.g. “using the word game to establish a
competitive relationship with other players in order to help the learner
generate motivation to practise vocabulary” and “using the learner’s own
imagination to create interesting stories and practising using the target
words in the stories in order to foster motivation to remember vocabu-
lary”) and involved the strategies in their improved strategy combinations
in order to increase their motivation in vocabulary learning over time.
5.7 Metacognition, Goals and Strategy Use

Metacognition is considered as the ability to understand, reflect on
and control one’s own learning (Schraw and Dennison 1994), consist-
ing of both metacognitive knowledge and the use of metacognitive
strategies (Flavell 1979). From the preceding discussion, metacogni-

tive knowledge appears to include not only knowledge of one’s cogni-
tive processes but also knowledge of a plethora of cognitive, sociocultural
and affective factors that affect their learning and knowledge of strate-
gies for learning (see also Oxford 2017). Metacognitive strategies are
understood to be the specific thoughts and actions that learners con-
sciously operationalise to help them plan, monitor, and evaluate their
learning (Cohen 2011). The six learners’ vocabulary learning experi-
ences demonstrated that their metacognitive knowledge and metacog-
nitive strategies worked together to help them manage their strategic
learning.
The findings of this study showed that all the six learners did not use
strategies in isolation, but rather, enlisted the use of certain strategies
together in an effort to achieve their learning goals. However, combina-
tions of strategies did not guarantee that their vocabulary learning was
successful. Metacognition is crucial to effective orchestration of strategy
use, leading to successful vocabulary learning (see also Vandergrift 2003;
Macaro 2006; Anderson 2008). Orchestrating strategy use requires high
levels of metacognition, including metacognitive knowledge of appropri-
ate selection and use of vocabulary-related strategies, knowledge of when
and how to combine strategies, and utilisation of metacognitive
strategies.
As we have seen from the previous chapters, metacognitive knowledge
played an important role in the learners’ initial strategy selection and fur-
ther strategy orchestration. They activated relevant knowledge about
themselves as a learner (e.g. their learning goals, personality characteristics,
learning styles, emotional and motivational states), contexts (e.g. demands
of immediate vocabulary tasks, vocabulary learning opportunities, avail-
able learning resources, and contextual constraints), and strategies (e.g.
awareness of available strategies, when, why and how to use them), to help
them select appropriate strategies and combine them effectively.
Not every learner in this study had sufficient metacognitive knowl-
edge, but they appeared to gradually develop their metacognitive aware-
ness and expand their metacognitive knowledge by reflecting on their
own vocabulary learning process and strategies. In particular, they were
prompted to reflect when they were not satisfied with their learning
o utcomes, when they encountered problems, or when they did not enjoy

their learning process. Their language teachers also provided them with
opportunities to work collaboratively in the solution of vocabulary-
related problems. When they verbalised their problem-solving processes,
they became more metacognitively aware of when to use and combine
strategies to enhance their learning performance.
In order to improve their strategy effectiveness, the learners deployed a
range of metacognitive strategies based on their metacognitive knowledge,
such as planning, monitoring and evaluating their strategy use. In par-
ticular, more successful learners were more able to make continuous
efforts to modify and strengthen their strategy use in order to achieve
different learning goals and adjust to various contextual changes. As dem-
onstrated in Chap. 4, Qa, for instance, gained little access to the social
networks of English speakers outside the classroom during his founda-
tion year and lacked colloquial, spoken vocabulary to participate in
everyday activities. As a consequence, he experienced considerable chal-
lenges of expressing themselves when communicating with local people.
In order to improve his language performance in daily conversations, he
increased exposure to colloquial language through watching English-
language television programmes and deployed a strategy sequence to
build his spoken vocabulary. During the learning process, he identified
problems when using particular strategies and continued to improve his
strategy use. He maximised the effectiveness of his strategy combinations
through engaging himself in a circle of planning, organising, monitoring,
evaluating vocabulary-related strategies and planning for improvement
(see Fig. 5.2).
One additional related research project was conducted in 2016 to
examine the strategic vocabulary learning experiences of Chinese stu-
dents who had engaged in university studies in the UK. Qa was the only
one of the six learners who participated in this project and had moved on
to postgraduate study at the time. In contrast, he said in an interview
that he developed both spoken language and confidence to participate in
social interactions through increasing contact with target language
speakers, but other challenges arose. He highlighted two areas which he
most wanted to improve. One area for improvement was his
pronunciation:
Planning for Planning

improvement strategies
Effecve use of
strategies
Evaluang Organising
strategies strategies
Monitoring
strategies
Fig. 5.2 Circular use of metacognitive strategies
Extract 5.1
The more I communicate with local people, I find

that the more my pronunciation needs to be
improved. I want my pronunciation to be more
accurate and sound more British. Pronunciation
is often the first thing people use to judge my
level of English. (Qa, interview)
Qa became more aware of the importance of pronunciation in com-

munication. His learning goal appeared to develop from ongoing sociali-
sation with members of the target language community. He adjusted his
study plan and strategies to meet the goal, i.e. to pronounce accurately
and achieve a native-like accent. While he still spent a great deal of time
watching British sitcoms every day, the focus shifted from building col-
loquial expressions to developing pronunciation. While watching, he
tried to imitate the pronunciation of the actors, including their stress and
tone, and also recorded his pronunciation. After watching, he compared
his pronunciation with the actors’ and did more practice.
Active use of vocabulary in academic writing was another key area that
Qa wanted to improve. I noted in Chap. 4 that he made use of a vocabu-
lary notebook to build academic vocabulary and employed a series of
strategies for recording and retaining academic words throughout his
foundation year. Although he enlarged the size of academic vocabulary
over these years, making effective use of previously learnt vocabulary
items was perceived as particularly stressful and difficult during the post-
graduate study:
Extract 5.2
I think I know lots of academic words, but I

often feel uncertain whether I used them prop-
erly when I actually used them in my writing. I
have to spend so much time checking their use in
dictionaries. This really slows down my writing
process. So now I make a great effort to improve
my academic vocabulary. (Qa, interview)
Changes in learning goals seemed to be related to changes in his per-

ceived difficulties. In order to produce a higher quality of writing at the
postgraduate level, he devoted time and effort to fine-tuning the use of
vocabulary. Goal setting provided direction for management of his strate-
gic vocabulary learning (see also Volet and Renshaw 1995). Qa stopped
keeping his vocabulary notebook at a regular basis; rather, he tended to
activate the use of academic words that were recorded in the notebook.
He said in the interview that deploying a combination of strategies, such
as “I use monolingual dictionaries to look for correct collocations”, “I
look for their instances of use on the Internet and analyse the grammatical
structures associated with particular vocabulary items” and “I ask my
course mates or tutors whether my word choice is correct”, other than
simply practising using the words in writing was very important to develop
his accuracy and appropriateness of vocabulary use (see also Llach 2011).
The process of his strategic vocabulary learning appeared to be dynamic
rather than smooth and linear over time, and indicated complex interac-
tions between his learning goals, social-contextual changes and strategy
choice. He experienced problems, and also changes and development in

strategy use. In particular, he continued to engage in the circular use of
metacognitive strategies which ensured that vocabulary-related strategies
were used effectively and learning goals were reached (see Fig. 5.2 above).
5.8 S
trategic Vocabulary Learning in Context:
A Temporal, Dynamic, Flexible Model
Drawing on both the original findings and on subsequent additional
work, a newly developed model of strategic vocabulary learning is pro-
posed to reflect the complex, dynamic nature of language learner strate-
gies (see Fig. 5.3).
Early strategy researchers (e.g. O’Malley and Chamot 1990; Oxford
1990) tended to derive typologies of language learner strategies through
the use of predetermined questionnaires and assign separate functions to
each of these strategies. In the light of these typologies, four primary
functions have been widely used in representing and labelling strategies
as follows (Cohen and Wang 2017, under review):
• The metacognitive function: planning how to use the strategy, moni-

toring how it is going, or evaluating how it went.
• The cognitive function: dealing with the language material mentally
(e.g. checking the mental lexicon, evaluating information from a dic-
tionary entry, or questioning the resource person).
• The social function: turning to others for assistance, determining what
to ask them, and how to do it.
• The affective function: channelling positive or negative reactions (e.g.
pleasure at finding an answer or displeasure at not finding one) into
strategic action – motivators to persevere in the task.
Attempts have been also made to construct typologies of vocabulary

learner strategies which are usually a part of a piece of research into gen-
eral language learning strategies (Takač 2008; Nation 2013). Emerging
broadly from the Oxford’s (1990) typology, Schmitt (1997) developed
series of vocabulary learner strategies within the cognitive paradigm,
5.8 Strategic Vocabulary Learning in Context: A Temporal... 199
Culture
Agency
Milieu
Seng
Social
Metacognive Cognive
Affecve
Learner
Metacognion Characteriscs
Key
Metacognitive Metacognitive function

Cognitive Cognitive function
Social Social function
Affective Affective function
Blue circle Metacognitive control
Green circle Cognitive control
Red circle The social side of strategic learning
Purple circle The affective side of strategic learning
Inner orange circle1 Setting at the micro-contextual level
Inner orange circle2 Milieu at the intermediate-contextual level
Outer orange circle Culture at the macro-contextual level
The double arrow indicates interaction
The arrow indicates relationship
Fig. 5.3 A temporal, dynamic, flexible model of strategic learning

which are considered to be the most comprehensive classification scheme.

Data continue to be collected from learners about their reported use of
metacognitive, cognitive, social and affective strategies. However, draw-
ing on the six learners’ vocabulary learning experiences in the UK, the
actual use of strategies for learning and developing vocabulary seemed to
challenge this monolithic approach. They selected and combined strate-
gies which assumed not only from the same functions, but also different
functions in response to ongoing learning situations for more effective
vocabulary learning. This model reunites the separation of strategies into
different functions (i.e. cognitive, metacognitive, affective and social) and
contributes to our understanding of the flexibility and adaptability of
strategy use within and across situations.
An increasing number of scholars have challenged the notion that lan-
guage learner strategies are relatively stable and monolithic. Cohen (1998,
2011) questioned the functions of strategies and argued that it was not
possible to easily demarcate cognitive and metacognitive functions when
a learner was deploying a strategy for a complex task. Oxford (2017) sug-
gested that a given strategy could serve multiple roles in actual learning
situations, and thus researchers need to emphasise fluidity and authentic-
ity rather than artificially placing categories to determining our under-
standing of language learner strategies.
In order to examine the complexity of strategy functions further,
Cohen and Wang (2017, under review) used both introspective and ret-
rospective verbal report data obtained from six Chinese-speaking univer-
sity students to investigate the actual functions activated when the
students used strategies to do a vocabulary task (i.e. making fine-tuned
semantic distinctions) from moment to moment. Our study revealed
that metacognitive, cognitive, affective, and social functions fluctuated
not only during the use of a single strategy but also when learners moved
from one strategy to another in sequences, pairs, and clusters. Six distinct
patterns of strategy functioning were identified:
1 . A one-way linear progression from one function to the next,

2. Simultaneous occurrence of two or more functions,
3. A linear progression plus simultaneous occurrence,
4. Bi-directional fluctuation,
5.8 Strategic Vocabulary Learning in Context: A Temporal... 201
5 . Bi-directional fluctuation plus simultaneous occurrence of functions,

6. Simultaneous occurrence of functions plus micro-fluctuations of

functions.
In the light of the new findings gained from the micro-analysis of

vocabulary-related strategies, this model portrays different strategy func-
tions interacting with each other and represents the fluidity of language
learner strategies. Figure 5.3 situates strategic learning in context and
highlights dynamic interactions between individual learners’ strategy use
and various contexts (i.e. culture, milieu and setting) from macro- to
micro-levels.
Over the years, a number of models and frameworks have been pro-
posed to address the dynamic, complex nature of language learner strate-
gies and enhance current views and theory. Gu’s (2005) model consists of
four components of the language learning process which tend to be
interrelated and work together to form the chemistry of learning. He
develops the arguments that an ideal strategy is a dynamic process,
involving selective attention, analysis of task, choice of decisions, execu-
tion of plan, monitoring of process and modification of plan, and evalu-
ation of result.
From a cognitive perspective, Macaro (2006) proposes a theoretical
framework in which a series of essential features of a learner strategy are
identified, including the location of strategies in working memory, the
size of a strategy and its relationship to other strategies within a given
task, the explicitness of its goal orientation, and its transferability to par-
ticular situations or tasks. The framework also represents a complex rela-
tionship between learner strategies and other domains of language
learning and language use (i.e. L2 processes, L2 skills, cognitive styles,
strategic plans, learning styles, motivation and subconscious activity with
the aim of contributing to a theory of language acquisition). By contrast,
Gao (2010) develops a framework which reveals interactions between
learner agency (i.e. learners’ power, will and capacity) and context (i.e.
immediate settings and broad sociocultural contexts) underlying the pro-
cess of strategic language learning from a sociocultural perspective, and it
is aimed at helping researchers examine the contextual mediation on lan-
guage learners’ strategy use.
The narrative accounts of six language learners in my study offer rich

