Manufacturing Process-II

UNIT – I
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Subject: 15MEC304 - Manufacturing Process-II

Class: B.Tech – V Sem - Mechanical ‘B’ section
 15MEC304 Manufacturing Process II

3 credit course - 3 hrs. / week

– Wednesday (3pm-4pm)
– Thursday (9.45am-10.45am)
– Friday (2.00pm-3.00pm)
Evaluation
Periodical 1 - 15
Periodical 2 - 15
Internal assessment – Assignments & Class test – 20
End semester exam - 50
Email id : p_raghuram@cb.amrita.edu
 15MEC304 Manufacturing Process II - Syllabus
SECTION I
Theory of metal cutting: Types of metal cutting processes, Mechanism of chip formation- Forces and
temperature in metal cutting, Tool life - Machinability and surface finish: Cutting tool materials and
cutting fluids.
Cylindrical Surface Machining: Basics of turning process, lathe and its Accessories: operations,
process parameters. Turret and capstan lathes. Machining time calculations.
SECTION II
Drilling Machines: Types, operations, process parameters. Boring machines: types, operations,
process parameters. Design considerations for drilling, reaming and tapping.
Flat and Profile Machining: Milling operations-Milling machines: types, operations, process
parameters. Planing and shaping machines- types, operations. Broaching machines-types,
operations. Gear machining processes.
SECTION III
Finishing Processes: Fundamentals of abrasives – Grinding wheels-The theory of grinding process-
Grinding operations and machines- grinding fluids- design considerations for grinding: Finishing
operations- Super finishing processes-lapping and honing.
CNC Machines: NC, CNC and DNC, types, construction, tool and work holding devices, part
programming- manual and computer automated programming.
Modern machining processes: EDM, ECM, USM, Abrasive and water jet machining, High Energy
Beam machining, High speed machining.
Text Books
 What is manufacturing process?

The process of converting raw materials into finished products.

Machinery

Tooling

Power

Labor
Product
Raw materials Manufacturing
Process Profit
 Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing
Processes: Casting
 Manufacturing Processes

Extrusion

Manufacturing
Processes: Forming
and Shaping
 Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing
Processes: Forming
and Shaping
 Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing
Processes: Joining
 Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing
Processes:
Machining
 Contents
➢ Introduction to machining

➢ Classification of machining processes

➢ Mechanism of chip formation

➢ Heat generated in metal cutting

➢ Tool wear and Tool life

➢ Cutting tool material

➢ Cutting fluids

➢ Machinability
 Introduction to Machining Process

➢ Machining is the process of producing a work piece by

removing unwanted material from a block of metal, in the
form of chips.
 Why Machining is required?

Machined Parts

Micro Machined Parts

 Characteristics of Machining Process

1. Improve the dimensional accuracy &

tolerance of the components produced

2. Internal & external surface features

can easily produced
Machined Parts
3. Specified surface characteristics or
texture can be achieved on a part

4. May be economical to produce a

component

Micro Machined Parts

 Classification of Machining Process

➢Machining or Cutting Processes – material removal by a

sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling.

➢Abrasive processes – material removal by hard, abrasive

particles, e.g., grinding.

➢Non-traditional Processes or Special Processes - various

energy forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material.
Classification of Machining Process
Examples of Machining Processes
Examples of Machining Processes
 Basic Elements of Machining
The Basic Elements of Machining Operations are

➢ Work piece

➢ Cutting Tool

➢ Chip
Cutting Parameters

RPM-N
 Cutting Speed
➢ Distance travelled by the work surface in a unit time
with reference to the cutting edge of the tool
➢ It is usually expressed in m/min.
➢ Cutting speed to be used depends upon work piece
material, cutting tool material, machining process,
cutting fluid, machine tool used, surface finish
required and tool life.
 Feed
➢ Distance advanced by the tool (assuming job
remains stationary) for each revolution of the work
piece.
➢ It is usually expressed in mm/rev.
➢ Low feed produces fine surface finish.
➢ Feed to be used depends upon size of work piece,
tool geometry, tool & work piece material, cutting
fluid, cutting speed and depth of cut
 Depth of Cut (DOC)

➢ Perpendicular distance between the machined

surface and the un machined surface or the
previously machined surface.
➢ It is usually expressed in mm.
Assignment 1 - Broad classification of Machine Tools
Due: 12 July 2017
• According to direction of major axis
• According to purpose of use
• According to degree of automation
• According to size
• According to precision
• According to number of spindles
• According to blank type
• According to type of automation
• According to configuration
 Machining-Chip Formation

Figure 21.2 (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)

tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
 Mechanism of Chip formation
The form of machined chips depend mainly upon :
➢ Work material
➢ Material and geometry of the cutting tool
➢ Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to some extent on
depth of cut
➢ Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects temperature
and friction at the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces.

