Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

One of the fields of civil engineering is environmental engineering as

indicated by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The traditional concerns of

the sanitary engineer have expanded to encompass the environmental effects of

all kinds of engineering activities, including the provision of an ample and safe

water supply and the disposal of waste. Highways, coastal installations, flood

control systems, and other projects must undergo careful environmental scrutiny.

With all that work, civil engineers must work closely with professionals in biology,

chemistry, geology, and other disciples.

With respect to environmental effects of engineering activities, one of the

major and obvious sources of water pollution is municipal sewage – the

wastewaters of communities. Entering sewers in dissolved form are soaps,

synthetic detergents, bleaches, and other chemicals used by households. From

homes also come various disposable paper products, including toilet tissue and

babies’ diapers. Homes with garbage disposal units in their kitchen sinks add

ground-up vegetable and animal matter to the sewage. Lastly, from the streets

comes the water that runs off from rainstorms.

Common disposal points of sewage and industrial waste are rivers,

creeks, and seas. Sewage and wastewater are disposed off to these bodies of
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water in many parts of the world. Doing so can lead to serious pollution of the

receiving water. This is common in developing countries and may still occur in

some developed countries, where septic tank systems are too expensive.

When toxic substances enter a body of water, they will be dissolved,

become suspended in water or get deposited on the water bed. The resulting

water pollution causes the quality of the water to deteriorate and affects aquatic

ecosystems.

In the Philippines, the rapid increase in population, urbanization and

industrialization reduce the quality of water bodies according to Water

Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA). The discharge of domestic and

industrial wastewater and agriculture runoff has caused extensive pollution of the

coastal water bodies. This effluent is in the form of raw sewage, detergents,

fertilizers, heavy metals, chemical products, oil and solid waste.

In the City of Tagbilaran, liquid waste is also a problem. According to

Bohol Analysis Environment, on December 6, 2008 by M. Caňares, the

construction company hired to rehabilitate the road and drainage system

discovered that there were various illegal tapping of the drainage system; illegal,

because untreated water coming from the septic tanks of several establishments

were channeled to the public drainage system which should have been used only

for grey water.

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The bulk of waste as well as grey water is enormous that it caused

flooding in some parts of the city during heavy rain. The water cannot just be

disposed to the sea as these were not yet treated. A water treatment facility is

not available and thus the big problem. The city has not yet penalized those with

illegal connections and the flooding continued for a while until the city

government, without the necessary clearance from the Department of

Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), authorized the opening of the

drainage water outfall in 9 November 2008, solving the flooding problem but

jeopardizing the marine resources and the livelihood of several people. But

eventually the DENR agreed to flush the water to the sea, given the appropriate

clearance from the agency.

It should be noted that Tagbilaran City’s main business establishments are

tourism and tourism-support service providers. Unmanaged wastewater will risk

tourism-related activities, especially to that one of Bohol’s competitive

advantages is its white beaches. Several hotels and restaurants are located

along the coastline of Tagbilaran. Also, 4% of the population relies on fishing for

livelihood. Polluting the seas will have adverse effects on marine resources, and

consequently on people’s livelihoods (Boholanalysis.com). With that, the

researchers with the guidance from their adviser decided to study the coastal

water condition at one of the disposal points in Tagbilaran City which is the San

Jose outfall.
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1.2 Statement of the Problem

The disposal of wastewater has become a serious problem in Tagbilaran

City. These wastes are disgusting to see, causes foul odor and may attract

vermin. Due to the unavailability of a water treatment facility, these wastes are

directly discharged into the sea without any treatment. With the clearance

authorized by the DENR, the discharging of wastes continued even knowing the

risk that it would affect the quality of our coastal waters and the livelihood of

several citizens. Knowing these, the researchers decided to determine the effects

of discharging untreated municipal sewage to the water quality at the disposal

point.

This study evaluated the coastal water quality of one specific disposal

point of Tagbilaran City which is the San Jose outfall with reference to water

quality standards as stipulated in DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08. By

utilizing the Canadian Water Quality Index (WQI) model, this study aimed to

come up with description of the coastal water with its beneficial usage. The WQI

developed by Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) in 2001

will provide a convenient means of summarizing complex water quality data;

offering a general and readily understood description of water. This study also

aimed to determine the possible impacts of the coastal water condition to human

health, marine life and to the environment.

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study were:

1. To assess the quality of seawater at the sewage disposal point in

Tagbilaran City in terms of physical properties namely:

1.1 color;

1.2 pH (Range); and

1.3 total suspended solids.

2. To assess the quality of seawater at the sewage disposal point in

Tagbilaran City in terms of chemical properties namely:

2.1 dissolved oxygen;

2.2 nitrate content; and

2.3 phosphate content.

3. To assess the quality of seawater at the sewage disposal point in

Tagbilaran City in terms of microbiological properties namely:

3.1 fecal coliform.

4. To provide a water quality index that will summarize the complex water

quality data.

5. To determine the possible impacts of the coastal water condition to

human health, marine life and to the environment.

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1.4 Significance of the Study

Water quality is of economic, environmental and social importance. Water

quality can be defined in terms of a water body’s suitability for various uses such

as water supply source, swimming and protection of aquatic life. It is affected by

water abstractions, by pollution loads from human activities. If pressure from

human activities becomes so intense that water quality is impaired to the point

that drinking water requires even more advanced and costly treatment or that

aquatic plant and animal species in rivers, lakes and seas are greatly reduced,

then the sustainability of the water resource use is in question.

The marine environment is an important resource not only in terms of the

biodiversity it supports but also as a resource for tourism, industry, freshwater

production and recreation. Land based developments and activities, (such as

sewage disposal, desalination plants, landfills, industry, tourism infrastructure

and power stations) generate significant impact on the sea. Moreover, dealing

with water pollution is something that everyone (including governments and local

councils) needs to get involved with.

With this research, the students will analyze the status of seawater at the

sewage disposal point. Through this, local residents will know the true condition

of their surroundings as these might be harmful for their health. The realization of

this investigation will pave the way for the local government to think appropriate

plans for the development and preservation of bodies of water to maximize its

utilization for the community. This can also serve as basis for the local
 7

government on stopping the direct disposal of sewage on the sea without proper

treatment.

Lastly, this study will serve as eye-opener for the citizens of Bohol and

especially to the local government by showing the seawater condition at the

drainage outfall.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

The research scope and limitations are enumerated as follows:

1. The main focus of this study was the seawater status at the drainage

outfall located at the coastal area near Graham Avenue.

2. Water samples were gathered and delivered immediately to a DENR

recognized environmental laboratory located in Nasipit, Talamban, Cebu City for

analysis and interpretation.

3. Water samples were collected using two different kinds of container as

instructed by the afore mentioned water laboratory. Water containers differ on the

parameters to be analyzed; sterilized glass bottles were used for coliform

analysis; 1-gallon plastic bottles were used for other analyses.

4. This was not a long term study. There were only two sampling periods.

The research only gathered water samples once a month.

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5. The study was only limited on analyzing the seawater condition at the

disposal point. It did not analyze the physical, chemical and microbiological

properties of the waste water coming directly from the drainage system.

6. The researchers only collected samples in one weather condition. This

study only gathered samples during a sunny day.