insights into the understanding of strategic learning as a complex system.
The dynamic and individualised organisation of strategy combinations
which each learner generates is indication itself of the creative role of learner
agency in vocabulary learning. Their strategy choice and use result from
ongoing interactions located in a nexus of diverse variables, such as learning
goals (e.g. to build or consolidate vocabulary), contextual conditions (e.g.
social resources and communicative demands), learning styles (e.g. visual
or logical), metacognitive knowledge (e.g. knowledge of available learning
opportunities and strategies) as well as emotional and motivation states.
The model which I propose here is developed from empirical data and
illustrates a complex, dynamic interplay among learner agency, learner
characteristics, metacognition, affect, context and strategies from a more
holistic perspective as opposed to more traditional strategy categories and
a relatively monolithic construct of strategy. From the preceding discus-
sion, it would appear that combining both cognitive and sociocultural
approaches has made it possible to see the cognitive choices of individual
learners without neglecting the sociocultural context of strategic vocabu-
lary learning.
5.9 R
esearching Strategies for Learning
and Performing Vocabulary
As we have seen earlier, vocabulary learning strategies have been largely
researched from a cognitive perspective over the last forty years. Based on
the emergence of different typologies of language learner strategies and
vocabulary learning strategies (e.g. O’Malley and Chamot 1990; Oxford
1990; Gu and Johnson 1996; Schmitt 1997; Nation 2013), a large body
of vocabulary learning strategy research have appeared looking for pat-
terns in the strategy use of certain groups of learners (e.g. Fan 2003;
Griffiths 2003; Barcroft 2009; Çelik and Toptaş 2010). Many researchers
tended to employ quantitative methods studies, with a heavy reliance on
large-scale surveys and questionnaires, to generalise L2 learners’ behaviour
patterns. Much of the work was limited to report the frequency of the use
of individual strategies through the use of predetermined questionnaires,
5.9 Researching Strategies for Learning and Performing Vocabulary 203
and focused on the strategies used by learners rather than on the learners
who used the strategies. As a result, the voices of individual learners are
often neglected (Meara 2009). The process of strategic vocabulary learn-
ing appears to be relatively fixed.
As discussed above, vocabulary strategies are often flexibly employed in
actual learning situations. Learners are less likely to employ strategies
alone, but actually in complex and interacting ways (Cohen 2011; Wang
2015). Successful vocabulary learning highly depends on if learners
orchestrate combinations of strategies effectively rather than the fre-
quency of the use of individual strategies (see also Macaro 2006; Cohen
2011; Griffiths 2013). There is also considerable variation in the way
learners use strategies, and the quality of strategy use appears to be related
to whether strategies are particularly appropriate for the individual learner
(Schmitt 2010). However, there has been a lack of an insightful analysis
of the quality and complexity of strategy use in relation to various learner
and contextual variables.
5.9.1 A Case Study Approach
The study that forms the basis of the empirical part of this book used a
multiple-case study approach. The use of a case study is being increas-
ingly recognised as a useful methodological approach for achieving a
detailed, situated and holistic understanding of individuals and for illu-
minating the complexity of strategy use (Gao 2010; Mercer 2012; Cohen
and Griffiths 2015). While there is a growing consensus that language
learner strategies need to be researched in a more contextualised, holistic,
and dynamic manner, the case study approach has not been applied
extensively to learners’ strategies for vocabulary.
One such effort by Gu (2003) conducted a case study of two Chinese
university students with advanced English proficiency. Drawing on both
think-aloud and interview data, Gu reported similarities in their use of
vocabulary strategies (e.g. “spending considerable time on memorising
vocabulary lists”) which may be explained by traditional Chinese learning
culture and literacy practice, and also different approaches and strategies
which distinguished them due to their own learning styles. In particular,
the case study data shed light on the flexible and skilful combination of
vocabulary strategies in accordance with individual learner characteristics.
Another study examined vocabulary strategy use of two Chinese stu-
dents in an English-medium university in Hong Kong using retrospec-
tive interview, notebooks and self-reflections (Ma 2013). The case study
data revealed their dynamic strategy use in response to a shift in learning
context and challenged a decontextualised, stereotypical view of the
Chinese learner as a rote learner who heavily relied on mechanical repeti-
tion and memorisation.
A more recent case study investigated the vocabulary learning experi-
ences of three tertiary-level second language learners in the United States,
with a particular focus on their strategic vocabulary learning outside the
classroom (Cornell et al. 2016). The researchers provided a more nuanced
analysis of how and why the learners selected and used vocabulary learn-
ing strategies (e.g. memory and dictionary look-up strategies). The results
of this study revealed interrelationships among affective factors (i.e.
feelings and emotions), contextual factors (e.g. vocabulary learning

requirements across courses and available resources), and strategy use.
The research project from which my study was taken aimed to provide
richer insights into strategic vocabulary learning that are transferable to
other possible contexts of teaching and learning, rather than leading to
more generalisable conclusions about strategy use, and examine issues
that are central to the continuing development of vocabulary learning
strategy research. This study shifts the focus from the quantity to the
quality of strategy use in the language classroom as well as beyond the
classroom through adopting a case study approach.
Drawing upon different case study designs proposed by Yin (2009), a
multiple-case study design was developed to explore strategic vocabulary
learning in context and the complexity involved in strategy use from both
cognitive and sociocultural perspectives (see Fig. 5.4). By comparison
with the single case design, the multiple-case study design was used to
study a number of cases together in order to explore differences and simi-
larities within and between cases and provide more compelling evidence
of the target phenomenon (Duff 2008; Yin 2009).
The six Chinese learners who in pairs had studied on the three univer-
sity sites were the focus of this case study. These six learners (i.e. Wu and
Off-site contexts
Contexts of the site Ryder Site Contexts of the course

For example, For example,
Course + class A
facilities course design
opportunities for module design
S1 S2
language learning assessment
Opal Site Wolfson Site

Contexts of the class
Course + class B For example,
Course + class C
teaching
S3 S4 approaches
S5 S6
group processes
Fig. 5.4 A multiple-case study design
Xia, Bo and Ke, Ji and Qa) were all examples of the international Chinese
students’ vocabulary learning experiences in some ways. After initial
interviews with some Chinese students, the criteria used in selecting the
focal students included their educational background, previous vocabu-
lary learning experiences, their approaches to strategic vocabulary learn-
ing, learning goals and their specific contexts of teaching and learning in
the UK.
The accounts of three specific, discrete university contexts also offered
a breadth of strategic vocabulary learning experiences and provided a
rich and contextualised picture of learners’ strategy use. As Fig. 5.4 illus-
trated, I looked at how the learners managed their strategic vocabulary
learning in relation to various aspects of a language classroom at the
class level (such as teaching approaches, group processes and activity
requirements), contexts of their pre-university course at the level of the
course (such as the course design and the module design) as well as con-
texts of the u
niversity site (such as learning facilities and opportunities
for language learning). As we saw here, this study involved a further
exploration of their vocabulary learning experiences in off-site settings
with the aim of extending our understanding of strategies for learning
and performing vocabulary. Both on-campus and off-site settings were
also embedded within the broader context of British culture at a macro
level. As mentioned earlier, this study examined the dynamic interac-
tions among strategy use, their agency as a learner and different levels of
contexts.
5.9.2 Data Collection
The data collection for this project lasted for approximately nine months,
between October 2011 and June 2012 in the UK. Drawing on both cog-
nitive and sociocultural approaches, multiple methods of data collection,
including classroom observations, interviews (with follow-up and general
interviews) and VOCABlog (with photovoice and diaries), were used to
investigate not only the participants’ cognitive and psycholinguistic pro-
cesses underlying their strategy use but also the meditational role of con-
text in strategy development over time. Classroom observations and
follow-up interviews were conducted, from October 2011 to April 2012
across two semesters, in order to identify in what ways and for what rea-
sons the learners employed strategies for vocabulary in the classroom.
General interviews and VOCABlog were carried out, from October 2011
to June 2012 throughout their academic year, to explore the learners’
strategy use and development in the classroom as well as outside the
classroom.
The students and teachers who participated in the project were met
in person. I explained the research purpose and procedures in detail
and permission to conduct the project was granted prior to participa-
tion. With regard to VOCABlog, I also provided the focal partici-
pants with a photo release form and gained their permission to
observe, analyse and release their photos. When non-participants
appeared on the photographs, they were pixelated in order to protect
their privacy.
I let the participants know that the purpose of this project was to
explore their strategic behaviour rather than to judge their strategy use,
learning or teaching performance and their responses which would be
also used to help other learners develop vocabulary. I also let them know
what expected benefits could be associated with their participation.
Participants had the right to withdraw from the project without any con-
sequences related to their teaching positions or grades. I also shared my
findings with them during the data collection and offered feedback on
their vocabulary learning when they required. Their data would not be
disclosed to others other than research purposes. All information which
they provided was treated with confidentiality. Pseudonyms were assigned
to participants to preserve their anonymity.
5.9.2.1 Classroom Observation
From the mid-70s to the mid-80s, observation was used as a main method
to identify what strategies might be employed by successful language
learners (e.g. Stern 1975; Wong-Fillmore 1976; Naiman et al. 1978;
Rubin 1981; Chesterfield and Chesterfield 1985). These studies suggest
several features of classroom observation as a research tool to gather data
on language learner strategies. Firstly, while it seemed to be difficult to
observe learners’ mental operations, early researchers indicated that some
strategies could still be identified from learners’ physical behaviours
through classroom observation, and such observation also helped to
exemplify their mental processes. In Rubin’s (1981) study, for example,
memorisation was associated with taking notes of new items and moni-
toring was associated with correcting errors in one’s own vocabulary use.
Another feature was that many strategies which were identified in the
classroom observation were related to the social dimension of language
learning. Based on their classroom observations, for instance, Chesterfield
and Chesterfield (1985) found that some communication strategies (e.g.
“broadening the understanding of the target language by asking the
speaker for explanation” and “using the target language in interaction with
others”) increased learners’ exposure to the target language and enhanced
their language learning, although communication strategies were primarily
directed at facilitating communication. Hence, the researchers expanded

the conceptualisation of language learning strategies to include communi-
cation strategies for developing sociolinguistic competence.
From a cognitive perspective, researchers argue that, in most cases,
learner strategies are associated with unobservable inner mental operations.
Therefore, observation is still seen as a limited research tool (Rubin 1981;
O’Malley and Chamot 1990; Cohen 1998). More recently, some research-
ers have reconsidered the role of observation and stress its importance in
strategy research. To overcome the limitation, White et al. (2007) suggest
that combining classroom observations with other data collection methods
can be a more efficient way to capture both observable and unobservable
learners’ strategies rather than merely replying on the classroom observa-
tion. In my study, the data obtained from classroom observations were
further explored and elaborated with the participants in the follow-up
interviews. Classroom observations and follow-up interviews worked
together to help to identify strategies and reasons behind their strategy
selection. The observations suggested probes for follow-up interviews;
while the interviews offered leads for my observations (see also Tjora 2006).
Researchers have increasingly considered learner strategies from a more
sociocultural perspective. Strategies are viewed not exclusively part of an
inner mental process, but also social processes (e.g. interacting with native
speakers) appear to facilitate language learning. Classroom observations
together with other data collection methods (e.g. interviews, question-
naires, focus groups and diaries) have been used to investigate the role of
social processes in language learning (e.g. Parks and Raymond 2004;
Al-Busaidi 2009). In particular, these studies suggest that observation plays
an important role in capturing language learners’ classroom interactions,
such as teacher-student and peer-peer interactions, thus helping research-
ers identify social strategies for learning and performing vocabulary.
With regard to the way of documenting observation, some researchers
(e.g. Parks and Raymond 2004; Lamprakaki 2007; Al-Busaidi 2009)
recorded their observations based on field notes in the form of a detailed
description of the strategic behaviour of the learner. By contrast, Winke
and Abbuhl (2007) developed an observation framework on the basis of
their proposed taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies (i.e. output,
input, cognition) and applied a more structured observation procedure
to report the frequency of the vocabulary learning strategies used by nine

learners of Chinese.
From the preceding discussion, observation still seems to hold an
important place in strategy research, but it is necessary to check with the
participants through additional techniques in order to provide a full pic-
ture of their strategy use.
A total of 15 classroom observations were conducted to capture the six
participants’ strategic behaviour in some particular English language les-
sons. From each university, in relation to their teachers’ recommenda-
tions, I selected five English lessons which focused on different content
areas, e.g. reading for specific academic purposes and giving oral presen-
tations. Each classroom observation was recorded by taking field notes.
The field note format was divided by different classroom activities. A
large amount of free space was prepared to record the participants’ strate-
gic behaviour, and additional notes were also used to remind the researcher
to capture the participants’ specific strategic behaviour, in response to
their interactions with their teacher, peers, learning tools and materials.
Compared with a structured observation framework, this format allowed
the researcher to have more flexibility to explore the learner’s strategic
behaviour and raise questions or probes for the follow-up interview.
Furthermore, the field notes included the researcher’s own reflection and
comments which were kept separate from the main notes.
In order to supplement my field notes, classroom observations were
both audio- and video-recorded. In addition, the researcher provided
each focal participant with a voice-recorder and it was used to ensure
that the best quality recordings of verbal interactions between the
focal participant and others were recorded. Immediately after each
observation, the researcher identified and developed the ‘writable’
notes into ‘readable’ interview questions and used them in the follow-
up interviews.
5.9.2.2 Interviews
Interviews have been considered as an important tool obtaining informa-

tion on cognitive processes underlying language performance (Dörnyei
2007) as well as offering opportunities for exploration and elaboration of

aspects of strategy use (White et al. 2007). Semi-structured interviews
were conducted to ensure the respondent follow the interview guide and
answer crucial questions, and they also allowed both the researcher and
the respondent to have flexibility to ask or talk what was important to
them (Bryman 2001). Thirty follow-up interviews were carried out to
provide more in-depth data to complement the classroom observations,
and 42 general interviews were conducted to explore their experiences of
strategic vocabulary learning generally in the UK. The six participants
were interviewed individually in their mother tongue, Chinese, in per-
son, and all interview sessions were also audio-recorded.
A number of initial interviews were conducted to seek demographic
information about the six participants, such as their age, academic major,
length of study in the UK, information on their previous experience of
learning vocabulary, approaches to vocabulary learning, and out-of-class
language contact both in China and the UK. The initial interviews were
kept open and less-structured and helped the researcher generate inter-
view questions which were more meaningful to the participants.
Each of the follow-up interviews ranged between 40 and 60 minutes.
I tried to schedule follow-up interviews as soon as possible after class-
room observation, since the longer the duration, the more errors in prior
thoughts would occur (see Dörnyei 2007). An interview guide included
a number of themes to direct the interview, such as the learner’s own
strategic attempts to learn vocabulary in the classroom, strategies involv-
ing interaction with other people to improve vocabulary learning, and
reasons behind their strategy choice. Interview questions were generated
from the classroom observations and varied from participant to partici-
pant. A stimulus was also used to help the participants to retrieve their
relevant thoughts, improve the accuracy of recall and reinforce further
exploration, such as viewing the video recording of the classroom obser-
vation, listening to the audio recording of their verbal interaction with
their peers in one particular group activity or showing them the handouts
and worksheets they used during the lesson (see also Gass and Mackey
2000).
General interviews were also conducted throughout the academic year,
to find out how the participants learned words strategically, particularly
outside the classroom in the UK. Each of the interviews lasted