Knowledge of basic mechanisms of chip formation helps to

understand the characteristics of chips and to attain favourable
chip forms.
 Types of Chip in Machining

1. Continuous chip
2. Discontinuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
 Continuous chips
• Continuous chips are usually formed with ductile materials at
high rake angles and/or high cutting speeds.
• A good surface finish is generally produced.
➢ Ductile work materials
➢ High cutting speed
➢ Small chip thickness (fine feed)
➢ Sharp cutting edge
➢ Large rake angle
➢ Less friction between chip tool
interface through efficient
lubrication
Continuous chips
Compression

Shear stress
develops

Reaches or
exceeds the shear
strength

Yielding or slip
takes place
resulting shear
deformation
Continuous chips
 Discontinuous chips
Discontinuous chips occur when machining hard brittle
materials such as cast iron.
Brittle failure takes place along the shear plane before
any tangible plastic flow occurs.
Discontinuous chips will form in brittle materials at low
rake angles (large depths of cut).
 Discontinuous Chips
Discontinuous chips usually form under the following conditions:
1.Brittle work piece materials
2.Work piece materials that contain hard inclusions and
impurities, or have structures such as the graphite flakes in
gray cast iron.
3.Very low or very high cutting speeds.
4.Large depths of cut.
5.Low rake angles.
6.Lack of an effective cutting fluid.
7.Low stiffness of the machine tool.
Discontinuous Chips
Wedging action of
the cutting edge

small crack develops

sharp crack-tip
stress concentration

crack quickly
propagates, under
stressing action, and
total separation
takes place
Continuous Chips with Built-Up Edge (BUE)
BUE, consisting of layers of material from the work piece that are gradually
deposited on the tool, may form at the tip of the tool during cutting.

As it becomes larger, BUE becomes unstable and eventually breaks up.

Part of BUE material is carried away by the tool side of the chip; the rest is
deposited randomly on the work piece surface.

The process of BUE formation and destruction is repeated continuously during the
cutting operation, unless measures are taken to eliminate it.
Continuous Chips with Built-Up Edge (BUE)

The tendency for a BUE to form is reduced by any of the

following practices:
1. Increase the cutting speeds
2. Decreasing depth of cut
3. Increasing the rake angle
4. Using a sharp tool
5. Using an effective cutting fluid
6. Use a cutting tool that has lower
chemical affinity for the work
piece material.
 Chip Breakers
Continuous chips are not always desirable, particularly in
automated machine tools, it tends to get tangled around the tool and
operation has to be stopped to clear away the chips.

(a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip breaker decreases the
radius of curvature of the chip and eventually breaks it.
(b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool.
(c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip breakers. Most cutting tools used now are inserts with built-
in chip breaker features.
 Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Cutting Tools
– One dominant cutting edge
– Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
– Eg: Turning uses single point tools

2. Multi-Point Cutting Tools

– More than one cutting edge
– Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
– Eg: Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting
edge tools
 Cutting Tool Classification

Figure: (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point;
(b) A helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple
cutting edges.
 Right-hand Cutting Tool and Insert

Fig: (a) Schematic illustration of right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have
been produced traditionally from solid tool-steel bars, they have been replaced largely
with (b) inserts made of carbides and other materials of various shapes and sizes.
 Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry
Geometry of positive rake single point cutting tool

End cutting edge angle (ECEA)

Top View

Nose Radius (NR)

Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Back rake angle (αb)

Side rake angle

(αs) Lip angle
Front View
Side View

Side relief angle (SRA) End relief angle (ERA)

 Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry
Geometry of negative rake single point cutting tool
End cutting edge angle (ECEA)

Top View

Nose Radius (NR)

Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Side rake angle (αs) Back rake angle (αb)

Lip angle Front View

Side View

Side relief angle (SRA) End relief angle (ERA)

FV

(Lip angle)
Side
view

(side clearance angle)

