Corus Automotive

www.corusautomotive.com Pocket book of steel

Care has been taken to ensure that this Your complete reference guide to
information is accurate, but Corus Group plc,
steel in the automotive industry
and its subsidiaries, does not accept
responsibility or liability for errors or
information which is found to be misleading.

Copyright 2007
Corus UK Limited

Corus Automotive
IARC Building
University of Warwick
Coventry
CV4 7AL

t: +44 (0) 2476 241 200

Foreword Contents
by Philippe Varin,
Chief Executive of Corus
I am delighted to welcome you to this Corus in automotive 4-7
‘Pocket book of steel’ and hope that you
will find it packed with useful information Steel: the basics 8-23
on the role and importance of steel in the Steel in cars 10-11
automotive industry. The multi-materials car 12-13
Steelmaking 14-15
Since Corus was formed in 1999, we have Chemical compositions 16
been providing customers and others Characteristics 17
across the industry with knowledge and Steel types 18-19
information about our products, services From steelworks to assembly line 20-23
and technologies. This pocket book is the
latest step in presenting steel’s credentials Automotive industry issues 24-41
to a challenging market sector. It describes Drivers for change 24-25
the issues that drive Corus to develop The history of the car 26-27
purpose-designed automotive steels for Safety 28-31
lightweight, durable, high-quality and Environment 32-35
cost-effective automotive body structures, Weight and cost reduction 36-39
power-train components, chassis frames Quality and service 40-41
and many other vehicle applications. It
also provides background on how steel is Corus in action: Case studies 42-47
processed for its wide range of applications
and the steel technologies that are essential Steel R&D technologies 48-53
for modern car making.
Looking to the future 54-57
Our hope in producing this book is that it
will not just inform, but provide a basis for About Corus 58-59
deeper and more sustainable dialogue and
understanding between us. With around Glossary 60-63
16 per cent of our total turnover coming
from the automotive sector – more than
€2bn – we are committed to our automotive
customers, who trust us to deliver ‘Value in
steel’.

5
Corus in Automotive: Working in partnership

Corus in automotive
Working in partnership – making a
difference
With 16 per cent of our business in the automotive sector,
Corus is committed to this industry. Corus combines its
materials knowledge, automotive engineering expertise and
manufacturing-process innovation to offer its customers unique
solutions. We help customers to produce cost-effective, lighter
weight, higher quality vehicles.
Corus works in partnership with When Ford was looking for ways to We listen, and we respond When Corus was asked for steels
customers, offering advanced improve the crash performance and Sometimes, specific adjustments to with better machinability by Wigpool
technology and hands-on help lightness of its latest Galaxy model, material specifications are needed – a supplier of machined parts to
at pre-development, design Corus was ready with its High to enhance the manufacturability motorcycle manufacturer Triumph
engineering and production stages. Strength Steels and the advanced and performance of specialised – Corus worked with the company
This helps facilitate improvements automotive engineering services components. Corus supports new to select Hitenspeed 65, a material
in the design, manufacture and needed to implement them in body and ongoing vehicle and product that delivered machinability
durability of cars, enhancing their structures. development programmes, working improvements to a factor of
appearance, performance and end- with customers to develop tailored three, but with no loss of strength
of-life recyclability. Just as the automotive industry specifications for their needs, and performance.
was moving to eliminate hexavalent giving advice on the selection of
We understand the industry chromium commonly used in the steel fit for task.
challenges production of adhesive coated
Be it changes in emissions, metals, Corus was ready with When Xtrac approached Corus
safety performance legislation, Envirobond™ – an alternative asking for gear steels with better
the contemporary needs of car adhesive coating process for metal impact resistance, machinability and
designers, or pushing the boundaries trim parts. carburising qualities, Corus offered
of material performance, we share to adjust the standard chemistry
knowledge and respond to the When Mitsubishi wanted help to of its Hy-Tuf product, improving its
challenges of our automotive improve press-shop performance chemical tolerances and cleanness.
customers. Our aim is to help on its five-door Colt model, Corus The resulting XMO materials enabled
customers get the best value from was ready with a unique portable Xtrac to make narrower gears that
every gram of steel they buy from us. measurement and analysis system, can run at higher temperatures,
PHAST™ and In-Form™, which requiring smaller oil-coolers and
By listening to customers, attending helped NedCar to improve capability thereby improving the aerodynamics
key European automotive forums in its bodyside stamping process. of the vehicle.
and through focused market
analysis, our specialists keep
abreast of industry trends and look
for opportunities to bring a new
competitiveness or performance
edge to automotive manufacturing
through the specification and
application of steel. Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com

6 7
Corus in Automotive: Making a difference
Making a difference
We innovate
Our customers don’t just buy our
metal, they buy the thinking and
innovation that have gone into
the development, distribution and
technology needed to deploy that
metal for its most effective use
– ‘intelligent metal’.
One example of this is the Corus-
Vegter materials model, for which
data is made freely available on
the internet for engineers studying
how to form complex 3D parts
from 2D blanks. This advanced
data model bridges the gap in
knowledge between how traditional
steels stretch as they are pressed
in a press shop, and how the
particular properties of Advanced
High Strength Steels modify this
behaviour.
Years of research and development
have resulted in a model that is
used directly inside the industry
standard PAM-STAMP™ forming
analysis software package. It is
an innovation that improves the
accuracy of simulated virtual
prototypes. Improved confidence
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/vegter
8 9
“Our customers get
value from every
gram of steel they
buy from us”
in this process permits engineers
to develop parts by computer
simulation long before hardware
prototypes are made, benefiting
original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) and their Tier suppliers. The
model is easy to download from the
Corus automotive website.
We make a difference
Corus realises that building long-
term relationships with customers is
key to our success. Our customers
know that by involving Corus early
in their new product development
cycles, substantial savings can be
made when their product eventually
goes into production.
We deliver
To make cars efficiently it is vital
that supplies of parts and materials
are delivered to OEMs and their Tier
suppliers on time. Consistent quality,
integrated supply chains and timely
supply are all critical factors that
need to be satisfied.
To meet these needs, Corus
has its own distribution network,
including numerous pre-production
capabilities at service centres around
the world for de-coiling and blanking
sheet steel.
When BMW wanted to use extra-
thick sheet steel bodysides for its
new Mini Cabriolet (compensating
for the lack of roof), Corus was ready
with a large-bed press blanking line,
capable of pressing out blanks up
to the required 3mm thickness. The
Wednesfield Automotive Service
Centre that supplied these blanks
boasts a comprehensive line-up of
dedicated automotive processing
facilities. A range of automotive
customers, including Land Rover,
benefit from the full-bodyside-
capable 400 and 600-tonne blanking
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com
lines, and a Tailor Welded Blank
facility to create blanks for door and
body-structure parts.
With all Corus service centres
accredited to TS16949 quality
standards, automotive component
makers are enjoying the benefits of
significant Corus investment. Corus
distribution and service centres
are sited throughout Europe. More
recently, Corus Distribution has
been responding to the gradual
eastward migration of automotive
manufacturing, setting up a service
centre near Gyor in Hungary at the
end of 2006.
Did you know?
In the UK alone, Corus
makes over 21,000
strip steel deliveries
a year to automotive
customers, most of it
via the rail network.
Steel - the basics

Steel – the basics Did you know?

Steel is the most
widely recycled
engineering material
Steel is a very special material. With the addition of tiny
in the world. It can
amounts of other elements, iron can be transformed into a
be recycled over and
versatile engineering metal capable of withstanding extreme
over again without
gearbox pressures or the immense forces in a car crash.
loss of properties.

In this section
The following pages illustrate some of the basic facts about carbon steel and
how its versatility enables it to be used throughout automotive manufacturing
and endlessly recycled into new products.

Steel in cars Page 10-11

Illustrating the versatility of steel and the types of
components and applications it is used for in cars.

The multi-materials car Page 12-13

Comparing steel’s physical properties with those
of other materials used in the manufacture of a
passenger car.

Steelmaking Page 14-15

Describing how steel is made using one of two
main production methods, outlining the benefits
of each.

Chemical compositions Page 16

Explaining how the chemical composition of steel
affects its strength and other properties.

Characteristics Page 17
Describing how the different characteristics of
steel are used to best advantage in automotive
manufacturing.

Steel types Page 18-19

Explaining the differences between types
of steel and what they mean for automotive
manufacturing.

From steelworks to car plant Page 20-23

Outlining the processes that transform steel into
myriad automotive components.

10 11
Steel - the basics: Steel in cars

Steel in cars
Steel accounts for more than 50 per cent of the weight of an
average passenger car. The major applications are shown here.
Thick section strip and tube Deep drawing quality
for structural reinforcements steels for complex
Electroplated strip for
and seat structures shapes Deep drawing quality
brake and fuel lines,
and electrical parts for surface appearance
Electrical steels for
starter motors and
alternators

Gear steels tuned

for machinability and
hardenability

High Strength
Steels for crash
performance

High-grade
wire rod
drawn into
tyre cord
Bake-hardenable steel
for door skins and
bonnets
Engineering services
Ultra High Strength to prove out materials
Steels for ‘B’ pillars selection and
Alloy steel rod for engineering solutions.
high-temperature Steel for chassis bolts Services to make and
applications, eg. and rivets weld blanks for vehicle
engine valves
structural parts.
Ultra-clean steels for Advanced High
Strength Steels R&D services to assist
precision parts, eg.
Aluminium-coated strip for lighter vehicle selection of materials
diesel injectors
for exhausts structures for formability and
Steel tubes for hydroformed Spring steels Billets for suspension weldability.
subframes and other for suspension and engine part
chassis parts Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/products
components forgings
12 13
 Steel - the basics: The multi-materials car

The multi-materials car

A brief guide to the materials that make up the cars of today. Fig. 2 Vehicle production vs vehicle price vs market share

A car is built from many different The material properties of steel

materials, although the main
structure – known as the Body In
White (BIW) – is usually made of
steel pressings welded together
(with its wide range of yield strength
combined with high modulus) Carbon fibre
together with ease of manufacture Aluminium
and low cost, mean that steel-
Steel