approximately 60 minutes. Interview questions were developed in rela-
tion to their strategic attempts to learn, consolidate, and perform vocabu-
lary, their strategy choice, changes in strategy use, and strategy
development. Some interview questions which were also generated from
their diaries and photographs which they posted on VOCABlog.
5.9.2.3 VOCABlog
An innovative, interactive, web-based technique which combined both

diaries and ‘photovoice’ (Wang and Burris 1997) in a multimedia online
environment was used to uncover vocabulary-related strategies and offer
openness on an ongoing basis. Since this online blog was designed to
research strategies for vocabulary, I called it a ‘VOCABlog’.
Photovoice
Photovoice is a community and participatory research method that gives

a voice to people through a photographic technique so that they can act
as recorders to identify and represent their concerns and strengths (Wang
and Burris 1997). In my study, six participants were asked to photograph
objects, activities, events, and anything which they thought were relevant
to their strategic vocabulary learning. They then made a choice to select
the photographs and provide a further description of their strategic pro-
cess through the selected photographs.
While little or no research has used this method to collect data on lan-
guage learner strategies, I believe that photovoice can offer a number of
distinctive contributions to strategy research. Photovoice stresses the
active voice of learners in strategic learning and considers the knowledge
of the participant rather than the knowledge of the researcher. This bot-
tom-up approach is also social in nature and reconnects the self and soci-
ety (Chio and Fandt 2007). In my study, photovoice was used to encourage
the participants to engage with a variety of social settings and uncover
their stories of how they actually interacted with different learning situa-
tions to enhance strategic learning by means of their photographs. Another
purpose for using photovoice was to explore the reasons why they took
and chose these photographs to represent and what factors influenced
their decision-making. Their personal choice seemed to be already part of
their vocabulary learning. A forum was also set up on VOCABlog to open
a further discussion about their photos between the participants and the
researcher, and to promote co-construction of knowledge.
Diaries
As a form of learner narrative, learner’s diaries have been also used as an

important research tool to collect data on learners’ strategy use on a regu-
lar basis and uncover strategies (Oxford 2011). According to Dörnyei
(2007), the use of diaries is likely to apply in real-time and capture learn-
ers’ actual changes over time rather than purely reporting on their changes
after language events. Diaries themselves can also serve as a form of medi-
ation which enables the participants to reflect on their own learning pro-
cess and seek solutions for effective language learning (see also Lantolf
2000; Rubin 2003; Norton 2013).
In Halbach’s (2000) study, the researcher used learner diaries to identify
great differences between successful and less successful learners with regard
to the frequency of their strategy use and the abilities to take advantage of a
learning situation and use available resources. Unfortunately, Halbach sim-
ply analysed the data quantitatively and addressed few qualitative aspects.
Another diary study by Ma and Oxford (2014) was conducted to
examine the first author’s learning styles and strategies for second lan-
guage listening and speaking while living in the US with the aim of devel-
oping her academic competence. Since learner diaries mostly constitute
retrospection, critics contend that the data might not be closely related to
the actual language events (see Cohen 2011). In order to overcome this
limitation, the subject/researcher made an attempt to keep the duration
of time between the event and diary writing as short as possible. A close-
order analysis of the diary data provided richer insights into the interac-
tion of learning styles and learning strategies.
Drawing on my previous research experience, I found that it was not
easy to maintain participants’ motivation to produce high quality diaries
over time, and keeping diaries in a notebook might be also restricted by

time or a physical location. More recently, writing online blogs seems to
be a new trend which has been becoming very popular among the young
generation in China (Xu 2013). Participants can also access their blog
anytime, anywhere in the world. In order to improve the quality of this
study, I created a social network which combined both photovoice and
online diaries to elicit individual learners’ own voice and gain a better
understanding of the process of their strategic vocabulary learning. The
VOCABlog was piloted with five students over four weeks before the
actual study. I also carried out some informal interviews with the students
about the design of the VOCABlog. Based on their feedback, the initial
design of VOCABlog was developed.
Before the six focal participants used the VOCABlog, I provided them
with detailed information as to how to use the VOCABlog, the research
procedures and the purposes that this research project would serve. I
emphasised that the aim of this social network was to explore the process
of their strategic vocabulary learning, but not to judge their learning per-
formance. In addition, their anonymity and confidentiality would be
ensured.
The six participants were asked to: (a) photograph tools, materials,
activities or anything which they used to deal with vocabulary, or any
notes which they recorded to reinforce vocabulary, and (b) provide their
written explanation of why they selected the photograph(s) and how they
used those objects or activities to enhance their vocabulary learning and
use as well as their description of what strategies they used to learn and
perform vocabulary. They needed to upload their photograph(s) and post
their explanation of the photograph(s) on VOCABlog as least twice a
month, and were also encouraged to post additional written comments
or upload their voice recordings on VOCABlog through using the pod-
casting tool Vocaroo.
They were also asked to write online diaries on VOCABlog twice a
month. In the pilot study, the participants sometimes wrote extensively on
the events they thought of interest, but provided little or even no explana-
tion of their strategy use (see also Cohen 2011). Therefore, I provided a
general guideline to prompt participants to reflect on their vocabulary
learning experiences and increase the chance of obtaining useful informa-

tion on their strategies for vocabulary. They were encouraged to write about
their experiences of vocabulary learning and use, to include specific exam-
ples of strategies in which they used to deal with vocabulary, and to share
any critical incidents that they encountered during their study abroad.
Later, I also shared my language and vocabulary learning experience
with the participants. Such sharing may have influenced their strategic
awareness in ways that had an impact on the research findings. However,
sharing my experience with the participants enabled the researcher to
establish a closer relationship with them and enhance their engagement
during the research. This also served to enrich and deepen their findings.
In order to increase the ‘trustworthiness’ (Lincoln and Guba, 1985,
p. 290) of the findings, I also selected certain key elements which the
participants posted on VOCABlog, and subsequently conducted valida-
tion and confirmation through general interviews. Furthermore, since
the participants selected their own photographs to represent their ideas,
this openness increased their willingness to share their experiences with
the researcher. This way of taking, selecting and representing their photo-
graphs also became part of a process of strategic self-regulation.
Their online dairies and explanation of the photographs were written
in either English or their mother tongue, Chinese. They also exchanged
ideas about their strategy use with other participants or asked the
researcher vocabulary-related questions in the comments section or the
online forum on VOCABlog. 90 diary entries and 48 photographs were
collected from the six participants at the end of this study.
This study suggests that VOCABlog, as an innovative research tool,
has the potential to contribute to the existing body of strategy research in
the following ways:
• VOCABlog allows learners to provide authentic data on their strate-

gies for learning and performing vocabulary anytime, anywhere via a
variety of digital devices (e.g. a laptop, smartphone or tablet)
• It shifts the focus from the voice of the researcher to the voice of indi-
vidual learners, and remains open to their different approaches to
vocabulary learning. This could help the researcher better understand
learners’ flexible use of strategies.
• VOCABlog allows learners to use different forms of media, such as

online diaries, photographs, podcasts, and online messages, to repre-
sent their narratives. It helps to gain more vivid, rich and in-depth
narrative data on learners’ strategy use, thus enabling the researcher to
analyse the data from different perspectives and take a closer look at
interactions between vocabulary strategies and other variables, both
contextual and personal. The rich narrative data also uncover strategy
clusters and sequences.
• Learners can use VOCABlog to view other participants’ diaries and
photos, interact and communicate with other participants. The num-
ber of views and the exchange of ideas on useful strategies can increase
their willingness to share their posts and maintain their motivation to
produce a high quality of dairies. This also helps the researcher to
gather data on learners’ strategy use on an ongoing basis and explore
their changes in strategy use over time.
• VOCABlog can be also used as a learning tool to engage the younger
generation participants, to develop their strategy awareness and reper-
toire. Its pedagogical implication will be discussed in the next
chapter.
There were two stages of data analysis. Firstly, a direct and explicit anal-
ysis of data gained from each instrument was carried out. The data were
analysed manually and inductively in order to provide the most meaning-
ful analysis. After a direct analysis of the data was gleaned from each
instrument, the next level of data analysis included the synthesis and inter-
pretation of different data sources. The cases were not only studied indi-
vidually, but were compared and contrasted in order to look for similarities
and differences in strategy use as well as the reasons behind them. As we
have seen from the previous chapters, the micro-analysis of the data gath-
ered from the multiple methods yields useful insights into the dynamic,
complex and contextually situated characteristics of strategy use.
5.9.2.4 A Task-Based Research Tool
Numerous questionnaire-based studies have appeared generating pat-

terns of strategy use, such as perceived usefulness of language learner
strategies and the frequency of use. In particular, the use of large-scale

surveys and questionnaires has been considered as valuable research tools
to generate and test hypothesis (Cohen 2011). However, as discussed
above, concerns about typical questionnaire-based research have been
also raised:
• A large number of learners tend to respond to a series of predeter-

mined questions constructed by researchers, and variation in the way
individual learners use strategies are often not able to be captured
(Meara 2009).
• Learners may generalise or become less accurate about their strategy
use since much of the data obtained from questionnaires constitutes
self-report which is retrospective and mentalistic in nature (Cohen
2011; Oxford 2011).
• Questionnaires tend to be used to generate patterns in the use of indi-
vidual strategies rather than strategy combinations, and the quality of
strategy use in specific contexts is often neglected (Briggs 2015; Wang
2015).
Besides examining pre-university students’ strategic vocabulary learn-

ing experiences in the UK, as mentioned above, an additional study was
conducted in 2016 to investigate strategies deployed by university stu-
dents for accomplishing their vocabulary needs. To overcome the short-
comings above, Survey Monkey was used to create an online task-based
questionnaire which encouraged learners to identify their own strategies
rather than the use of strategies from a list of strategies provided by the
researcher. Interviews were also conducted to amplify the questionnaire
data and further explore their vocabulary experiences during study
abroad.
In my previous studies, attending lectures, reading authentic texts,
participating in day-to-day interactions with native speakers,
and engaging academic writing and local trips were reported as impor-
tant activities to build and develop vocabulary by my participants.
Based on the findings, a series of tasks were designed to situate respon-
dents in specific situations which were related to the activities above.
The respondents were involved in a multimedia environment which
enabled them to watch academic lectures, view authentic materials (i.e.

a news article and a museum notice board), and listen to news reports.
Some comics which included the characters (i.e. a local friend and a
sale assistant), the scene (e.g. speaking to a local friend outside a super-
market) and the dialogue (e.g. talking about housing renewal) were also
made to get respondents to engage in interactive situations. They were
asked to describe their specific strategic behaviour while doing vocabu-
lary tasks as well as their strategies for learning vocabulary after the
tasks were just completed in order to obtain introspective data on their
actual strategy use.
Few investigations have been done to provide a detailed clarification of
the various strategies which learners identified and how the strategies are
actually referred to in practice (Cohen 2017). Many of the strategy state-
ments are oversimplified and vague, e.g. “look up a word in a dictionary”
and “guess from textual context”. Such general investigations reduce the
richness and complex nature of strategy use (Griffiths and Oxford 2014).
The aim of this questionnaire is to better understand the quality and
complexity of strategy use rather than the frequency of strategy use. In
order to achieve this aim, 56 international Chinese students (including
one of the six case study participants, Qa) who participated in this
research were asked to write down in detail about their strategy use for
learning and performing vocabulary with reference to some specific situ-
ations, for example, when a key word is explained in a particular lecture;
when learning a target word in a given news article; when hearing an
unknown word in daily conversation.
The questionnaire also asked respondents to indicate how they com-
bined strategies in the completion of the vocabulary tasks, reasons behind
their strategy choice and the usefulness of their strategy use. When the
respondents used more than one strategy almost at the same time, strate-
gies were linked using a plus ‘+’. When strategies appeared consecutively,
the strategies were linked using an arrow ‘→’. This research focused on
the qualitative interpretations of the fine-grained data on their strategy
use. In the light of the questionnaire data, some vocabulary-related strate-
gies that helped the international Chinese students deal with their vocab-
ulary needs and enhance their study-abroad experience will be suggested
in the next chapter.
5.10 Suggestions for Future Research

