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Load and Resistance Factor Design

America's Modern Wood Engineering Method

A Step-by-Step Guide to Modern

Timber Frame Engineering

Patrick Gauthier

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Comple te Equatio ns and Tables )7 (

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Timber Frame Engineering in Load and Resistance Factor Design

Published by TFE Publishing Company

710-900 Howe Street
Vancouver, BC V6Z 2M4
www.tfepub.ca

All rights reserved

Copyright © 2014, 2015 by Patrick Gauthier

Cover design by Patrick Gauthier

Every effort has been made to ensure that all information, equa-
tions and solutions in this book are accurate. The author wel-
comes all comments and suggestions, including errors and/or
omissions concerning this book.

iStockphoto LP for images used under license. BigStockPhoto.

com for images used under license

ISBN 978-0-9812967-1-5

While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of all
information presented in this book, neither the author nor TFE
Publishing shall be responsible for the manner in which the infor-
mation is used, nor for any interpretations thereof.
 CONTENTS

Section 1 - Properties of Wood

1.1. basic wood information
1.2. wood properties
1.3. effects of moisture
1.4. equilibrium moisture content
1.5. effects of shrinkage
1.6. ideal air drying practices
1.7. other wood characteristics
1.8. effects of shrinkage in buildings
1.9. calculating wood shrinkage
1.10. conclusion
Section 2 - Load & Resistance Factor Design
2.1. load & resistance factor design
2.2. safety limit states
2.3. serviceability limit states
Section 3 - Loads and Forces
3.1. loads
compression
tension
horizontal shear
bending
3.2. type of loads
dead loads
 live loads
snow loads
wind loads
3.3. assigning values to loads
3.4. designing for loads
3.5. tributary area
3.6. live load reduction
3.7. roof live loads and snow loads
3.8. wind loads
3.9. outward thrust
Section 4 - Design Values
4.1. design values
previous testing methods
in-grade testing
lumber grading
species groups
in-grade testing results
duration of load
size effects
design values modification factors
4.2. design values conclusion
Section 5 - Design Value Tables
5.1. introduction
DV-1 wood species specific gravity
DV-2 wood species average weight
DV-3 weights of materials
 DV-4 standard lumber sizes
DV-5 lumber sectional properties
DV-6 dimension lumber / built-up beams
DV-7 beam and stringers, post and timber
DV-8 resistance factor
DV-9 time effect factor
DV-10 repetitive member factor
DV-11 wet service factor
DV-12 size factor: dimension lumber
DV-13 size factor: larger timbers
DV-14 incising factor
DV-15 flat use factor: dimension lumber
DV-16 format conversion factor
DV-17 metric / imperial conversion table
DV-18 lumber sectional properties: metric version
Section 6 - Beam Design
6.1. beam design
bending
horizontal shear
horizontal shear with notching
deflection
bearing on supports
6.2. concentrated loads
6.3. cantilever loading
6.4. lateral stability
6.5. plank decking
6.6. beam design conclusion
6.7. mathematical review
Section 6A - Workshop Beam Design
floor joists
sill beams
roof purlins
middle principal rafter
outer principal rafters
notes
Section 7 - Column Design
7.1. column design
7.2. design of wood posts
7.3. slenderness ratio
7.4. compression
7.5. compression and bending
7.6. built-up columns
7.7. stud walls
7.8. selection tables
7.9. net area
7.10. design examples
7.11. conclusion
Section 7A - Workshop Column Design
middle column
Section 8 - Joinery
8.1. traditional joinery
mortise and tenon
stub mortise and tenon
blind mortise and tenon
through mortise and tenon
housed mortise and tenon
through mortise and tenon with diminished haunch
through mortise with extended tenon
brace mortise and tenon
open mortise and tenon
rafter seats
step-lapped rafter seat
housed bird mouth rafter seat
floor joists
splice joints
8.2. joint connections
strength
stiffness
ductility
failure modes
peg diameter
peg spacing
8.3. all-wood joint connections
8.4. mortise and tenon design equation
8.5. mortise and tenon design equation in LRFD
8.6. peg spacing detailing
 8.7. splines
8.8. joinery conclusion
Section 9 - Timber Frame Design
roof purlins
principal rafter
cross-beam
column
joinery
Section 10 - References & Resources
10.1. references
10.2. resources
 How to Use this e-book
This e-book has been specifically formatted to be
viewed on an iPad, iPad Mini or any other e-reader in the
market today than can open PDF documents. The con-
tents of this e-book are best viewed with the e-reader in a
vertical position.

Every effort has been made to place the various images

and drawings in the same flow of the discussion taking
place so the reader could avoid flipping between pages to
see the referenced image or drawing. Therefore, the best
way to achieve a nice continuous flow was to design this
e-book with the e-reader in a vertical position in mind.

I also purposely avoided using academic jargon, and in-

stead focused on presentable, clear and concise prose that
maximizes the readers enjoyment of the subject at hand.

The contents of this book is not intended to be an

authority on how to build a timber frame structure, nor
a guide on timber frame joinery. Rather, its intent is to
present an environmentally sustainable approach to heavy
timber construction by providing the means in which to
choose the most efficient size timber member(s) for the
given design situation.
 I believe in mixing styles of wood construction. Every-
one will agree that large, exposed timbers are beautiful to
see. At the same time, there’s not much point in using big
timbers if they are going to be hidden from view, such as
within a wall. So I’ve emphasized the use of stud walls.
Not only are stud walls easy to construct and install, but
they are cheap, strong, versatile and are typically fashioned
from inexpensive, low-grade wood from fast growing trees
such as spruce and pine.