Top view
 Tool Signature
It is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point
cutting tool.
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various angles,
in degrees, and the size of the nose radius.
There are several systems available like
American standard system (ASA),
Orthogonal rake system (ORS),
Normal rake system (NRS), and
Maximum rake system (MRS).
 Tool Signature
For example a tool may designated in the following sequence:

8-14-6-6-6-15-1

1. Back rake angle is 8

2. Side rake angle is 14
3. End relief angle is 6
4. Side relief angle is 6
5. End cutting Edge angle is 6
6. Side cutting Edge angle is 15
7. Nose radius is 1 mm
 ➢ The system most commonly us
(ASA), which is:
Tool Signature- ASA
✓ The system most commonly used is American Standards Association
(ASA) Bake rake angle, Side rake angle, E
✓ Also called as Machine Reference System as the three planes for
cutting Edge angle, Side cutting Ed
describing the angles based on configuration and axes of machine tool
✓ The single point tool is designated as:

αb - αs - θe - θs - Ce - Cs - r
Bake rake angle

Side rake angle

End relief angle

Side relief angle,

End cutting Edge
Angle Φe
Side cutting
Edge angle Nose radius
Φs
 Nomenclature of Single Point Tool
The most significant terms in the geometry of a cutting tool
angles are:
– Rake angle
» Back Rake angle
» Side Rake angle
– Relief or clearance angle
» End relief
» Side relief
– Cutting edge angle
» End Cutting edge angle
» Side Cutting edge angle
– Nose Radius
 Rake Angle
➢It is the angle formed between the face of the tool and a plane
parallel to its base
➢If this inclination is towards the shank, it is known as back rake
or top rake, when it is measured towards the side of the tool, it is
called side rake.
➢These rake angles guide the chips away from the cutting edge,
thereby reducing the chip pressure on the face and increasing the
keenness of the tool so that less power is required for cutting
➢An increased rake angle(+ve rake) will reduce the strength of
the cutting edge
➢Hence tools used for cutting hard metals are given smaller
rake angles whereas those used for softer metals contain larger
rakes. 8 – 100

140
 Negative rake
➢If the face of the tool is so ground that it slopes upwards from the
point it is said to contain negative rake
➢It obviously reduces the keenness of the tool and increases strength
of the cutting edge
➢Such a rake is usually employed on carbide tipped tools when they
are used for machining extra hard surfaces like hardened steel parts
and for taking intermittent cuts
➢A tool with negative rake will have a larger lip angle, resulting in
a stronger tool
➢Favourable for tipped tools. Normally varies from 5 to 10 degrees.
 Negative Rake Tools
➢ Typical tool materials which utilize negative rakes are:
➢Carbide
➢Diamonds
➢Ceramics(At high speeds)

➢ These materials tend to be much more brittle than HSS but they
hold superior hardness at high temperatures.

➢ The negative rake angles transfer the cutting forces to the tool
which help to provide added support to the cutting edge.
 Relief or Clearance angle
– Ground on the end and side faces of a tool to prevent it
from rubbing on the work piece.

– To enable only the cutting edge to touch the work piece and
cut freely without rubbing against the surface of the job

Side Relief angle:

• Angle ground directly below the cutting edge on the flank
of the tool

End Relief angle:

• Angle ground from the nose of the tool
 Cutting edge angle
• Ground on a tool so that it can be mounted in the correct
position for various machining operations.

Side Cutting edge angle

• Allows flank of the tool to approach the work piece first
• Spreads the material over a greater distance on the cutting
edge, thereby thinning out the chip.
• Approximately 150

End Cutting edge angle

• Allows the cutting tool to machine close to the work piece
during turning operations
• Usually 20 – 300
 Nose Radius
• Rounded tip on the point of the tool
Functions:

• Strengthens finishing point of tool

• Improves surface finish on work

• Should be twice amount of feed per revolution

• Too large – chatter;

• Too small – weakens point

• Values: 0.4 mm to 1.6 mm

 Methods of Metal cutting
The Basic Methods of metal cutting

➢ Orthogonal Cutting or 2D cutting

The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the cutting velocity, the
process is called orthogonal cutting

➢ Oblique Cutting or 3D cutting

The cutting edge of the tool is not perpendicular to the cutting velocity but
set an angle with the normal to the cutting velocity
 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal Oblique
Work
cutting Work cutting