Vehicle price Euro (x1000)

to form a strong and stiff frame. intensive vehicles have by far the
This method of construction largest share of the market. The high
accounts for 99.9 per cent of all the cost of alternative materials such as <0.01%
cars produced in the world. The aluminium or composites mean that
remaining 0.1 per cent are mostly steel’s position as the first-choice <0.1%
constructed with an aluminium BIW, material is secure.
while a very small number (less than >99.9%
0.01 per cent) are constructed from The BIW of a vehicle accounts for
carbon-fibre composite (see Fig. 2 20 per cent of the vehicle mass.
opposite). The weight of the closures (doors,
bonnet and boot/rear hatch), chassis
Fig. 1
Fig. 1 4% 3% (suspension parts) and driveline
6% bring the total amount of steel and
Annual production (x 1000 units)
other ferrous metals to more than 60
8% per cent (see Fig. 1).
Source of Fig. 2 and Table 1: Corus
In recent years, the amount of
11% ferrous metal has declined, mostly Table 1: Alternative materials - potential weight saving vs cost
driven by manufacturers replacing
56% iron with aluminium for engine steel aluminium magnesium % weight reduction % cost
castings. The percentage of sheet increase
12% steel per car has also dropped, (kg) (kg) (kg) (part) (vehicle) (part)
mainly due to: Body in 285 218 N/A 23.5 3.90 250
steel 56% iron 12% • Higher levels of equipment, trim white example
vehicle mass
plastics 11% others 8% and soundproofing. (BIW) of 1700kg
aluminium 6% rubber 4% • More aluminium used in wheels
glass 3% and suspension parts. Bonnet 14.8 8.3 N/A 44 0.48 300
Source: SMMT 2001 report • More moulded plastics, especially (assembly) example
vehicle mass
under the bonnet. of 1350kg

The environmental and economic Door 15.7 9.5 N/A 39 0.40 275
Did you know? (assembly)
example
requirements for reduced fuel vehicle mass
The human body contains consumption have also led to an of 1550kg
4.2g of iron, enough to increase in the use of lightweight IP Beam 11.4 N/A 6.3 45 0.33 350
make a piece of car door materials for components that bolt (instrument example
27mm x 27mm. on to a conventional steel vehicle, panel vehicle mass
of 1550kg
support)
but at a cost: see Table 1 opposite.
14 15
Steel - the basics: Steelmaking
Steelmaking
Here we explain the principal commercial methods for making
steel: Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and the Electric Arc
Furnace (EAF).
Since BOS relies on a supply of
liquid iron from a blast furnace, we
must first describe iron making.
Iron ore (iron oxides), coke and
limestone are fed into a blast furnace
where they are heated to around
15000 C. At this temperature carbon
monoxide is formed by the reactions
of coke and limestone with furnace
gases. The lime now acts as a
fluxing agent, removing impurities
in the form of a slag which floats on
Blast furnace
16
top of the iron. Carbon monoxide
reacts with iron ore to give molton
iron, which collects at the bottom of
the furnace. The resulting carbon-
rich ‘pig iron’ is then poured off and
transported to the BOS plant.
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
In the BOS process, steel is made
by blowing oxygen into liquid
iron using a water-cooled lance.
Oxygen reacts with excess carbon
and other impurities, which are
released as gases. This exothermic
reaction takes place under alkaline
conditions (i.e. ‘basic’), with the rise
in temperature controlled to some
extent by the addition of scrap steel.
A steelworks that makes steel by this
route and shares a site with a blast
furnace for the provision of liquid
iron is known as an ‘integrated’
steelworks.
The BOS process is used where
large volumes of similar steel types
are required. It is the most common
route for making formable strip
steels for car bodyshells and ultra-
clean steels with low residuals for
products such as tyre cord and valve
springs.
These steels have low levels of trace
elements, which make them ideal for
forming into body panels and other
thin-section, deep-drawn parts.
Electric Arc Furnace steelmaking Further processing
The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Billets may be supplied directly to
process is simpler and more flexible. forgers for hot forging components
The process uses electric current such as crankshafts, camshafts and
to produce a high-temperature arc connecting rods, or hot rolled into
inside a furnace containing scrap sections for reinforcement brackets
steel. One furnace can be used to and door hinges.
produce smaller batches of a wider
variety of steel types than the BOS However, most steel for automotive
process. use is supplied in the form of sheet,
ranging in thickness from 0.5mm to
While the feedstock for the BOS 4mm, in widths up to two metres.
process is molten pig iron, for the This sheet is produced by hot
rolling a slab, with the resultant
EAF process it is almost 100 per
oxide surface being removed
cent steel scrap – resulting in steel
by ‘pickling’ in an acid bath. For
being the most recycled engineering
optimum mechanical properties
material in the world.
and control of surface finish, most
automotive sheet steel is cold rolled.
The EAF process is preferred for
A corrosion-preventing metallic
making specialist steels such as
coating, usually zinc based, is
heat-treatable forging billets, high-
then applied by electro or hot-dip
temperature alloys and stainless
galvanizing. Cold-rolled sheet
steels.
requires heat treatment (annealing)
that is often carried out within the
Secondary steelmaking
coating process, before a final cold
The steel from either BOS or EAF
roll (temper rolling).
then goes through a series of
operations while still liquid, which
Sheet steel is rolled into coils
can include vacuum degassing,
weighing up to 20 tonnes for
argon stirring and the addition of
shipment by road or rail.
other metallic alloying elements by
powder injection. Fine tuning of the Electric arc furnace
steel chemistry in this way allows the
steelmaker to produce thousands
of grades of steel from the same
basic composition. The steel is then
poured by a continuous-casting
process to form a range of thickness
known as slabs, blooms or billets.
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility
17
Steel - the basics: Chemical compositions
Chemical compositions
Alloying elements are added to steel to create the desired
strength and formability properties for specific automotive
components.
Iron atoms Interstitial atoms Steel for automotive purposes is
(carbon, nitrogen) made up of iron (generally more
than 99 per cent) and a range of
other alloying elements, the most
important of which is carbon.
Under a microscope, at x1000
magnification it can be seen that
steel is actually made up of tiny
crystals known as grains. These
grains of steel are formed when
liquid steel cools to a solid, the
Substitutional atom
atoms of iron within each grain,
(eg. phosphorous, vanadium)
aligning in a precise crystalline array.
The size, shape and composition of
Source of diagrams above and
below: Corus these grains has a major effect on
the strength and formability of the
steel.
A carbon atom is smaller than
an iron atom, and provides a
Steel grade DP600 through strengthening mechanism by sitting
microscope at x1000 magnification
between the iron atoms, preventing
the rows of atoms sliding over one
another. At carbon levels below
0.001 per cent, the steel is known as
interstitial free (IF) and therefore has
a low yield strength.
Other alloying elements, such as
phosphorous or vanadium, have
larger atoms that strengthen by
substitution for an iron atom.
This is known as solid-solution
strengthening. Steel manufacturers
combine this with other techniques
to produce steel with an optimum
balance of properties.
18
Steel - the basics: Characteristics
Characteristics
Steel offers an impressive range of properties to meet the
demands of every automotive application.
Steel for use in automotive
applications ranges from the most
formable grades with a low yield
strength of 140 N/mm² to ultra-
high-strength tyre-cord steel with a
strength of 2,500 N/mm².
Some grades have specialised
processing for a specific end use,
such as super-clean steels for use
in fuel injection systems and forging
grades for crankshafts, camshafts
and connecting rods. Grades
specific to connecting rods, for
example, can be deliberately fracture
split as part of the manufacturing
process. Above: Automotive crankshaft
hot forged from a steel billet.
A key requirement for sheet steel Component shown is from an in-line
intended for use in automotive six-cylinder engine.
pressings is that it is formable, so
that it can be stretched without
Below: A tailgate inner pressing
undue thinning in a press to form
complex shapes. Softer grades of
steel, having low yield strength, tend
to be highly formable but lack the
strength needed for the main load-
bearing members of a vehicle.
Higher-strength steel parts may be
more difficult to form, since they
do not stretch so readily, but offer
potential for weight reduction.
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility
19
 Steel - the basics: Steel types

Steel types
Steel grades fall into a number of general types, each suitable
for different categories of component in a car.
As well as solid-solution
strengthening, steel manufacturers
can use a range of techniques
to make higher-performance
steels. These techniques include
grain refinement, work hardening,
precipitation hardening and heat
treatment.
Using these techniques, sheet
steels can be developed with the
ideal combination of formability and
strength for specific automotive
applications.
For example, Fig. 3 below
demonstrates the range of
formability (elongation) and yield
strength for a wide range of
automotive sheet steel types.
Fig. 4 below illustrates the properties The highest strength steel shown
of three different grades of sheet here has a yield strength (at
steel, and identifies where in a point X) of 800N/mm² – roughly
Each ellipse below represents the vehicle structure they are most likely equal to eight tonnes per square
grades available within each steel to be found. centimetre.
type or ‘family’. The name for each
family – see Table 2 – reflects the Source of diagrams Fig. 3 and Fig. 4: Corus
method by which the steel achieves
Fig. 4 Application of types of sheet steel
its formability or strength.
Table 2: Steel types
Type Description
IF Interstitial Free Ultra High Strength Steels, for
BH Bake Hardening safety-critical parts, especially
for maintaining a passenger
HSLA High Strength - Low Alloy
survival space in crash events
CMn Carbon Manganese
DP Dual Phase
Boron Boron steel
TRIP Transformation Induced
(X)
Plasticity

Stress N/mm2
(Yield strength is defined as the High Strength Steels
MART Martensitic
point at which the steel begins to with a good balance of
TWIP Twinning Induced Plasticity strength, formability, energy
permanently stretch or deform.)
absorption and durability
Fig. 3 Types of sheet steel Strength 600
range