Moreover, using wood from fast growing trees lessens

the overall environmental footprint that goes into con-
structing a timber frame structure.

Besides the environmental angle, I wanted to include

information that respects the amazing material known
as wood. For example, Section 1 is totally dedicated to
wood characteristics, and these properties are emphasized
throughout the rest of the book, especially how wood
shrinks and swells.

Regarding measurements, it has become a fairly com-

mon practice to incorporate the metric system along side
imperial measurements. So I’ve mixed the two styles where
convenient, but imperial units are always referenced first.
 Introduction
My goals in writing a book on timber frame engineering
were two-fold: to provide the most modern available wood
engineering equations related to timber frame design, and
to present realistic three-dimensional visuals specific to the
timber frame member(s) being designed.

In my years of research and design of timber frame

structures, I found that a fundamental ingredient was miss-
ing from every journal and book that I consulted. None
of them provided three-dimensional visuals to help me
understand the problems and calculations that are essential
to solving timber frame engineering equations.

I have undertaken to resolve that shortcoming by pro-

viding complete 3D visuals of the structural members. In
addition, I have provided step-by-step guidelines for each
phase of the design process.

This book is intended for anyone who is interested in

wood engineering. Students intending to pursue a career
in timber frame design, as well as those with an advanced
understanding of the subject, will benefit from the infor-
mation contained here. The concepts covered range from
wood properties to the most up-to-date engineering for-
mulae, including the engineering behind all-wood joinery.
 The equations presented are based on the latest version
of the National Design Specification for Wood Construc-
tion. The building codes used are based on the most recent
edition of the International Building Code.

Design codes for timber engineering have changed

little since 2006. The 2006 design codes were put together
from a vast culmination of data relating to wood strength
that resulted in quite an evolution of wood engineering
understanding. Therefore, the codes and design proce-
dures shown in this book will remain relevant probably for
generations to come.

The wood design philosophy used in this book is

known as Load and Resistance Factor Design. A back-
ground of this method is explained in detail in the Load
and Resistance Factor Design section.

Most of all, this book presents a realistic look at the

most common post and beam structural design equations
and their corresponding solutions. You will not find anoth-
er book with this amount of mathematical detail specific to
timber frame design, combined with precision 3D pictori-
als and dimensioning. Trust me I’ve looked.

Two timber frame designs are presented in this book,

each quite similar to each other. Step-by-step equations
based on their respective structural make-up are presented,
including all-wood joinery using wood pegs. The designs
were developed to represent a varied assortment of timber
frame post and beam design possibilities. Once you grasp
the concepts on how to solve for these beams and col-
umns, you will be able to design any structure you can
imagine.

The following lists what is not included in this book:

• No glue laminated (glulam), engineered wood

products, laminated veneer lumber (LVL), or parallel
strand lumber (PSL) design equations of any kind.
• No roof truss designs.
• No metal fastener design equations.
• No plywood or oriented strand-board (OSB)
design equations.

In other words, this book is entirely focused on solid

sawn post and beam members and how they are joined
together. Once you have mastered these, you will find it
relatively simple to branch out to other aspects of timber
frame design, especially using glulam members.

PG
May 31, 2014
 The illustration below shows most of the timber frame
structural components used in this book:

1. Floor Joists
2. Sill Beams
3. Posts / Columns (both mean the same thing)
4. Knee Brace
5. Principal Rafters w/ Cross-Beam
6. Principal Rafters w/ Stud Wall
7. Principal Rafters w/ Ceiling Joist
8. Principal Rafters w/ Hammerhead Truss
9. Roof Purlins
 Might I suggest bookmarking the next few pages. Listed
below are all the abbreviations and symbols used in this
book. The three bolded ones are used very often.

AF&PE
American Forest and Paper Association

ASCE
American Society of Civil Engineers

ASD
Allowable Stress Design

ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials

CSA
Canadian Standards Association

DOL
Duration of Load

EMC
Equilibrium Moisture Content

IBC
International Building Code
ICC
International Code Council

LRFD
Load and Resistance Factor Design

NLGA
National Lumber Grades Authority (Canada)