7. All other parameters not stated in the objectives were not examined.

8. Because the body of water to be tested is unclassified by the

Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), the researchers classified it based

on beneficial use as determined by the EMB.

1.6 Theoretical Background of the Study

1.6.1 Water Quality

There are two main ways of measuring the quality of water. One is to take

samples of the water and measure the concentrations of different chemicals that

it contains. If the chemicals are dangerous or the concentrations are too great,

we can regard the water as polluted. Measurements like these are known as

chemical indicators of water quality. Another way to measure water quality

involves examining the fish, insects, and other invertebrates that the water will

support. If many different types of creatures can live in a river, the quality is likely

to be very good; if the river supports no fish life at all, the quality is obviously

much poorer. Measurements like these are called biological indicators of water

quality (Woodford, 2016).

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1.6.2 Water Quality Index

To assess whether the water body is fit for various human activities and

could support aquatic species and ecosystem processes, various physical,

chemical and microbiological parameters are determined through laboratory

analyses. With hundreds of parameters available to assess the water quality, the

challenge remains on providing a single statement that would sum up several

water quality parameters into one holistic description. Like any other

environmental monitoring program, there is a problem on the reporting of water

quality monitoring results to both managers and the general public because of

the complexity associated with analyzing a large number of measured variables.

(Martinico-Perez et al., 2014)

In response to this, numerous water quality indices have been formulated

all over the world. These indices are based on the comparison of the water

quality parameters to the standards and give a single value for the water quality

of a certain source (Bharti and Katyal, 2011). The scatterscore index was used to

assess changes in water quality of mining sites in USA (Kim and Cardone, 2005);

index of river water quality was developed and used in Taiwan (Liou et al., 2004);

overall index of pollution was used in India (Sargaonkr and Deshpande, 2003);

and Chemical Water Quality Index used in USA (Tsegaye et al., 2006) are some

of the numerous attempts to simplify complex water quality data and monitoring.
 10

The Water Quality Index (WQI) developed by Canadian Council of Ministers of

the Environment (CCME) in 2001 assesses the quality of water against the water

quality standard set forth by the government agency or site specific background

concentration (CCME, 2001). It is among the well-accepted and widely applicable

model for evaluating the water quality index (Sharma and Kansal, 2011; Damo

and Icka, 2013). Because of its versatility, this method was utilized by UNEP

GEMS/Water programme as the model that can be followed in developing a

global water quality index (UNEP, 2007).

While some countries and regions have developed and are using water

quality indices that assess water quality either on a national or global level, these

rely mostly on normalizing or standardizing data parameter according to

expected concentrations (Carr and Rickwood, 2008). The CCME WQI, on the

other hand, provides a mathematical framework for assessing ambient water

quality conditions relative to water quality standards, thus, reflects the overall and

current condition of the water bodies. There is no formulated and developed

guidelines on water quality indices in the Philippines, although there are water

quality standards used as basis for acceptable values of physico-chemical and

microbiological parameters. The Department of Environment and Natural

Resources issued the Administrative Order No. 2016-08 stipulating the water

quality criteria or standards based on the beneficial usage of the body of water or

classification of freshwaters and marine waters, providing basis to determine the

suitability of water bodies for specific use.

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1.6.3 Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004

Republic Act No. 9275 also known as the “Philippine Clean Water Act of

2004” declares that the Act shall apply to water quality management in all water

bodies: Provided, that it shall primarily apply to the abatement and control of

pollution from land based sources: Provided, further, that the water quality

standards and regulations and the civil liability and penal provisions under this

Act shall be enforced irrespective of sources of pollution.

In addition, the Act mentioned on the Declaration of Policy at section 2

that:

The State shall pursue a policy of economic growth in a manner consistent with
the protection, preservation and revival of the quality of our fresh, brackish and
marine waters. To achieve this end, the framework for sustainable development
shall be pursued. As such, it shall be the policy of the State:
a) To streamline processes and procedures in the prevention, control and
abatement of pollution of the country’s water resources;
b) To promote environmental strategies, use of appropriate economic
instruments and of control mechanisms for the protection of water resources;
c) To formulate a holistic national program of water quality management that
recognizes that water quality management issues cannot be separated from
concerns about water sources and ecological protection, water supply, public
health and quality of life;
d) To provide for a comprehensive management program for water pollution
focusing on pollution prevention;
e) To promote public information and education and to encourage the
participation of an informed and active public in water quality management and
monitoring;

This Act shall be the basis of this study in assessing the coastal water

near the drainage disposal points of Tagbilaran City to promote pollution

 12

awareness. This policy tells that it is important to protect, preserve and lessen

the pollution of the country’s water resources.

Water Quality Philippine Clean Water Act of

“There are two main ways of 2004

measuring the quality of water.” “…the Act shall apply to water

(Woodford, 2016) quality management in all water
bodies…”
Water Quality Index
DENR Administrative Order No.
“With hundreds of parameters 2016-08, Section 5.0 –
Classification of Water Bodies
available to assess the water
“For the purpose of maintaining
quality…” water quality …”
(Martinico-Perez et al., 2014)

Evaluation of Coastal Water Quality at San Jose Drainage Outfall

in Tagbilaran City, Bohol Using Physico-Chemical Parameters and
Water Quality Index

 Water properties in terms of physical, chemical and

microbiological.
 Water quality index that will summarize the
complex water quality data.
 Possible impacts of the coastal water condition to
human health, marine life and to the environment.
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Recommendation
s
Figure 1. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Drainage System. It refers to the system of pipes in Tagbilaran City that

conveys rainwater or other liquid waste, to a legal point of disposal.

Outfalls. It is also known as disposal points. It refers to the coastal waters

of Tagbilaran City where all the wastes from drainages are being disposed.

Sewage. It refers to liquid and semisolid wastes from dwellings and

offices, industrial wastes and surface and storm waters.

Water Body. It is both natural and man-made bodies of fresh, brackish,

and saline water. Water bodies do not refer to those constructed, developed and

used purposely as water treatment facilities or water storage for recycling and

reuse, which are integral to process industry or manufacturing.

Water pollution. It means any alternation of the physical, chemical or

biological or radiological properties of a water body resulting in the impairment of

its purity and qualify.

Waste Water. It refers to water coming from the drainage system

 Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

Over two thirds of Earth's surface is covered by water; less than a third is

taken up by land. As Earth's population continues to grow, people are putting

ever-increasing pressure on the planet's water resources. In a sense, the

oceans, rivers, and other inland waters are being "squeezed" by human

activities—not so they take up less room, but so their quality is reduced. Poorer

water quality means water pollution.

Pollution is a human problem because it is a relatively recent development

in the planet's history: before the 19th century Industrial Revolution, people lived

more in harmony with their immediate environment. As industrialization has

spread around the globe, so the problem of pollution has spread with it.

When Earth's population was much smaller, no one believed pollution

would ever present a serious problem. It was once popularly believed that the

oceans were far too big to pollute. Today, with around 7 billion people on the

planet, it has become apparent that there are limits. Pollution is one of the signs

that humans have exceeded those limits (C. Woodford, 2016).