Ultra High
Yield strength N/mm2

Strength Steels with excellent formability,

Steel eg. for deep drawing

High
Strength
Steel

Formable
steel
10 20 30 40 50 Elongation % Elongation %
20 21
Steel - the basics: From steelworks to assembly line
From steelworks to assembly line
A range of secondary processes is used to give a steel
component its final properties and shape.
Heat treatment
Heat treatment alters the mechanical
properties of metal, improving
ductility or strength or a combination
of both.
Annealing at around 6000 C is used
to remove the work hardening that
results from cold rolling – creating a
softer, more formable steel.
Quenching (rapid cooling) of steel
from a temperature of around 7500 C
results in the formation of (very hard)
martensite.
Bake-hardening (BH) steels gain
additional strength as the pressed
components (such as outer panels
and closures) go through the paint
oven after painting.
Coatings
Coil-applied coatings (i.e. applied at
the steelworks) for automotive use
are generally metallic and based
on zinc, aluminium, copper and tin.
Zinc coatings are used to enhance
corrosion resistance, while other
22
metal coatings can enhance wear
resistance and electrical conductivity
or promote adhesion.
It is now possible for a vehicle
manufacturer to offer 30-year
anti-perforation warranties due to
the combined performance of coil-
applied metallic coatings and paint-
shop applied organic coatings.
Did you know?
The highest strength steel
in everyday use is the
cold-drawn wire used for
piano wire and tyre cord
– a 12mm diameter cable
made from this wire is
strong enough to lift a 30-
tonne truck.
Blanking
Steel strip leaves the steelworks in
the form of coils. The process of
de-coiling and cutting the strip into
shapes ready for pressing into three-
dimensional components is known
as blanking.
Blanks of different thicknesses,
grades or coatings can be welded
together. These Tailor Welded Blanks
(TWBs) are typically used for parts
that need additional strength and
stiffness in applications such as door
inners, reinforcing the areas where
hinges and locks are attached.
Did you know?
A 283mm x 230mm bloom
measuring four metres
long can be rolled into
a coil of rod measuring
up to 11 km long (for
5.5mm diameter rod) and
weighing 2.2 tonnes.
Forming
Press forming converts flat sheet
steel into the three-dimensional
shapes used to generate complex
parts and box sections in a car’s
body in white (BIW). Sheet steel
blanks are inserted into a press, the
outer edge of the sheet is clamped
and the sheet stamped between a
male and a female die. To obtain a
deep section requires extra metal,
which is pulled from the clamped
region; the part is then described as
‘drawn’. Very deep shapes, such as
door inners or spare-wheel wells,
are ‘deep drawn’ and require the
most formable grades of steel. The
higher-strength steel used in modern
cars requires presses with higher
press forces.
Press Hardening, also known as
die-quenching, is similar to press
forming, but in the press-hardening
process the steel is first heated to
9500 C and simultaneously pressed
and quenched in the die to produce
a very strong martensitic steel.
Roll forming is a process where
sheet metal is progressively folded
to shape through a series of rollers.
23
Steel - the basics: From steelworks to assembly line
From steelworks to assembly line
The resulting profiles are used for
seat rails and chassis rails for trucks.
Hydroforming can be used to
form tube or sheet steel. In tube
hydroforming, a tube is filled with
fluid and pressurised. The tube
then expands to match the shape
of an external die. Chassis frames,
subframes and instrument panel
support beams are examples of
hydroformable parts.
Forging
Engine parts such as camshafts,
crankshafts and piston connecting
rods are examples of parts made
by forging. In the forging process, a
steel billet is first heated in a furnace.
The red-hot billet is then transferred
to a press where it is progressively
stamped into shape between two
dies. The steel forging produced
is close to the final part shape and
therefore requires little machining.
The flow of material in the forging
process results in a preferred grain
structure, enhancing both toughness
and fatigue performance.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/hydroforming
24
Joining
Commonly used joining techniques
in automotive assembly include
spot welding, laser welding, hybrid
welding, arc welding, adhesive
bonding, mechanical joining and
brazing. Efficient and reliable
joining is a critical technology in the
assembly of automotive structures,
and the quality of joins can greatly
affect the durability of the finished
product. Joining of dissimilar
metals (eg. steel to aluminium) is an
emerging technology, as carmakers
tune weight distribution to enhance a
vehicle’s handling or stability.
Machining
As well as forgings, steel in the form
of rod, bar and tube is machined to
produce a wide range of powertrain
and suspension components, such
as gear shafts, stub axles and
constant-velocity joints. Typical
machining operations are cutting,
milling, boring and grinding. Grinding
provides the high surface finish
required for the longevity of plain
bearings and oil seals.
Free-cutting engineering steels are Fracture splitting
designed to enable the rapid removal Connecting rod ‘big ends’ are bolted
of metal during machining, and to together to produce a strong and
prolong tool life. stiff circular housing for the big end
bearing shells. These big ends can
Surface treatment be made by fracture splitting using
Wear resistance of bearing surfaces a grade of steel that, under the right
or cylinder bores can be increased conditions, breaks cleanly to provide
by a number of chemical, thermal precision-matching surfaces. This
and mechanical methods. One method reduces the number of
popular method is nitriding – where further machining operations and is
a heated component is immersed a good example of material choice
in nitrogen-rich fluid. The atoms enabling lean manufacturing.
of nitrogen that diffuse into the
surface of the steel increase
surface hardness without causing
embrittlement.
A mechanical method, such as shot
peening (hammering with metal
beads), leaves residual compressive
stresses in the surface of the
component, which considerably
improves fatigue performance.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/publications
25
Automotive industry issues: Drivers for change
Automotive industry issues
Drivers for change
Steelmakers need to work closely with carmakers to develop
advanced materials that respond to the issues that drive the
automotive industry.
In this section
This section explains how materials
suppliers like Corus are changing
to help carmakers through the
development of new products –
helping them to meet the challenges
they face in the areas of:
• Safety
• Environment
• Weight and cost reduction
• Quality and service
Dates and targets below are subject
to continual revision.
impact speed (mid-sized dummy)
2009 Revised FMVSS214 (side impact)
2008 New vehicle target 140g/km CO2
2007 Cost free take-back, all vehicles
2007 Upgrade FMVSS208 increased
2006 Car manufacturers will achieve
waste recovery target of 85%
2006 Granulated tyres banned from
2008 FMVSS202 rear impact head
01/2007 85% reuse/recycle
- new dummies, pole test
(new cycle)
restraint
landfill
2006 2007 2008 2009
26
Legislative changes
The diagram below shows the
timetable for some of the anticipated
global legislation that is driving
change in the industry. This
legislation covers:
• Occupant safety – making cars
safer for their passengers.
• Pedestrian safety – increasing
the chances of survival for
pedestrians hit by cars.
• Emissions – meeting legislative
targets.
• End of Life Vehicle Directive
(ELVD) – reducing landfill by
recovery and reuse of vehicle
mass (85 per cent by 2006, 95
per cent by 2015).
particulates 80% reduction, petrol
2010 Upgrade to FMVSS216 increased
2010 Pedestrian Protection Directive
2010 NCAP to begin testing active
safety systems for collision
2010 “Euro 5” emissions: diesel
NOx & HC 25% reduction
2003/102/EC: Phase II
roof crush load
avoidance
2010
The main drivers of change in the dialogue with carmakers, and work
global automotive industry are: collaboratively with them.
• Marketing & brand management - Carmakers are acutely aware
for product differentiation and that good and early selection of
image materials is essential to the integrity
• Cost reduction - improving of a vehicle’s structure and the
development & production effectiveness of manufacturing
processes and introducing new processes. The combination of these
technology. demands and the constant pressure
• Legislation - the need to meet to bring cars to market faster,
rising safety, emissions and means that steelmakers like Corus
environmental challenges are taking an increasingly active
• Feature content - to satisfy role in recommending the optimum
increasing consumer expectations steels for particular engineering
applications.
For steelmakers, satisfying the
demands created by these drivers All participants in the vehicle design
means developing new materials process now accept that the cost of
and more efficient processes. It developing new platforms is mostly
also means building a good working committed before designs are
knowledge of the industries that fixed and any tooling metal is cut.
their materials are supplied into. This increases the reliance on ever
The natural consequence is that more accurate computer simulation
steelmakers must maintain constant methods.
recovered, 85% per vehicle mass
supplement testing for legislative
2012 New vehicle target 120g/km CO2
2015 95% per vehicle mass reused/
2011 Publication of European crash
2013 Legislation changes due to
compatibility legislation?
2013 Computer simulation to
reused/recycled
harmonisation?
assessment?
(new cycle)
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
27
 Automotive industry issues: History of the car

The history of the car

This timeline demonstrates how changes in legislation, Steel became the material of 20th century. The challenge for
technology and the market in the automotive industry have choice as soon as mass production steelmakers has been to keep pace
driven material development and application. and moving production lines with the ever increasing rate of
dramatically lowered the cost of technological change in this dynamic
vehicle manufacture in the early industry.
Start of transportation
for the masses Green issues

Advancements in steel Safety/product liability issues

quality & pressing Oil Increased use of higher strength steels &
techniques shortages improvements in design optimisation techniques

Volkswagen Citroen Citroen Chevrolet Range

Beetle 2 CV DS Corvair Rover

Austin Fiat 500 Morris Mini Jaguar VW Golf Renault Toyota

7 Topolino Minor E-Type Espace Prius

Dodge Willys Jeep Fiat BMW 5/6

Ritmo/Strada series
Ford
model Lancia Citroen Panhard Porsche Lotus Renault
T Lambda Traction Avant Dyna Z 911 Elise Laguna