NDS
National Design Specifications

WWPA
Western Wood Products Association

Ф Resistance Factor
Ф b Resistance Factor, Bending
Фc Resistance Factor, Compression
Фs Resistance Factor, Stability
Фt Resistance Factor, Tension
Фv Resistance Factor, Shear
λ Time Effect Factor
A Area
Af Fastener Area
Ag Gross Area
An Net Area
At Tributary Area
b Width
Ce Exposure Factor
CF Size Factor
 Cfu Flat Use Factor
CG Connectors in a Row Factor
Ci Incising Factor
CL Beam Stability Factor
CM Wet Service Factor
Cp Column Stability Factor
Cr Repetitive Member Factor
Cs Slope Factor
Ct Temperature Factor
d Depth
dn Net Depth
D Dead Load
D Diameter
E Earthquake Load
E Modulus of Elasticity
E’ Adjusted Modulus of Elasticity
Emin Modulus of Elasticity for Stability
E’min Adjusted Modulus of Elasticity for Stability
ft Feet
Fb Design Value for Bending
F’b Adjusted Design Value for Bending
F’bx Adjusted Design Value for Bending: x-axis
FbEn Euler Buckling Formula for Bending
Fc Design Value for Compression Parallel to the
Grain
F’c Adjusted Design Value for Compression Parallel
to the Grain
F’cb Adjusted Design Value for Compression Parallel
to the Grain: y-axis
 F’cd Adjusted Design Value for Compression Parallel
to the Grain: x-axis
Fc┴ Design Value for Compression Perpendicular to
the Grain
F’c┴ Adjusted Design Value for Compression Perpen-
dicular to the Grain
FcE Euler Buckling Formula for Columns
Ft Design Value for Tension
F’t Adjusted Design Value for Tension
Fv Design Value for Shear
F’v Adjusted Design Value for Shear
Fvy Shear Yield Stress
G Gust Factor
G Specific Gravity
Gpeg Specific Gravity Peg
Gbase Specific Gravity Base Material
kPa Kilo Pascals
kN/m Kilo Newton per Metre
Ke Effective Length Factor
Kf Reduction Capacity Factor
KF Format Conversion Factor
KLL Live Load Element Factor
Kzt Topographical Factor
I Importance Factor
I Moment of Inertia
Jf Factored Load, Joints
Jr Factored Resistance, Joints
lbs Pounds
lbs/ft Pounds per Foot
lb Effective Length: y-axis
ld Effective Length: x-axis
le Effective Unbraced Length
lu Unbraced Length
L Live Load
L Length
Lb Bearing Length
Lo Specified Unreduced Floor Live Load
Lr Roof Live Load
Mf Factored Load, Bending
Mr Factored Resistance, Bending
o.c. On Centre
P Total Load
pf Flat Roof Snow Load
pg Ground Snow Load
Pf Factored Load, Compression
Pr Factored Resistance, Compression
ps Sloped Roof Snow Load
ps Design Wind Pressure
ps30 Simplified Design Wind Pressure
pcf Pounds per Cubic Foot
psf Pounds per Square Foot
psi Pounds per Square Inch
Qf Factored Load, Bearing
Qr Factored Resistance, Bearing
R Rain Load
R1 Reduction for Tributary Area
R2 Reduction for Roof Slope
RB Slenderness Ratio for Bending
R C Slenderness Ratio for Column Design
S Snow Load
S Section Modulus
Tf Factored Load, Tension
Trn Factored Resistance, Tension
V Basic Wind Speed
Vf Factored Load, Shear
V r Factored Resistance, Shear
W Wind Load
wf Total Factored Load
 1. Properties of Wood
1.1 Basic Wood Information

Wood is generally divided into two broad categories:

• Hardwoods
• Softwoods

Hardwoods come from slow growing deciduous trees,

otherwise known as trees that shed their leaves in winter.
Ash, Birch, Cherry, Poplar, Black Walnut, Maple, Red Oak
and White Oak are common hardwood trees.

Softwoods come from faster growing, cone bear-

ing trees known as conifers or evergreens. Douglas Fir,
Hemlock, Eastern White Pine, Southern Yellow Pine and
Spruce are common softwood trees.

Two kinds of wood exist in all trees:

• Sapwood
• Heartwood

Sapwood is the wood located closest to the bark of

the tree, and serves to carry sap to the leaves. Softwoods
tend to contain relatively greater amounts of sapwood
than hardwood trees. The sapwood of a tree is best suited
to fashion lumber such as planks, siding, studs and other
building components that are subject to little or no stress.
Also, lumber members made from sapwood are more
susceptible to decay than heartwood.

Heartwood is the wood located closest to the centre of

the tree, and is generally quite dense. The heartwood of a
tree is best suited for structural members, such as beams,
posts and other larger members in timber frame construc-
tion. Figure 1.1 illustrates where wood structural members
would be cut within a typical log.

Figure 1.1
Sapwood and Heartwood
 1.2 Wood Properties

Wood is a naturally occurring material, therefore subject

to the natural conditions of the environment in which trees
live and grow. Such conditions produce variability in wood
properties such as rate of growth, growing conditions, spe-
cies and moisture content.

The most important property of wood to understand

is its hygroscopicity, which is the ability, or tendency of a
substance to absorb moisture.

Being aware of such tendencies is very important for

timber frame design. When wood is cut and transformed
into building materials, the moisture content of the wood
continues to be lost from the wood or gained into the
wood, depending on the environmental conditions to
which the wood is exposed.

Moisture affects wood in two ways:

• Change in moisture content causes dimensional

change due to shrinkage (loss of moisture) and swelling
(gaining of moisture);

• Excessive moisture leads to deterioration and

decay of the wood.
 1.3 Effects of Moisture

Moisture affects wood weight, shrinkage and strength.

The moisture content of wood is the actual weight of the
water in the wood, expressed as a percentage of the weight
of the wood. The heartwood of a freshly sawn lumber can
contain anywhere from 30 to 100% moisture content. Sap-
wood content is usually much higher, from 100 to 200%.
The wood-fibre saturation point occurs when the moisture
content of the fibre is approximately 28%. The strength of
the wood-fibre increases as the moisture content decreases
because the cell material of the fibre stiffens as it dries.
However, the strength properties are not affected to the
same degree throughout the entire area of the wood. The
extent to which dimensional change occurs depends upon
the species and the orientation of the wood fibres. Figure
1.2 illustrates the typical stages of wood cell drying after a
tree is felled.

Figure 1.2
Wood Fibre Cells Moisture Content
 When wood dries from its green state, negligible or
even zero shrinkage occurs until the moisture content falls
below the fibre saturation level. Green lumber is freshly
felled wood that is not dried or seasoned.

At the saturation level, all moisture within fibre cells

have been released, leaving only the walls of the cells satu-
rated with moisture. As the cell walls continue to release
moisture (continually falling below 28%) the wood does
not shrink equally in each direction due to the cellular
structure of wood.