This multiple-case study reflected the perspectives of a relatively small
sample of international Chinese learners and cannot reach some broad
conclusions. In spite of the limitations, the six case studies provided rich
details about the process of strategic vocabulary learning and insights into
the holistic nature of strategies which interacted with various personal
and contextual factors. The data uncover different types of strategy com-
binations, such as strategy clusters and strategy sequences, which enabled
individual learners to learn vocabulary effectively in various contexts. The
relationship between the type of strategy combinations and success at
vocabulary learning and performance could be further studied.
In addition, research findings revealed that emotions played an important
role in learners’ engagement in vocabulary learning and their motivation to
use strategies, while the affective aspects of strategy use tended to be missed
out in vocabulary learning strategy research. Another area of investigation
would be the strategies for managing emotions in support of vocabulary
learning, including not only strategies for activating positive emotions, but
also strategies for regulating negative emotions. In order to shed more light
on the strategy use of study-abroad learners of L2 English, future research
could involve more participants, including not only international Chinese
students, but also international students from other nationalities.
A fine-grained description and interpretation of the six student cases at
three British universities, which were provided in this book, indicated
that the process of strategic vocabulary learning was not smooth and lin-
ear, involving problems, changes, and development. In order to enhance
the quality of learners’ strategy use, future researcher may need to entail
more close-order inspection of what problems arise when learners use a
particular strategy or a strategy combination and attempts they made to
improve their existing strategies. To explore the complexity of strategic
vocabulary learning further, besides investigating international students’
strategy use during their initial time period, long-term student sojourn-
ers’ strategy development over time could also be an important aspect for
future researchers to investigate.
Considerable effort has been made to look at strategies for discovering,
memorising and consolidating vocabulary in the research literature (e.g.
5.11 Conclusion 219
Cohen 1987; Schmitt 1997; Gu 2003; Takač 2008; Nation 2013; Cornell
et al. 2016). However, not enough attention has been paid to the strate-
gies that learners could use to help them perform vocabulary. The find-
ings from my research projects have shown many problems which the
international Chinese students encountered in the usage of vocabulary
(i.e. knowledge of how, when and where words can be used). Therefore,
it would be also useful to investigate strategies for dealing with the com-
plexity and appropriateness of vocabulary use.
Nowadays, many university students learn and use a third language.
Research on third or additional language acquisition has expanded rap-
idly because of the increasing spread of multilingualism (e.g. De Angelis
2007; Peyer et al. 2010; Cenoz 2013). Some Chinese students who par-
ticipated in my additional studies were even learning their fourth or fifth
language. Multiple language learning can lead to more dynamic and mul-
tidirectional cross-linguistic interplay than bilingual language learning
(Bono 2011). Most language learning strategy research studies to date
focused on the strategies used by L2 learners. More recently, several
researchers have examined the effect of the use of language learning strat-
egies on third language acquisition (Grenfell and Harris 2007; Mitits and
Gavriilidou 2016). In order to broaden the current scope of vocabulary
learning strategy research, future research could be conducted to identify
what strategies multilingual learners use for successful L2 vocabulary
learning. Additionally, the research could explore similarities and differ-
ence in strategy use between bilingual learners and multilingual learners.
5.11 Conclusion
In this chapter, I have interpreted the findings from the six case studies
through both cognitive and sociocultural approaches and have suggested
that a combination of the two perspectives has the potential to broaden
and enrich our understanding of strategic vocabulary learning. The find-
ings that are drawn from my case studies and additional studies challenge
the notion that vocabulary-related strategies are relatively stable and
monolithic. A model of strategic vocabulary learning is developed from
empirical data to demonstrate that strategic learning is operated as a
c omplex, dynamic system which focuses on ongoing interactions between

various elements, including learner characteristics, sociocultural contexts,
agency as a learner, cognitive control, metacognition, and affection. The
model addresses the temporally and contextually situated nature of strat-
egies and highlights the authenticity and flexibility of strategy use. With
regard to methodological approaches, this chapter highlights the value of
a case study approach, for capturing the richness and complexity of indi-
vidual learners’ strategy use. In particular, two innovative, web-based
research tools, which have been proposed in this chapter, have the poten-
tial to illuminate the qualitative aspects of strategy use which contribute
to an in-depth understanding of learner strategies. In Chap. 6, drawing
on my research findings, I will suggest some practical implications for
learning and teaching vocabulary in a study-abroad context.
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6
Learning Vocabulary Strategically
in a Study-Abroad Context
6.1 Introduction
Tens of thousands of Chinese are currently studying for their undergrad-
uate and postgraduate degrees in English-speaking countries. This chap-
ter is a practical chapter which offers suggestions for study-abroad learners
as well as for language teachers. Drawing on the research findings and
issues discussed in previous chapters, this chapter suggest approaches that
could help international Chinese students maximise their vocabulary
learning and improve the quality of strategy use during study abroad. I
also offer different types of resources, such as books, social networks,
Internet forums, videos and games, which they can make use of to expand
opportunities for vocabulary development. This chapter provides a fur-
ther account of how to develop second language learners’ strategies
through a combination of explicit strategy instruction in the classroom
and online self-study activities outside the classroom. It also includes spe-
cific examples of vocabulary-related strategies, which study-abroad learn-
ers could select in relation to their needs and help them expand
strategies.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65963-3_6
232 6 Learning Vocabulary Strategically in a Study-Abroad Context
6.2 M
aximising Vocabulary Learning
During Study Abroad
In the case studies, the six Chinese learners faced considerable challenges
and problems related to the target language while studying abroad, but
they also exercised their agency by seeking solutions and expanding their
learning potential, and achieved personal growth over time. Through
reflecting on their vocabulary experiences in the UK, a range of approaches
are considered to be effective and beneficial in the process of strategic
vocabulary learning.
6.2.1 P
ay Conscious, Thoughtful Attention
to Multiple Aspects of Word Knowledge
in Everyday Situations
While many students generally assume that their vocabulary size can
increase gradually in an English-speaking country, the questionnaire data
gathered from my current research project showed that studying abroad
did not achieve their expected vocabulary gains. In 33.87% of the 124
Chinese-speaking university students, vocabulary size was chosen as the
area that they wanted to improve the most among all the respondents. In
the light of my case studies, one possible reason for having slow growth
in vocabulary size is that study-abroad learners may often miss out or
even ignore new words when they encounter them in everyday situations,
although the study-abroad context provides potential language input.
According to Nation (2013), noticing a vocabulary item is the first
step fostering learning, and other conditions contributing to learning are
less likely to take effect without the engagement and aroused attention of
learners. Therefore, study-abroad learners should make use of authentic
target language input (e.g. day-to-day interactions with native speakers,
railway station announcement, road signs and English-language televi-
sion programmes) and consciously notice unfamiliar or new words
appearing in everyday life.
While listening or speaking, the learner may only focus on the mean-
ing of unknown words, but ignore many other aspects of word k nowledge.
6.2 Maximising Vocabulary Learning During Study Abroad 233
In order to achieve high-level mastery of vocabulary, it would be impor-

tant to pay thoughtful attention (e.g. by means of attentive listening) to
how target language speakers use vocabulary items in everyday situations,
such as the word choice, grammatical rules, conventional expressions as
well as their pronunciation.
6.2.2 M
ake a Deliberate and Continuous Effort
to Consolidate Previously Learned Vocabulary
Items
Another possible reason for small vocabulary gains is that study-abroad

learners may be exposed to limit authentic target language input outside
the classroom. Greater vocabulary gains are likely to occur through mul-
tiple encounters with words in context (Webb 2007). The pre-university
students from my case studies reported that they gained little access to
authentic interaction with other users of the target language and their
data also indicated a variety of factors, both personal and contextual,
which caused the problem. Therefore, spending time deliberately on
learning target words through the use of vocabulary-related strategies
would be necessary to ensure repeated exposure to the target words, while
living in an English-speaking country.
Learners can deploy a wide range of strategies, such as strategies for
recording vocabulary, strategies for recalling vocabulary and strategies for
recycling vocabulary, in order to increase encounters with target words
rather than only repetition and rote memorisation. For example, “creating
a personal dictionary to record target words”, “turning off both Chinese
and English subtitles and testing oneself on the target words that the
learner studied earlier through watching an English language programme”
and “trying out new words when interacting with native speakers”.
In addition, learners need to deploy strategies to review and recycle on a
regular basis, for example, “selecting an English-language programme that
contains the target word and reviewing it by watching the programme on
a scheduled basis” and “practising using them repeatedly in both the class-
room and outside the classroom”, and such strategies would contribute to
long-term retention of vocabulary (see also Laufer and Osimo 1991).
Continuous effort is also needed to enrich word knowledge, for

instance, “recording various aspects of word knowledge, such as multiple
meanings and collocations” and “using bilingual in combination with
monolingual dictionaries to check semantic differences between synony-
mous words”. In particular, deliberately studying words in context is able
to help learners enhance both size and depth of vocabulary, for example,
“analysing both meaning and use of the target word in relation to the
textual context”.
6.2.3 B
e an Active Agent by Overcoming Contextual
Constraints and Opening Up Opportunities
to Build and Practise Vocabulary
As we have seen in Chap. 3, three quarters of the foundation students

were from China on the Wolfson site. According to the Higher Education
Statistics Agency (HESA) data, the largest number of international stu-
dents studying in the UK came from China in 2015–16, and it is also the
only country showing a significant growth in student numbers over the
years (UKCISA 2017). However, the large number of Chinese students
in classrooms, on campuses and in communities, particularly the heavy
recruitment of Chinese students in Business and Administrative studies,
Engineering, Maths, Media studies and Architecture (Gye 2014; High
Education in Focus 2014), appear to limit Chinese students’ access to
speakers of the target language and undermine their effort to learn and
practise vocabulary.
Studying abroad seems not to guarantee Chinese students’ language
success. Therefore, it is very important for them to seek solutions to deal
with the contextual constraint and exercise their agency by creating
opportunities to increase their engagement both inside and outside the
language classroom and to expand their potential of vocabulary learning,
for example:
• stretching beyond their comfort zone and increasing negotiation and

interaction about word knowledge with their teachers and peers of
other nationalities
6.2 Maximising Vocabulary Learning During Study Abroad 235
• initiating a pupil-teacher dialogue to check the understanding of

unknown words
• actively engaging in everyday life and social activities to expand social
networks of target language speakers and improve their chances of
practising vocabulary
• forming study groups with home students and students of other
nationalities to enrich the understanding of academic and subject-
related vocabulary
• creating different stories and practising using newly learnt words to
enable productive use of the words
• visualising different situations involving oneself practising using the
vocabulary items in the situations
• looking for someone who has specific knowledge of the target word for
assistance
6.2.4 U
tilise a Wide Range of Resources to Support
Learning
The study-abroad context provides second language learners with poten-

tial resources for vocabulary learning, either material (e.g. street signs and
restaurant menus), social (e.g. host parents and local people) or online
(e.g. TED Talks and YouTube). The six case studies reveal that the degree
to which learners actually benefit from a resource tends to depend on
how they interpret the affordance of the resource and also how effectively
they use it. Firstly, learners need to be aware of what resources are avail-
able to them for vocabulary learning when they engage in any classroom
activity or out-of-class activity. For example, the restaurant menu can be
perceived as not only the listing of food names but also a useful learning
resource that helps learners build food-related vocabulary.
Next, learners should select appropriate resources in relation to their
particular settings, their own needs and interests. For example, because of
the speed and convenience of access, an electronic bilingual dictionary
can be effective in the situation when the learner is restricted by time. By
contrast, when studying vocabulary at home, the learner can have more
free time to make use of different types of dictionaries to aid their
v ocabulary learning. With regard to their learning needs, all the six learn-
ers who participated in my study considered users of the target language
(e.g. host parents and home students) as a powerful social resource to
help them fine-tune the understanding and use of target words. Compared
with news programmes, sitcoms were more likely to provide learners with
social vocabulary and colloquial expressions. One of the participants, Qa,
also found it more interesting and enjoyable to watch than the news, thus
using sitcoms as a learning resource can help the learner sustain their
motivation to learn vocabulary.
Learners also need to actively manipulate different learning resources
in order to achieve their learning goal. For example, in order to gain a
more in-depth understanding of the unknown words Xia encountered in
a British museum, she utilised both pictures and leaflets in combination
with a social resource (i.e. the museum educator). Furthermore, it is
important for learners to reflect on their learning process on an ongoing
basis. As we have seen from previous chapters, both the process of dic-
tionary consolidation and vocabulary learning through viewing English
television programmes were not simple. The participants were confronted
with a variety of problems during the learning process. Therefore, to
ensure the effective use of learning resources, learners should be aware of
what problems arise when using a particular learning resource and seek
solutions to the problems.
6.2.5 C
ombine a Strategy with Other Strategies
to Enhance Learning
This book highlighted the use of vocabulary-related strategies to help

Chinese-speaking learners maximise their vocabulary learning during the
study-abroad experience. In particular, the findings from the case studies
clearly indicate that more strategic learners are able to enlist the use of
certain strategies together in an effort to achieve their learning goals
rather than using strategies in isolation. The case study data as well as the
data gathered from the task-based questionnaire (see Chap. 5) would sug-
gest different kinds of strategy combinations that learners can use to assist
and enhance their vocabulary learning, including:
6.3 Improving the Quality of Strategy Use 237
• Strategy clusters in which more than two strategies occur almost simul-
taneously and complement each other
• Strategy sequences in which strategies appear consecutively
• Circular use of strategies whereby learners use strategies in sequence
and also return to them in the same order
• Strategy sequences in combination with clusters
• Recycling use of strategies whereby learners use a strategy sequence or
a strategy cluster on a regular basis
The following section will provide further suggestions for how the
quality of strategy use can be improved.
6.3 Improving the Quality of Strategy Use