1968 Compulsory fitting of front seat belts (US)

1965 Compulsory fitting of front seat belts (EU)

1997 Start of European New Car Assessment

1940 First four wheel drive multi-purpose
1914 First mass-produced all-steel body

Analysis & Computer Aided Design

1978 First fully robotised body assembly
1920 Hydraulic braking was introduced.

Public awareness of safety issues

1933 First mass-produced monocoque

2003 First aluminium/steel hybrid body

1923 First monocoque body structure

2001 First car to achieve 5 star NCAP

1954 First mass-produced aluminium

1975 First fully galvanised steel body

1958 First European crash regulation

1980s Start of use of Finite Element

1973 Static side crush test (US)
1910 Start of mass production

1996 First bonded structure

1974 First air bags fitted

1978 Start of US NCAP

Programme.
monocoque
vehicle

1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

28 29
Automotive industry issues: Safety
Safety for vehicle occupants
Most new cars now achieve a five-star rating for Euro-NCAP
(European New Car Assessment Programme) performance in
protecting vehicle occupants from collisions. In future, further
stars may be awarded for other test cases, such as rear impact,
roll over or crash compatibility.
The increasing array of crash-
test scenarios will require more
sophisticated crash structures that
take account of a wider range of
potential accidents.
To meet the changing requirements
placed upon a vehicle to protect its
occupants, there have been many
innovations in passive safety devices
such as air-bags, knee-bolsters and
anti-submarining seats. Together
these life-saving devices work
to protect occupants if they are
unfortunate enough to be involved in
an accident.
The body structure of modern
vehicles has developed from the
simple crumple-zone approach of
the 1980s to become a sophisticated
load and energy management
device, providing not only for day-
to-day in-service performance, but
also for the extreme conditions of a
crash event.
As well as contributing to the
manufacture of these components,
Corus assists vehicle manufacturers
and their suppliers in developing
materials and application
technologies that reduce cost while
meeting the increasing demands for
safety in ever-shorter development
times.
30
Image courtesy of Essex County Fire
& Rescue Service
By using its computer simulation
expertise to predict the effects
of these changing requirements
upon the vehicle structure, Corus
is able to define the best materials,
manufacturing and assembly
methods.
It is anticipated that the increased
confidence in virtual testing – as
engineering analysis models become
more sophisticated – will lead to
crash testing of only the worst-case
scenarios.
Safety for side impact
Safety in side impact is a key automotive design requirement,
covered by extensive legislation and consumer testing in
each of the major world markets.
The basic principles of side-impact
design require the control of
vehicle intrusion, intrusion profile
and intrusion rate. This is typically
achieved using a strong B-pillar
structure which pivots around the
connection with the roof and deflects
more at the base, while avoiding
collapse in the middle.
Manufacturers employ a number of steel, and there is little scope for
strategies for achieving the desired reducing the number of parts.
performance, ranging from using
High Strength Steels and fewer parts Lower-strength steel structures can
to using lower strength grades but also be used but are more difficult
with more parts and thicker gauges. to engineer to achieve the desired
A good illustration is the extent to performance. Thicker gauges and
which press-hardened boron steel is more parts are required, leading to
used in B-pillar structures. heavier vehicles with less internal
packaging space.
Boron steel parts offer very high
strength and are hot-formed, which The ideal material for side-impact
enables complex shapes to be protection would be a low-cost,
made, facilitating a reduction in high-strength grade that can be
the number of parts required. The formed, joined and coated easily.
disadvantages are high forming Corus continues to develop their
costs, slow process times and more products towards this goal. In
complex joining and coating. the meantime, vehicle designers
are using their expertise to find
High Strength Steel parts offer an solutions that still give the desired
alternative to boron steel. These performance.
steel grades also provide good
performance and are cold pressed,
giving faster production times.
Forming and joining are more
demanding than with conventional
31
Automotive industry issues: Safety
Safety for pedestrians
In the European Union, around 8,000 pedestrians and cyclists
are killed and around 300,000 are injured each year in road
traffic accidents. In October 2005, the European Union enforced
Phase I legislation (2003/102/EC) aiming to minimise pedestrian
injuries.
Vehicles now have to be more
compliant to pedestrians and meet
legislative impact criteria, protecting
leg and head in simulated collisions.
Phase I of the legislation is already
posing major challenges for vehicle
manufacturers. Pedestrian safety
has a significant influence on
styling, under-bonnet packaging
and structure crushability. Vehicle
bonnets, fronts and bumpers
must now deform at lower loads
over longer distances, requiring
additional package space and
revised components. Achieving this
space and stiffness at the same time
as making the vehicle aesthetically
pleasing and considering all other
32
design requirements, is extremely
challenging.
Advanced computer simulation
capabilities and detailed materials
knowledge have enabled Corus
to work with OEMs and their
Tier suppliers to develop new
concepts for vehicle bonnets, wings
and bumpers that satisfy these
requirements
Phase II legislation is being discussed
at the European Commission and
should be confirmed in the near
future. Initial texts are suggesting
more stringent safety targets with
an enforcement date of 2010.
It is expected that pedestrian
safety design will continue to be
a significant requirement, being
incorporated into new model types
very early in the vehicle programme.
Corus is investigating the
technological requirements to meet
this more demanding legislation.
An innovative Corus bumper solution
that protects pedestrians’ legs
Safety at the roadside
In addition to the demands of vehicle safety, Corus is keen to
help improve safety on the roadside by developing ever-more
advanced vehicle-restraint systems.
The first of a new set of six parts of of this work is a series of products
standard EN1317 was released in that are already contributing to safer
2004 by the European Commission. roads.
This consolidated the previously
disparate standards for roadside The Corus portfolio includes
safety fences and bridge parapets, products ranging from motorway
also known as vehicle restraints. The safety barriers to high-containment
other parts of the standard will come bridge parapets.
into force by 2010. Corus is a key
contributor to the technical debate
that will ensure the new standards
address the safety issues on our
roads.
Corus has been a vehicle-restraint
system manufacturer for more than
40 years, testing and producing the
safety fences and bridge parapets
that have become a familiar sight
on our major road networks. Corus
applies its computer-simulation
technology to solve the complex
problems of redirecting errant
vehicles from high-energy collisions
with roadside obstructions. The fruit
Find out more: www.corusconstruction.com/saferoads
33
Automotive industry issues: Environment

End of Life Vehicle Directive (ELVD) Table 3: Evaluation of a clutch pedal

Design Advantages Disadvantages Piece Mass
cost (euro) (kg)
Steel Recyclable, High mass, 2.81 0.58
fabrication low parts moderate
cost, stiff, tooling cost,
robust poor NVH

Plastic Low mass, Poor recycling, 3.51 0.30

injection good for high parts cost,
moulding complex low stiffness,
shapes, good not robust
NVH

Steel Recyclable, High mass, 2.20 0.39

The use of steel for an increasing range of components is
helping carmakers to improve vehicle recyclability and meet the
demands of legislation.
Carmakers have a real challenge on
their hands. In an effort to reduce
landfill, the End of Life Vehicle
Directive (ELVD) legislation states
that from early 2007, 85 per cent of
the mass of any new car sold in the
EU must be recycled or reused. By
the end of 2015 this target rises to
95 per cent.
Corus is working to maximise the
benefit of recycling steel, using its
materials and engineering expertise.
Advances in steel technology over
recent years mean that components
like fuel tanks, pedals, engine
covers, fluid reservoirs and front-end
structures can now revert cost-
effectively from plastics back to steel
to improve recyclability. Research
shows that if just 25 components
pressing low parts cost, high tooling
robust, stiff cost, not suited
to complex
shapes
in a modern car were to revert from Aluminium Recyclable, High parts 4.20 0.36
plastic to steel, it could increase the alloy low mass, low cost, poor NVH
vehicle’s recyclability by five per tooling cost, (noise, vibration
cent. robust, good for and harshness)
complex shapes
When it comes to car components,
Source of Table 3: Corus
sustainability involves finding
more cost-effective ways of
using recyclable steel. A recent
vehicle engineering study by Wonder material
Corus on designs for a clutch More than 400 million tonnes of steel Did you know?
pedal in aluminium, plastic is recycled globally every year. It is Analysis shows that if
and steel demonstrates that the most widely recycled engineering just 25 key components
improving recyclability need not material in the world. Around 40 were converted back
per cent of the world’s production
have an adverse effect on cost or to steel from plastics, it
performance (see Table 3 opposite). of ‘new’ steel is made from steel
would increase vehicle
Carmakers will increasingly need recyclate. Like water, steel can be
recycled over and over again without
recyclability by five per
this type of support from materials
suppliers as the ELVD legislation performance degradation. cent.
comes into force.

Find our more: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/elv_index.htm

34 35
Automotive industry issues: Environment

Sustainable solutions Ultra Low CO2 Steelmaking (ULCOS)

ELVD legislation demands that carmakers remove harmful
substances from vehicles, including hexavalent chromium, lead,
mercury and cadmium.

Hexavalent chromium is commonly Going the extra mile

used in the production of adhesive-
coated metals. Corus has developed
a unique hexavalent chromium-
free adhesive-coated metal called
Envirobond™, for use in a wide
range of automotive applications.
Envirobond™ provides an alternative
for components where pre-applied
reactivatable adhesives are required,
such as weather strips for door
linings, sunroofs, bonnets, boots,
body side mouldings, brake shims
and interior trims. Envirobond™ is
capable of meeting the stringent
quality requirements demanded by
the industry, without any loss of
corrosion or adhesion performance.
It can be used on a full range
of metal substrates for bonding
to plastics and rubbers in many
automotive applications.
In recent years, improvements in
the selection of raw materials – and
better process controls – mean that
primary steelmaking by-products
now meet strict quality standards.
As a result, these by-products are
being used as secondary materials
in sectors such as cement and
chemicals manufacture. This results
in non-renewable primary raw
materials being conserved.
A good example is blast-furnace
slag, a by-product from the
production of pig iron in a blast
furnace. For years this was
considered as waste and ended
up in landfill. Corus has optimised
its iron-making processes and
invested in granulation facilities
to generate tightly specified slag
products, which are now used as a
valuable secondary raw material in
the cement industry. This approach
helps to conserve non-renewable
resources such as limestone, and
significantly reduces emissions of
CO2.
The steel industry accounts for six per cent of all man-made
CO2 emissions and is therefore in the frontline of efforts to
combat global warming.
Although typical CO2 emissions per
tonne of steel are now around 50 per
cent lower than 40 years ago, more
needs to be done. This requires both
a short-term effort on incremental
reduction and a long-term strategy
to find innovative ways to reduce
carbon gas emissions.
This effort is being spearheaded
by the European steelmakers who
have launched the Ultra-Low Carbon
Steelmaking programme (ULCOS),
which is examining a range of radical
technologies to reduce the steel
industry’s emissions. In addition
to the European steel companies,
consortium members include
other industries, universities and
research institutes who bring a fresh
perspective to the issues faced by
steelmakers.
Corus is a major partner in ULCOS
whose short to medium term
emphasis is on reducing emissions
incrementally, wherever this can be
achieved in a cost-effective way.
Although more than 80 per cent of
emissions from Corus’s integrated
steelworks are irreducible process
emissions, the combustion-related
CO2 emissions are closely linked
with energy use. In recent years,
Corus has been successful in
significantly reducing the amount
of energy used to make each
tonne of steel. The restructuring
of UK operations, which involved
rationalising steelmaking activities
from six sites in 2001 to four at
the end of 2005, has played a
substantial part in this.