As wood dries, three types of shrinkage can occur:

• Longitudinal
• Radial
• Tangential

Longitudinal

This type of shrinkage is a very small concern. For

wood dried to 15 percent moisture content, shrinkage
ranges from .05 to .12 percent. A twenty foot timber might
shrink 1/4”. However, if a timber is excessively cross-
grained, is not centre-cut, has large knots, contains juvenile
wood (first 5 to 20 annual growth rings), or if the wood
has been subject to unusual compression stresses during its
growth, then other shrinkages come into play, and com-
bined shrinkages can be considerable.
 Radial

Radial shrinkage affects the thickness of the annual

rings. In a centre-cut timber, this tends to reduce the over-
all dimensions of the cross-section.

Tangential

This one is where shrinkage occurs on the length of the

circumference of the annual rings. In a centre-cut timber,
large cracks will develop parallel to the length. The crack
is widest at the surface and tapers to nothing at the heart,
which tends to distort the cross-section of the piece. Of
the three types of shrinkage, tangential is the most signifi-
cant.

Figures 1.3 and 1.4 show the three types of shrinkage

that occur in wood as it dries. The shrinkage rates graph
shown is a good source of information for wood design
purposes.
Figure 1.3
Shrinkage Characteristics

Figure 1.4
Shrinkage Rates
 Table 1.1 is a very useful reference in order to deter-
mine the extent to which the most common woods used
in timber framing will shrink from green state to roughly
19% moisture content. Tangential shrinkage applies to the
width of the flat-grain face. Radial shrinkage applies to the
width of the edge-grain face. To calculate expected shrink-
age, determine the average equilibrium moisture content of
wood for end use conditions.

Table 1.1
Shrinkage Rates
Shrinkage % of Shrinkage from Green State to:
Species
Direction 19% 15% 12% 6%
Radial 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.9
Western Red Cedar
Tangential 1.8 2.5 3.0 4.0
Radial 1.8 2.4 2.9 3.8
D-Fir Coast
Tangential 2.8 3.8 4.6 6.1
Radial 1.4 1.9 2.3 3.0
D-Fir Interior
Tangential 2.5 3.4 4.1 5.5
Radial 1.5 2.1 2.5 3.4
Western Hemlock
Tangential 2.9 3.9 4.7 6.2
Radial 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.6
Western Larch
Tangential 3.3 4.6 5.5 7.3
Radial 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.7
Eastern White Pine
Tangential 2.2 3.0 3.7 4.9
Radial 1.4 1.9 2.3 3.0
Red Pine
Tangential 2.6 3.6 4.3 5.8
Radial 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.3
Western White Pine
Tangential 2.7 3.7 4.4 5.9
Radial 1.5 2.0 2.4 3.2
Eastern Spruce
Tangential 2.5 3.6 4.4 5.8
Radial 1.4 1.9 2.3 3.0
Engelmann Spruce
Tangential 2.6 3.6 4.3 5.7
 1.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)

Once wood has been seasoned, it adjusts slowly to

changing humidity levels. The slow adjustment is an im-
portant factor because wood can serve in very high relative
humidity without reaching an EMC that will initiate decay
(moisture content beyond 19%).

Wood is considered to be in dry service condition when

the EMC over a year is 15% or less and does not exceed
19%. As Table 1.2 indicates, the average indoor EMC
for most of the continental US is 8% or less. Therefore,
dry service conditions always apply to wood when used
indoors, with the exception of where wood may be used
around swimming pools.

Table 1.2
Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
Average
Location
EMC%
Indoors 8
Most US Areas
Outdoors 12
Indoors 6
Dry Southwestern Areas
Outdoors 9
Indoors 11
Damp, Warm Coastal Areas
Outdoors 12
 1.5 Effects of Shrinkage

Warping may occur as a result of uneven shrinking

during drying. However, warping can be remedied to some
extent by restraining the wood while it dries.

Checking occurs when lumber is rapidly dried, causing

cracks along the growth rings. The surface dries quickly,
while the core retains a higher moisture content for some
time. Consequently, the surface attempts to shrink but is
restrained by the core. Such restraint causes tensile stresses
at the surface, which if large enough, can pull the fibres
apart, thus creating a check.

Splits are through checks that generally occur at the

end of wood members, where moisture is lost most rapidly
(outside faces at both ends). Midway through the member,
however, the wood still contains relatively high moisture
content. Again, such differences cause tensile stresses at
the end of the member. A split occurs when the stress
exceeds the strength of the wood. Figure 1.5 illustrates
checks and splits at the wood surface.

Sawn timbers are susceptible to checking and splitting

since they are always dressed green (S-Grn). In addition,
due to their large size, the core dries slowly and the tensile
stresses at the surface and at the ends can be significant.
 Minor checks at the surface areas very rarely have any
effect on the overall strength of the member. Deep checks,
however, are significant if they occur at a point of high
shear stress. The severity of splitting and checking can be
reduced by controlling the rate at which wood dries.

Most shrinkage problems arise when wood is subject to

fast drying. If a freshly cut piece of timber is exposed to
the sun, the exposed surface will dry much quicker than
the rest of the timber, causing uneven shrinkage at that
surface. The fibres will separate, damaging the wood. The
wood should also be kept away from artificial heat sources.

Figure 1.5
Checked / Split Wood

Tensile stress cracks at the surface because of restrained shrinkage.

 1.6 Ideal Air Drying Practices

As a rule of thumb, air drying takes about one year for

every 25 mm (1”) of thickness. However, economic reali-
ties more often than not prohibit ideal drying conditions,
so other practices are generally used.