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2.2 Water Pollution

Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing

evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down

to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the

leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases (Pink, 2006), and that it

accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily (West, 2006). An

estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day

(CHNRI, 2010). About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted

(Chinadaily.com.cn, 2005).

In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing

countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems.

For example, in the most recent national report on water quality in the United

States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed lake acres,

and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as

polluted (EPA, 2009). The head of China's national development agency said in

2007 that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned

the water harmed the skin (Wachman, 2007).

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by

anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as

drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent

biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae

 16

blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and

the ecological status of water.

2.3 Sewage

Sewage is a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension that is

intended to be removed from a community. Also known as domestic or municipal

wastewater, it is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition,

chemical and toxic constituents, and its bacteriologic status (which organisms it

contains and in what quantities). It consists mostly of greywater (from sinks, tubs,

showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers), blackwater (the water used to flush

toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes away); soaps and

detergents; and toilet paper (less so in regions where bidets are widely used

instead of paper). Whether it also contains surface runoff depends on the design

of sewer system (Answers.com).

All sewage ends up back in the environment, by any of several routes. A

basic distinction in its route is whether it undergoes sewage treatment to mitigate

its effect on the environment before arriving there. Sewage usually travels from a

building's plumbing either into a sewer, which will carry it elsewhere, or into

an onsite sewage facility. Whether it is combined with surface runoff in the sewer

depends on the sewer design. Before the 20th century, sewers are usually

discharged into a body of water such as a stream, river, lake, bay, or ocean.

There was no treatment, so the breakdown of the human waste was left to

the ecosystem.
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Today, the goal is that sewers route their contents to a wastewater

treatment plant rather than directly to a body of water. In many countries, this is

the norm; in many developing countries, it may be a yet-unrealized goal. In

general, with passing decades and centuries, humanity seeks to be smarter

about the route of sewage on its way back to the environment, in order to

reduce environmental degradation and achieve sustainability. Thus other goals of

modern sewage routing include handling surface runoff separately from sewage,

handling greywater separately from toilet waste, and coping better with abnormal

events (such as peaks in use from internal displacement and peaks in storm

water volumes from extreme weather).

Proper collection and safe, nuisance-free disposal of the liquid wastes of a

community are legally recognized as a necessity in an urbanized, industrialized

society (McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology). The reality is,

however, that most wastewater produced globally remains untreated causing

widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries: A global estimate

by UNDP and UN-Habitat is that 90% of all wastewater generated is released

into the environment untreated (Corcoran et al. 2010). In many developing

countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged without

any treatment or after primary treatment only.

The term sewage is nowadays regarded as an older term and is being

more and more replaced by "wastewater" (McGraw Hill, 2003). In general

American English usage, the terms "sewage" and "sewerage" mean the same
 18

thing (Flexner, 1993). Both words are descended from Old French as sewer,

derived from the Latin exaquare, "to drain out (water)". In American technical and

professional English usage, "sewerage" refers to the infrastructure that conveys

sewage (Oxforddictionaries.com).

2.4 Water Drainage Disposal

There are a limited number of options available when trying to decide

where and how to dispose of drainage water into the natural hydrological system.

The common option is to return the water either to the land as part of the

irrigation water supply, or to rivers and lakes, or to salt sinks, such as the ocean.

The options available to any single project may be limited because of water

quality concerns. Yet the problem of sewage disposal does not end there. When

you flush the toilet, the waste has to go somewhere and, even after it leaves the

sewage treatment works, there is still waste to dispose of. Sometimes sewage

waste is pumped untreated into the sea. Until the early 1990s, around 5 million

tons of sewage was dumped by barge from New York City each year.

According to 2002 figures from the UK government's Department for the

Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs, the sewers of Britain collect around 11

billion liters of waste water every day, some of it still pumped untreated into the

sea through long pipes. The New River that crosses the border from Mexico into

California once carried with it 20–25 million gallons of raw sewage each day; a

new waste water plant on the US-Mexico border, completed in 2007,

substantially solved that problem.

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Unfortunately, even in some of the richest nations, the practice of dumping

sewage into the sea continues. In early 2012, it was reported that the tiny island

of Guernsey (between Britain and France) has decided to continue dumping

16,000 tons of raw sewage into the sea each day.

2.5 Point Sources of Pollution

Point sources of water pollution are defined as those that originate from a

known point, such as a pipe from which a pollutant may enter a lake or stream.

Nearly every city, town, and waterside settlement discharges some type of

pollution to surface waters. Human wastes that are collected in sewers and piped

to municipal sewage treatment plants ultimately are discharged to surface waters

as treated wastewater. Older systems with combined sewer and storm water

systems discharge untreated sewage to rivers or lakes during heavy rainfall that

overwhelms the drainage system. But in general, treatment processes remove

solid material, many of the chemical pollutants, and then disinfect the treated

sewage to kill disease-causing organisms before releasing the treated

wastewater to the receiving water body (Arthur S. Brooks 2017).

According to Chris Woodford (2006) most water pollution doesn't begin in

the water itself. Take the oceans: around 80 percent of ocean pollution enters our

seas from the land. Virtually any human activity can have an effect on the quality

of our water environment. When farmers fertilize the fields, the chemicals they

use are gradually washed by rain into the groundwater or surface waters nearby.
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Sometimes the causes of water pollution are quite surprising. Chemicals

released by smokestacks (chimneys) can enter the atmosphere and then fall

back to earth as acid rain, entering seas, rivers, and lakes and causing water

pollution.

2.6 Seawater Pollution Studies of the Pakistan Coast

A. Mashiatullah et al. (2000) used stable carbon isotope analysis of total

dissolved inorganic carbon (TDIC) in water-samples was determined by gas

source mass spectrometry and using routine sample-preparation methods. This

has been used as a natural tracer of domestic and industrial pollution inventory in

shallow seawater off the Pakistan Coast.

In general, this study concludes that stable carbon isotope contents of

total dissolved inorganic carbon (TDIC) can be used as a potential indicator of

pollution inputs from domestic and industrial sources, as well as carbon flow into

the seawater from domestic and industrial sources as also from the mangrove

ecosystems.

Hence, the practice of analyzing the seawater pollution level is not new.

2.7 The U-23 Multiparameter Water Quality Monitoring System

On April 21, 2000, Takeshi Kobayashi et al. used the U-23 to observe the

state of Lake Biwa’s water quality at various depths in five locations. The U-23 is

also the world’s first water quality instrument that is capable of simultaneously
 21

measuring three different ions. The user can select any three from these six

constituents: nitrate, calcium, chloride, fluoride, potassium, and ammonia.

However, it is thought that if the dissolved oxygen concentration at the

bottom of Lake Biwa becomes depleted, there will be a danger of the northern

portion of the lake becoming eutrophied. A total of nine other parameters

including pH and NO3 ion concentration were also measured at the same time.

Use of the personal computer supplied with the U-2001 allowed the data to be

analyzed and evaluated with relative ease.

Therefore, there are different methods and parameters used in the

assessment of water bodies.

2.8 Predominant Pollution of Aquatic Resources

The monitoring results obtained by R.M.Bhardwaj (2005) indicate that

organic pollution continues to be the predominant pollution of aquatic resources.