Feed
Feed
Tool
Tool

• The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at

• The cutting edge of the tool
remains normal to the
direction of tool feed or
work feed.
• The direction of the chip
flow velocity is normal to the • Three components of forces (3D cutting)
cutting edge of the tool.
• Two components of forces
– Cutting Force
– Thrust Force.
• 2D cutting
an acute angle to the direction of tool feed or
work feed.
• The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an
angle with the normal to the cutting edge of
the tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
– Cutting Force
– Radial force
– Thrust Force or feed force
• The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force
acts on a larger area and thus tool life is
increased.
Oblique Cutting – Influence of inclination angle
 Forces acting on a cutting tool

The force system in general case of

conventional turning process
 ‘Turning’ Forces For Orthogonal Model
Velocity of F C Tangential 'Cutting' Force (67%)
Tool relative to
workpiece V DIRECTION OF ROTATION

WORKPIECE
Fr Radial
Force (6%)

Longitudinal F t
'Thrust' Force (27%)

'A' 'A'

CUTTING TOOL

DIRECTION OF FEED

Fc

Ft

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the radial component End view section 'A'-'A'
Forces acting on a cutting tool

61
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the mechanics
of machining fairly accurately.
Ernst and Merchant Theory
Chip thickness ratio

a
t2
B

t1 C

D A
Ernst and Merchant Theory
Shear Angle

As density remains the same before and after

cutting,
l1b1t1 = l2b2t2

In orthogonal cutting, b1=b2

l1t1 = l2t2

t1/t2 = l2/l1
 Velocity Relationship


Using sine rule,

v v vs
 c 
sin(90  (  a )) sin  sin(90  a ) v sin 
vc 
v vc vs cos(  a )
 
cos(  a ) sin  cos a
 sin  
v cosa
vc  v  r r  cos ( - a ) 
vs 
cos(  a )
 
v = cutting velocity = velocity of tool relative to work
vc = chip velocity = velocity of chip relative to tool
64
vs = shear velocity = velocity of chip relative to work
 Chip Thickness Ratio

The ratio of to/tc is known as the cutting ratio, r, expressed as:

Where, r = chip thickness ratio;

to = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation; and
tc = chip thickness after separation
65
 Determining Shear Plane Angle
Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the
shear plane angle  can be determined as:
r cos a
tan  
1  r sina
When shear angle is small
The plane of shear will be larger, chip is thicker and higher force
required to remove
wherethe chip ratio, and a = rake angle
r =chip.
When shear angle is large
The plane of shear will be shorter, chip is thinner and hence
lesser force required to remove the chip.
The shear angle is determined from chip thickness ratio.
66
 Forces in Metal Cutting

F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured

Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
– Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
67
Fs = Shear force, which acts along the
shear plane, is the resistance to shear of
the metal in forming the chip
Fn = Force acting normal to the shear
plane ,is the backing up force on the
chip provided by the work piece
F = Frictional resistance of the tool
acting against the motion of the chip as
it moves upward along the tool
N = Normal to the chip force, is
provided by the tool
Fc = Horizontal cutting force exerted by
the tool on the work piece
Ft = Vertical force which helps in
holding the tool in position and acts on
the tool nose
1. Merchant circle is useful to determine the relation between the
various forces & angles.

2. In the diagram two force triangles have been combined & R &
R’ together have been replaced by R

3. The force R can be resolved into two components Fc & Ft

4. Fc & Ft can be determined by force dynamometers

5. The rack angle (α ) can be measured from the tool & forces F &
N can then be determined

6. The shear angle (Ф) can be obtained from it’s relation with chip
reduction coefficient

7. Now Fs & Fn can also be determine

Merchant’s Circle Diagram

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle
(β - α)
Work
Fn
Ft R
α

β
N

78
The procedure to construct a Merchant’s
circle diagram
Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle

Work
Fn
Ft R
α

β
N

79
 Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Frictional Force System
D α
Chip
α Tool
C Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle
(90-α) α
E α Fc O
(β - α)
(β - α)
(90-α) G Work
Fn
Ft R Ft R
α α

α F F

β β
B N N
A

F  OA  CB  CG  GB  ED  GB The coefficient of friction

 F  FC sin a  Ft cosa   tan 
F
N
N  AB  OD  CD  OD  GE
Where   Friction angle
 N  FC cosa  Ft sin a
82
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Shear Force System
B
Chip α
α Tool
A Fs
Fs Fc Clearance Angle
(90-∅) ∅
Fc ∅
C O (β - α)
∅ Work
(β - α) Fn
(90-∅) Ft R
D
Fn α
Ft R
α
F
∅
β
N