Coating the ends of the sawn members with sealer

or lacquer will serve to retard the moisture loss, which
is greatest at the ends and makes for more equal drying
throughout the timber. Winter is the best time for timber-
ing because the wood contains less sap. The members can
be stacked and stored, then covered outdoors in a shaded
location for approximately 16 months or longer for more
seasoned drying.

It is best to do the necessary carpentry work to the

timbers as soon as possible after they’re cut because the
reduced cross-section will allow more even drying through
the member. The timbers should be protected from the
sun, rain and ground moisture, but open to air flow.

Based on the above, a realistic time frame for timber

frame construction can be as follows:

• one winter to cut the members, do the carpentry

work and then stack them
• stored for drying for the spring, summer, fall and
one additional winter
 From start to finish, the structure can be built in about
16 months. In a heated house, air is warm and dry. Thus,
during the first winter in a timber framed house it is very
common to hear the timbers cracking. During this time, it
is a good idea to create moisture inside the house either by
boiling water or by using a humidifier.

1.7 Other Wood Characteristics

Knots

Knots are virtually unavoidable. They form where the

branch meets the trunk. Small, tight knots are preferable,
and timbers with many large knots should be avoided.
Knots play a vital role in the determination of overall
wood strength for a given species. Later sections provide
more detail on the significance of knots.

Figure 1.6
Knots in Wood
 Spiral Grain

Where trees are subject to windy conditions, or have

more branches on one side than the other, they may grow
with spiral grain. A moderate amount of spiral grain is ac-
ceptable, but excessive spiralling tends to distort and twist
a timber as it dries.

Cross Grain

Where a crooked log is sawn into a straight timber the

grain will seem to wander off the edge. Ideally, the grain
should run straight through the timber. Like spiral grain, it
can twist and distort a timber as it dries. If wood is exces-
sively cross-grained, huge chunks of a timber may split off
under stress. Such timbers can be used in low stress loca-
tions and only for short members.

Shakes

Where a tree is subject to severe weather conditions

such as those on a mountain ridge, shakes may be found.
A shake is a gap or separation between the growth rings of
successive years. Shakes weaken timbers and large chunks
of wood may actually fall off when working with it.
 Wane

Waning occurs when a log cannot be cut completely

square, and the edge of the cut timber is still rounded in
parts. Although sometimes considered a defect, a waney
timber does not pose serious structural problems. For aes-
thetic reasons, though, wanes on exposed timbers should
be avoided.

Figures 1.7 to 1.9 illustrate the various wood character-

istics mentioned above.

Figure 1.7
Sprial Grain

Figure 1.8
Cross Grain

Figure 1.9
Waning & Shakes
 1.8 Effects of Shrinkage in Buildings

When exposed to outdoor air, wood dries to the fibre

saturation level at a fairly rapid rate. The wood then dries
at a decreasing rate until it’s in equilibrium with the sur-
rounding air. The rate of drying slows as the outdoor
temperature drops. As seen in Table 1.2, the EMC for
wood stored outdoors under cover does not exceed 13%
anywhere in the US.

As outlined earlier, the time required for lumber to

dry is a significant design factor. If lumber is installed in
a heated building before the equilibrium level is reached,
more shrinkage will occur, thereby increasing the risk of
related problems.

The International Building Code (IBC) specifies that the

moisture content of lumber must not exceed 19% at the
time of installation for a heated building. A frame can be
erected, however, and left exposed to the outside air until
the 19% is reached.

An additional design factor is the part of the tree from

which the lumber was sawn. Sapwood lumber has a much
higher moisture content than heartwood, and should be
allowed more drying time.
 Plywood, a virtual necessity in any timber or wood
framed building, has shrinkage characteristics similar to
that of lumber in the longitudinal direction. Plywood is
very stable, due to its much higher modulus of elasticity
(covered in the Beam Design section) with the grain (paral-
lel) rather than across the grain (perpendicular).

Because of this stability, a common construction

practice is to alternate the directions of the sheets as they
are laid and nailed over floor joists, thus minimizing joist
movement.

The stabilizing effect of different grain directions also

applies to oriented strand-board, popularly known as OSB.
Also, the manufacturing process for plywood and OSB
results in a final moisture content of roughly 4%, which
is quite a bit lower than the final average indoor moisture
content. In areas of potential high moisture content, such
as an outside wall and roof areas, a gap of 1/16” must be
left between the sheets to account for the ongoing swelling
and shrinkage.

1.9 Calculating Wood Shrinkage

Although wood shrinkage can be calculated, as will be

illustrated below, economic realities often supersede all
other concerns. Nevertheless, for the designer, predicting
potential shrinkage is a powerful tool in ensuring quality
design. The shrinkage of a wood member can be estimated
using the following equation:
 S = D x (M x c)

where
S = shrinkage (in)
D = actual dressed dimension (in) (depth)
M = percent of moisture change below the fibre
saturation point
c = shrinkage coefficient

Shrinkage coefficients for both radial and tangential

directions have been determined for individual species (see
Table 1.1). To calculate the shrinkage coefficient for both
types of shrinkage, we can assume 0.002 per 1% change in
moisture content.

Example 1.1

The IBC stipulates a maximum 19% moisture content at

installation prior to enclosure. However, the beams in the
design are green lumber and are assumed to have roughly
28% moisture content. The joists are seasoned lumber and
are assumed to contain 19% moisture content.