It is clear from my research findings that more successful language learn-
ers tend to put great emphasis on the quality of strategy use rather than
the quantity of strategies or the frequency of a strategy. To improve the
quality of strategy use, strategy selection and combination are important
features of strategic vocabulary learning that need to be considered.
6.3.1 S
elect and Employ Strategies Appropriately
and Flexibly
Second language learners should choose strategies that are appropriate to

their specific learning context. As we have seen in previous chapters, a
strategy or a strategy combination which is effective in one context may
not necessarily work in another. For example, some learners could spend
considerable time on fine-tuning their understanding of an unknown
word through deploying a cluster of dictionary look-up strategies.
However, during the lesson, they might not have enough time to manip-
ulate different strategies in order to achieve their purpose unless their
teacher arranges some self-study activities. By contrast, it can be more
effective for learners to initiate a student-teacher dialogue and check its
precise meaning with their teacher during the teacher’s presentation stage.
In pair or group work, language learners might be more useful to ask

their peer for explanation directly and seek further support from their
teacher if it is necessary. Therefore, in order to use strategies effectively,
learners need to consider a series of questions regarding a diverse of con-
textual factors before and while selecting strategies, such as:
• Is the strategy appropriate to this particular setting (e.g. classroom,

cinema, on-campus accommodation)?
• Is the strategy appropriate to this particular learning situation (e.g.
classroom learning, self-study after class, online learning)?
• Can the strategy work for this specific task, including task types, stages
of tasks and demands of tasks?
• Are there the necessary resources available in this specific context to
sustain your strategy operation?
• Are there enough time and space available to deploy the strategy or
strategies?
As related to language learner strategies, a fixed mindset, which involves

the idea that learner strategies are static and fixed, is viewed as a barrier to
learning (Oxford 2017). Learners should stay flexible and be able to vary
their strategy use across different contexts.
6.3.2 Personalise the Use of Strategies
The quality of strategy use is related to whether strategies are appropriate

not only to the specific context but also to the individual learner. As
reported in Chaps. 3 and 4, strategy instruction on vocabulary-related
strategies was provided to the pre-university students on both Wolfson
and Opal sites. It is certainly the case that the student participants who
benefited greatly from the strategy instruction were able to adopt and
adapt strategies from their teachers and make the strategies meaningful
for themselves, rather than following their teachers’ advice rigidly.
Personalising strategies to suit one’s own learning styles and needs has the
great potential to improve the quality of strategy use and make learning
more enjoyable.
In my case study, vocabulary notebook, either in a traditional, an elec-

tronic or an online form, was used as a valuable tool by most of the par-
ticipants to facilitate vocabulary learning and also its use enabled them to
take more responsibility for managing their vocabulary study outside the
classroom. Drawing on their experiences with the use of vocabulary note-
books, the effectiveness of the notebook largely depends on language
learners’ personal choice, such as the word selection, the information to
be included in a vocabulary entry, and the arrangement of vocabulary
entries.
It would be useful for learners to record the words that they are interested
in and not necessarily ones learned from the class. When arranging their
notebook, learners should pay particular attention to their learning prefer-
ences. For example, for visual learners, it could be more beneficial for them
to include visuals, such as pictures, charts and graphs, in their notebook,
and use relevant strategies (e.g. “creating a mind map in the notebook to
build subject-related vocabulary” and “making use of pictures to enhance
the understanding of target words”). By contrast, if learners are more logical
and detailed-oriented, it would be more beneficial for them to arrange the
information of vocabulary entries in sequence with detailed explanation.
For the use of a vocabulary notebook to be effective, learners do not
have to follow the same structure to record every selected vocabulary item
and need to be more purposeful to include the information in relation to
their actual needs. Vocabulary needs may vary from different contexts
and at different times, and thus further effort needs to be made to alter
their vocabulary entries or include additional information to meet their
specific needs.
Not everyone is aware of their own learning styles. In particular, as
discussed in Chap. 5, learning styles appear to be multiple, dynamic and
changing over time. Therefore, it would be beneficial for learners to gain
a better understanding of their preferred learning styles by using a learn-
ing style survey. For example, Cohen et al. (2002) Learning Style Survey is
often used by researchers to investigate language learners’ learning styles,
and it can be also used as a tool to help learners themselves to assess their
learning styles in order to take their advantage (Cohen and Weaver 2006).
I also recommend that learners could use it to keep track of any changes
occurred in their learning styles on an ongoing basis while study abroad,
thus helping learners to select more appropriate strategies that are com-
patible with their own styles.
6.3.3 B
e a Self-Regulated Agent to Enhance Strategy
Effectiveness
For a strategy to be effective in enhancing learning and learner perfor-

mance, language learners often deploy a strategy in combination with
other strategies. Despite the use of a strategy combination, sometimes
they may not achieve their learning purposes, satisfy their learning out-
come or enjoy using certain strategies. Therefore, it is important for
learners to act as a self-regulated agent who is able to take control of their
own learning and ensure the success of their strategy use. In particular,
the deployment of metacognitive strategies enables an effective strategy
orchestration which is the key to successful learning (Macaro 2006;
Vandergrift and Baker 2015).
In this case study, more effective learners were more skilful, being able
to plan ahead regarding their initial strategy selection through activating
their metacognitive knowledge (see Chap. 5). In addition to the strategy
of planning, learners should monitor their strategy use and progress
through personal reflection (e.g. keeping a reflection journal).
Some learners may not understand why metacognitive effort and extra
time should be invested; as a result, they show little willingness to use
metacognitive strategies (Victori and Lockhart 1995). When reflecting
on the process of strategic vocabulary learning, evaluating both the effec-
tiveness and appropriateness of their strategies in context would help
them diagnose problems associated with their actual strategy use and
strategy orchestration. On the one hand, discovering problems can cause
stress or other negative emotions (e.g. frustration and confusion); on the
other hand, the negative emotions they experienced can also serve as a
motivator to search for a solution and plan further strategic action, for
example, modifying strategy use in response to changing life experiences
and strengthening the existing strategy use by selecting and combining
additional strategies. I also suggest that they could seek some illuminat-
ing insights from the Internet, their teacher or other language learners.
The process of solving authentic problems can lead to meaningful learn-

ing that helps learners understand the value of metacognitive strategies.
6.3.4 Make Strategic Vocabulary Learning Enjoyable
As described in Chaps. 2, 3 and 4, in order to promote vocabulary growth

and reinforce vocabulary retention, the participants tended to form a
strategy cluster or sequence which involved both strategies for initial dis-
covery of target words and strategies for further consolidation, and used
it at regular intervals (e.g. daily and weekly), namely, a recycling of strat-
egy combinations. This type of strategy combination has the great poten-
tial to increase repeated exposures to the target words, foster elaborate
manipulation and processing of the target words, and build vocabulary
on an ongoing basis with an organised approach. However, the partici-
pants also appeared to experience negative emotions after using their
strategy combinations repeatedly over a period of time and felt that the
process of strategic vocabulary learning was less or no longer enjoyable.
In this respect, it seems to be difficult to continue using a strategy or a
strategy combination without pleasure. The negative emotions could also
undermine learners’ motivation or even make them withdrew their effort
to learn vocabulary.
Learners are likely to lose joyful engagement when the process of stra-
tegic vocabulary learning becomes repetitive. In order to sustain learners’
enjoyment, it would be important to select and combine strategies in
relation to their own interests and learning styles. In addition, continu-
ous attempts should be made to broaden the repertoire of strategies by
exploring new strategies that could serve not only the purpose of building
vocabulary, but also the purpose of generating pleasure and motivation.
I would suggest that learners could explore and discover strategies
through engaging themselves in creative and playful practices. For exam-
ple, drawing on the idea of ‘visualisation’, Wu employed a creative way to
practise vocabulary and increase his motivation to consolidate vocabu-
lary, namely, “visualising different situations involving the learner practis-
ing using the vocabulary items with other people”. Wu also made use of
the game, ‘Wordfeud’, to help him recall vocabulary and learn new words
from other players. A interactive, interesting learning environment which

was co-constructed by Wu and other players strengthened his enjoyment
to learn vocabulary. Therefore, in order to enhance learning outcome, I
would suggest that learners could orchestrate newly discovered strategies
with their existing strategies. Sometimes modifying their strategy orches-
tration by substituting existing strategies with newly discovered strategies
can also promote engagement in the learning process and improve the
quality of strategy use.
6.4 Developing Vocabulary-Related

Strategies in the Classroom
Instruction in language learner strategies is often left out in the class-
room, since there have been various factors that may impede the imple-
mentation of strategy instruction, such as time limitations, curriculum
constraints, and teachers’ insufficient knowledge and experience in pro-
viding strategy instruction (see Rubin et al. 2007). However, language
learners have a limited amount of time for learning the target language in
the classroom. The curriculum of different International Foundation pro-
grammes, for instance, are likely to only allow for a few hours for English
instruction every week, with a particular focus on English for academic
purposes. By contrast, study-abroad learners’ out-of-class experiences
have the greater potential to provide them with rich target language and
cultural input. In order to maximise their vocabulary learning during
study abroad, I would suggest that language teachers devote extra time
and effort to developing international students’ vocabulary strategies
through strategy instruction and helping them become more strategic,
autonomous, and thus students are able to take more control of their own
learning and expand their learning potential beyond the classroom.
My case study indicated that most of the participants had used a lim-
ited repertoire of vocabulary learning strategies and had received little or
no strategy instruction in vocabulary before coming to the UK. As we
have seen in Chap. 4, on the Opal site the pre-university students were
provided with explicit strategy instruction throughout the academic year,
including explicit description and modelling of vocabulary-related
6.4 Developing Vocabulary-Related Strategies in the Classroom 243
s trategies (such as dictionary look-up strategies and recording strategies),

students’ strategy discussions, teacher feedback on strategy use and addi-
tional strategy practice. The data revealed the importance of explicit
vocabulary strategy instruction in students’ strategy-awareness raising
and strategy development.
In contrast to explicit strategy instruction, implicit strategy instruction
requires students to discover and use strategies through language learning
activities where the strategies are implicitly embedded. Many researchers
have agreed that strategy instruction should be provided more explicitly,
since learners may not clearly understand what and why they are doing,
and may not be aware that they have been using strategies while doing
language learning activities (Wenden 1991; Oxford and Leaver 1996;
Chamot 2008; Cohen 2011).
For many years, researchers and practitioners have developed and sug-
gested different instructional options that second language teachers can
draw on in a variety of classroom settings, empowering university stu-
dents as strategic, autonomous learners. The following are three models
that tend to be adopted as general frameworks by many instructor-
researchers for vocabulary learning strategy instruction (e.g. Rasekh and
Ranjbary 2003; Atay and Ozbulgan 2007; Gu 2007; Mizumoto and
Takeuchi 2009).
6.4.1 C
ognitive Academic Language Learning
Approach (CALLA)
This model is created by Chamot and O’Malley (1987, 1994) with the
primary aim of developing academic language skills of English-as-a-
second-language (ESL) learners, and it was further expanded to suggest a
sequence of five steps which help second language teachers implement
language strategy instruction through content teaching (Chamot et al.
1999; Chamot 2004):
1. Preparation: identify students’ current learning strategies and discover

additional strategies that may be beneficial for learners through
activities such as filling in questionnaires, providing think-about data
about their strategy use while engaging in a vocabulary task, group

interviews, and discussions;
2. Presentation: model, name and explain new strategies, and also ask
students whether and how they have used them;
3. Practice: provide students the opportunity to practise using strategies
in academic tasks;
4. Self-evaluation: encourage students to evaluate their own strategy use
after completing tasks immediately through classroom discussions or
keeping learning journals on strategy use;
5. Expansion: direct students to transfer strategies to new tasks and
orchestrate strategies for effective learning.
This approach encourages vocabulary learners to deploy strategies in

combination rather than isolated strategies, and helps them expand their
strategy repertoire. In addition to strategies for learning vocabulary, it
also develops learners’ ability to manage their strategic vocabulary learn-
ing metacognitively. As discussed in Chap. 5, the use of metacognitive
strategies (e.g. the strategy of self-evaluation) plays an important role in
the success of vocabulary strategies.
Language learner strategies tend to be intermingled with many other
factors, such as context, previous learning experience, learning styles,
metacognitive knowledge, and motivation. Therefore, some instructor-
researchers identify several key factors that enable learners to actively and
effectively engage in the process of strategic vocabulary learning.
6.4.2 Styles and Strategies-Based Instruction (SSBI)
Cohen (1998) addressed the interrelationship when individual learners’

learning styles and language learner strategies are linked to performance,
and proposed the SSBI model that makes language learners excel.
Compared with Chamot and O’Malley’s CALLA model, this model
highlighted the multiple roles of the language teacher or the strategy
instructor that can be taken to help students develop their strategies and
fully engage with learning:
6.4 Developing Vocabulary-Related Strategies in the Classroom 245
1. Teacher as diagnostician: identify students’ current learning styles and

strategies, and raise their awareness of how to improve their strategy
choice;
2. Teacher as learner trainer: train students in the use of strategies explic-
itly, for example, suggest and model possible strategies for retrieving
vocabulary based on situational cues;
3. Teacher as coaches: provide guidance to students in order to help
them improve their strategy use on an ongoing basis, for example,
activities, such as repetition, visualisation and rhyme, can be arranged
to help students discover any desirable strategies that may be directly
related to their preferred learning styles. In addition, let students alter
the given strategies to suit their learning styles;
4. Teacher as coordinator: involve students in devising their own study
plan through journaling or conferencing, monitoring their learning
progress and commenting on their study plan and strategy use.
5. Teacher as language learner: share their experiences and externalise their
thinking processes that enable students see how the strategies work;
6. Teacher as researcher: research all the other roles whether function
smoothly.
6.4.3 A Strategy Training Model Developed by Oxford

et al. (1990)
This model drew particular attention to affective issues that language

learners might encounter during the learning process and incorporated
language learning beliefs, attitudes, and motivation which were identified
as key factors determining learning performance. Oxford et al. (1990) sug-
gested a seven-step approach to the design of strategy training, including:
1. Exploring attitudes, expectations, anxieties and current strategies

through discussion, observations, interviews or structured surveys;
2. Selecting strategies to be taught according to relevance of strategies,
learner characteristics, the needs of the individual learners, number
and type of strategies, the cultural appropriateness and transferability
of strategies;
3 . Integrating strategy training into regular language learning activities;

4. Pinpointing and reducing affective problems through engaging stu-
dents in various activities, such as relaxation exercises and
diary-sharing;
5. Preparing materials and activities which should be interesting, varied
and meaningful;
6. Conducting strategy training;
7. Evaluating the success of strategy training.
With regard to the stage six, Oxford and her colleagues also used a
more learner-centred approach to suggest a useful sequence for imple-
menting strategy training:
(a) Ask students to do a language activity without any strategy training;

(b) Let them discuss how they did it and praise for any useful strategies
and self-directed attitudes that they mention;
(c) Suggest and demonstrate other possible strategies that contribute to
their learning, and also mention the need for greater self-direction
and expected benefits;
(d) Provide plenty of time with students to practise the new strategies
while doing language tasks;
(e) Show how the strategies can be transferred to other tasks;
(f ) Help students to understand how to evaluate the quality of their
strategy use and monitor their progress as a more autonomous learner.
One of the major advantages of this framework is that it allows stu-

dents to have plenty of strategy practice if it can be effectively integrated
into regular language learning activities, since it would be very difficult
for them to internalise and become comfortable employing a new strat-
egy without enough exposure (Oxford 2017).
Drawing on the instructional models, language teachers / strategy instruc-
tors should be encouraged to select and combine appropriate approaches
based on their students’ needs, proficiency level of students, their existing
use of strategies, and the students’ personal interests, rather than simply fol-
lowing one particular model. It is important to start putting learning facili-
tation in place to continuously monitor students’ learning performance
through the implementation of strategy instruction and evaluate outcome.
6.5 Fostering Strategic Vocabulary Learning Beyond the Classroom 247
Not only do learners need to make a continuous effort to improve their

strategy use, but also I would suggest that teachers should make further
attempts to explore and improve their own strategy instruction according to
an ‘action research’ approach on an ongoing basis, involving:
• Planning the teacher’s own strategy instruction which is either inte-

grated into language courses or separated from the courses
• Implementing the strategy instruction
• Evaluating the effectiveness of the strategy instruction through stu-
dents’ self-reports, teacher’s observations and peer review of
instruction
• Identifying areas for improvement
• Planning for improvement
• Implementing the newly developed strategy instruction
• Evaluating the procedure of the strategy instruction and planning for
further improvement
6.5 F ostering Strategic Vocabulary Learning