The organic pollution measured in terms of bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD)

& coliform count gives the indication of extent of water quality degradation in

different parts of India.

The trends of % of observations obtained during 1994-2004 for last 11

years in different levels of pollution with respect to BOD & Total Coliform and

Faecal Coliform are indicating different ranges of BOD and Coliform organisms. It

is clear that there is an increasing trend in percentage of observations having

 22

BOD below 3 mg/l. This indicates that there is a gradual improvement in water

quality with respect to organic pollution.

From this study, it can be seen that microbial properties are also important

in the analysis of water samples.

2.9 Water Quality Criteria for Coastal and Marine waters in Philippines

Based on the DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08, Section 5.0 –

Classification of Water Bodies, for the purpose of maintaining water quality

according to its intended beneficial usage, the following classification of water

bodies shall be adopted (see Table 1).

Table 1. Water Body Classification and Usage of Marine Waters

Classification Intended Beneficial Use

Class SA 1. Protected Waters – waters designated as national or local

marine parks, reserves, sanctuaries, and other area
established by law, and/or declared as such by appropriate
government agency, LGU, etc.
2. Fishery Water Class I – suitable for shellfish harvesting for
direct human consumption
Class SB 1. Fishery Waters Class II – waters suitable for commercial
propagation of shellfish and intended as spawning areas for
milkfish and similar species
2. Tourist Zones – for ecotourism and recreational activities
3. Recreational Water Class I – intended for primary contact
recreation (bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.)
Class SC 1. Fishery Water Class III – for the propagation and growth
of fish and other aquatic resources and intended for
commercial and sustenance fishing
2.Recreational Water Class II – for boating, fishing, or similar
activities
3.Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and
wildlife sanctuaries
Class SD Navigation waters
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Note: For unclassified water bodies, classification shall be based on the

beneficial use as determined by the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB).

From the table above, the water bodies near the two drainage outfalls

located at Burgos and Graham will be classified as “Class SB” since some

people uses these areas for swimming and bathing. Some citizens also use

these water bodies for fishing.

According to the DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08, Section 6.0 –

Water Quality Guidelines, the rules and regulations established in this section are

intended beneficial usage and to prevent and abate pollution and contamination

to protect public health, aquatic resources, crops, and other living organisms.

The following are the water quality guidelines for marine waters.

Table 2. Water Quality Guidelines for Primary Parameters

Water Body Classification

Parameter Unit SA SB SC SD
BOD mg/L n/a n/a n/a n/a
Chloride mg/L n/a n/a n/a n/a
Color TCU 5 50 75 150
Dissolved Oxygen(a)
(Minimum) mg/L 6 6 5 2

Fecal Coliform
MPN/100mL <1.1 100 200 400

Nitrate as NO3-N mg/L

10 10 10 15
pH (Range) 7.0-8.5 7.0-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.0-9.0
Phosphate mg/L 0.1 0.5 0.5 5
Temperature(b) ˚C 26-30 26-30 25-31 25-32
Total Suspended
Solids mg/L 25 50 80 110
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Notes:

MPN/100Ml – Most Potable Number per 100 milliliter

n/a – Not Applicable

TCU – True Color Unit

(a) Samples shall be taken from 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM

(b) The natural background temperature as determined by EMB shall

prevail if the temperature is lower or higher than the Water Quality

Guidelines; provided that the maximum increase is only up to 10

percent and it will not cause any risk to human health and the

environment.

Primary parameters are the required minimum water quality parameters to

be monitored for each water body.

2.10 Physical Parameters

2.10.1 Color

Color in water may be caused by the presence of minerals such as iron

and manganese or by substances of vegetable origin such as algae and weeds.

Color tests indicate the efficacy of the water treatment system (Fisheries and

Aquaculture Department).

The color and turbidity of water indicate the depth to which light is

transmitted. This, in turn, controls the amount of primary productivity that is

possible by controlling the rate of photosynthesis of the algae present. The

 25

visible color of water is the result of the different wavelengths not absorbed by

the water itself or the result of dissolved and particulate substances present. It is

possible to measure both true and apparent color in water. Minerals such as

ferric hydroxide and organic substances such as humic acids give true colour to

water. True color can be measured in a sample only after filtration or

centrifugation. Apparent colour is caused by colored particulates and the

refraction and reflection of light on suspended particulates. Polluted water may,

therefore, have quite a strong apparent colour.

Different species of phyto- and zooplankton can also give water an

apparent color. A dark or blue-green colour can be caused by blue-green algae,

a yellow-brown colour by diatoms or dinoflagellates and reds and purples by the

presence of zooplankton such as Daphnia sp. or copepods. (World

Meteorological Organization, 2013)

2.10.2 pH

The pH is interdependent with other water quality parameters, such as

carbon dioxide, alkalinity, and hardness. It can be toxic in itself at a certain level,

and also known to influence the toxicity as well of hydrogen sulfide, cyanides,

heavy metals, and ammonia (Klontz, 1993).

The pH can also affect fish health. For most freshwater species, a pH

range between 6.5 - 9.0 is ideal, but most marine animals typically cannot

tolerate as wide range pH as freshwater animals, thus the optimum pH is usually

 26

between pH 7.5 and 8.5 (Boyd, 1998). Below pH 6.5, some species experience

slow growth (Lloyd, 1992). At lower pH, the organism’s ability to maintain its salt

balance is affected (Lloyd, 1992) and reproduction ceases. At approximately pH

4.0 or below and pH 11 or above, most species die (Lawson, 1995).

2.10.3 Suspended Solids

Based on the American Public Health Association (1998) Suspended solid

(SS) can come from silt, decaying plant and animals, industrial wastes, sewage,

etc. They have particular relevance for marine organisms that are dependent on

solar radiation and those whose life forms are sensitive to deposition. High

concentrations have several negative effects, such as decreasing the amount of

light that can penetrate the water, thereby slowing photosynthetic processes

which in turn can lower the production of dissolved oxygen; high absorption of

heat from sunlight, thus increasing the temperature which can result to lower

oxygen level; low visibility which will affect the fish’ ability to hunt for food; clog

fish’ gills; prevent development of egg and larva. It can also be an indicator of

higher concentration of bacteria, nutrients and pollutants in the water.

Some of the factors that affect the concentration of SS are high flow rate,

soil erosion, urban run-off, septic and wastewater effluents, decaying plants and

animals and bottom-feeding fish.

 27

2.11 Chemical Parameters

2.11.1 Dissolved Oxygen

From (water quality criteria and standards for freshwater and marine

aquaculture) in a water body, oxygen is available in a dissolved state. It is found

in microscopic bubbles mixed in between water molecules. It can enter into the

system through direct diffusion and as a by-product of photosynthesis. This

means then that the level of dissolved oxygen in the water can be increased

through mechanical aeration, e.g. paddle wheels, agitators, vertical sprayers,

impellers, airlift pumps, air diffusers, liquid oxygen injection, etc., considerable

wind and wave action, and presence of aquatic plants and algae. However,

caution should be considered on the latter since it can also cause oxygen

depletion when the plant population becomes too dense. On the other hand, it is

removed through respiration and decomposition. Oxygen concentration maybe

reported in terms milligram per liter (mg/L) or its equivalent, parts per million

(ppm).

