LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS and FORMS

This section contains language functions and forms that native English speakers acquire mostly before entering
school or naturally at home. These language functions and forms, however, need to be explicitly taught to English
language learners and may be taught to ELLs at all grade levels and as the need and context arise.

The contrast between form and function in language may be illustrated using a simple biological parallel. If doctors
studied only the anatomy of the human body (assuming that it could be studied exclusively) they would not be able
to heal us. To cure us they need to understand the physiology of our bodies, the interrelated functions of systems,
organs, cells and genes...

The study of forms or parts of speech used to be called Morphology. It is the Anatomy of a language. (Viking Coe,
U of Houston, 1994). Forms of a language deal with the internal grammatical structure of words. The relationship
between “boy” and “boys” and the relationship (irregular) between man and men would be forms of a language.

The study of functions focuses on the way that parts of speech stand in line or are ordered together in the
language. It is the Physiology of a language, its Syntax, a derivative of the Greek verb syntassw (to order
together). A language function refers to the purpose for which the speech or writing is being used.
For example, in speech we
 give instructions,

 introduce ourselves, or

 make requests

In academic writing we use a range of specific functions in order to communicate ideas clearly.
These include
 describing processes

 comparing or contrasting things or ideas, and

 classifying objects or ideas

LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS and

SOME FORMS

Susana Dutro and Carol Moran’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach, 2002.
1

Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx

 1. Expressing needs and likes
 Indirect/ direct object 13. Persuading
 Subject/ verb agreement  Verb Forms
 Pronouns
14. Literary Analysis
2. Describing people, places and things  Sentence structure and
 Nouns,  Specific Vocabulary
 Pronouns
 Adjectives 15. Cause and Effect
 Verb Forms
3. Describing spatial and temporal relations
 Prepositional phrases 16. Drawing Conclusions
 Comparative adjective
4. Describing actions
 Present progressive 17. Defining
 Adverbs  Nouns, pronouns and adjectives

5. Retelling/relating past events 18 Explaining

 Past tense verbs  Verb forms
 Perfect aspect (present and past)  Declarative sentences
 Complex sentences
6. Making predictions  Adverbs of manner
 Verbs: future tense, conditional mode
19. Generalizing
7. Asking Informational Questions  Abstract nouns
 Verbs and verb phrases in questions  Verb forms
 Nominalizations
8. Asking Clarifying Questions
 Questions with increasing specificity 20. Evaluating
 Complex sentences
9. Expressing and Supporting Opinions  Increasing specificity of nouns, verbs,
 Sentence Structure and adjectives
 Modals (will, can, may, shall)
21. Interpreting
10. Comparing  Language of propaganda
 Adjectives and conjunctions  Complex sentences
 Comparatives  Nominalizations
 Superlatives
 Adverbs 22. Sequencing
 Adverbs of time
11. Contrasting  Relative clauses
 Comparative adjectives  Subordinate conjunctions

12. Summarizing 23. Hypothesizing and speculating

 Increasingly complex sentences with  Modals (would, could, might)
increasingly specific vocabulary  Compound tenses (would have been)

Susana Dutro and Carol Moran’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach, 2002.
2

Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx


1. Language Function: Expressing Needs and Likes
Beginning
Students demonstrate minimal
comprehension of general
meaning; gain familiarity with
the sounds, rhythms and
patterns of English. Early stages
show no verbal responses while
in later stages one or two word
responses are expected.
Students respond in single
words and phrases, which may
include subject or a predicate.
Many speech errors are
observed. (bear, brown)
One or two word (nouns or
yes/no) to questions about
preferences, such as two,
apples, or tree. Many write
name of favorite ______ from
list/web
Oregon English Language Proficiency Standards
ACQUISITION OF GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
ALL GRADES
Early Intermediate
Students demonstrate
increased comprehension
of general meaning and
some specific meaning.
Use routine expressions
independently and respond
using phrases and simple
sentences, which include a
subject and predicate.
Students show basic errors
in speech. (The bear is
brown. He is eating)
Simple sentences with
subject/verb/object. “I
like/don’t like—
(object)—“ “I need a
s/some --- (object)—.”
Intermediate Early Advanced
Students demonstrate good Students demonstrate
comprehension of general consistent comprehension
meaning; increased of general meaning; good
comprehension of specific understanding of implied
meaning; responds in more meaning; sustain
complex sentences, with conversation, respond with
more detail using newly detail in compound and
acquired vocabulary to complex sentences;
experiment and form actively participates using
messages. (The brown more extensive vocabulary,
bear lived with his family use standard grammar with
in the forest) few random errors. (Can
bears live in the forest if
they find food there?)
Elaborated sentences Sentences with
with subject/verb/object. subject/verb/object and
dependent clause.
Advanced Target Forms:
Students’ comprehension
of general and implied
meaning, including
idiomatic and figurative
language. Students
initiate and negotiate
using appropriate
discourse, varied
grammatical structures
and vocabulary; use of
conventions for formal
and informal use.
(Would you like me to
bring pictures of the
bear that I saw last
summer)
Complex sentences, Sentence Structure:
perhaps with tag or The basic sentence
embedded questions. structures we use to
express needs and
likes are
foundations to the
more complex
sentence structure
we use for
academic purposes