Find our more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility/environment/ Find our more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility/environment/

36 37
Automotive industry issues: Weight and cost reduction

Weight and cost reduction Fewer parts mean lower cost

More than 25 per cent of all European emissions of CO2 result By combining their knowledge of Advanced High Strength
from the use of transport. One of the ways to reduce fuel Steels (AHSS) and automotive engineering, Corus engineers are
consumption and CO2 emissions is to reduce the weight of constantly looking for new applications that will reduce cost
vehicles. and weight for automotive customers.

Corus Automotive has developed a
proven approach for reducing cost
and weight of both existing and new
prototype vehicles, called VA/VE
(Value Analysis/ Value Engineering).
The value analysis part of this
approach systematically evaluates
the gauge, grade and coatings
of vehicle body and chassis
components, to identify materials-
based cost and weight reduction
opportunities.
The value engineering part of the
process identifies design change
Table 4: Output from previous VA/VE studies
Vehicle Corus task Saving potential
opportunities to reduce tooling and Door inner Corus recognises the need for cost-
other manufacturing costs, while effective, lightweight solutions that
maintaining or enhancing structural Integrated DP800 do not compromise performance.
performance. reinforcement For this reason, the company
strives to use its extensive materials
Using this approach, customers are knowledge to develop ideas for
assured of the optimum deployment extracting the maximum benefit out
of materials to achieve required of the steel used.
performances at the lowest practical
cost. Some examples of the output As part of its efforts, Corus has
from previous VA/VE studies are developed a one-piece AHSS door
shown in Table 4 below. Door outer concept. The design integrates
the intrusion beam, waist rail, lock
and hinge reinforcements into a
Did you know? one-piece panel manufactured from
Source of Table 4: Corus DP800-grade steel. The reduced
A Smart Fortwo weighs
gauge gives a weight saving of
more than a 1974 Mark 0.65kg/door, while maintaining the
I Golf. equivalent side-impact performance
Approx saving/year of the conventional design.

Light van VA/VE £70/vehicle £14m

4x4 chassis VA £30/vehicle £3.6m

B segment VA/VE £20/vehicle £3m

C segment VA £10/vehicle £2.5m

D segment VA/VE £10/vehicle & 10kg £1.5m

C segment VA £30/vehicle & 16kg £22.5m

MPV VA 150kg N/A

Corus Automotive engineers working
C segment VA £50/vehicle & 9kg £7.5m
on a VA/VE subframe study

38 39
Automotive industry issues: Weight and cost reduction

Vehicle weight – in decline at last? Table 5: Breakdown of 40 years of weight increases (700kg)
Contribution
For an average-sized car driven 14,000 miles (22,000 km) in a
Outcome Comments to weight
year, four tonnes of CO2 are emitted. Lighter vehicles mean increase (%)
lower fuel consumption – and trends finally seem to be moving Latest Polo is the
in the right direction. Vehicle size Longer, wider and taller same size as the 1974 30
Golf
Vehicle weight has been increasing Vehicle weight – the good news
steadily over the last 40 years, as • Social and economic pressures Vehicle Safer and more EuroNCAP has raised
typified by the ‘average’ C segment are now reversing the trend toward strength durable consumer awareness
car (see Fig. 5). Cars in this segment large vehicles. 25
Improved Noise, Vehicle stiffness
have been getting heavier by five to • Most cars are now achieving 5 Vehicle Vibration, Harshness
stiffness contributes to the
ten per cent at every model change, stars in the Euro-NCAP tests. (NVH) and handling ‘quality’ feel
mostly driven by safety, stiffness and • Larger cars (especially in the
Comfort/ Air Conditioning, NVH, The biggest
increased equipment levels. Table 5 luxury ‘E’ segment) are levelling recognisable change in 15
refinement seats
shows how this weight increase (of out on size and weight. vehicle quality
700kg) breaks down. • In the C and D segments the rate The average car now
of increase of vehicle weight is Features/ In car entertainment, contains more than 20 13
equipment electrical electric motors
The weight increase by segment slowing and looks likely to reverse
is compounded by fashion trends in the next five to ten years Safety cell improve-
Occupant
– people carriers, 4x4s and • The European Commission plan safety Airbags, pre-tensioners ment is included in 5
performance expectations. The to ensure a new car average of vehicle strength
popularity of these larger vehicles 120g CO2/km by 2012 will result Includes fuel systems,
Acceleration, handling
has slowed the rate of reduction of in strong competition and weight Performance and brakes powertrain and 17
CO2 levels. reduction in the high-volume B and driveline.
C segments. Noxious emissions Bigger, thicker,
Emissions reduced by two orders exhausts now include 5
Fig. 5 Weight increase year by year of magnitude catalysts
C segment car Plastics and rubber Many materials
Use of now account for 15% (aluminium, zinc, (-) 5
plastics of a vehicle mass
wood, steel) have been
replaced by plastic

Use of HSS/ Rapidly increasing over Now accounts for (-)5

AHSS the past five years
Source of Table 5: Corus
Cost effective lightweighting
by the use of Advanced High
Strength Steels (AHSS) will allow
vehicle manufacturers to reverse
model on model weight increases
without recourse to expensive
or environmentally unsound
solutions.
Diagram courtesy of Thatcham
Find out more: www.acea.be/node
over 50% of BIW and
closures
Total 100
The successful introduction of
AHSS by European steelmakers,
demonstrating material performance
and supplier support through
Early Vendor Involvement (EVI)
and innovation, will ensure steel
remains the first choice material
for automotive structures for the
foreseeable future.

40 41
Automotive industry issues: Quality and service

Quality and service

Every automotive component made from steel is designed and
built to deliver a reliable and predictable service life. Steel’s
mechanical properties of strength, cleanness and surface finish
must be reliable if carmakers are to create their products cost
effectively.

Manufacturing quality the delivery quality of its steel is in

As soon as decisions are made
about which steel grades to
produce, product quality becomes
a priority. Careful selection of raw
materials, steelmaking process and
refinement and finishing processes
all improve the quality of Corus steel
products. Corus mills take great
care to ensure that the dimensional,
surface finish, strength and
mechanical properties of every steel
product that leaves its plants are
within required tolerances.
Distribution quality
Once steel products have been
made, it is essential that their hard-
won quality is not compromised
during the delivery process. One
example of the way Corus controls
its wire rod mill. Wire rod is used to
manufacture an incredible range of
automotive components including
tyre reinforcement cord, valve
springs, headrest supports, air bag
and seatbelt wire and windscreen-
wiper components. Scratches on
the surface of the rod can cause
it to break during wire drawing,
creating unacceptable production
downtimes. As part of a £14m
investment in its rod mill, Corus
has introduced a state-of-the-art
automated warehouse. Here, coils
are protected from damage by
storage in individual compartments,
and manual handling is virtually
eliminated. The results have been
instant, with incidences of damaged
rod dramatically reduced.
Services to support engineering,
design and production quality
Carmakers are increasingly seeking
access to in-depth materials
knowledge to assist in the selection
of cost-effective materials, and to
ensure a smooth transition from the
design and development stages of
carmaking into full production.
That’s why the Corus team of design
and engineering specialists (mostly
recruited from the automotive
industry) work with their carmaker
customers to select materials and
find ways to efficiently manufacture
vehicle structures and components
at the lowest weight and cost.
High-technology engineering
analysis capabilities are used to, for
example, review fatigue performance
of proposed parts, including
advanced methods to assure fatigue
performance in critical seam and
spot-welded joints. Technical help
services like this, when applied early
in the concept and design stages of
car development, can demonstrate
the business case for a wide range
of components, including body
structures, chassis and suspension
parts, hydroformed sub-frame parts
and driveline components.
Corus Technical Services also
offer press shop support – bringing
many years of experience to bear in
helping to troubleshoot and ensure
that mass-production presses turn
out components of acceptable and
consistent quality.
Corus Automotive Service Centres
offer a range of pre-production
services to make 1D and 2D tailor-
welded blanks, using CO2 laser
welding cells. Corus also uses
specialised lasers which deliver
intense light via fibre-optic cables,
meaning that complex curved welds
are possible.

Image courtesy of Xtrac Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/products/engineering_services/

42 43
Corus in action: Case studies

Corus in action
The case studies in this section illustrate how Corus combines Consistent delivery of high-quality
its materials knowledge, automotive-engineering expertise
and manufacturing innovation to offer its customers unique
material and service
solutions to their specific needs.

Expertise optimises con-rod

manufacture
Carmakers are increasingly turning to companies like Corus
to develop innovative solutions that help designers to reduce
component weight, improve service life and cut manufacturing
costs
Corus materials and vehicle engineering expertise have helped
Smethwick Drop Forge (SDF), the Corus has extensive expertise in
UK’s leading forger of connecting computer modelling techniques
to deliver weight and cost benefits to UK-based manufacturer
rods for passenger and commercial and in-depth knowledge of the LDV.
vehicles, approached Corus for application of different steel grades, LDV approached Corus to undertake Clearly, the ideal time to employ
help in developing its con-rods. which it used to reduce the weight of a number of studies to help identify this unique approach is before
The company needed to satisfy the SDF’s con-rods by up to 15 per cent. weight-reduction and vehicle- vehicle launch, so that savings
ongoing demand from customers assembly improvements prior to can be introduced before capital
for lighter-weight components, This lighter component design in the launch of its new MAXUS range expenditure for production tooling
improved fatigue performance and turn improves engine efficiency of light commercial vehicles. Corus has begun.
reduced machining – taking costs and contributes towards meeting was able to offer the support of its
out of the manufacturing process on stringent environmental legislation. Automotive Engineering Group,
current production components. The improved machining responses based in Coventry, which specialises
were delivered without sacrificing the in developing innovative vehicle-
strength or durability of the part. engineering solutions using the
latest thinking in materials and
manufacturing technologies.