Dissolved oxygen is considered as one of the most important aspect of

aquaculture. It is needed by fish to respire and perform metabolic activities. Thus

low levels of dissolved oxygen are often linked to fish kill incidents. On the other

hand, optimum levels can result to good growth, thus result to high production

yield. In general, a saturation level of at least 5 mg/L is required. Values lower

than this can put undue stress on the fish, and levels reaching less than 2 mg/L

may result to death (but 3 mg/L to some species).

 28

2.11.2 Nitrate

Nitrate is formed through nitrification process, i.e. oxidation of NO2 into

NO3 by the action of aerobic bacteria. Nitrate not taken up directly by aquatic

plants is denitrified in anaerobic sediments and microzones. In tropical systems,

denitrification will be most intense in the following areas: (a) where detritus

accumulates; (b) in water bodies subject to enhanced nutrient loading from

pollution; (c) in water bodies with long residence times; and (d) in wetland

ecosystems subject to periodic drying, where oxygen inputs during drying periods

stimulate coupled mineralization-nitrification-denitrification within organically rich

sediments (Furnas, 1992).

2.11.3 Phosphate

Phosphorus (P) is found in the form of inorganic and organic phosphates

(PO4) in natural waters. Inorganic phosphates include orthophosphate and

polyphosphate while organic forms are those organically-bound phosphates.

Phosphorous is a limiting nutrient needed for the growth of all plants- aquatic

plants and algae alike. However, excess concentrations especially in rivers and

lakes can result to algal blooms. A lake with a concentration of below 0.010 mg/L

is considered as oligotrophic, while concentrations between 0.010 and 0.020

mg/L are indicative of mesotrophy, and concentrations exceeding 0.020 mg/L are

already considered eutrophic (Muller and Helsel, 1999). Phosphates are not toxic
 29

to people or animals, unless they are present in very high levels. Digestive

problems could occur from extremely high levels of phosphates.

2.12 Microbiological Parameters

2.12.1 Fecal Coliform

Coliform bacteria consist of several genera belonging to Family

Enterobacteriaceae. Fecal coliform which belongs to this group is found mostly in

feces and intestinal tracts of humans and other warm blooded animals. It is not

pathogenic per se, however, it is a good indicator of the presence of pathogenic

bacteria. High levels of fecal coliform in the water may cause typhoid fever,

hepatitis, gastroenteritis, dysentery and eat infection.

Some factors which may affect the concentration of these bacteria are the

presence of wastewater and septic system, animal wastes, run-off, high

temperature and nutrient-rich water.

Among the countries, only Malaysia and the Philippines have set a

standard exclusively for the presence of fecal coliform, while the rest of the

countries set the standard for total coliform. Among these countries, Kenya has

the most stringent requirement, i.e. 30 counts per 100 ml for freshwater and

marine, followed by the Philippines and Hongkong. The Philippines has a lower

required level in the marine waters than in freshwater.

 30

2.13 CCME Water Quality Index

A water quality index provides a convenient means of summarizing

complex water quality data and facilitating its communication to a general

audience. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality

Index (1.0) is based on a formula developed by the British Columbia Ministry of

Environment, Lands and Parks and modified by Alberta Environment. The Index

incorporates three elements: scope - the number of variables not meeting water

quality objectives; frequency - the number of times these objectives are not met;

and amplitude - the amount by which the objectives are not met. The index

produces a number between 0 (worst water quality) and 100 (best water quality).

These numbers are divided into 5 descriptive categories to simplify presentation.

(CCME, 2001)

The calculated WQI are then compared to the water quality rank that

provides a convenient description of summarizing complex water quality data.

Table 3 shows the general description based on the calculated water quality.
 31

Table 3. General Description of the Calculated Water Quality Rank Adapted

from the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (2001)

Rank WQI Range Ecological Condition

95–100 Water quality is protected with a virtual absence of
Excellent threat or impairment; conditions very close to
natural or pristine levels.
80–94 Water quality is protected with only a minor degree
Good of threat or impairment; conditions rarely depart
from natural or desirable levels.
65–79 Water quality is usually protected but occasionally
Fair threatened or impaired; conditions sometimes
depart from natural or desirable levels.
45–64 Water quality is frequently threatened or impaired;
Marginal conditions often depart from natural or desirable
levels.
Poor 0–44 Water quality is almost always threatened or
impaired; conditions usually depart from natural or
desirable levels.

2.14 Evaluation of Water Quality of Major Rivers in Palawan, Philippines

using Physico-Chemical Parameters and Water Quality Index

From the study of M. Martinico-Perez et al. (2014), water quality of major

rivers in the province Palawan was characterized using the water quality index

(WQI) developed by Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME).

WQI was calculated for thirty-six (36) river monitoring stations based on physico-

chemical and microbiological parameters vis-à-vis freshwater quality standards

stipulated in the DENR Administrative Order 34, series of 1990. Sample

collections were done twice a year. Results show that all river monitoring stations

have description of good to excellent water quality if utilized for agriculture,

irrigation, and other purposes (Class D). Only five (5) river monitoring stations
 32

have good to excellent rating as sources of drinking water after a complete

treatment (Class A). It was concluded that The water quality index was potentially

useful as a decision tool in environmental planning and decision-making activities

related to water resource protection, improvement and utilization towards a

sustainable water resource management in the province of Palawan.

Therefore, it is applicable to use the water quality index created by

Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) to summarize the

complex water quality data in the Philippines. The WQI is a useful tool that offers

a general and readily understood description of water to a general audience.

2.15 Description of the Study Area

Tagbilaran is the capital and a component city of the island province of

Bohol. The coastline of the city is irregular with a total length of about 13

kilometers. It embraces 8 barangays, stretching from Barangay Bool in the South

to Barangay Manga in the North. The other coastal barangays are: Mansasa,

Poblacion I, Poblacion 3, Cogon, Booy, Taloto and Ubujan. Beaches are

predominantly rocky or stony and characteristically narrow and rise abruptly into

rocky cliffs (Tagbilaran Environmental Profile 2008).

It has a port, numerous malls, hospitals, and squatters along the shore on

land and coral reefs, mangroves and sand beaches in coastal waters. According

the city engineer’s office of Tagbilaran there are two disposal points, located at

the coastal areas near V.P. Inting Avenue Corner E. Butalid Street and at

Graham Avenue.
 33

2.16 Condition of Tagbilaran City Coastal Waters

According to Tagbilaran Environmental Profile 2008, the sea water of

Tagbilaran has not yet reached the level of critical stage. However, the catch of

the traditional fisheries along Tagbilaran Bay has been declining. Likewise

pollution and habitat destruction are rapidly taking place. The storm water that

brings commercial and domestic wastes, effluents and sewage from unsanitary

toilets to drain to the sea is posing constraints for future safety.

From wordpress.com in 2008, water samples taken from the drainage

show the pollution level during rainy days at 10 parts per million (PPM) which is

below the environmentally acceptable standard of 50 parts per million (PPM).

However, when it is not raining, the laboratory results show that concentration of

pollutants in the drainage is 84 PPM. This concentration of pollutants is present

on the wastewaters which are disposed directly to the sea.