Beyond the Classroom
As mentioned above, learners might not be able to receive enough expo-
sure and strategy practice through classroom-based strategy instruction
due to time limitations in the classroom. The context of everyday life in
an English-speaking country provides more potential opportunities for
learners to explore, experiment, practise, and develop their strategies. In
order to help learners expand their strategy repertoire, it would be useful
for language teachers or strategy instructors to make use of web-based
tools that enable learners to reflect on their strategy use through engaging
in out-of-class situations and make further improvement.
6.5.1 C
onstructing a Strategies Website
for Vocabulary
Forty years after the start of research into language learning strategy, the
experts in this field highlighted the need to develop research-based
ebsites for specialised domains of strategy use where learners identify

w
and select strategies that might work for them rather than conducting
research on strategy instruction where all learners are exposed to certain
strategies (Cohen and Griffiths 2015; Oxford 2017). The results of my
previous research projects reveal that vocabulary strategies are not inher-
ently good or poor, but the quality of strategy use is related to whether
strategies are appropriate for the individual learner.
Inspired by the construction of the Spanish grammar strategy website
developed by Cohen and Pinilla-Herrera (2010) at the University of
Minnesota, I would suggest that language teachers or strategy instructors
could try to create a website which features vocabulary-related strategies
deployed successfully by learners. The aim of the website is to enhance
learners’ ability to learn and use vocabulary beyond the classroom and
enable them to take responsibility for their own strategic vocabulary
learning. The learner is given freedom to select appropriate strategies
from the website and deploy them in relation to their own needs. The
learner is also encouraged to practise using different strategies in out-of-
class situations.
Language teachers or strategy instructors should act as researchers
using one or more of the techniques, such as interviews, observations,
and questionnaires, to identify the vocabulary-related strategies that
second language learners have used successfully to learn or perform
vocabulary in a study-abroad context. Most importantly, further effort
needs to be made to examine the success of their given strategies. For
example, it would be beneficial to design a series of interview questions
or a task-based questionnaire (see Chap. 5) that instructor-researchers
can use to probe student participants’ accuracy and appropriateness of
learning and performing the target words when the participants
employed the given strategies, allowing a means for triangulating the
information provided by the participants. Only the strategies that work
effectively for the participants would be included in the website. A
number of free web building technologies can be used to create a vocab-
ulary strategies website, such as Wix and Sitebuilder. Instructor-
researchers should also pilot the website before implementing it and
evaluate the impact of the website after their students use it, if neces-
sary, to make further improvement.
6.6 Useful Resources for Vocabulary Learning 249
6.5.2 VOCABlog as a Reflection and Learning Tool
As indicated in Chap. 5, VOCABlog, an innovative, interactive, web-

based technique which combines both diaries and ‘photovoice’ in a mul-
timedia online environment, can be used not only as a research tool to
capture the richness and complexity of individual learners’ strategy use
but also a learning tool to engage the younger generation participants and
help them build their vocabulary and raise their strategy awareness.
Language teachers or strategy instructors could also use technology tools,
such as Ning and Blogger, to create a social network or a blog where
international students could post any photographs about the activities
and materials that support their vocabulary learning, upload audio or
video recordings explaining how they make use of strategies to deal with
vocabulary needs, keep a learning journal, and exchange ideas with other
students. This web-based technique has the potential to engage interna-
tional students in the process of exploring, monitoring, sharing, evaluat-
ing and improving vocabulary-related strategies beyond the classroom.
VOCABlog can be also used in combination with the vocabulary strat-
egies website proposed in the previous section. Through the vocabulary
strategies website, second language learners are able to see the value of
other possible strategies, and VOCABlog can provide them with further
opportunities to reflect on their experiences of using given strategies,
including the success of their strategy use and problems that they encoun-
ter when using any given strategy. Teachers and instructors should open
up a discussion which allows students to share their experiences of strate-
gic vocabulary learning with others and comment on their strategy use on
the social networking website. They should also provide ongoing support
and feedback to students and promote co-construction of knowledge.
6.6 Useful Resources for Vocabulary Learning

According to my personal selection, the list of vocabulary learning
resources is provided below for second language learners, especially
Chinese learners of English. Study-abroad learners can make use of the
resources to extend opportunities for vocabulary learning and support
their out-of-class learning.
6.6.1 Books
English vocabulary in use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
English vocabulary in use collection contains a series of vocabulary

reference and practice books from elementary to advanced level. It covers
a large amount of vocabulary that second language learners need to use
for academic study, social and daily life. New words are presented and
explained in context based on a variety of topics, followed by a wide
range of exercises.
Hayakawa, S. I. (1994). Choose the right word: A contemporary guide to

selecting the precise word for every situation. New York: HarperCollins.
This book includes more than 6000 synonymous vocabulary words

and is particularly helpful for fine-tuning semantic distinctions which
second language learners may not easily identify.
James, L. & Smith, O. (2006). Get rid of your accent: The English pronun-
ciation and speech training manual. London: Business & Technical
Communication Services.
This is a speech training manual for improving language learners’

British English pronunciation. It provides clear instructions, tips and
exercises to help them reduce their accent. Language learners can also
work with its audio recordings, practise on their own, record their voice,
and listen carefully to improve their pronunciation.
6.6.2 Websites
Academic Vocabulary
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/alzsh3/acvocab/index.htm
This helpful website provides international students with the tools that
they need to identify academic words in a text and create word exercises
to test their academic vocabulary.
BBC Learning English

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/#navIndex-1
It is a very popular tool for learners to improve their vocabulary, listen-

ing, speaking, writing, reading, and grammar. It provides a variety of
English lessons and rich video and audio resources for learning English
online.
Busuu
https://www.busuu.com/
It is an online social network that allows learners to connect for free with
other language learners and native speakers of the target language. Language
learners can post questions, request and give feedback on their vocabulary
use. It also provides vocabulary lessons that help language learners improve
their vocabulary based on their existing vocabulary knowledge.
豆瓣 (Douban)
https://www.douban.com/
It is a Chinese social networking service that allows Chinese learners of

English to find useful posts and comments about vocabulary learning
strategies and resources.
Duolingo
https://www.duolingo.com/
It is a language learning programme which uses gamification in order

to make vocabulary learning more interesting and enjoyable. It provides
different types of vocabulary exercises, instant grading with the quick
answer how to improve, progress tracking and rewarding points for every
successful achievement.
English at University
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/features/english-at-university
These animated video programmes teach the words and phrases that
international students need to respond to various linguistic demands
made upon them, e.g. meeting new flatmates and borrowing books in a
library, while studying abroad, especially during their early
adjustment.
ESL Flow
http://www.eslflow.com/
This website provides useful lesson plans and vocabulary activities for
teaching English as a second language, and it also has useful exercises that
second language learners can use to practise vocabulary outside the
classroom.
Italki
https://www.italki.com/home
Italki is a useful language learning platform where language learners

can find a personal native teacher and schedule a one-to-one lesson to
learn and practise the target language. It also allows learners to post ques-
tions about vocabulary use in its language learning community forum
and share ideas about vocabulary learning strategies with other learners
and teachers.
可可英语(Ke Ke English)
http://www.kekenet.com/
This website is particularly helpful for students preparing for different

English tests, such as IELTS, TOEFL, GRE and SAT. It provides a wide
range of language learning materials what are available for free download,
including songs, movies, news, and radios, as well as multi-channel
opportunities to learn, improve, and practise vocabulary.
Learning Chocolate
http://www.learningchocolate.com/
This website presents the vocabulary items that are categorised accord-
ing to various topics. It helps language learners understand and remem-
ber the target words by using pictures, audio recordings of the words and
additional vocabulary exercises.
Memrise
https://www.memrise.com/
It is a free language learning website that helps language learners learn

and remember vocabulary words in a creative way. It uses a variety of
activities to create associations between words and their meaning for you,
test your knowledge of the target words, and review your learning process
regularly.
Methods for Learning Vocabulary

http://www.smartlanguagelearner.com/experts-reveal-method-learning-
vocabulary/
This website provides useful strategies for learning vocabulary which

are recommended by 38 language learning experts.
Vocabulary.com
https://www.vocabulary.com/
This website motivates second language learners to build new words

through playing word games. Learners are invited to guess the meaning
of a word based on real-world examples and further exercises are provided
at various times to help learners retain the word in long-term memory. It
allows learners to learn and remember words in context.
Quizlet
https://quizlet.com/
This great tool allows second language learners to select the visual word
flashcards that they want to use and create their own study set. Learners
can also use Quizlet to set their study plan and choose different activities
to revise and recycle the words on a regular basis.
The English We Speak

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/features/the-english-we-
speak
On this site, second language learners are able to learn useful words
and phrases that they can use in everyday conversation through listening
to a series of fun three-minute programmes.
UEfAP Vocabulary
http://www.uefap.com/vocab/vocfram.htm
This website provides very useful information on how to select, build

and record academic vocabulary, as well as exercises that help second lan-
guage learners practise academic vocabulary. It also suggests strategies for
checking dictionaries, dealing with meaning, remembering new words
and inferring word meanings.
知乎 (Zhihu)
https://www.zhihu.com/
It is a free community and discussion forum where people can ask and
answer questions online. There are lots of very helpful strategies and
resources for vocabulary learning recommended by other Chinese learn-
ers of English. You can also asked questions about vocabulary and lan-
guage learning and seek support from the community members.
6.6.3 Apps and Software
A+ FlashCards Pro
This app is free, easy and simple to use. It enables you to make your
own flash cards and record your vocabulary words in a systematic way. It
allows you to recite your vocabulary anytime, anywhere.
百词斩 (Bai Ci Zhan)
It is particularly helpful app for learners who prefer learning through

visual images. The app contains a large amount of vocabulary which
Chinese students need for various language tests and matches each word
with interesting pictures and sample sentences. Learners can use both
pictures and sample sentences to help them memorise and recycle words.
双语新闻 (Bilingual News)
This app allows Chinese learners of English to listen to the latest news
either with both Chinese and English subtitles, or with only the English
subtitle, or without any subtitles. After listening to the news, it also pro-
vides learners with additional exercises that help them remember the tar-
get words, practise using words verbally and build collocations.
Blueprint 3D
It is a puzzle game in which players rotate the lines and shapes until
they form a complete image. It is a fun and interesting way to help you
revise your vocabulary.
不背单词 (Don’t memorise words)
This app contains a wide range of vocabulary words that Chinese

learners of English need to prepare for the IELTS and TOEFL tests. The
app engages learners in a series of vocabulary learning activities that help
them learn and recite vocabulary items.
Draw something
It is an interactive word game in which language learners guess what

other players draw in English, and they can also draw something and let
others guess what it is in English. This app tests their creativity and moti-
vates them to recall their vocabulary via pictures while having fun.
Quartz
The app uses a chat messaging interface to deliver the latest news head-
lines in a creative and insightful way. You can learn new English words
through exploring an ongoing conversation about the news and also
practise using words by commenting on the news.
扇贝单词 (Scallop in Shell Words)
This app adopts a flashcard approach to help you remember vocabu-

lary words rather than learning the depth of vocabulary knowledge.
Language learners can use it to set a target for every day with regard to
how many words they need to memorise per day and can also view the
progress of other learners.
Tandem
https://www.tandem.net/
This useful app which helps you find a language exchange partner. It
provides you with further opportunities to communicate with target lan-
guage speakers, practise vocabulary and enrich your vocabulary
knowledge.
Wordfeud
It is a crossword style, two-player or multiplayer word game. It allows

you to test your vocabulary and also helps you grow your vocabulary
through guessing words and checking dictionaries constantly.
Yahoo News Digest
This app delivers the latest news from all over the world in definitive
summaries with pictures, and covers a wide range of topics. It encourages
you to read for pleasure and enables you to build your vocabulary through
reading.
6.6.4 Audios, Videos and Podcasts
潘吉Jenny告诉你 (Jenny tells you)
This language learning podcast series is produced in a talk show format

and teaches you everyday words, phrases, and idioms that you need and
feel confused. In particular, the target words are explained in relation to
American communication style and culture.
TED Talks
https://www.ted.com/talks
This site provides high interest talks which cover a wide range of topics
and are presented by different speakers in various lengths, levels and
genres. While and post watching the talks, international students can
make use of different resources which TED talks offer, such as transcripts,
subtitles, and translations, to learn vocabulary in context.
The Sounds of English

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/features/pronunciation
This BBC Learning English programme helps language learners

improve their English pronunciation. It allows learners to watch how
fluent speakers of the target language pronounce words in natural speech
and provides further opportunities to practise saying the words.
Words in the News

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/features/witn
Language learners can find news stories that interest them from BBC
Learning English ‘Words in the News‘ programmes, and they can learn
the words and phrases which are highlighted by the presenter through
watching the programmes and reading their transcripts and explanations
of the target words.
Word of the Day