Corus carried out gauge optimisation

Commenting on the collaboration,
Mark Adams, Managing Director
SDF, said: “By partnering with Corus
and utilising their material knowledge
and expertise in computer simulation
techniques, we have been able to
carry out many iterations in a short
space of time to determine optimum
con-rod design for our customers.”
studies to help identify weight-saving
opportunities, while maintaining Did you know?
the vehicle’s body stiffness and A steel body panel
performance characteristics. The
begins life as a 250mm-
studies resulted in a 15kg per vehicle
weight saving, without detriment
thick cast slab, which is
then hot rolled to reduce
to the robust body and chassis
structural targets for MAXUS. This it to a 3mm-thick strip
was no easy task, as MAXUS is 20 steel. This is then cold
per cent stiffer than the company’s rolled to 0.8mm or less.
existing range.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/sdf Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/maxus

44 45
Corus in action: Case studies
Collaboration cuts cost and weight
Pre-production studies by Corus enabled Ford to reduce the
costs of manufacturing its new Ford Galaxy – at the same time
as reducing the vehicle’s weight.
With the growing use of high-tech
steels in today’s automotive press
shops, it is increasingly important
for carmakers to fully understand
how a material will deform and flow
during the pressing process, in
order to ensure capability, quality
and performance in the finished
component.
Working closely with Ford
engineers at Merkenich, Germany, a
collaborative project was undertaken
by Corus on the new Ford Galaxy.
This included feasibility, parts-
integration and cost and weight
reduction studies on the rear floor,
rear cross member and heel kick
panels.
The study on the rear-floor panel
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/galaxy
46
looked at opportunities to reduce
the gauge, and therefore the weight
of the panel, while ensuring that the
complex panel shape was feasible
to press.
A detailed parts-integration study
of the rear-floor panel showed that
it was possible to use just one part
instead of the originally planned two,
allowing Ford to save on tooling,
process and manufacturing costs.
By utilising the superior properties
of dual-phase steel, it was also
possible to down-gauge the heel
board and rear cross members
from the traditionally specified High
Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) grades,
while retaining the same side-impact
performance.
Tubular hydroform components for
Discovery 3
Precision tubes are delivering cost-effective hydroformed
components that improve strength and stiffness while reducing
weight.
The Corus precision tubes facility
in Zwijndrecht, the Netherlands,
is supplying high-quality tubes to
specialist German hydroformer
Finow Automotive Eberswaldle,
based in Berlin. Finow Automotive
in turn supplies hydroformed
components to Chassis Systems
Ltd (CSL), based in Telford, UK,
the joint-venture business created
by DANA and GKN to produce the
chassis for Land Rover’s highly
acclaimed Discovery 3.
The demand for lighter components
remains a primary driver in
the automotive industry. Tube
hydroforming is one of the new
enabling technologies that has the
capacity to deliver cost-effective
mass-produced solutions and is
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/hydroforming
increasingly being used by vehicle
manufacturers. Hydroforming can
be used by automotive engineers
to optimise future car designs with
fewer components, helping to
increase the strength and stiffness
of critical parts, while contributing to
reduced vehicle weight and therefore
lower fuel consumption and CO2
emissions.
The Corus Tubes Automotive
and Engineering business has
achieved registration to the new
ISO/TS 16949:2002 quality-
approval standard. Until recently,
car manufacturers had focused
on their own quality standards.
TS 16949:2002 is a breakthrough
because it represents a consensus
among most of the world’s largest
carmakers and is a starting point in
the harmonisation and globalisation
of designer-specified standards.
Aimed primarily at Tier One
suppliers, TS 16949:2002 is a
technical specification developed
and supported by vehicle
manufacturers in Europe, America
and Japan. It will help to define
quality system requirements for the
global automotive supply chain.
47
Corus in action: Case studies
Clean steels for critical engine
components
High-quality camshaft blanks from Corus save time and boost
productivity for Volvo Trucks.
Corus has a contract to supply
Volvo Trucks with precision-
machined camshaft blanks for use
in the manufacture of critical engine
components.
Corus supplies the camshaft
blanks directly to Volvo Trucks’
manufacturing facility in Skovde,
Sweden. The blanks, which have
been faced and centred, can be
placed directly onto Volvo’s CNC
machining cell, which produces
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/volvo
48
the final cam profile. This saves
a considerable amount of time
in setting up and processing the
camshafts.
Lars Andersson, Corus product
manager, said: “This contract
demonstrates Corus’s commitment
to helping the supply chain enhance
productivity and improve component
performance.”
Gearing up for spring market
Corus has developed a grade of wire rod suitable for
manufacturing the most demanding and quality-critical
automotive springs.
Valve springs are in constant motion
when in use, making them one of
the most demanding applications
for any steel. Valve-spring steel
must be super-clean and meet very
strict quality criteria. Experience in
making other super-clean steels for
automotive applications has enabled
Corus to meet the significant
challenge of manufacturing this
premium grade.
Manufacturing valve-spring steel
requires low levels of non-metallic
inclusions in the surface layers of
the steel and tight control over other
metallurgical parameters, such as
surface cracks and decarburisation.
A lengthy development process at
Corus, employing carefully controlled
casting and rolling techniques, has
resulted in the successful production
of an automotive spring-grade steel.
This steel is now undergoing
rigorous fatigue tests for valve-
spring applications. As these trials
continue, Corus is in a position to
supply material for other critical
automotive spring applications,
such as clutch, suspension and
transmission springs.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/springs
49
Steel R&D technologies
Steel R&D technologies
Solutions for a technology-driven
marketplace
Carmaking has a high-technology image for good reason – over
the past 100 years, almost every aspect of a car’s function has
either been enhanced or newly introduced, in many cases as a
result of new materials technologies.
Today’s carmakers and their
suppliers face significant technical
challenges in proving out the
benefits and implementation of the
higher performance grades of steel
that they have been seeking. R&D
expertise and supporting services
are essential to optimise the use
of the grades and gauges of steel
required for existing and new car
product lines.
These are all areas in which the
best steelmakers are involved, in
partnership with their carmaker
customers.
A technology commitment
Corus invests £75m every year
in research and development,
looking at materials science, steel-
manufacturing technologies and
specific application technologies.
50
More than 900 researchers and
industry experts at facilities in the
UK and the Netherlands combine
world-class innovation, cutting-edge
technology and market knowledge,
to offer Corus customers a truly
unique combination of materials and
application solutions.
Corus collaborates with universities,
research institutes and its
customers, to deliver innovative
steel solutions and services for a
constantly changing world.
Optimum materials selection
Choosing the most cost-effective
materials and manufacturing
processes to make a new car
can mean the difference between
financial success and failure. Added
to these challenges is the constant
pressure to reduce the time taken
to bring a new car to market.
Therefore, the ability to choose the
right materials for the task, based
upon reliable engineering analysis
and properties data, is critical to an
efficient development cycle.
Many aspects of a part’s
performance must be considered:
How light can it be made? Will it
‘form’ correctly into an accurate
shape? Will it split or tear during
manufacture? Can it be joined with
other parts? Will it corrode? How
will it be dismantled at the end of
the car’s life? Will it be durable
in service? Can one material be
substituted for another?
Corus Research, Development and
Technology operations offer the
in-depth knowledge, experience and
facilities needed to provide answers
for all of these questions.
Design and engineering
Corus Automotive offers advanced
technical services to help customers
select the right materials. Corus
services and expertise in structural
performance optimisation for
crashworthiness and durability, for
example, enable rapid evaluation
and characterisation of material
properties for proposed or in-service
components. Strength and stiffness,
fatigue strength, high-speed impact
properties, machinability and dent
resistance must all be considered.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/automotive_applications
We use our experimental facilities
to characterise materials and
performance and generate
specific experimental data for use
by customers. Extensive use of
computer-aided engineering design
and analysis methods is made by
Corus in areas such as Value-
Analysis, Value-Engineering and
other advanced methods to prove
out a design’s durability, weight,
manufacturing feasibility and true
cost.
From these activities come new
methodologies, such as the
development of an integrated weld
optimisation tool to improve the
placement and length of seam welds
on chassis subframes.
Studies such as ‘design for
dismantling’ are also carried out to
assess how easily materials can be
recovered and re-used once the car
has reached the end of its life.
51
Steel R&D technologies

Steel R&D technologies

Applied research expertise Fig. 6 Material strength increase due to forming strain
Researchers at Corus RD&T in
IJmuiden, the Netherlands, and
Rotherham, UK, offer advanced
material data models to engineers

True stress (MPa)