The location of the building is on the West Coast,

which shall be classified as a warm coastal area. As speci-
fied in Table 1.2, the average indoor EMC for wood
frames in this area is 11%, so the final indoor EMC value
used for this example will be 11%.
 Figure 1.10 illustrates the design when taking shrinkage
into consideration. The goal of the designer is to determine
the potential shrinkage of the beams and joists in order to
design the depth of the joist pockets accordingly. Proper
pocket depth will allow the beams to shrink so as to obtain
a flush surface for the floor above. The actual pocket
depth is not being determined in this example. Determina-
tion of actual depth is covered within the Beam Design
section under notching. The goal is to ascertain how much
more or less the pocket should be cut in order to obtain
the tightest fit possible while in service.

Figure 1.10
Accounting for Shrinkage
 With the determination of both the initial moisture con-
tent of the beams (IMC=28%), the final expected indoor
moisture content (FMC=11%) and the shrinkage coeffi-
cient (0.002), the following can be ascertained (longitudinal
shrinkage is not considered):

Step 1: Beams
M = IMC - FMC
c = 0.002
M x c = (28 - 11) x 0.002 = .034

Beams: (assumed size) 6x12

Beam Depth: 11 1/2”

D = 11.5”
S = D x (M x c)
S = 11.5” x .034
S = 0.39” = 3/8”

The overall in-service shrinkage for the beams at 28%

moisture content prior to enclosure for this design can be
expected to be about 3/8”.

Step 2: Joists
M = IMC - FMC (IMC assumed to be 19%)
c = 0.002
M x c = (19 - 11) x 0.002 = .016
 Joist Size: 4x8
Joist Depth: 7 1/4”

D = 7.25”
S = D x (M x c)
S = 7.25 x .016
S = 0.12” = 1/8”

Subtracting the beam overall shrinkage with the expect-

ed joist shrinkage yields:

3/8” - 1/8” = 1/4”. Therefore, the joist pocket should

be designed 1/4” greater than the calculated depth.

1.10 Properties of Wood Conclusion

One of the basic considerations in timber frame design

is the effects of wood shrinkage in the radial and tangential
directions. Inadequate drying practices can cause undesir-
able effects such as checking and splitting, thereby weaken-
ing the strength and structural soundness of the wood.

The seasoning of main structural members to 19%

moisture content or less prior to enclosure installation will
ensure minimal in-service shrinkage while the members
reach the indoor EMC. However, as shown in Example
1.1, the overall shrinkage even when using green lumber is
not that significant in terms of a floor beam system.
 Nevertheless, a timber frame designer should stipulate
shrinkage as part of a quality design process.

It is critically important to take the potential shrinkage

of a structural member such as a beam into account when
that beam is to be joined to a post by, for example, a mor-
tise and tenon connection.

The joint connection is probably the second most im-

portant design consideration next to the structural capacity
of the member itself. For a structure to remain rigid and
strong, the joinery must fit as snugly as possible to main-
tain the integrity of the frame.

The designer must thereby stipulate the exact size of the

mortise and tenon cuts considering the shrinkage that will
occur as the member reaches the indoor EMC. If not, the
joint will loosen to a greater extent over time.
 2. Load & Resistance Factor Design
2.1 Load and Resistance Factor Design

The purpose of this section is to present as much in-

formation as possible about this new wood design method
known as load and resistance factor design (LRFD).
Although LRFD is a recently introduced method for the
design of wood structures in the US, it is widely used for
the design of concrete and steel structures.

In the United States, the wood design method that still

predominates today is known as allowable stress design
(ASD). ASD is likely to remain the preferred method for
the foreseeable future because of the rather large under-
taking of fully converting to a LRFD methodology. Many
questions have been raised as to why LRFD should be
adopted at all, since the ASD method has been used suc-
cessfully for many years.
1
Case studies comparing designs by LRFD vs ASD
indicate a 15% reduction in cross-section for column
design when using LRFD, due primarily to load factoring
combinations specific to LRFD. Additional calculations in-
dicate as much as 30% smaller cross-section for structural
members subject to multiple loads such as snow, wind and
live roof load.
 Moreover, some particular load combinations might
result in a 50% increase in structural resistance capacity
compared to ASD calculations. Of course, some combina-
tions may result in less required cross-section when using
ASD, but for the majority of cases, LRFD methodology
will produce a net reduction of wood volume compared to
ASD.
1
Showalter et al. 1998 ASCE Annual International Meeting

Smaller size members reduce costs and more critically,

the environmental impact of wood harvesting and pro-
cessing, thus securing the long-term economic viability of
such an important resource, especially for the US housing
market. Also, LRFD is a more reliable method because it
is based on rational statistical probabilities. ASD relies on
older methods of material testing, which will be demon-
strated in the Design Values section as being inadequate
for the realities of wood construction.

Before proceeding into more detail about LRFD,

there are two US publications in which the designer must
become quite familiar with to fully grasp the scope of
required knowledge for structural timber design.

• National Design Specification for Wood

Construction
• International Building Code
 National Design Specification for Wood
Construction (NDS)

The NDS is published by the American Wood Council

(AWC), which is an organization within the American For-
est and Paper Association (AF&PE). The NDS for wood
construction concerns itself with presenting the latest
structural design recommendations by the wood industry,
along with design values for various species groupings of
structural lumber.

The NDS publishes the design values as a supplement

to its formal design section, named NDS Supplement:
Design Values for Wood Construction. The designer
must become familiar with the supplement because of the
importance of using and understanding the design values.
A portion of the supplement is reproduced in this book,
along with all the required information in using it properly.

The NDS publishes an additional supplement named

NDS Supplement: Special Design Provisions for Wind
and Seismic. This supplement was introduced in 2005 due
to the unique requirements related to wind and seismic
resistant design.