Furthermore, according to tarsiernewscity.blogspot.com(2008), the

Provincial Health Officer Reymoses Cabagnot and Bohol Environment

Management Office (BEMO) head Renato Villaber presented the governor of

Bohol with results of separate water quality tests made on samples from the

outfall before the water reached the seawater as instructed by the University of

San Carlos (USC) – Water Laboratory.

 34

The USC result using the membrane filtration method indicated “too

numerous to count” total coliforms, these being greater than 2,000 colonies per

100 ml.

The Provincial Health Office (PHO) also maintains a water laboratory to

regularly test samples from different artesian wells, waterworks systems, other

potable water sources, bottled water manufacturers and even beach areas to

monitor coliform and fecal coliform content, among others.

Its tests on samples from the outfall showed 2,400 colonies per 100 ml

total coliform and 2,100 colonies per 100 ml of fecal coliform.

The results of both the fecal and total coliform counts are way above

acceptable standards and will definitely pose danger to the health and safety of

constituents.

Moreover, Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Officer

(PENRO) Nestor Canda said that for toxic and other deleterious substances, the

result for Chromium is 0.015 mg Cr/L as compared to the standard under Class

SB bodies of water which is 0.10 for old and existing institutions (OEI) per

Department Administrative Order (DAO) No. 35, series of 1990.

This is detrimental to the fishery resources in the area and would

ultimately affect human health. The likely generators of these pollutants are the

small scale electroplating shops within the city, Canda had explained.
 35

Bohol Gov. Erico Aumentado expressed this “very serious concern” of the

provincial government on the opening of the San Jose drainage outfall into the

Tagbilaran and Maribojoc Bay in a letter to Environment Secretary Jose Atienza

Jr. dated November 24.

Meanwhile, just to stop the flooding along CPC North Avenue, Atienza had

ordered for the outfall to be opened during downpours but otherwise closed while

the illegal sewer taps have not yet been completely disconnected.

Some responded to the notices and voluntarily disconnected their taps.

Before DENR could completely validate the compliance, however, Lim had the

outfall opened.

Until now, the drainage is flowing with the aforecited pollutants and

contaminants since the gate thereto was destroyed and could not be located

anymore according to Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Officer

(PENRO) Nestor Canda.

If allowed to continue, the situation will undoubtedly pollute Tagbilaran Bay

and the beach lines of Panglao Island facing Tagbilaran – and the Maribojoc Bay,

the resorts along Tagbilaran’s shorelines especially the Bohol Tropics Resort –

now the favorite site for national and even international gatherings, as well as the

Tagbilaran City Tourist Port – the only one of its kind in the country today.
 36

The marine ecosystem in Tagbilaran City and Maribojoc Bay which is the

source of livelihood for marginal fishermen will face tremendous destruction

unless this grave public nuisance shall be abated.

 Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.1 Introduction

To identify the condition of the coastal water in one of the drainage outfalls

of Tagbilaran City, the researchers tested and analyzed the seawater samples

from a specific outfall. The researchers used experimental method upon

conducting the preliminary procedures for gathering of data.

3.2 Environment

This study was conducted near the vicinity of Graham Avenue in

Tagbilaran City, Bohol. The drainage disposal point is called San Jose Outfall.

The said location is where the drainage system of the city discharges its

wastewater without any treatment.

The researchers chose the location since the possibility of it being the

coastal area with the lowest water quality is high.

3.3 Research Instrument

Documents provided from the Water Quality Guidelines and General

Effluent Standards of 2016 issued by the DENR was used as basis for analyzing

the data gathered. The sample collected was brought to a DENR recognized

environmental laboratory located in Nasipit, Talamban, Cebu City where the

apparatus for testing is available. Various types of tests were conducted on the
 38

sample to identify the contents that was present in the specimen. The study also

computed the water quality index using the WQI developed by CCME. Lastly, the

researchers used an observation guide upon analyzing the test results.

3.4 Data Gathering Procedure

3.4.1 Obtaining the Specimen

The researchers collected water samples at the specified outfall in

Tagbilaran City. Water containers differ on the parameters to be analyzed;

sterilized glass bottles were used for coliform analysis; 1-gallon plastic bottles

were used for other analyses. The containers were filled to the brim with no

airspace and were covered with a plastic cap while it was still under the water

surface. The researchers acquired the sample 5-10 meters away from the point

where the waste water from the drainage and sea water fuses. One sample was

collected for the month of June and one for the month of July.

3.4.2. Storing of Specimen

The specimen was enclosed in a clean container to avoid unnecessary

contamination. It was placed in a Styrofoam box with ice to preserve the

specimen while transporting it to the water laboratory. The sample was delivered

to the laboratory not exceeding 6 hours from the time it was collected.

3.4.3 Testing of Specimen

 39

Analyses of water samples were performed following the APHA-AWWA

(1975 & 2005) methods of analysis (Table 4). Seven parameters were analyzed

from the water samples namely: color, total suspended solids, pH, dissolved

oxygen, nitrates, phosphates and fecal coliform.

Table 4. List of Parameters and Methods of Analysis

Parameter Method of Analysis

Physical Color Visual Comparison
Total suspended solids Gravimetric
pH Electrometric
Chemical Dissolved oxygen Azide Modification (Winkler Method)
Nitrate Brucine, colorimetric
Phosphate Ascorbic Acid, colorimetric
Microbiological Fecal Coliform Multiple Tube Fermentation
Technique

3.4.4 Calculation of Water Quality Index (WQI)

Upon receiving the water test results, the researchers used an observation

guide upon solving the WQI. The WQI equation was then calculated based on

the mathematical framework provided by Canadian water quality guidelines for

the protection of aquatic life: CCME Water Quality Index 1.0 (CCME 2001) for

assessing ambient water quality conditions relative to water quality objectives

(Table of DAO No. 2016-08), using three factors as follows:

√ (𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 𝐹32 )

𝑊𝑄𝐼 = 100 − (𝐸𝑞. 1)
1.732

where:

Factor 1: Scope
 40

This represents the extent of water quality guideline non-compliance over

the time period of interest and is calculated as follows:

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝐹1 = × 100 (𝐸𝑞. 2)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

Factor 2: Frequency

This refers to the percentage of individual tests that do not meet the

standards (failed tests):

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠

𝐹2 = × 100 (𝐸𝑞. 3)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

Factor 3: Amplitude

This represents the amount by which failed test values do not meet their

objectives. It is calculated in three steps:

1) Excursion or the number of times by which an individual concentration is

greater than (or less than, when the objective is a minimum). When the

value must not exceed the objective:

𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 = − 1 (𝐸𝑞. 4𝑎)
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖

For cases in which the test value must not fall below the objective:

𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 = − 1 (𝐸𝑞. 4𝑏)
𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖

2) The normalized sum of excursions, or nse, is calculated as

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖
𝑛𝑠𝑒 = (𝐸𝑞. 5)
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠

3) Amplitude, F3 is then calculated as follows:

𝑛𝑠𝑒
𝐹3 = (𝐸𝑞. 6)
0.01𝑛𝑠𝑒 + 0.01
 41

3.4.5 Analyzing and Interpreting the Gathered Data

The calculated WQI were then compared to the water quality rank that

provides a convenient description of summarizing complex water quality data.