FS  OA  OB  AB  OB  CD Also:
 FS  FC cos  Ft sin  FN  FS tan(    a )
FS  RCos(   a   
FN  AE  AD  DE  BC  DE
 FN  FC sin   Ft cos
83
 Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the
horizontal and vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc Clearance Angle
∅
(β - α)
Work
F  FC sin a  Ft cosa
N  FC cosa  Ft sin a
Fn

Ft R
α
FS  FC cos  Ft sin 
FN  FC sin   Ft cos
F

β FN  FS tan(    a )
N

Ft = R Sin (β-α)
Fc = R Cos (β –α)
84
 Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F
 
N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

  tan 
The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of friction, μ, at the tool-chip
interface, and the angle β is the friction angle.

F Ft  Fc tana
Coefficient of friction,   
N Fc  Ft tana

The coefficient of friction in metal cutting generally ranges from about

0.5 to 2.
75
 Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the
shear plane:
F
  s
A
s
where As = area of the shear
plane,

t1b1
As 
sin 

Shear stress = shear strength of work

material during cutting
77
 Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Figure: Shear strain during chip formation:

(a) Chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other,
(b) One of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and
(c) Shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation.

Shear strain in machining can be computed from the following equation,

based on the parallel plate model:

Where,
ε =Shear strain,  = Shear plane angle and a = Rake angle of cutting tool
 Power required in Metal cutting

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in cutting: PC  Fc  v

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in shear: Ps  Fs  vs
The Power consumed/ work done per sec in friction: PF  F  vc

The total Power required:

P  Pc  Ps  Pf

90
 Sources of Heat in Metal Cutting
During Metal cutting, heat is generated in three region as
shown in Figure.

1. Around shear plane

2. Tool-chip interface
3. Tool-work interface
 Sources of heat and Causes of development of cutting
temperature in Machining
During machining, heat is generated at the cutting point from three
sources, as indicated in Fig.
Those sources and causes of development of cutting temperature
are:
➢ Primary shear zone (1) where the major
part of the energy is converted into
heat.
➢ Secondary deformation zone (2) at the
chip – tool interface where further heat
is generated due to rubbing and / or
shear.
➢ At the worn out flanks (3) due to
rubbing between the tool and the
finished surfaces.
 Cutting Temperatures
Cutting temperatures are important because high
temperatures,
1. Reduce tool life.
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the
machine operator.
3. Can cause inaccuracies in work part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work piece material.
Distribution of Heat
Temperature distribution in Metal Cutting
Measurement of tool-chip interface
temperature
 Control of cutting temperature

➢ Proper selection of material and geometry of the cutting

tool
➢ Optimum selection of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut
➢ Proper selection of cutting fluid
 Cutting Fluids

Lubricants – purpose is to reduce friction… usually oil based

Coolants – purpose is to transport heat… usually water based
Both lose their effectiveness at higher cutting speeds!
Characteristics of a Good Cutting Fluid

➢ Good cooling capacity

➢ Good lubricating qualities

➢ Stability (long life)

➢ Rust resistance

➢ Nontoxic

➢ Transparent

➢ Nonflammable
89
 Economic advantages to using Cutting Fluids
• Reduction of tool costs
– Reduce tool wear, tools last longer

• Increased speed of production

– Reduce heat and friction so higher cutting speeds

• Reduction of labor costs

– Tools last longer and require less regrinding, less downtime, reducing
cost per part

• Reduction of power costs

– Friction reduced so less power required by machining
91
 Tool wear and failure
During Machining, tool is subjected to three factors
▪ Forces
▪ Temperature
▪ Sliding action
Due to this factor the tool life will start giving the following
unsatisfactory performance after some time
• Loss of Dimensional accuracy
• Increased surface Roughness
• Increased Power Requirements
When the tool wears out, it is either replaced or reconditioned by
grinding. This results in loss of production due to machine
down time
 Tool wear and failure
Tool wear Depends on
➢ Hardness
➢ Tool material
➢ Type and condition of work piece
➢ Cutting speed, feed and DOC
➢ Tool Geometry
➢ Tool Temperature
➢ Surface finish of tool
➢ Cutting fluid
 Tool wear and failure