2. Language Function: Describing People, Places and Things

Beginning
Common nouns and adjectives
Early Intermediate Intermediate
Simple sentences with
the verb to be, using
common nouns and
adjectives. The (my,
her) ______ is/are
_______. A (it)
has/have _________
Elaborated sentences
has/have/had or
is/are/were with nouns
and adjectives.
Early Advanced
Compound sentences
with more specific
vocabulary (nouns,
adjectives)
Advanced Target Forms
Complex sentences Nouns Pronouns and
with more specific Adjectives Students
vocabulary (nouns, learn to understand and
adjectives) generate oral and written
language with nouns
pronouns and adjectives

Susana Dutro’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach,

3
Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx
 Oregon English Language Proficiency Standards

3. Language Function: Describing Location

Beginning Early Intermediate
Demonstrated comprehension of Simple sentences with
total physical response commands prepositional phrases,
including prepositions (on, off, in, such as next to, beside,
out, inside, outside) between, in front of, in
back of, behind, on the
left/right, in the middle of,
above, below, under.
Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
May include two Complex sentences with Complex sentences with Prepositional Phrases
prepositional phrases with phrases using prepositions, phrases using Students learn to
more difficult such as beneath, within. prepositions, such as understand and general
prepositions such as: in beneath, within. oral and written
front of, behind, next to. language with
prepositional phrases.

4. Language Function: Describing Action

Beginning
Demonstrate comprehension
(They perform or describe
actions)
Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Present progressive. Variety of verb tenses and Adverb clauses telling Adverb clauses telling Present progressive,
descriptive adverbs. how, where, or when. how, where, or when. adverbs Students lean to
understand and generate
oral and written
language skills with
present progressive and
adverbs.

5. Language Function: Retelling/Relating Past Events (Kinder – General Understanding

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate
Single words in response to past Simple sentences with
tense question. past progressive __
(pronoun) ___ was/were
_____ing.
Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Simple sentences with Compound sentences Present progressive/past Past Tense Verbs
regular and irregular past using past tense and perfect tense with Students learn to
tense verbs adverb/ specialized prepositions understand and generate
“Yesterday/Last ____/On _____ have/has been oral and written
___day (pronoun) ____ - ____ing since/for ____. language with past tense
ed (prep. Phrase or other verbs
direct object.” First ___
and then ___ . Finally

6. Language Function: Making Predictions

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
In response to questions, may The _____ is/are going to The ________ will Conditional (could, might) Conditional (could, Verbs: future tense,
respond by circling, pointing, and ______. ________. mood in complex might) mood in complex conditional mood.
so on or answer with one or two sentences. sentences. Students learn to
words. understand and generate
oral and written
language with future
tense verbs and
conditional mood.
Susana Dutro’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach,
4
Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx
 Oregon English Language Proficiency Standards

7. Language Function: Asking Informal Questions

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Simple questions about familiar Present or present Who, what, where, why Detailed questions, with Detailed questions with Verbs and verb Phrases
or concrete subjects progressive tense questions with “do or 5w’s and how expanded verb phrase. in questions: Students
questions with “to be” did” learn to understand and
generate oral and written
language with Verbs and
verb phrases in questions

8. Language Function: Asking Clarifying Questions

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Not Applicable Formula questions Formula questions A variety of fairly specific Varied, specific questions Questions with
clarifying classroom clarifying classroom questions clarifying clarifying procedures or Increasing Specificity
procedures, rules and procedures, rules and procedures or content content
routines routines

9. Language Function: Expressing and Supporting Opinions

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
I like/don’t like ______ (concrete I think/agree with (don’t) I think/agree with (don’t) In my opinion ____ Complex sentences using Sentence Structure
topics) ______ ____ because _____ should ____ because/so modals and clauses
______

10. Language Function: Compacting

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Single words or phrases in Sentences with Subject/verb/adjective, Varied sentence structures Complex sentence Adjectives and
response to concrete comparison subject/verb/adjective but _____. Adjective with with specific comparative structure with specific Conjunctions
questions showing similarities and –er or –est. adjectives and phrases. comparative language.
differences.