The formal design section of the NDS along with the

two supplements comprise the core, but not all, of what
is required for timber frame engineering design using the
LRFD format. The NDS also publishes another supple-
ment called ASD/LRFD Manual for Engineered Wood
Construction, but for the purposes of this book it is not
required because the contents throughout the remaining
sections are LRFD specific, and much more detailed than
what you will find in that manual.

International Building Code (IBC)

The IBC is published by the International Codes

Council (ICC), and the main concern of the publication is
assigning values to loads and forces. For example, the IBC
will state the maximum permissible live load for a floor or
roof. In addition, it contains information on calculating for
snow loads and forces induced by wind loads. This type of
information is not contained within the NDS, or in any of
its supplements.

The first edition of the IBC was published in 2000 and

is generally updated on 3-year cycles. Most regions of the
US have adopted all or part of the IBC at either the state
or local level. As a result, it can be used as a sole reference
in determining the correct values for the above mentioned
loads and forces. With the information contained in both
the NDS and IBC, the timber frame designer has all the
required values to use in LRFD. Note that much of the
relevant information in these two publications pertaining
to timber design is reproduced in this book.
 What exactly is load and resistance factor design? It is a
design method that expresses the limits to which a struc-
tural member can sustain a load in a given load situation.
In other words, determining the limits a member can with-
stand under a particular state of load.

In this design method, two broad limit states can be

identified for structures:

1. Safety, or ultimate limit state

2. Serviceability limit state

1. Safety Limit States

Safety limit states correspond to the maximum load-

carrying capacity. The load-carrying capacities include:

• Loss of equilibrium of the whole or of a part of

the structure considered as a rigid body. In other words,
overturning or uplifting.

• Loss of load-bearing capacity of members due

to the exceeding of material strength, buckling, fracture,
fatigue, fire or deformation.

• Overall instability of the structure. For example,

the P-Delta effect (covered in the Column Design section),
ponding instability (water ponds on roofs) or wind effects.

• Very large deformation: Impact, for example.

 Furthermore, the factored resistance is not less than the
effect of the factored loads, considering all applicable loads
and load combinations. Factored is simply defined as the
summary of applicable loads or resistances.

In other words, the design criterion to be satisfied

becomes:

Factored Resistance ≥ Factored Load Effect

Safety limit states usually fall within fairly narrow limits.

A structural member must not be designed below the
minimum strength requirements, but neither must it be
so much stronger than required. Therefore, emphasis is
placed on the maximum load capacity of an individual
member coming closest to, but still less than the total fac-
tored load. The LRFD equation for safety limit states thus
evolves into:

ФR ≥ Total Load Combinations x Time Effect Factor

In analyzing the left side of the equation, the Ф is the

resistance factor. Resistance factor values are derived
through statistical analysis so that the actual specified
strengths of lumber contain a high degree of reliability.
The analyses are based on test results conducted on many
thousands of full dimension size lumber specimens (more
detailed information is presented in the Design Values
section).
 The tests conducted were for bending (flexure), com-
pression and tension forces. Ultimately, the factor takes
into account variability of material properties and dimen-
sions, workmanship, type of failure and uncertainty in the
prediction of resistance. The results of the analysis led to
the values used for the resistance factor, Ф. The resistance
factor values are shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1
Resistance Factor

Property Symbols Ф Value

Compression Fc and Fc┴ Фc 0.90
Bending Fb Фb 0.85
Tension Ft Фt 0.80
Shear Fv Фv 0.75
Stability (modulus of elasticity) Emin Фs 0.85

The R is the calculated resistance of a member or con-

nection based on the specified material properties. The
letter R is actually never used. Typically, a letter signifying
the type of stress being solved is used with an r subscript.

For example, to solve for bending moment, M, at the

safety limit state, the factored bending moment resistance,
Mr , must be greater or equal to the factored bending load,
Mf . Mr must now be solved based on the appropriate resis-
tance factor (in this case 0.85 because the force is bending)
and other applicable adjustments and values.

Mr = Фb x (section modulus)(adjustment factors)

Mr = 0.85 x (section modulus)(adjustment factors)

Other factored resistances to particular forces are

solved in a similar manner, but with different values and/
or other applicable adjustments to use for the force being
solved. Exact values and adjustment factors are explained
in subsequent sections.

The total load combinations on the right side of the

equation is the effect of the factored loads for each ap-
plicable load in a given situation, and it is expressed in the
same units as the factored resistance.

Load combinations are important concepts in LRFD,

and all of them are shown in Table 2.2.
 Table 2.2
LRFD Load Combinations
Case Load Combination
1 1.4D
2 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (*0.5L or 0.5W)
4 1.2D + 1.0W + *0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
5 1.2D + 1.0E + *0.5L + 1.6H + 0.2S
6 0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H
7 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H

D = Dead Load
L = Live Load: *0.5 applies to typical residential loads
Lr = Roof Live Load
S = Snow Load
R = Rain Load
W = Wind Load
E = Earthquake Load
**H = Load Due to Lateral Earth or Water Pressures

**Please note that the IBC does include H in all LRFD

combinations except for the first (1.4D). Only combinations
2, 3 and 4 apply to this book. H is not shown in those com-
binations because it would cause unnecessary confusion. F
(load due to fluids) also forms part of some of the combina-
tions, but it does not pertain to the contents of this book so
it is omitted for clarity.
 An additional criterion assigned to the LRFD load
combinations is the time effect factor, λ, which is the same
concept, but significantly different from, the more famil-
iarly known load duration factor. Wood has the unique
property that it can support higher stresses if the loads are
applied for a short period of time. The time effect factor
adjusts the nominal resistance based on the given LRFD
load combination. This factor ensures that consistent reli-
ability is achieved for various load duration effects.