The usefulness of tool cutting edge is lost through

➢ Wear
➢ Breakage
➢ Chipping
➢ Deformation
Tool failure implies that the tool has reached a point
beyond which it will not function satisfactorily until it is
re-sharpened.
 Tool Wear: Mechanisms
➢ Adhesion

➢ Abrasion

➢ Solid state Diffusion

96
Adhesive wear
Abrasive wear
Diffusion wear
100
 Preferred Mode of Tool Failure:
Gradual Wear
➢ Fracture and temperature failures are premature failures
➢ Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest
possible use of the tool
➢ Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
➢Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
➢Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
 Tool Wear

Figure: Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal

locations and types of wear that occur
Tool Wear
Tool Wear
 Tool Wear vs. Time

Figure: Tool wear as a function of cutting time

Flank wear (FW) is used here as the measure of tool wear
Crater wear follows a similar growth curve
 Effect of Cutting Speed

Figure: Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three
cutting speeds, using a tool life criterion of 0.50 mm flank wear
 Tool Life
Tool life is defined as the time interval for which tool works
satisfactorily between two successive grinding or
re-sharpening of the tool.
 Factors affecting Tool life
➢ Tool material
➢ Hardness
➢ Work material
➢ Surface roughness of work piece
➢ Profile of cutting tool
➢ Type of machining operation
➢ Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut
➢ Cutting temperature
 Taylor Tool Life Equation
This relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor (~1900)

vT n
C

Where, v = cutting speed;

T = tool life; and
n and C are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut, work
material, tooling material, and the tool life criterion used
n is the slope of the plot
C is the intercept on the speed axis
Cutting Tool Materials
 Cutting Tool Materials
• Selection of cutting tool material is very
important.
• Performance will determine efficiency of
operation.

111
112
Tool materials
Hardness of the cutting tool
Properties of cutting tool materials
Inserts
Insert Strength
Insert Specification
 Carbon Steels
• Limited tool life. Therefore, not suited to mass
production
• Can be formed into complex shapes for small
production runs
• low cost
• suited to hand tools, and wood working
• Carbon content about 0.9 to 1.35% with a
hardness ABOUT 62 Rockwell
 High Speed Steel (HSS)

➢ Very highly used alloy steel

➢ Can be hardened to various depths
➢ Good wear resistance
➢ High toughness
➢ Good for positive rake angle tools.
➢ Two basic types of HSS
➢ Molybdenum: ( M Series)
➢ Tungsten: (T Series)
 High Speed Steel

T Series
• 12 – 18 % Tungsten
• Chromium, vanadium etc.
M Series
– 10% Molybdenum
– Chromium, Vanadium, Tungsten, Cobalt
– Better abrasion resistance
– Less expensive
– Less distortion
– 95% of HSS used is M series
 High Speed Steel

➢ In addition 2.5 % to 10%cobalt – used to increase the

red hardness/ hot hardness

➢ 0.8% C and rest iron

➢ HSS is used for drills,milling cutters,single point

cutting tools,reamers and dies.
 High Speed Steel

➢ It looses hardness above 600ºC

➢ Used at cutting speeds 40 to 50 m/min
➢ can cut materials with tensile strengths up to 75
tons/sq.in.
➢ Hardness is in the range of 63-65°C Rockwell
 Coated HSS
➢ TiN Coatings- PVD Process – drills & taps
➢ Longer life, high productivity
➢ Reduced power consumption
➢ Coating is approximately three times harder than
base tool material
➢ Coating-lubricity-improves chip flow- less heat
generation
➢ Higher cutting speed
 Stellite
• Cobalt 40 to 50% , Chromium 27 to 37%
• Tungsten 14 to 29 %, Carbon 2 to 4%
• It can not be heat treated and are used in the as
cast form
• It looses its hardness about 800ºC
• Better tool life than HSS
• Weak in tension, fails under shock load if not
• supported
 Cemented Carbides
➢ Introduced in the 1930s. These are the most important
tool materials today because of their high hot hardness
and wear resistance.

➢ There may be other carbides in the mixture, such as

titanium carbide (TiC) and/or tantalum carbide (TaC) in
addition to WC.

➢ The main disadvantage of cemented carbides is their low

toughness.
Cemented Carbides
 Cemented Carbides – General Properties

➢ High compressive strength, but low to moderate tensile

strength
➢ High hardness (90 to 95 HRA)
➢ Good hot hardness
➢ Good wear resistance
➢ High thermal conductivity
➢ High elastic modulus - 600 x 103 MPa (90 x 106 lb/in2)
➢ Toughness lower than high speed steel
 Cemented Carbides

❖ This hard tool material is produced by a powder

metallurgy technique, sintering grains of tungsten carbide
(WC) in a cobalt (Co) matrix (as the binder, it provides
toughness).