11. Language Function: Contrasting

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Sentences with Subject/verb/adjective Both Approximately used Comparative Adjectives
subject/verb/adjective like ____ but subject/verb/adjective, but idiomatic phrases and
showing similarities and subject/verb/adjective. subject/verb. contrasting words such as,
differences whereas, and in contrast

Susana Dutro’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach,

5
Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx
 Oregon English Language Proficiency Standards
12. Language Function: Summarizing
Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Simple sentences with key Compound sentences Conjunctions that Conjunctions that Increasingly Complex
nouns, adjectives, and with “and/but” summarize (to conclude, summarize (indeed, Sentences with
verbs indeed, in summary, in therefore, consequently) Increasingly Specific
short) Vocabulary

13. Language Function: Persuading

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Imperative verb forms Complex sentences with Complex sentences with Verb Forms
future and conditional. varied verb forms and tag
questions, idiomatic
expressions or embedded
clauses.

14. Language Function: Literary Analysis

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Single words for character and Simple sentences Compound sentences Descriptive language in Specific descriptive Sentence Structure and
setting. (subject/verb/adjective) with and, because, more complex sentences. language in complex Specific Vocabulary
(subject/verb/object) before, after. sentences.

15. Language Function: Cause and Effect Relationship

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Answer cause and effect Descriptive sentences Complex sentences with Conditional: If ___ Verb Forms
question with a simple with past tense verbs. past tense verbs. had/hadn’t _____. _____
response. would/wouldn’t have
_____.

16, Language Function: Draw Conclusions

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Comparative adjectives Comparative adjectives Comparative adjectives Comparative Adjectives
with past tense verbs in with conjunctions such as with idiomatic phrases
simple sentences. although, because, that. and passive voice.

Susana Dutro’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach,

6
Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx
 Oregon English Language Proficiency Standards
17. Language Function: Defining
Beginning Early Intermediate
Patterned responses: A table is Simple terms, aspects of
furniture; A boy is a person. concrete and familiar
objects, regular nouns
singular and plural,
personal pronouns,
present tense, simple
sentences.
18. Language Function: Explaining
Beginning Early Intermediate
Main points in familiar
idea or problem with
some precision using
simple indicative verb
forms in simple
declarative sentences.
(Large oats grew in the
park) (The length of the
room is 40 feet)
19. Language Function: Generalizing
Beginning Early Intermediate
Susana Dutro’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach,
Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx
Intermediate
Connected text including
irregular nouns, personal,
possessive pronouns and
adjectives with some
irregular past tense verbs.
Intermediate
Explain simple,
straightforward
information of immediate
relevance, using regular
verbs and adverbs of
manner in declarative
sentences and compound
sentences. (Maria planted
the petunia seeds
carefully).
Intermediate
Imperative mode:
Expresses command:
(Take me home. Stay
there)`
Collective nouns name as
a unit the members of a
group (herd, class, jury,
congregation.)
Early Advanced
Concrete and abstract
topics using irregular
nouns, singular and plural,
personal and possessive
pronouns and adjectives.
Early Advanced
Get across important
points using declarative,
compound and complex
sentences, regular and
irregular verb forms.
(Complex: As I came
home, I stopped at the
store)
(Compound: The children
who came in early had
refreshments, but those
who came late had none.)
Early Advanced
Indicative mode: makes a
statement of fact (The
temperature is low.)
Abstract nouns: name
things or ideas that people
cannot touch or handle
(beauty, honestly, comfort,
love).
Advanced Target Forms
Clear, well-structured, Nouns, abstract nouns,
detailed language on pronouns, adjectives
complex subjects, Students learn to define
showing controlled use of concrete and abstract
nouns, pronouns, objects/concepts with
adjectives. correct nouns, pronouns,
and adjectives
Advanced Target Forms
Get across which point Verb forms; Indicate
he/she feels is most verbs(A verb which
important using regular makes a statement of
and irregular verb forms, fact) Declarative
adverbs of manner and sentences; Complex
compound-complex sentences; Adverbs of
sentences. manner
(Adverbs of manner: The Students learn to develop
children who sang loudly and use explanations
got a cookie, but those using appropriate verb
who didn’t sing had forms, declarative and
none.) complex sentences and
adverbs or manner.
Advanced Target Forms
Subjunctive Mode: Nouns - Common and
expressing a condition Collective and Abstract
contrary to fact or nouns; Verb forms;
expressing a doubt (If Students learn to develop
only he were here. and use generalizations
using abstract nouns,
verb forms and
nominalizations..
7
 Oregon English Language Proficiency Standards