Table 2.3 provides the time effect factor assignment to

the appropriate load combination.

Table 2.3
Time Effect Factor
Load Combination Time Effect Factor, λ
1.4D 0.6
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) *0.7 or 0.8 or 1.25
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.5W) 0.8
1.2D + 1.0W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) 1.0
1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 1.6H + 0.2S 1.0
0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H 1.0
0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H 1.0

*0.7 when L is from storage

*0.8 when L is from occupancy
*1.25 when L is from impact
 The role of the time effect factor is to consider lumber’s
load resistance capabilities under long-term loading condi-
tions, short-term loading conditions and extreme short-
term loading conditions.

The 0.7 and 0.8 values are generally applied to load

combinations dominated by sustained live loads such as S,
R, Lr or L. A standard time effect of 1.0 is assigned when
short-term loading conditions dictate the design, such
as W or E. The 1.25 increase to load resistance capacity
considers extreme short-term loading conditions such as
sudden impact.

For determining the applicable load combination, con-

sideration must be given to the load source(s) and which,
or combination thereof, will produce the greatest amount
of load. The following examples will demonstrate possible
load combination scenarios.

Example 2.1
Floor Joists Supporting a Typical Floor in a Residence
Load Combination Time Effect Factor, λ
1.2D + 1.6L 0.8
The + 0.5(Lr or S or R) portion from load combination 2 is excluded
because there are no roof, snow or rain loads to consider.
 Example 2.2
Roof Joists for a Typical Residence
Load Combination Time Effect Factor, λ
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.5W) 0.8
1.2D + 1.0W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) 1.0

A roof load would be subject to dead, wind and rain

loads for certain. In southern areas of the US such as Ari-
zona, there would be no need to consider snow loads. In
this case, deciding on either Lr or R depends on the greater
source of load. If it is determined that Lr is greater than R,
then the load combination becomes:

1.2D + 1.6(Lr) + 0.5W λ = 0.8

However, if the residence is to be built in Denver, then

snow load would be a factor. If snow turned out to be the
greatest source of load, then the combination becomes:

1.2D + 1.6(S) + 0.5W λ = 0.8

Perhaps the house will be constructed in both a high

wind and snow location, such as in some areas of Mon-
tana. If wind turned out to be the greatest source of load,
and snow the second greatest source, then the combina-
tion becomes:

1.2D + 1.0(W) + 0.5(S) λ = 1.0

 No live load would be considered for that last combina-
tion because the snow load would supersede it. However,
for multiple load source situations such as this, it might
become necessary to solve two separate combinations
to determine which one produces a greater net load. For
example, if the loads were determined as follows:

D = 13 psf, Lr = 12 psf, S = 8 psf, W = 17.5 psf

then two combinations are possible, and whichever

produces the greater load is used.

1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.5W)

1.2(13) + 1.6(12) + 0.5(17.5) = 43.6 psf

1.2D + 1.0W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

1.2(13) + 17.5 + 0.5(12) = 39.1 psf

How to go about solving for particular loads such as

wind and snow is covered in later sections.
 2. Serviceability Limit States

Serviceability limit states are more subjective and there

is more latitude for interpretation. Serviceability limit states
are considered in the design process to ensure that struc-
tural performance is satisfactory when the specified loads
are applied under day-to-day conditions. Vibration and de-
flection of members and slippage in a joint are examples of
occurrences that may not cause collapse, but might cause
unsightly deficiencies.

Other examples may include, but are not limited to:

• Excessive deflection or rotation that affects the

use of the structure, the appearance of structural or non-
structural components, or the operation of equipment.

• Excessive local damage (cracking or splitting, local

yielding, slip of connections) that affects the use, durabil-
ity, or appearance of the structure.

• Excessive vibration that affects the comfort of the

occupants or the operation of equipment.

It becomes apparent that the above criteria could mean

different things to different people. However, the IBC pro-
vides better clarification towards minimum steps required
for serviceability.
 For wood design, the deflection of a member is includ-
ed as part of the design process, and it is a measure of how
much a member, or system of members, will actually bend
while in-service.

Excessive deflections of, say, an upper level floor sys-

tem might cause cracking and a distinctly visible displace-
ment of the finished ceiling material attached to the bot-
tom of the floor system. To account for these in-service
possibilities, the IBC requires that deflection be calculated
as part of the design process.

More detailed information about deflection is covered

in the Beam Design section, along with the IBC deflection
stipulations.
 Conclusion

The information presented in this section explains the

requirements of using the load and resistance factor design
approach in wood engineering.

The designer is first introduced to the two publications

required to obtain the necessary design and load values: the
National Design Specification for Wood Construction and
the International Building Code.

Design considerations using the LRFD format falls into

two categories: Safety Limit States and Serviceability Limit
States. Safety limit states deals specifically with applied
loads and corresponding resistance factors. Serviceability
limit states presents more interpretational latitude that
essentially revolves around the deflection of a member or
system of members.

The concept of the resistance factor, Ф, is a unique

LRFD specification derived from the statistical analysis of
specified strengths of lumber, thus providing a high degree
of reliability for lumber strength design values.

Design in LRFD format begins with the determination

of load combinations for the given design situation. As
shown from the examples, the designer must consider all
possible load sources before deciding on the most appro-
priate combination to use.
 The next section describes the type of loads acting on
structural members along with the forces involved with the
accompanying loads. It also covers how values for loads
are obtained and applied to LRFD.

Please note that the calculation of earthquake loads

requires a speciality that is beyond the scope of this book.
Therefore, earthquake loads will not be included as a load
criterion in this book.