❖ Particles 1-5 μm in size are pressed & sintered to desired

shape in a H2 atmosphere furnace at 15500 C.

❖ Amount of cobalt present affects properties of carbide

tools. As cobalt content increases – strength, hardness &
wear resistance increases.
Coated Tools
Coated Tools
Coated Tools
 Ceramics

• Magnesium and chromium added to obtain

superior quality
• High degree of compressive strength
• Good abrasion resistance
• Low friction co-efficient
• Uniform strength up to 1200ºC
• Hot hardness-1400 ºC
 Diamond
• Diamond is the hardest substance ever known of all
materials.
• Low friction, high wear resistance.
• Ability to maintain sharp cutting edge.
• Use is limited because it gets converted into graphite at
high temperature (700 °C). Graphite diffuses into iron
and make it unsuitable for machining steels.
• It is used as a coating material in its polycrystalline form,
or as a single- crystal diamond tool for special applications,
such as mirror finishing of non-ferrous materials.
 Cubic Boron Nitride
➢ Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (CBN) is hardest
material known. Retain hardness up to 1000°C.
➢ By bonding 0.5 mm thick polycrystalline CBN onto a
carbide substrate through sintering under pressure.
➢ CBN is used mainly as coating material because it is very
brittle.
➢ In spite of diamond, CBN is suitable for cutting ferrous
materials.

Applications: machining steel and nickel-based alloys.

 Cubic Boron Nitride
➢ SPD and CBN tools are expensive.
➢ Made by bonding (0.5-1.0 mm) Layer of poly crystalline
cubic boron nitride to a carbide substrate by sintering
under Pressure.
➢ While carbide provides shock resistance CBN layer
provides high resistance and cutting edge strength.
➢ Cubic boron nitride tools are made in small sizes without
substrate.
General operating characteristics of
cutting tool materials
 Machinability
➢ The term machinability refers to the ease with which a metal
can be cut (machined) permitting the removal of the material
with a satisfactory finish at low cost.

➢ Machinability Index

Machinability index (%) =

cutting speed of material for 20 min tool life) / (cutting

speed of free cutting steel for 20 min tool life) * 100%

138
 Criteria for Machinability

➢ Rate of Production

➢ Tool life

➢ Surface finish

➢ Power consumption

139
 Rate of Production
➢ Number of machined parts in unit time

➢ Rate of material removal

Tool life
➢ Period for which tool cuts efficiently and economically
between regrinds

➢ Volume of metal removed Life of the tool is over when

➢ Number of pieces machined
➢ Equivalent cutting speed
➢ Time units
✓ Spoiled cutting edge
✓ Poor surface finish
✓ Chatter marks on the job
✓ Dimensional instability
✓ Overheating or fuming
✓ Sudden increase in cutting force and power
140
 Tool life Equation
➢ vTn = c ➢ c = cutting speed for one minute of tool life
➢ n = 0.1 for HSS, 0.125 to 0.25 for carbide tools
➢ v fn dg Tn = C1
➢ Effect of nose radius v T0.0027 = 331 R0.244

➢ Effect of side cutting edge angle v T0.11 = 78(es + 150)0.064

➢ In terms of metal removed,

➢ Volume/rev = pdf D mm3

➢ Volume/min = pdf D N mm3/min

➢ Volume/ T min = pdf D N T mm3

➢ L = pdf D N T mm3 = 1000 v df T mm3 = v df T cm3 141

 Surface Finish
➢ Visual inspection

➢ Surface roughness blocks

➢ Profilometer

➢ Profilograph

To improve finish To deteriorate finish

➢ Cutting speed ➢ Feed
➢ Nose radius ➢ Depth of cut
➢ True rake angle

➢ Machine tool rigidity

➢ Proper cutting fluid 142

 Power Consumption
➢ Hardness - Increases cutting force and power

➢ Structure - Fibrous structure requires more power

➢ Rake angle - Reduces cutting force

➢ Feed/DOC - Increases power consumption

Effect of

➢ Cold Working

➢ Grain size

➢ Microstructure

➢ Tooling 143
 Dynamometers
Mechanical type Piezoelectric type

Strain Gauge type

144
145