20. Language Function: Evaluating

Beginning Early Intermediate
Adjectives that point out
particular objects (that wagon,
those toys, each person, every
girl).
Number adjectives: (Two men, ten
ships’ the third time, the ninth
boy)
Adjectives used to limit:
(few horses, much snow,
little rain)
Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Evaluate simple direct Qualify opinions and Convey finer shades of Complex sentences;
exchange of limited statements precisely in meaning precisely by Increasing specificity of
information on familiar relation to degrees of, for using, with reasonable nouns, verbs, and
and routine matters using example, accuracy, a wide range of adjectives; Correlative
simple verbs and certainty/uncertainty, qualifying devices (e.g. conjunctions.
adjectives. belief/doubt, likelihood, adverbs expressing Students learn to
Correlative conjunctions etc. degree,(This class is too understand and use
are used in pairs: both – hard) clauses expressing complex sentences using
and; not only – but also limitations; (This is a very specific nouns,
(Neither the teacher nor school van, but it is only verbs and adjectives.
the students could solve used for sports) complex
the problem).: sentences).

21. Language Function: Interpreting

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Interpret a single phrase at a time, Interpret short, simple Interpret short, simple Interpret a wide range of Interpret critically Language of
picking up familiar names, words, texts containing the texts on familiar matters long and complex texts, virtually all forms of the propaganda; Complex
and basic phrases. (D’Onofrio highest frequency of a concrete type, which appreciating subtle written language sentences
chocolates are the best) vocabulary. consist of high frequency distinctions of style and including abstract, Students learn to identify
everyday or school- implicit as well as explicit structurally complex, or and interpret the
related language. meaning. highly colloquial non- language of propaganda
literary writings. and use complex
sentences.

22. Language Function: Sequencing

Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Subject: The girl who was sick Direct object: The story Prepositional: object I Possessive: I know the Object of comparison: Adverbs of time;
went home. that I read was long. found the book that John woman whose father is The person that Susan is Relative clauses;
Natural sequencing: I hit him and Indirect object: The man was talking about. visiting. Subordinate taller than is Mary. Subordinate
he felt over. who[m] I gave the present conjunctions: used to join conjunctions.
to was absent. two grammatical parts of Students learn
equal rank (Although he sequencing using
worked hard, he did not adverbs of time, relative
finish his homework) clauses and subordinate
conjunctions.

Susana Dutro’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach,

8
Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx
 Oregon English Language Proficiency Standards
23. Language Function: Hypothesizing and speculating
Beginning Early Intermediate Intermediate
24. Language Function: Summarizing
Beginning Early Intermediate
Copy out short texts. Paraphrase short written
Can copy out single words and passages in a simple
short texts. fashion, using the original
text wording and
ordering. pick out and
reproduce key words and
phrases or short sentences
from a short text within
the learner’s limited
competence and
experience.
Susana Dutro’s Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach,
Day 3 PH 7.1 Language Functions Final.docx
Auxiliary verbs that
indicate futurity: will and
shall.
Intermediate
Summarize extracts from
news items, interviews or
documentaries containing
opinions, argument and
discussion. Can
summarize the plot and
sequence of events in a
.lm or play. Can collate
short pieces of
information from several
sources and summarize
them for somebody el
Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Auxiliary verb indicating Auxiliary verbs include Modals (would, could,
desire or intent: woul.d modal verbs, which may might)
express possibility: may, Compound tenses (would
might, can, could. have been)
Students learn to
hypothesize and
speculate using modals
and compound tenses..
Early Advanced Advanced Target Forms
Summarize a wide range Summarize information Modals (would, could,
of factual and imaginative from different sources, might)
texts, commenting on and reconstructing arguments Compound tenses (would
discussing contrasting and accounts in a have been)
points of view and the coherent presentation of Students learn to
main themes. the overall result. summarize and speculate
using modals and
compound tenses..
9