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC8JCSVgV07kYH27l1v-EC-w
It is a useful channel that teaches you a new English word every day in
combination with stories, British poems, history and culture on YouTube.
6 Minute English
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/features/6-minute-
english
BBC Learning English’s popular ‘6 Minute English‘ discussion-based

programmes teach the words and phrases that language learners need in
everyday life based on current interesting topics and enrich their under-
standing of vocabulary knowledge in relation to British culture. All pro-
grammes provide audios, transcripts and podcasts which learners can
download for free.
60-Second Science
https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/60-second-science/
In this series, leading science journalists provide brief commentary on

the latest developments in science and technology. This site allows inter-
national students to listen to and download a wide range of audio pod-
casts and view their transcripts. Listeners can work with the audio
podcasts and transcripts to study and build specific science-related
vocabulary.
6.6.5 Dictionaries
必应词典 (Bing dictionary)

http://cn.bing.com/dict/?mkt=zh-cn
This online bilingual dictionary provides many real-world English

sample sentences with Chinese translations and indicates the source of
each sample sentence.
Cambridge English–Chinese (Simplified) Dictionary Online

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-chinese-simplified/
This online dictionary provides essential word information. It offers

Chinese translations for both word definitions and sample sentences.
Collins
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/
This online dictionary is particularly helpful for collocations. It helps

learners find how words are commonly used together.
欧路词典 (Eudic)
https://www.eudic.net/eudic/mac_dictionary.aspx
This app contains a collection of dictionaries, including English-

English dictionaries, English-Chinese dictionaries and dictionaries of
synonyms and antonyms. It can be downloaded for free.
LanguageGuide.org
http://www.languageguide.org/english/vocabulary/
This tool can be used as an online dictionary to check words according

to different topics and includes pictures and audio recordings of the
words.
Oxford English-English Dictionary Online

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/?utm_source=od-panel&utm_
campaign=en
This online dictionary provides comprehensive information about

word meanings and numerous example sentences chosen from real-life
examples collected on Oxford’s corpora.
Visual dictionary
http://www.visualdictionaryonline.com/
It is an online visual dictionary with a wide range of themes. Each

word is connected with an image and a word definition is also
included.
6.7 S
trategies for Learning and Performing
Vocabulary
As we have seen, vocabulary strategies, for example, rote memorisation
and remembering words in context, are not inherently good or poor,
but it is important to select strategies that are appropriate to the indi-
vidual learners themselves and their specific contexts. There are many
possible strategies for learning and performing vocabulary. To develop
their own personal repertoire of effective vocabulary strategies, it would
be beneficial for language learners to explore, experiment new strategies
and find the strategies that work well for them. This section features
some strategies which international Chinese students had used success-
fully to deal with their vocabulary needs during study abroad. Study-
abroad learners could try out the strategies that others used and enlist
the use of certain strategies together in an effort to achieve their learn-
ing goals.
6.7.1 Vocabulary Strategy Use in the Classroom
• To build vocabulary during the class

–– When I am listening to a lecture, I consciously notice the vocabu-
lary items which interest me or are important to me, and keep a
record of the words for review after the class.
–– According to my learning needs and goals, I choose my own vocab-
ulary to learn rather than relying on others’ selection.
6.7 Strategies for Learning and Performing Vocabulary 261
–– I use my Smartphone to take a picture of the lecture handout or

other written text that contains the target words for further
learning.
–– I consciously select and combine a number of vocabulary strategies
in relation to specific tasks.
• In order to understand the target words

–– I use a Chinese – English dictionary to find the Chinese translation
of the specific vocabulary for my subject (e.g. Computer Science:
crystal and notation)
–– I use the English explanation provided by online monolingual dic-
tionaries to help me understand academic vocabulary (e.g. analyse
and examine).
–– I recall the Chinese translation of the word by means of my mental
lexicon.
–– I search for and use contextual clues to help me with the meaning
of the target words.
–– I ask my teacher or peers for explanation.
–– I initiate a pupil-teacher dialogue to discuss the target word with
my teacher and peers.
–– When my lecturer speaks fast, I first note down a possible spelling
of the target word and check its precise meaning with my teacher
after class.
• To make use of vocabulary in verbal interactive activities
–– I ask my group members or teacher for help and find out the correct
English expression of the word which I do not know how to express.
I then practise using it.
–– I try out new words and check the accuracy of my vocabulary use
with my teacher or peers.
–– I pay particular attention to the word choice of my peers, and
observe how they use the target words. I try to use the words in a
similar way.
6.7.2 Vocabulary Strategy Use Outside the Classroom
• To discover new vocabulary

–– I give deliberate thoughtful attention to the useful vocabulary items
which I hear or see in everyday situations and plan for further stra-
tegic action.
–– I guess the word meaning in relation to the local context containing
the target word as well as its broader context.
–– I use contextual clues to help me with the connotative meaning of
the target word.
–– I analyse the word meaning by breaking the word up into word
parts, isolating parts of its meaning, and extending its meaning.
–– I find equivalents in Chinese by means of my mental lexicon.
–– I identify the part of speech of the target word in the given context
and analyse its meaning in relation to its part of speech.
–– I consult both bilingual and monolingual online dictionaries to
help me understand the word meaning.
–– I search for clues that exist in the dictionary’s sample sentences to
help me with the denotative and connotative meaning of the target
word.
–– I ask someone who have specific knowledge of the words for
assistance.
• To record vocabulary
–– I use a flashcard app to record new words and help me organise their
word information in a systematic way.
–– I create a personal vocabulary notebook to record vocabulary. I do
not use a fixed format to arrange entries. I decide what information
I want to include in the notebook and how I arrange it according to
my own needs.
–– I capture the screenshots of relevant scenes where the target words
occur and record them in a more meaningful context rather than in
isolation.
–– I add additional information to my vocabulary notebook when I
learn more about the words.
6.7 Strategies for Learning and Performing Vocabulary 263
• To enrich word knowledge

–– I ask native speakers of English to explain unfamiliar words, e.g.
semantic differences across synonymous words, pragmatic meaning
and idioms.
–– I make use of different types of dictionaries to expand my word
knowledge, such as bilingual and monolingual dictionaries and dic-
tionaries for thesaurus and collocations.
–– I utilise different online resources, such as 6 Minute English at BBC
Learning English and TED Talks. While listening to their pro-
grammes, I use their transcripts to study different aspects of vocabu-
lary knowledge in context, including their written and spoken form,
meaning, collocations and grammar.
–– I analyse a series of sample sentences that contain the target word
provided by monolingual dictionaries to identify its grammatical
rules and collocations.
–– I use search engines (e.g. Google) and Wikipedia to look for addi-
tional reading materials that help me know other aspects of word
knowledge, including their origins and cultural knowledge.
• To deepen the understanding of vocabulary
–– I form a study group with my coursemates. We read a series of jour-
nal articles that are related to our course and discuss the key terms
that appear in the articles with my group members.
–– I use mind maps to review words and the relationship between
words.
–– I make an effort to recall the situation where I see or hear the word
in order to enhance my understanding of the word.
–– I fine-tune the meaning of a new word by comparing it to a known
word with a similar meaning.
–– I use YouTube to look for video programmes that teach and explain
technical terms.
–– I engage in cultural activities (e.g. visiting museums and art exhibi-
tions) to increase my cultural understanding of vocabulary. In par-
ticular, asking the museum educator for explanation and reading
the museum leaflets that contain the target words enrich my under-
standing of the words.
• To reinforce the retention of vocabulary

–– I practise using target words frequently with English speakers.
–– I visualise different communicative situations involving myself
practising using the vocabulary items with other people.
–– I engage myself in playing word games to enhance retention.
–– I recycle the words and phrases that I record in my notebook on a
regular basis.
–– I select an English sitcom that interests me and study vocabulary
deliberately in relation to its subtitle, the immediate context of
the target words and the context of the story. Next, I watch the sit-
com repeatedly to reinforce my memory of the words.
–– I create a short story every day and practise using newly learned
words through writing.
–– I find a tandem partner and practise using vocabulary with my part-
ner weekly.
–– I use an app to help me recite vocabulary on a daily basis.
• To improve the accuracy and appropriateness of vocabulary use

–– I consciously notice the words that fluent speakers of English fre-
quently use and explore how they use the words in everyday situa-
tions, regarding collocations and conventional expressions through
attentive listening.
–– I participate in social activities and observe how words are used by
local people to carry out certain social functions, such as making
requests, responding questions, and expressing thanks.
–– I ask native speakers to give feedback on my semantic appropriate-
ness, grammatical accuracy and pragmatic knowledge.
–– I make use of monolingual dictionaries and online resources to ver-
ify the feedback provided by native speakers
–– When I read journal articles and academic books, I give particular
attention to the academic vocabulary and identify recurring pat-
terns of academic vocabulary use.
–– I analyse instances of the use of the target words on Google in order
to check if I use them accurately and appropriately.
6.8 Concluding Comment 265
6.8 Concluding Comment

Numerous international Chinese students have been studying in Western
countries and even more Chinese students are planning to travel abroad
to pursue degrees. Since 2009, I have conducted a series of studies to
examine Chinese students’ language learning experiences and their inter-
cultural adjustment in the UK and found considerable vocabulary-related
problems that Chinese students encountered. There is a clear need to
increase international Chinese students’ engagement in language learning
beyond the classroom and improve their vocabulary strategies that help
them deal with vocabulary needs and accelerate their adjustment in an
English-speaking country. As mentioned earlier, the intended purpose of
this book is to provide rich and deep insights into strategic vocabulary
learning that are transferable to other possible contexts of teaching and
learning and help international Chinese students maximise the potential
benefits of study abroad.
While vast numbers of studies have been done worldwide to report the
frequency and number of vocabulary strategy use, the quantity of strategy
use is often not linked to successful learning in reality. This book reports
on a research project exploring the lived experiences of six Chinese
study-abroad learners, with a particular focus on their strategic vocabu-
lary learning in the UK. A thorough analysis of the six case studies pro-
vides valuable insights into strategy combinations and orchestration of
strategies, and highlights the importance of the quality of strategy use in
effective vocabulary learning.
This book highlights the potential value of a case study approach, for
capturing the complexity of individual learners’ strategy use in context.
The six Chinese learners who took part in this study generated person-
alised and dynamic organisation of strategies in order to enhance their
learning outcome, although it has been long assumed that Chinese stu-
dents tend to reply on rote memorisation for vocabulary learning. A
holistic interpretation of the results from both cognitive and sociocul-
tural perspectives sheds light on the richness of strategies for learning and
performing vocabulary and reveals complex realities that occur in the use
of vocabulary strategies.
Drawing on data from the case studies and my additional studies, a

temporal, dynamic, flexible model of strategic learning is developed to
enrich our current understanding of vocabulary learning strategies. An
innovative, interactive, web-based technique is further proposed as a
valuable research tool for illuminating the qualitative aspects of strategy
use as well as a useful learning tool for developing language learners’
vocabulary strategies outside the classroom. I hope that the insightful
analysis of the complex interplay among learner agency, learner charac-
teristics, context and strategies, this book have provided, enables research-
ers and practitioners to see new perspectives that contribute to continuing
strategy research and practice and empower international Chinese stu-
dents in a study-abroad context.
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Index
A Anderson, N., 194

Abbuhl, R., 208 Anderson, N. J., 160, 242
Abdi, M., 186 Andrews, S., 175
Affect Aphek, E., 172
affective function, 110, 131, 190, Arnold, J., 2
197, 198 Atay, D., 243
affective strategies, 37, 46, 85, Atkinson, R. C., 172
105, 106, 110, 131, 132, Attention, 47, 50, 53, 182, 233
164, 191, 245 attentive listening, 50, 55, 149
importance in second language Autonomous learning, 128–138
learning, 109, 110, 190
negative and positive emotions,
44, 45, 85, 109, 190 B
Agency, 56–58, 184–186, 234 Baker, S., 240
engagement, 25–27, 49, 182, Barcroft, J., 5, 111, 202
191, 234, 242 Barnhardt, S., 243
Ahour, T., 186 Barron, A., 2
Alba, M., 170 Beaton, A., 170
Alcón-Soler, E., 162 Benson, P., 95
Anderson, J. R., 170 Biggs, J. B., 180

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65963-3
288 Index
Bo Coady, J. M., 173, 174