in car companies who are charged Strength increase
with proving out formability. Tools
like this are essential to simulate new
design ideas and support decisions
about which grades and thicknesses
of steel to use in which parts – the
virtual prototype. Like every other
material, every gram of steel needs
Enabling a smarter use of
to justify its use in the modern car
materials
With growing use of high-tech steels
It is not just the applications for steel
and greater part complexity, Corus
sheet that are researched, new steel
is increasingly called upon to help
chemistries for parts that must be
optimise the production of stamped Forming strain True strain
highly durable at high temperatures
parts on existing equipment. As
such as engine valve-spring steels or
virtual-prototype simulation models
the steels used to make transmission
are now being used to produce Fig. 6 Simply using the standard Fig. 7
gears are also studied. New steels
products with shorter development factory-coil material properties
that are dimensionally stable during
times, it is essential to understand can introduce inaccuracies in
carburising (hardening) are just one
the material properties for those the prediction of intrusion in the
example of this work.
critical components that must subsequent crash analysis. F2C®
withstand, for example, in-service improves accuracy by including in
Technologies for manufacturability
crash and durability loads. the crash analysis the predicted
Deep drawing, bending, roll forming,
forming-induced strength and
hydroforming and warm/hot-
Corus has developed the unique thickness changes, introduced by
stamping, are all processes that
and advanced Corus-Vegter material the manufacturing steps. This gives
can change the physical properties
model. When combined with other more reliable simulation results and
of a material. For components to
specialist analysis techniques, provides opportunities to reduce
become truly production-feasible, it
including F2C® (Forming to Crash), weight.
is essential that carmakers have a
F2F® (Forming to Fatigue) and
solid understanding of how steel will
F2S® (Forming to Strength), much Fig. 7 This illustrates the differences
behave as it are formed into shape
more accurate crash and durability in predicted intrusion performance
within the press and other tools. Top - Standard crash analysis
simulation results can be achieved of a vehicle front-end structure in
– enabling a smarter use of the a crash, which resulted when the Bottom - Crash analysis including
available material and design space. formed properties were/were not formed properties in subframe
(See Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 opposite). included in the crash analysis. These extension
subtle inaccuracies can easily mean
the difference between a pass and a
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/technical_papers Source of Fig. 6 & Fig. 7: Corus
fail for the finished car design.
52 53
Steel R&D technologies
Steel R&D technologies
Technologies for pilot production
Corus has developed advanced
tools and techniques to validate and
troubleshoot formability (including
springback) in stamping, press-tool
geometry review and tube-forming
feasibility.
To speed this process, Corus
has co-developed a portable
troubleshooting tool for strain
assessment, called Phast™.
This is used to understand and
visualise how a material flows as it
is stamped into physical parts. A
second, complementary technology,
called In-Form™, uses a state-of-
the-art laser device to scan and
capture the 3D surface of a part or
stamping tool. This enables accurate
geometry data from the actual tools
that will be used to be fed into a
forming simulation model. Together,
these tools ensure accurate press
performance and low scrap rates
once full-scale production begins.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/automotive_applications
54
Technologies to enhance finish
quality
A great deal of the image projected
by a car depends upon the accuracy
of part dimensions, the quality of
joints and the corrosion-resistance
and adhesion properties of its
surfaces. New coatings and methods
for joining metals have been a key
area of Corus research for many
years.
Coating technologies
Knowledge and application of
surface technology has been used
by Corus to improve corrosion
resistance, enhance coating
performance and engineer the
surface appearance of metal parts
for many customers over the years.
This expertise enables Corus to
design the surface and substrate
of its products as an entire system,
delivering cost-effective performance
enhancement. The company’s
knowledge of its customers’ coating
processes is a critical factor,
enabling Corus to support them
in optimising their own processes
to achieve the best end-product
properties. With the advent of
alternative fuels and fuel-cell power
generation, this is an area of metals
technology that is expected to
become increasingly important.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/automotive_applications
Welding and joining technologies
The ability to make reliable metal
joints is an essential technology
in the assembly of a vehicle Body
in White. Corus researches most
joining techniques used in car
manufacturing, from riv-bonding
and laser welding for steel to
fluxless aluminium laser-brazing.
Our researchers also use finite-
element modelling to study weld
optimisation and the effects of
different chemistries and coatings on
joinability and post-weld corrosion
proofing. Corus can also help
its customers with weld-facility
implementation.
Did you know?
Steel sheet used on the
outer panels of a vehicle
is around 0.7mm thick
– about as thick as a
fingernail.
55
Looking to the future: The next generation
Looking to the future
The next generation
As a major supplier to the European automotive industry, Corus
recognises the importance of supporting and inspiring the
automotive designers and engineers of the future.
Formula Student
Corus frequently sponsors student
engineering teams entering the
International Formula Student
programme.
Formula Student provides the
next generation of automotive
engineers with a valuable insight
into the engineering and project-
management processes of taking
a race car from design through
manufacture and, ultimately, to
competition. Students gain access
to the latest material, technology
and industry techniques. Such
engineering experience often proves
invaluable after graduation when
students enter the automotive and
other industries. Some of Europe’s
leading student race teams – from
the universities of Birmingham, Delft
and Warwick – have been supported
by Corus in recent years.
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/news/events/
56
Design shows
To bridge the gap between the
disciplines of advanced metal
engineering and leading-edge
product design, Corus has
sponsored the Coventry University
Automotive MA Design Show and
automotive design projects at the
Royal College of Art.
These activities help to create
opportunities for future car
designers as they meet influential
industry figures, potential mentors
among today’s carmakers and
their contemporaries in the fields
of automotive manufacturing and
journalism. The possibilities that new
materials can offer to the designer
are discussed in an open forum with
leading industry figures such as
Patrick Le Quement of Renault or
Peter Horbury of Ford.
Looking to the future: Graduate opportunities
Graduate opportunities
Recruitment
Corus is constantly looking for
passionate, dedicated staff to ensure
it continues to deliver a world-class
service to customers and maintains
its cutting-edge research. To this
end, Corus recruits personnel at all
levels, from engineers to account
coordinators and from logistics
professionals to graduates. The
scope and size of the company
allows it to offer interesting,
challenging and dynamic careers.
In 2006, 120 graduates in the
UK and more than 140 from the
Netherlands began their careers with
Corus. In the Netherlands, graduates
go straight into a permanent role, at
the same time taking part in a talent-
development programme which
offers wider training awareness and
career orientation.
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/careers/recruitment
Depending on performance, UK
graduates can enter a substantive
position at any time from six
months to two years after their
start date. All UK entrants are
encouraged to take part in a Corus
five-year training plan, on-the-job
training, chartership/professional
qualifications and to develop a
strong relationship with a mentor.
Postgraduate sponsorship
Corus also sponsors approximately
100 postgraduate students per
year in a variety of technical and
engineering programmes, typically
in Engineering, Metallurgy and
the Environmental sciences. The
majority of these are supported by
grants from the Engineering and
Physical Sciences Research Council
(EPSRC). The two main routes to
postgraduate study are engineering
doctorate research and industrially
supported PhD projects.
Apprenticeships
Corus apprenticeship schemes
lead to vocational and academic
qualifications, following study at
a local further-education college.
Recruits are provided with a
first-class training programme
and receive an attractive salary or
bursary.
Apprentices have the opportunity
to achieve senior levels within the
company, as well as receiving
additional education and training
qualifications.
57
Looking to the future: Looking to the future
Looking to the future
With new innovations, technology and steel grades constantly
being developed, steel looks set to retain its status as the
material of choice for carmakers worldwide.
History can teach us much about
what might happen in the future.
When the oil crisis struck in 1974 – in
the early days of automotive industry
globalisation – everyone agreed
that cars would have to get lighter.
Instead, cars have almost doubled
in weight since then, due mainly to
increases in size, added features and
better safety.
For automotive materials, the
introduction of the Audi A8 about
15 years ago was a seminal event
that single-handedly opened up the
materials debate. Since then, the
debate has been about aluminium
versus steel. At the time, many
viewed aluminium as the material
of the future, with steel playing a
decreasing role in vehicle design and
development. However, today steel
still dominates the vehicle structure
– so what happened to change the
predicted course of events?
58
Collaboration
Firstly, the global steel industry
recognised the challenge. It
realised that steel was perceived
as traditional, rather than a material
for the 21st century, and embarked
on one of the most successful
collaborative development and
communications programmes of
modern times – the UltraLight Steel
Auto Body programme (ULSAB).
This programme, initially launched in
1998, demonstrated and promoted
the benefits of existing materials
and processes, showing that
intelligent use of steel could readily
provide cost-effective vehicle weight
savings. Subsequent work on
closures and suspension systems
proved just as positive, as did the
final project, Advanced Vehicle
Concepts (ULSAB-AVC). This
heralded the availability of Advanced
High Strength steels and supporting
processes. Individual steel
companies then worked directly with
their customers to help implement
these materials and technologies to
deliver real benefits.
Secondly, possibly because so
much of the modern world depends
on steel, the benefits are easy
to underestimate. Formability,
strength and ease of joining
are significant advantages over
competitor materials. The past 15
years have seen the development
of stronger steels with improved
formability, together with the
complementary technologies to
process and assemble them within
high-volume vehicle manufacturing
plants. Computer analysis tools
have been developed to model the
properties and application of these
new steels more accurately, which
has given vehicle manufacturers the
confidence to implement them in
their new designs.
New vehicles
Above all else, the conflicting
demands of consumers, legislators
and global competition require cost-
effective solutions. The sharpening
of emissions legislation will spark
a drive for more efficient vehicles.
This means that alongside the
complexity of powertrain solutions,
from hybrids to hydrogen, the search
is on for simplicity – de-contenting,
integration of electronic systems,
miniaturisation of components – to
increase occupant space while
making vehicles smaller and lighter.
New processes
Steel will play a major role in
this shift. We can expect the
development of even stronger
steels with improved formability to
enable more complex panel shapes
to be achieved. This will result in
parts integration, reducing cost and
increasing the value attractiveness
of steel. Computer analysis tools will
improve, helping to model changes
in the mechanical properties of
these new steels during panel
manufacturing – which is essential
for the design process. Modelling
of joining processes will improve
too, leading to faster, more effective
joining technologies.
New materials
With any prediction of the future,
however, there is always the
possibility that technology may
be introduced that will completely
change the course of events. This
may enhance the cost-benefit
analysis for aluminium, magnesium
or composites. However, the steel
industry is well advanced with its
own breakthrough material – TWIP
(Twinning Induced Plasticity) steel.
This new breed of steel combines
ultra high strength with incredible
ductility. It is being developed in the
research departments of the steel
industry right now, and it will not
be long before engineers have the
opportunity to incorporate this new
steel into their designs. The future is
probably closer than we think.
59
About Corus: Company profile
About Corus
Company profile
Corus is one of the world’s largest steel producers. Its
operations are organised into three principal divisions: Strip
Products, Long Products and Distribution & Building Systems.
Corus employs approximately
41,000 people, with the majority
based in the UK, the Netherlands
and other Western European
locations.
Strategy
The company’s strategy is focused
on developing a strong and
sustainable competitive position
for its carbon steel in its Western
European markets and improving
its exposure to lower-cost, higher-
growth regions.
Steel
The Corus Group produces carbon
steel at three integrated steelworks
in the UK, at Port Talbot, Scunthorpe
and Teesside, and at IJmuiden in the
Netherlands. Engineering steels are
produced in the UK at Rotherham
using the electric arc furnace
method. Corus also has processing
facilities in North America and
Europe.
Sales
Corus has many sales offices,
stockholders, service centres
and joint venture or associate
arrangements for the distribution
and further processing of its steel
products. These are supported by
various agency agreements. There
is an extensive network in the EU,
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com
60
About Corus: Sources of further information
Corus Automotive
Sources of further information
while outside Europe Corus has
sales offices in around 30 countries,
supported by a worldwide trading
network.
Brand
Combining its global expertise with
local customer service, Corus offers
value, reliability and innovation. The
Corus brand represents a mark of
You can access more information about Corus and its
quality, loyalty and strength.
automotive products and expertise through a number of
Manufacturing sources.
In 2005 approximately 60 per cent
In print Online
of Corus’s steel production was
emotion magazine is focused on At www.corusautomotive.com you
rolled into hot-rolled coil. Most of
Corus customers in the automotive can find more detailed information
the remainder was further processed
industry, reaching 15,000 managers about Corus products, services
into sections, plates, engineering
and technical specialists twice and technology, as well as press
steels or wire rod, or sold in semi-
a year. It includes guest articles releases, data sheets, technical
finished form.
discussing trends in the industry information and further contact
that affect the use of steel in car details.
Approximately 35 per cent of hot-
design and engineering, technical
rolled coil was sold without further
developments in materials and
processing to cold-rolling mills and
manufacturing techniques, and
coating lines, with the remainder
other articles of interest to anyone
transferred to Corus tube mills for
selecting materials for automotive
the manufacture of welded tubes.
applications. Back issues of
emotion magazine can be found at
Markets
www.corusautomotive.com/news/
Principal end markets for Corus
emotion_magazine/
steel products are the construction,
automotive, packaging, mechanical If you would like to receive future
engineering, electrical engineering, copies of emotion, please email your
metal goods, and oil and gas details to:
industries. emotion@corusgroup.com
Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com
61
Glossary