Table 3 shows the general description based on the calculated water quality.

3.4.6 Formulating the Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

After analyzing the gathered data, findings were summarized and

conclusions were tabulated. Several recommendations were made to improve

the study.
 Chapter 4

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter deals with the presentation of data and information that were

gathered and collected together with their corresponding analysis and

interpretations. The data and information gathered were about the coastal water

quality at San Jose Drainage outfall in Tagbilaran City, Bohol.

The following are the information obtained on the physical, chemical and

microbiological properties of the coastal water, the water quality index, and the

possible impacts of the coastal water condition.

1. Physical Properties of the Coastal Water

Table 5. Coastal Water Quality in Terms of Physical Properties

Sampling Event Water Quality

Parameters Units Standards/
June July
Objectives
Color TCU 10 10 50
pH (Range) 7.28 7.47 7.0-8.5
Total
Suspended mg/L 22.0 (±5.9) 32.5 (±1.0) 50
Solids

Table 5 shows the laboratory test results on the physical properties of the

water samples. The color and total suspended solids in the seawater provide the

visual quality of the water; the higher concentration signifies highly turbid water.
 43

Color concentration of 50 TCU and beyond signals a turbid water which

can be caused by natural disturbance such as increased sedimentation during

rainy season or anthropogenic disturbance such as wastewater disposal. As

observed from the table above, the color of the coastal water passed the water

quality standard.

As stated in Chapter 2, pH can affect fish health. The optimum pH is

usually between pH 7.5 and 8.5 (Boyd, 1998). Below pH 6.5, some species

experience slow growth (Lloyd, 1992). At lower pH, the organism’s ability to

maintain its salt balance is affected (Lloyd, 1992) and reproduction ceases. At

approximately pH 4.0 or below and pH 11 or above, most species die (Lawson,

1995). From the laboratory results, it can be seen that the pH level also passed

the standards.

Total suspended solids are water insoluble materials, including organic

and inorganic, that are suspended in water such as silt, plankton and industrial

wastes (Kumar et al., 2010). The Environmental Management Bureau (2008)

stated that the higher the TSS value, the lower is the ability of the water to

support aquatic life due to reduced light penetration affecting plant

photosynthesis. Based on the results, the concentration of suspended solids in

the water sample was within the standards.

 44

2. Chemical Properties of the Coastal Water

Table 6. Coastal Water Quality in Terms of Chemical Properties

Sampling Event Water Quality

Parameters Units Standards/
June July
Objectives
Dissolved
Oxygen mg/L 2.56 1.69 6
(Minimum)
Nitrate 0.318
mg/L 0.066 10
Content (±0.001)
Phosphate
mg/L 0.07 0.039 0.5
Content

Table 5 presents the laboratory test results on the chemical properties of

the water samples. It can be seen that all the paramters except Dissolved

Oxygen meet the criteria for bodies of water classified as Class SB.

The low concentration of dissolved oxygen, which is observed from the

laboratory results signifies a condition not favorable for the aquatic organisms to

thrive in the water body. The dissolved oxygen concentration is a general

indicator to assess organic pollution, and is commonly used in the environmental

monitoring. High concentration of dissolved oxygen is favorable to aquatic

organisms, while concentration lower than 2 mg/L in a prolong period could be

detrimental leading to asphyxiation of fishes (Behar, 1997; Kutty, 1987). Natural

and human-induced changes to the aquatic environment can affect the

 45

availability of dissolved oxygen. For instance, cold water can hold more oxygen

than warm water, and high levels of bacteria from sewage pollution can cause

the percentage saturation to decrease(UNESCO). In this case, the low level of

dissolved oxygen is caused by the high levels of bacteria from the wastewater of

the city.

Nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates are essential for the growth of

bacteria, algae and other tiny organisms in the water, however, the excessive

amount fuels excessive growth of algae. This results to increased die-off and

decomposition of algae blooms, reduced dissolved oxygen in water that would

suffocate larger fishes. The table shows that the nitrate and phosphate of the

coastal area meets the standard.

3. Microbiological Properties of the Coastal Water

Table 7. Coastal Water Quality in Terms of Microbiological Properties

Sampling Event Water

Quality
Parameters Units
June July Standards/
Objectives
Fecal
MPN/100mL 13x10³ 13x10³ 100
Coliform
Total
MPN/100mL 24x10³ 22x104
Coliform

Table 7 shows the laboratory test results on the microbiological properties

of the water samples. Bacteriological communities can be used as bio-indicators

 46

of aquatic ecosystem dynamics and determination of their occurrence may help

to assess water quality(Kumar et al., 2010). Total bacterial count can be a

reliable indicator of organic pollution, because they are unable to survive in clean

water beyond limited time and the number of bacteria present depends upon the

degree of contamination (EMB, 2008).

Based on the results, it can be seen that the concentration of fecal

coliform was far too off from the required concentration of fecal coliform for Class

SB. As observed, both the water sample from June and July have the same

concentration of fecal coliform but with different concentration of total coliform.

The water sample during June is composed of 54.17% fecal and 45.83% non-

fecal coliform bacteria while July has 5.91% fecal and 94.09% non-fecal coliform

bacteria. With this, it can be inferred that the coastal area is considered

unsuitable for recreational or bathing purposes.

Coliform bacteria may enter waters through a number of routes, including

inadequately treated sewage, stormwater drains, septic tanks, runoff from animal

grazing land, animal processing plants and from wildlife living in and around

water bodies. In this case, the high concentration of coliform bacteria is caused

by the disposal of wastewater in the area.

4. Water Quality Index

The physico-chemical parameters were used as indicators of ecosystem

health and can be potentially linked directly to socio-economic indicators like

 47

environmental protection. These indicators and discussions could further be

reinforced by providing a general description of prevailing water quality of the

coastal area, and can be done through the calculation of water quality index.

The water quality index (WQI) is used to provide convenient means of

summarizing complex water quality data on coastal water quality of San Jose

Outfall. It incorporates the information on water usage and classification of

marine water bodies based on the DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08.

The CCME WQI indicates that the coastal water quality in San Jose

Outlfall was Poor or with water quality almost always threatened or impaired and

conditions usually depart from desirable quality as required under Class SB.

Measured dissolved oxygen and fecal coliform concentrations exceeded

objectives on two occasions each; these excursions were large and unlikely

reflect from natural events. The possibility that these excursions were caused by

the continuous wastewater disposal in the area is high.

5. Possible Impacts of the Coastal Water Condition

Based on the laboratory test results, the submitted seawater sample from

the disposal point failed the following parameters: dissolved oxygen and fecal

coliform.

Faecal coliform bacteria themselves are not harmful; however, they occur

with intestinal pathogens (bacteria or viruses) that are dangerous to human

health (UNESCO). Hence, their the presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatic
 48

environments indicates that the water has been contaminated with the fecal

material of man or other animals. At the time this occurred, the source water may

have been contaminated by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or viruses

which can also exist in fecal material. Some waterborne pathogenic diseases

include ear infections, dysentery, typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis,

and hepatitis A. The presence of fecal coliform tends to affect humans more

than it does aquatic creatures, though not exclusively. While these bacteria do

not directly cause disease, high quantities of fecal coliform bacteria suggest the

presence of disease-causing agents. The presence of fecal contamination is an

indicator that a potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this water.