learning styles, 82 Cohen, A., 245–247
previous language learning Cohen, A. D., 4, 56, 59, 60,
experience, 67 109–111, 159, 170, 172,
strategic vocabulary learning in 174, 176, 191, 194, 198,
the classroom, 70, 78, 79, 200, 203, 212, 239,
82 244–248
strategic vocabulary learning Context, 179
outside the classroom, context of teaching and learning,
89–95, 100 18, 33–37, 69, 79, 85, 106
Bono, M., 219 contextual constrains, 72, 89–98,
Bourdieu, P., 181 162, 182
Bown, J., 190 contextual resources, 50–54,
Bozgeyik, Y., 186 95–98, 176
Briggs, J. G., 2, 162, 216 study abroad context, 1–3, 162,
Brown, T. S., 5 242
Bryman, A., 210 Contextualised strategies, 173
Burris, M., 211 inferencing strategies, 48, 72, 173
Cornell, R., 204, 219
Craik, F. I. M., 170
C Crookall, D., 245–246
Cadd, M., 2, 162 Cutting, J., 180
Carpenter, S. K., 44, 172
Carson, J. G., 108
Catalán, R. M. J., 186 D
Çelik, S., 202 Dean, J., 219
Cenoz, J., 219 Depth of processing theory, 170, 172
Chamot, A. U., 159, 160, 170, 208, Dewaele, J. M., 190
210, 242–244 Dictionary use
Chesterfield, K. B., 207 problems, 22, 138, 139, 142–144
Chesterfield, R., 207 strategies, 39, 54, 142–144
Chi, J. C., 239 types of dictionaries, 52, 54
Chien, S. C., 180 Donato, R., 175
Chinese students, 4, 180, 182, 183, Dörnyei, Z., 5, 212
234, 235 Dubin, F., 173
Chio, V., 211 Duff, P., 204
Chiu, C. H., 61 DuFon, M. A., 2, 162
Index
289
E H
El-Dinary, P. B., 243 Halbach, A., 212
Ellis, N. C., 170 Halliday, M. A. K., 181
Harish, S., 35, 175
Harris, V., 160, 219, 242
F Homestay, 145–152
Fan, M., 160, 173 Horst, M., 5, 27, 99, 173
Fan, M. Y., 172, 186 Hourigan, T., 161
Fandt, P., 211 Hu, B., 2
Fitzpatrick, T., 2 Hu, Y., 91
Flavell, J., 194 Huang, J. S., 106, 175
Flores-Salgado, E., 162, 177
Fogle, L. W., 185
Fonseca-Mora, C., 2 I
Fraser, C. A., 173 Inceçay, G., 186
Freed, B., 2, 162 Interactive dialogue, 25, 94, 161. See
Freed, B. F., 2 also collaborative dialogue
intensity of social interaction, 159
negotiation, 37, 149, 193
G Intercultural adjustment, 2, 180,
Gairns, R., 3 190, 265
Gao, X. S., 6, 95, 163, Investment, 62
175–178, 180,
181, 203
Garton, S., 36 J
Gass, S. M., 210 Jang, E. Y., 178
Gavriilidou, Z., 219 Jenkins, J. R., 174
Good learning strategies, 186 Ji
Graham, S., 173, 176 agency, 127
Gregersen, T., 190 previous language learning
Grenfell, M., 219 experience, 138
Griffiths, C., 176, 186, 187, 202, strategic vocabulary learning in
203, 217, 248 the classroom, 120–127,
Gu, P. Y., 4–6, 170, 201, 202, 131–133
243 strategic vocabulary learning
Gu, Q., 2, 183 outside the classroom,
Guba, E. G., 214 131–133, 148–151
290 Index
Jiang, N., 3, 61 M
Jimenez, R. T., 178 Ma, Q., 204
Johnson, R. K., 4, 170 Ma, R., 108, 188, 212
Juffs, A., 45 Macaro, E., 52, 59, 60, 170, 194,
201, 203, 240
Mackey, A., 210
K Maley, A., 2, 183
Ke McCormick, D., 175
learning styles, 82 Meara, P., 3, 5, 203
previous language learning Mercer, S., 184, 185, 191,
experience, 67, 70 203
strategic vocabulary learning in Metacognition, 193, 194
the classroom, 70, 82 metacognitive knowledge,
strategic vocabulary learning 194, 195
outside the classroom, 95 metacognitive strategies, 60,
Kember, D., 180 193–195
Kojic-Sabo, I., 5 Mitchell, R., 161, 176
Mitits, L., 219
Mizumoto, A., 161, 172, 186,
L 243
Lafford, B. A., 2 Models of strategic learning,
Lamprakaki, M., 208 141–144, 198–202
Lantolf, J. P., 175, 212 Murray, L., 161
Laufer, B., 2, 58, 111, 233 Myers, F., 161, 176
Lavine, R., 245
Learning styles, 109, 187
Leaver, B. L., 245–247 N
Leeke, P., 177, 193 Naiman, N., 186
Lenski, S. D., 176 Nassaji, H., 3, 173
Lew, R., 172 Nation, I. S. P., 3, 4, 25, 59, 163,
Li, C. L., 178 175, 198, 202
Li, X. P., 180 Nation, P., 2
Lightbown, M., 5 Newton, J., 37
Lin, P. M. S., 163 Nierstheimer, S. L., 176
Lincoln, Y., 214 Norton, B., 57, 62, 107, 176, 181,
Llach, M. P. A., 197 182, 185, 190
Lockhart, R. S., 170 Nyikos, M., 27, 99, 160, 170, 173,
Lockhart, W., 240 245
Index
291
O Q
O’Dell, F., 3 Qa
O’Malley, J. M., 59, 170, 208, previous language learning
244 experience, 138
Olshtain, E., 173 strategic vocabulary learning in
Olson, K. M., 172 the classroom, 129–131,
Osimo, H., 234 139–145
Oxford, R. L., 4, 6, 25, 37, 59, strategic vocabulary learning
108–110, 160, 161, 164, outside the classroom, 138,
170, 175, 176, 178, 185, 152–159
190, 192, 194, 198, 200, Quality of strategy use, 5, 56, 186,
202, 212, 217, 238, 239, 237–242
245–247
Ozbulgan, C., 243
R
Raymond, P., 208
P Read, J., 3
Palfreyman, D., 163, 182, 184 Redman, S., 3
Paribakht, T. S., 173 Reid, J. M., 108
Parks, S., 208 Repetition, 68, 111, 163, 172
Perry, F. L., 5 repetition strategies, 174–175
Perspectives on strategies Richardson. J. T. E., 180
cognitive perspectives on Robbins, J., 243
strategies, 170–175 Rodgers, M. P. H., 163
sociocultural and cognitive Rote learning, 44
perspectives, 178–179 rote memorisation, 172, 260
sociocultural perspectives on Rubin, J., 160, 186, 207, 208, 242
strategies, 175–178
Philp, J., 36, 57
Pigada, M., 174 S
Pinilla-Herrera, A., 248 Sagarra, N., 170
Plonsky, L., 160 Santos, D., 173, 176
Problems Schmidt, R., 186
related to strategy use, 17, 68, Schmitt, N., 4–6, 31, 57, 59, 163,
102, 119–121, 130, 156 170, 172, 174, 198, 202,
related to vocabulary learning 203
and use, 4, 17, 67, 119 Schramm, K., 161, 175, 178, 210
Pronunciation, 40, 41 Schraw, G., 193
292 Index
Seddigh, F., 186 Strategy research approach and

Segalowitz, N., 2, 162 methods
Shaw, P., 177 case study approach, 203–206
Shokrpour, N., 186 classroom observation, 206,
Siyanova-Chanturia, A., 163 210
Social contact, 90, 95, 150 dairies, 214, 215
Social network, 152, 182 interviews, 210
Spencer-Oatey, H., 2, 91, 183 photovoice, 211
Stanley, P., 62 Strategy research techniques
Stern, H. H., 207 task-based research tool, 220
Sternberg, R. J., 189 VOCABlog, 215
Strategy choice, 22–25, 70–89, Sun. H. D., 180
179–186, 202 Sutter, W., 245
Strategy combination, 71, 72, 78, Szczepaniak, R., 172
79, 99, 101, 155, 156, 236,
237
based on verbal interaction, T
22–27, 33, 38–42, 51 Taguchi, N., 2
strategy cluster, 39, 42–48, 53, Takač, V. P., 4, 173, 198, 219
54, 60–62 Takeuchi, O., 161, 172, 243
strategy pair, 77, 100, 137 Thorne, S. L., 175
strategy sequence, 22, 51, 60, 79, Tılfarlıoğlu, F. Y., 186
140 Tjora, A. H., 208
Strategy functions, 200, 201 Tomaš, Z., 219
Strategy instruction, 244–247 Toohey, K., 35, 176, 182
strategy sharing, 128 Tozcu, A., 174
via a strategy website, 247–248 Tseng, W., 5, 31, 56, 186
via a virtual social network, 249 Turner, Y., 2
vocabulary strategy instruction,
85, 120–145, 160
Strategy research, 7, 107, 190, 198, U
200–203, 216, 265, 266 Ushioda, E., 178, 192, 193
aspects for
complexity, 7, 107, 190,
200–202, 265, 266 V
flexibility, 198 Van Lier, L., 185
fluidity, 190 Vandergrift, L., 60, 194, 240
frequency of use, 202, 203, Victori, M., 240
216, 265 Visualisation, 43
Index
293
VOCABlog related to learner characteristics,

as a learning tool, 43, 44, 52, 249 187
as a research tool, 207, 214 related to learning styles, 56,
Vocabulary gain, 162, 174, 175, 182, 187–190
233 related to metacognition,
Vocabulary instruction, 23–29, 33, 193–198
35, 37–47, 70–79 related to motivation, 47, 128,
Vocabulary learning, 2–5 129, 193, 244
academic vocabulary, 31–36, 152, strategy examples, 62, 117,
197 260–264
colloquial expression, 153–156 Volet, S., 197
for IELTS, 85–89 Vygotsky, L. S., 175
resources, 50–56, 92, 95,
183–185, 235, 236,
249–260 W
semantic distinction, 51, 61, 137, Wakamoto, N., 186
138 Walters, J., 111
through dictionary use, 145 Wang, A. Y., 172
through digital games, 46 Wang, C., 211
through English-language Wang, K. H., 5, 6, 56, 59, 161, 174,
television programmes, 152 177, 183, 203
through the use of vocabulary Wanpen, S., 186
notebooks, 31, 125–129, Watanabe, Y., 186
139 Watkins, D. A., 180
through visual images, 158, 172 Weaver, S. J., 239
vocabulary for everyday life, Webb, S., 111, 163, 174, 233
162–164 Wertsch, J. V., 175
Vocabulary retention, 110, 111, 117, Wesche, M. B., 173
170, 172 White, C., 210
strategies for reinforcing memory, Winke, P., 208
40, 43, 44, 125–127, 172, Wong, L. L. C., 108
193 Wong-Fillmore, L., 207
Vocabulary size, 37 Word knowledge, 3, 4, 31, 122, 172,
‘deep’ processing strategies, 170 232, 233, 263
keyword method, 172 collocations, 52, 127
Vocabulary strategies cultural knowledge, 152
related to agency, 56, 186 grammatical rules, 70, 106, 197
related to context, 56, 179 pragmatic knowledge, 61, 151
related to emotion, 190 shades of meaning, 51, 61, 62
294 Index
Wu strategic vocabulary learning in

agency, 25, 36, 37, 41–47 the classroom, 19–25,
learner characteristics, 56 27–31, 35
previous language learning strategic vocabulary learning
experience, 19, 25, 32 outside the classroom,
strategic vocabulary learning in 32–38, 47–56
the classroom, 19–31, 35, Xiong, Z. N., 2, 183
36
strategic vocabulary learning
outside the classroom, 37 Y
Yamamoto, Y., 43
Yin, R., 204
X
Xia
agency, 57, 58 Z
learner characteristics, 57, 58 Zhang, L. J., 6, 176, 178
previous language learning Zhu, H., 180
experience, 19 Zhu, J. N., 2

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learning

Isobel Kai-Hui Wang

ISBN 978-3-319-65962-6 ISBN 978-3-319-65963-3 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951771

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

Cover illustration: © Viktoria_Yams / Getty Images

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

2 Building Vocabulary Through Interaction 17

3 Expanding Study-Abroad Opportunities for Vocabulary

4 Developing Vocabulary Strategies During Study Abroad 117

5 Strategic Vocabulary Learning as a Complex Dynamic

6 Learning Vocabulary Strategically in a Study-Abroad

Photo 2.1 Using an electronic notebook to remember words  28

Fig. 4.2 Qa’ strategy pair 137

Table 2.1 Wu’s and Xia’s strategic attempts 63

© The Author(s) 2018 1

assumed that vocabulary growth would come naturally through access

• Knowledge of the difference between an second language (L2) word

The Chinese students whom I met also mentioned many different

• Having a limited vocabulary range

In order to improve their vocabulary learning, students need to play

Therefore, more attention needs to be given to their experiences of stra-

1.2 What Is Distinctive About This Book?

learners’ vocabulary learning experiences and strategy use, and examines

Drawing on multiple sources of data, the book relates vocabulary strate-

1.3 Overview of the Book

Each of the three university foundation courses placed different

they managed their strategic vocabulary learning differently and examine

1.4 The Audience for This Book

Gu, Q. (2009). Maturity and interculturality: Chinese students’ experiences in

(Eds.), Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice

The transition to an entirely English learning environment was not

© The Author(s) 2018 17

interlocutors who he spoke to could not understand what he said. In

It’s easier to remember vocabulary when we practise it with others on a day-to-­

In the classroom, Wu built good rapport between his language teacher

Learning vocabulary on your own is challenging. I gradually realise the power

Although the study-abroad experience offered me great opportunities to build

2.2 L earning Vocabulary Strategically

students to develop their language in a more communicative way. Pair

IR: When you heard unfamiliar words, do you

c­ ommunication strategy which she considered necessary to maintain her

Wu: Prosperous? What does this mean?

In Extract 2.2, instead of an explicit explanation, Mary became a

Wu and Xia both combined social strategies with a dictionary look-up

Sometimes, I still felt unsure when I compared

Wu fulfilled the clear purpose of managing his vocabulary learning stra-

In contrast, the explanation which this app pro-

When I don’t know how to express a word, I often

Although the social strategies mentioned above can be viewed as com-

attempt to explore the differences between ‘effective’ and ‘efficient’ through

Wu: Please select one word card

In this activity, Wu found that he confused ‘efficient’ with ‘effective’ and

to Mary’s explanation, he kept a record in his notebook. He enhanced his

In China, I used to memorise a word list. Mary

Mary provided her students with opportunities to learn vocabulary in

Xia: Infrastructure↑Do you know it?

meaning, and students needed to enrich their vocabulary notebook with

I’m glad that Mary told us how to use a vocabu-

Mary’s strategic advice mediated the use of her vocabulary notebook

In contrast, Xia used her electronic notebook as a mediating artefact to

Photo 2.1 Using an electronic notebook to remember words (Xia, photo,

2 Building Vocabulary Through Interaction 17

3 Expanding Study-Abroad Opportunities for Vocabulary

4 Developing Vocabulary Strategies During Study Abroad 117

5 Strategic Vocabulary Learning as a Complex Dynamic

6 Learning Vocabulary Strategically in a Study-Abroad

Photo 2.1 Using an electronic notebook to remember words 28

Fig. 4.2 Qa’ strategy pair 137

Table 2.1 Wu’s and Xia’s strategic attempts 63

1.2 What Is Distinctive About This Book?

1.3 Overview of the Book

1.4 The Audience for This Book

It’s easier to remember vocabulary when we practise it with others on a day-to-

2.2 L earning Vocabulary Strategically

c ommunication strategy which she considered necessary to maintain her

2.3 Participating in the Teacher’s

Seng: classroom Seng: home

Compare the explanaon

Remember the word in relaon

2.6.2 Exploration and Utilisation of Resources

• Discover the word meaning in relaon to various

• Check a diconary (s)

• Pracse the words by using them in her diary