Glossary of terms Elongation The amount of permanent extension in a component under

stress, usually described as a percentage of the initial length.
AHSS Advanced High Strength Steel: any steel with high levels of both
ELVD End of Life Vehicle Directive: a European law that requires an increasing
strength and formability.
percentage of a vehicle to be recyclable.
Annealing Heating to and holding at a suitable temperature and then cooling
Euro-NCAP European New Car Assessment Program: the European
at a suitable rate to remove the effects of work hardening. This facilitates
automobile safety organisation providing motoring consumers with an
further cold working.
independent assessment of vehicle safety performance. It awards stars for
Austenite See ‘Phase’.
front and side impact performance, as well as pedestrian safety.
Bainite See ‘Phase’.
Exothermic A chemical reaction that gives off heat. For example, the
Bake hardening Steel grades that exhibit an increase in hardness (and
conversion of iron to steel using oxygen generates a large amount of heat.
therefore strength) when heated to a relatively low temperature, typically in an
The resultant molten steel is three or four hundred Celsius hotter than molten
automotive paint-bake oven. For the bake-hardening mechanism to work the
pig iron.
steel has to be work hardened.
Fracture splitting A specialised manufacturing process in which the precision
BIW Body In White: the main structure of a vehicle, usually made of steel
fracturing of a machined component results in matching, self-locating, surfaces.
pressings welded together to make a strong and stiff frame.
FEA Finite Element Analysis: a computational method of stress calculation
Boron steel See PHS.
in which the component under load is considered as a large number of small
BOS Basic Oxygen Steelmaking: process for converting liquid pig iron into
pieces (‘elements’). The FEA software is then able to calculate the stress level
steel, excess carbon being removed by reaction with oxygen. ‘Basic’ here
in each element, allowing a prediction of deflection or failure.
means that the reaction takes place under alkaline conditions.
Ferrite See ‘Phase’.
Carburising Surface hardening by diffusion of carbon atoms.
Galvanise Coat with zinc, either by electroplating, or (more commonly) by
CMn Carbon Manganese: steels with carbon and manganese as the principal
dipping into molten zinc. Since the 1980s, most automotive strip steel has
alloying elements. Mn is the chemical symbol for manganese, not to be
been supplied galvanised for optimal corrosion protection.
confused with Mg (magnesium).
Grain All steels are polycrystalline – made up of minute crystals known as
Chassis Most cars built before the 1950s were constructed using a separate
grains. The size, shape and crystalline alignment of these grains are a key to
chassis frame and body. Nowadays, ‘chassis’ refers to the components
the performance of steel.
(subframes, suspension, etc) that connect the BIW to the engine, steering and
Hot rolling Reducing the thickness of strip steel by rolling at elevated
wheels.
temperature, mostly used in thicker gauges for automotive applications.
Closure A panel attached to the Body In White, such as doors, bonnet and
HSLA High Strength Low Alloy: steels that generally contain small amounts
boot. Closures are usually hinged, although some vehicle manufacturers
of highly effective alloying elements such as titanium, vanadium or niobium in
include bolted-on panels, such as front wings.
amounts of less than 0.1 per cent.
Cold rolling Reducing the thickness of strip steel by rolling at ambient
HSS High Strength Steel: steel with yield strength between 220 and 550MPa.
temperature, mostly used in thinner gauges for automotive applications.
Hydroforming The use of pressurised fluid to change the shape of a metal
Continuous casting Non-stop manufacture of steel by pouring liquid steel
sheet or tube.
into a mould, which is a water-cooled copper or ceramic jacket.
IF Interstitial Free: steels without the strengthening effect of interstitial
Drawing A method of forming steel into complex three-dimensional shapes
elements such as carbon and nitrogen, making them very formable with low
in a press, the metal being pulled (‘drawn’) into the tool where it is stretched
strength. These are manufactured by the addition of titanium or niobium,
into shape.
which form compounds with carbon and nitrogen.
Dual Phase (DP) Steel composed of ferrite and martensite phases. (See
Interstitial The spaces between atoms are known as interstices. Atoms of
‘Phase’).
carbon and nitrogen that are small enough to fit into these spaces are known
EAF Electric Arc Furnace: uses electric current to melt scrap steel. The
as interstitial atoms. They strengthen the steel by preventing layers of atoms
molten steel formulation can then be modified, with alloying elements added
sliding past one another.
as required to produce a wide range of steel grades.
IS Isotropic Steel: strip steel with both chemistry and manufacturing
Elastic limit The maximum stress to which a material may be subjected and
processes specifically designed to give the same mechanical properties in
yet return to its original shape and dimensions upon removal of the stress.
any direction along the length or across the width of the strip.
(See ‘Yield strength’).
Martensite See ‘Phase’.
62 63
Glossary

Glossary of terms r-value A measurement of the resistance to thinning of sheet metal during
forming processes.
Mild steel Low-strength steels containing low levels of carbon and
Roll forming A process for producing prismatic shapes in steel sheet, the
insignificant amounts of alloying elements.
sheet being progressively bent and folded by passing through a series of
Modulus The ‘stiffness’ of a material. Calculated by measuring the stress on
profiled rollers.
a test sample and dividing by the strain. Since strain is dimensionless, the
Strain The amount a component stretches when a stress is applied. Strain is
unit of modulus is therefore the same as stress (N/m² or Pa). Some examples
dimensionless: 100 per cent elongation equals a strain of one.
of moduli: GPa
Stress The applied force divided by the cross section of a component,
Steel 207
measured in N/m² (= Pascal, Pa). Note: these units are the same as the units
Aluminium 69
for pressure. Indeed, stress may be considered as the pressure applied to a
Polyethylene 1
component.
Diamond 1000
Substitutional Large alloying atoms (eg. phosphorus and manganese) take
n-value A measurement of the work hardening (strengthening) of metal sheet
the place of, or substitute, an iron atom – unlike small alloying atoms, which
during a forming process.
are positioned between the larger iron atoms (see ‘Interstitial’).
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer: in the automotive industry, this refers
Tensile strength Also called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). The stress at
to a manufacturer of vehicles that provides the original product design and
which a material breaks.
materials for its assembly and manufacture.
Temper rolling After annealing, strip steel is given enough cold rolling to
Pearlite See ‘Phase’.
take it beyond the yield point, resulting in more controllable stretching during
Pig iron Iron direct from the blast furnace, containing high levels of carbon
subsequent forming processes and a better surface finish.
and other impurities. Originally sand-cast into a row of blocks, having the
TRB Tailor Rolled Blank: steel sheet cut to a size ready for pressing (i.e.
appearance of a sow feeding her piglets – hence ‘pig’ iron.
‘blanked’) where the blank has been rolled to give varying thicknesses along
Phase Steel can exist in a number of crystalline forms and combinations of
its length.
crystalline forms. These are known as ‘phases’. Here are some of the most
TRIP Transformation Induced Plasticity: steel that contains a small
common:
percentage of phases (see ‘Phase’) that change to a harder phase (usually
• Austenite: A non-magnetic structure usually found in stainless
austenite transforming to martensite) during the forming process. The formed
steels and TWIP steel.
steel therefore has a much higher strength.
• Bainite: Ferrite containing needle shaped iron carbide (Fe3C) crystals
TWB Tailor Welded Blank: steel sheet cut to a size ready for pressing (i.e.
– tough and hard.
‘blanked’) where the sheet has been welded together from smaller pieces of
• Ferrite: Iron containing a small amount of carbon in solid solution. The
steel of varying gauge and/or grade.
softest form of steel.
TWIP Twinning Induced Plasticity: steel that has high levels of manganese
• Martensite: Excess carbon (‘supersaturated’) results in a distorted
is austenitic (see ‘Phase’) at ambient temperature. The crystalline structure
crystalline structure and the hardest form of steel.
of austenite results in the occurrence of millions of pairs of crystalline faults
• Pearlite: Alternating layers of ferrite and iron carbide. When viewed under a
known as twins. These twins allow for unusual levels of formability in Ultra
microscope it has the appearance of mother-of-pearl, hence ‘pearl’ite.
High Strength Steel.
PHS Press Hardening Steels (also: hot-formed steel, die-quenched steel,
UHSS Ultra High Strength Steel: any steel grade with a yield strength of
boron steel) a grade of steel that can be processed at high temperature by
550MPa or greater.
heating in a furnace and pressing while still hot using a cooled tool. The rapid
Work hardening The increase in the strength of a metal as it is stretched or
cooling rate transforms the microstructure to 100 per cent martensite (see
otherwise formed.
‘Phase’). PHS steels contain boron for optimum hardenability.
Yield strength The stress at which a material will permanently stretch or
Pickling An acidic-dip process for removing oxide (‘scale’) from the surface
deform. Below this stress the material will return to its original shape and size
of hot-rolled steel sheet.
once the stress is removed (see ‘Elastic limit’).
Rephos Rephosphorised steel: steel that contains phosphor as the main
Yield point The start of yielding in steel may be accompanied by a sudden
alloying element. Known as Rephos since the high levels of phosphor in
drop in strength. This is known as the yield point and is undesirable in steel
pig iron are removed along with other impurities in the BOS process, but
for automotive pressings (see ‘Temper rolling’).
phosphor is then added during secondary steelmaking.

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