Fecal coliform bacteria may occur in ambient water as a result of the overflow of

domestic sewage or nonpoint sources of human and animal waste.

Untreated fecal material, such as contains fecal coliform, adds excess

organic material to the water. The decay of this material depletes the water of

oxygen causing low levels of dissolved oxygen in the water. This lowered

oxygen may kill fish and other aquatic life. Reduction of fecal coliform in

wastewater may require use of chlorine and other disinfectant chemicals. Such

materials may kill the fecal coliform and disease bacteria. They also kill bacteria

essential to the proper balance of the aquatic environment, endangering the

survival of species dependent on those bacteria. So, higher levels of fecal

coliform require higher levels of chlorine, threatening those aquatic organisms (B.

Oram, 2014).
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 APPENDIX A

LETTER TO THE CITY ENGINEERING OFFICIAL

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY-MAIN CAMPUS
TAGBILARAN CITY, BOHOL

Vision: A premier Science and Technology University for the formation of a world class and virtuous human resource for
sustainable development in Bohol and the Country.

Mission: BISU is committed to provide quality higher education in the arts and sciences, as well as in the professional and
technological fields; undertake research and development and extension services for the sustainable development
of Bohol and the Country.

Feb. 16, 2017

ENGR. NOEL DATAHAN

City Engineer’s Office
Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Sir:

Greetings!

The fourth year students taking up Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering of the Bohol Island State
University Main Campus, in a partial fulfillment of the requirements of the said degree are conducting a
research study with its title SEAWATER ANALYSIS IN SEWAGE DISPOSAL POINTS IN TAGBILARAN
CITY.

In line with this, the researchers humbly ask permission to get the necessary data for the realization of their
study. Rest assured that these papers will be treated with utmost confidentiality.

Your help will be a great tool for the success of the study. The researchers are hoping that this request will
merit your favorable verdict.

Thank you and more power to you!

Respectfully yours,

HONESTO EMMANUEL S. DANO PETER CONRAD H. PAIG JAN JOSEPH L. TAPA

Thesis Leader Member Member

Noted:

ENGR. MARY ANN QUIOBE MS. MARIA NEMIA

MALATE Research Adviser Research I Instructor

Recommending Approval: Approved By:

ZINA D. SAYSON, Ph.D ENGR. NOEL DATAHAN

Dean, College of Engineering and Architecture City Engineering Official
 55

APPENDIX B

OBSERVATION GUIDE

Total Dissolved
Parameters Fecal
Color suspended pH oxygen Nitrate Phosphate
Coliform
solids (Minimum)

Unit TCU mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L MPN/100mL

Sampling

Event 1

Sampling

Event 2

Water

Quality 7.0-
50 50 6 10 0.5 100
Standards/ 8.5

Objectives

Bolded values do not meet the objective

 56

APPENDIX C

FIGURE 2. PRICE QUOTATION

 57

APPENDIX D

CALCULATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX (WQI)

San Jose Outfall, Tagbilaran City – 2017

Total Dissolved
Parameters Fecal
Color Suspended pH oxygen Nitrate Phosphate
Coliform
solids (Minimum)
MPN/100
Unit TCU mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
mL
JUNE 0.318
10 22.0 (±5.9) 7.28 2.56 0.07 13x10³
15 (±0.001)
JULY
10 32.5 (±1.0) 7.47 1.69 0.066 0.039 13x10³
12
Water
Quality 7.0-
50 50 6 10 0.5 100
Standards/ 8.5
Objectives
Bolded values do not meet the objective

The number of variables not meeting objectives is 2 (DO & Fecal Coliform). The

total number of variables is 7. Therefore:

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝐹1 = × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

2
𝐹1 = × 100 = 28.57
7
 58

The number of tests not meeting objectives is 4, and the total number of tests is

14. In this case:

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠

𝐹2 = × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

4
𝐹2 = × 100 = 28.57
14

The excursions, their nominal sum, and F3 are calculated as follows:

𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 = –1
𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖

6
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛1 = − 1 = 1.34
2.56

6
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛2 = − 1 = 2.55
1.69

𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 = –1
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖

13 × 103
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛3 = − 1 = 129
100

13 × 103
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛4 = − 1 = 129
100

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖
𝑛𝑠𝑒 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠
 59

1.34 + 2.55 + 129 + 129

𝑛𝑠𝑒 = = 18.71
14

𝑛𝑠𝑒
𝐹3 =
0.01𝑛𝑠𝑒 + 0.01
18.71
𝐹3 = = 94.93
0.01(18.71) + 0.01

With the three factors now obtained, the index value can be calculated:

√ (𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 𝐹32 )

𝑊𝑄𝐼 = 100 −
1.732

√(28.572 + 28.572 + 94.932 )

𝑊𝑄𝐼 = 100 − = 40.43
1.732
Given the category ranges in Table 3, the water quality at San Jose outfall would
be rated as “Poor” based on June and July 2017 data.
 60

RESEARCHERS’ BIODATA

HONESTO EMMANUEL S. DANO

“Zero”

PERSONAL DATA:

Date of Birth : August 10, 1996

Age : 20

Place of Birth : Cebu City

Citizenship : Filipino

Religion : Roman Catholic

Father’s Name : Honesto A. Dano

Mother’s Name : Marina S. Dano

Email Address : honestoemmanueldano@gmail.com

Contact Number : 09075687080

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT:

Elementary : Tiptip Elementary School

Tiptip District, Tagbiliran City, Bohol

Secondary : Tagbilaran City Science High School

Miguel Parras Ext., Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Tertiary : Bohol Island State University – Main Campus

C.P.G. North Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Course : Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

 61

JAN JOSEPH L. TAPA

“Jan”

PERSONAL DATA:

Date of Birth : July 20, 1997

Age : 19

Place of Birth : Tagbilaran City

Citizenship : Filipino

Religion : Roman Catholic

Father’s Name : Joseph A. Tapa

Mother’s Name : Anita L. Tapa

Email Address : janjotapz@gmail.com

Contact Number : 09122598058

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT:

Elementary : Songculan Elementary School

Songculan, Dauis, Bohol

Secondary : Doctor Cecilio Putong National High School

C.P.G. North Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Tertiary : Bohol Island State University – Main Campus

C.P.G. North Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Course : Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

 62

PETER CONRAD H. PAIG

“Popete”

PERSONAL DATA:

Date of Birth : November 25, 1988

Age : 28

Place of Birth : Davao City

Citizenship : Filipino

Religion : Roman Catholic

Father’s Name : Conrado T. Paig

Mother’s Name : Pudenciana H. Paig

Email Address : popete24@gmail.com

Contact Number : 09092741859

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT:

Elementary : Magallanes Elementary School

A. Pichon St., Davao City, Davao del Sur

Secondary : Davao City National High School

F. Torres St., Davao City, Davao del Sur

Tertiary : Bohol Island State University – Main Campus

C.P.G. North Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Course : Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering