Quantitative Techniques in Business Unit 2

Unit 2 Collection, Classification, and

Presentation of Data
Structure:
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Data Collection
2.3 Data Classification and Data Gathering
2.4 Drafting Questionnaire
2.5 Sample Selection
2.6 Data Presentation
Frequency distribution
Cumulative frequency distribution
Relative frequency distribution
Charts
2.7 Summary
2.8 Glossary
2.9 Terminal Questions
2.10 Answers

2.1 Introduction
In the last Unit, we have studied the role of statistics in the various areas of
science and engineering. The current unit focuses on the collection,
analysis, and interpretation of uncertain business data. The compilation and
analysis of data are fundamental to science and engineering. Scientists
discover the principles that govern the physical world, and techno-managers
learn how to design important new products and processes, by analyzing
data collected in scientific experiments. A major difficulty with scientific data
is that they are subject to random variation, or uncertainty. To deal with the
uncertainty of data, knowledge of statistics is essential.
Data collection and analysis for the business are playing an ever-increasing
role in all aspects of modern life. For better or worse, huge amounts of data
are collected about our opinions and our lifestyles, for purposes ranging
from the creation of more effective marketing campaigns to the development
of social policies designed to improve the way of life. On almost any given
day, newspaper articles are published that purport to explain social or

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economic trends through the analysis and interpretation of data. A basic

knowledge of statistics is required, which can deal with the collection,
classification, and presentation of data
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 state the scope of data collection
 differentiate between primary and secondary data
 list the questionnaires of data gathering
 present the data in the form of graphs or charts
 construct a frequency distribution

2.2 Data Collection

Data can be generated from actual observations or from records that are
kept for normal purposes. For billing purposes and doctors‟ reports, a health
centre, for example, will record number of patients using the CT-scan
facilities. But this information can also be organized to produce data that
statisticians can describe and interpret.
Data can assist the production manager in educated guesses about the
causes and therefore, the probable effects of certain characteristics in given
situations. Also, knowledge of trends from the past experience can enable
us to be aware of potential outcomes and to plan in advance.
When data are arranged in usable forms, decision makers can take reliable
information from the environment and use them to make intelligent
decisions. Today, computers allow the decision maker to collect enormous
volumes of observations and compress them instantly into tables, graphs,
and numbers. But are they reliable? Remember that the data, which come
out of a computer, are only as accurate as the data that go in. The
production manager must be very careful to be sure that the data they are
using are based on correct assumptions and interpretations. Before relying
on any interpreted data, from a computer or not, test the data by asking the
following questions:
1) Where did the data generate from? Is the source biased-that is, is it
likely to have an interest in supplying data points that will lead to one
conclusion rather than another?
2) Do the data support or contradict other facts we have?
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3) How many observations do we have? Do they represent all the groups

we wish to study?
4) Is the conclusion valid? Have we made conclusions that the data do not
support?
Study your answers to these questions and classify the reliable data.
Self Assessment Questions
1. Data can be collected from experimentation. (True/False)
2. Computers allow the decision maker to collect enormous volume of
observations. (True/False)
3. Before relying on any interpreted data, _______________ the data by
asking standard questions.
4. Scientific data is related to _________________.

2.3 Data Classification & Data Gathering

Statistical investigation is a long and comprehensive process and requires
the classification of data and the methods to collect those data (Data
Gathering). Classification is the process of arranging the collected statistical
information under different categories or classes according to some
common characteristics possessed by the individual members. Statistical
data collected during the course of an investigation are so varied that it is
not possible to appreciate, even after a careful study, the true significance of
the figures, unless they are arranged properly. To make the data really
useful, they must be classified or grouped into homogenous categories, so
that the like will go with the like and the unlike with the unlike. Classification
prepares the ground for enabling comparison and analysis by instituting a
logical and orderly arrangement of data. For example, during the population
census, apart from the number of members in each family, various other
information, e.g., age, sex, occupation etc., of all people in the country are
collected. The total population is then classified according to sex into males
and females; according to age groups 0-10 years, 10-20 years, etc.;
according to livelihood into agricultural classes, production other than
cultivation, business, transport, etc. If such classifications are not made, it
will not be possible to analyze the data and reveal their true significance
from the heaps of material collected during the population census.

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There are four types of classification of data:

1) On qualitative basis – Classification of the total population of a country
on the basis of sex, religion, occupation etc., belong to this type. This is
also known as classification by attributes.
2) On quantitative basis – Classification of the total population according to
age, or of industries according to the number of persons employed, etc.,
is included in this type. Here, the basis of classification is some variable,
and hence this is also known as classification by variables.
3) On time basis – Some statistical data are arranged in order of their time
of occurrence. Production of a factory may be shown by weeks, months,
quarters or years. Statistical data classified according to time are known
as time series.
4) On geographical basis – The total population of a country may be
classified by states or districts, exports of a particular commodity from
India may be classified by the country to which exported. The basis of
classification in such cases is by geographical regions.
Statistical data may be classified under two categories depending upon the
sources utilized. These categories are:
1) Primary data
Primary data are those data, which are collected by the researcher himself
for the purpose of a specific study. Such data are original in character and
are generated by surveys conducted by individuals or research institutions.
2) Secondary data
When an investigator uses data, which have already been collected by
others, such data are called “secondary data”. Such data are primary data
for the agency that collected them, and become secondary for others who
use these data for their own purposes. These data can be obtained from
journals, reports, publications of professional or research organization.
While collecting the data, the nature, scope and objects of a statistical
investigation should be taken into account for deciding whether data are to
be collected originally or whether the available secondary data are to be
utilized. It is generally preferable to make use of primary data from several
standpoints- i) such data usually show detailed information and a description
regarding the definition of the terms used. ii) Very often, a note on the

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method of collection and any approximations used are also available, so

that while using these data it can be decided in advance how much reliance
can be placed on these figures. iii) Secondary data usually contain errors
due to transcription, rounding etc., and hence are hardly reliable. Inspite of
all the merits of primary data, secondary data are used when either due to
limitations of time and money at the disposal of the investigator the data
cannot be collected directly, or it becomes necessary to compare the data
collected over a period of time, or utmost accuracy is not essential.
Publications containing Primary data:
i) “Reserve Bank of India Bulletin” issued monthly by the Reserve Bank
of India, Mumbai
ii) “Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Mines in India”, issued
annually by the office of the Chief Inspectors of Mines, Dhanbad.
iii) “Monthly Coal Bulletin”, issued monthly by the Office of the Chief
Inspector of Mines, Dhanbad.
Publications containing the Secondary Data:
I. “Statistical Abstract of the Indian Union”, issued annually by Central
Statistical Organization (C.S.O), New-Delhi.
II. Monthly Abstract of Statistics”, issued by C.S.O.
Since the quality of the results obtained from the statistical data depends
upon the quality of the information collected, it is important that a sound
investigative process be established to ensure that the data are highly
representative and highly unbiased. The following steps may be considered
in the primary data collection process:
I. Planning the study
Before any procedures for data collection are established, the purpose and
the scope of the study must be clearly specified. If any similar studies have
been conducted, prior to current one, then the investigator may want to use
some secondary data in his own study, and may redefine his objectives on
the basis of the previous studies conducted. The scope of study includes the
field to be covered, and the time period in which to conduct the study.
II. Methods of collecting the primary data
The following methods are generally used to collect primary data:
a) Direct personal observation

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b) Indirect personal interview

c) Telephone survey
d) Information received through local agents
e) Questionnaires sent by mail
In „direct personal observation‟, the investigator collects the requisite
information personally through observation or by measurement. For
example, in order to study the conditions of students residing in SMIT
hostels, the investigator meets the students in their hostels and collects
necessary data after a personal study. This method is time-consuming and
costly, but yields very accurate results. It is therefore suitable for such
studies when the field of enquiry is small.
In „indirect personal interview‟, instead of directly approaching the
informants, the investigator interviews several third persons who are directly
or indirectly concerned with the subject matter of the enquiry and who are in
possession of the requisite information. Such a procedure is followed by the
enquiry committee and commissions appointed by the Government of India.
The committee selects persons known as witness and collects information
from them by getting answers to questions decided in advance. This
approach is highly suitable where the direct personal investigation is not
practicable either because the informants are unwilling or reluctant to supply
the information or where the information desired is complex and the study in
hand is extensive.
In „telephone survey‟, the investigator, instead of presenting himself before
the informants, contacts them on telephone and collects information from
them. This method is less time consuming and more convenient than
personal interview.
In „information through local agents‟, the information is not collected formally
by the investigator, but local agents, commonly known as correspondents,
are appointed in different parts of the area under investigation. These
agents collect information in their areas and transmit the same to the
investigator. This method is very cheap and economical for extensive
investigations.
In the „mailed questionnaire method‟, the most important instrument is the
questionnaire. This contains a set of questions, relevant to the subject of

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enquiry, answers which are expected to yield the requisite information.

Printed questionnaires are sent by mail to a selected list of persons, with the
request to return them duly filled in. Supplementary definitions of terms used
and methods of filling up the forms should also accompany the
questionnaire. This method is cheap and expeditious, and a large area can
be covered within a limited cost.

Activity 1:
Distinguish between primary and secondary data. Describe the various
methods of collecting primary data.
Self Assessment Questions
5. Sources of data can be primary or secondary. (True/False)
6. Match the following:
a) Attribute a) Quantitative data
b) Variable b) Qualitative data
c) Classification of data c) Four types
d) Reserve Bank of India bulletin d) Secondary data
e) Monthly coal bulletin e) Primary data
f) Monthly abstract of statistics f) Primary data
7. Primary data can be collected by census method or by sample enquiry
method. (True/False)
8. Direct personal interview method is used to collect _____________.

2.4 Drafting Questionnaire

The „questionnaire‟ is a proforma containing a sequence of questions
relevant to a statistical enquiry. Since the questionnaire is the only medium
of communication between the investigator and the respondents, it must be
designed or drafted with utmost care and caution so that all relevant and
essential information for the enquiry may be collected without any difficulty,
ambiguity, and vagueness. Designing a questionnaire, therefore, requires a
high degree of skill and experience on the part of the investigator. The
following points should be observed in drafting the questionnaire:
1) The questionnaire should be as short as possible. Many questions may
arise during an investigation. But if all are included, the questionnaire
will become unduly lengthy with the consequence that the respondents

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(i.e., persons who are required to answer them) will feel bored and
reluctant to answer all the questions.
2) The individual questions should be simple, unambiguous and precise.
Lengthy questions cause irritation, resulting in careless and inaccurate
replies. Complicated questions should be split up into several smaller
parts which can be easily answered by the respondents. Explanations
and definition of some of the terms used in questionnaire must therefore
accompany each proforma.
3) If possible, questions should be so set as to elicit only two possible
definite answers-„yes‟ or „no‟.
4) The units in which the information is to be collected should be clearly
and precisely mentioned in the questionnaire.
5) The arrangement of questions in the proforma should be such as to
have an easy and systematic flow of answers in turn. Questions should
not skip back and forth from one topic to another.
6) After the questionnaire has been devised, it is desirable to try it on a few
individuals. The procedure, which is known as pilot survey, is useful in
detecting the shortcomings of the questionnaire, so that necessary
modifications may be made before it is used in the actual enquiry.
Hence, the outcome of each question will produce the large data base.
Statistician will use this data base for further analysis and prediction of the
results.

Activity 2:
An automobile manufacturing unit has selling branches in each
metropolitan city in India. It manufactures four different types of vehicles,
which are sold by its branches. The Head Office wishes to plan a sales
campaign based on the past sales and likely future demand. Design a
questionnaire for the collection of necessary data and draft the
instructions for completing the questionnaire.

Self Assessment Questions

9. The questionnaire should be as short as possible. (True/False)
10. Complicated questions should be split up into smaller parts.
(True/False)

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2.5 Sample Selection

The large database generated from the outcomes of questionnaire is known
as population. But the statisticians gather data from a sample. They use this
information to make inferences about the population that the sample
represents. Thus, a population is a large data base, and a sample is a
fraction or segment of that database.
Studying samples is easier than studying the whole population; it costs less
and takes less time. Often, testing an airplane part for strength destroys the
part; thus testing fewer parts is desirable. Sometimes testing involves
human risk; thus use of sampling reduces that risk to an acceptable level.
Finally, it has been proven that examining an entire population still allows
defective items to be accepted. Thus sampling, in some instances, can raise
the quality level.
A population is a collection of all the elements we are studying and about
which we are trying to draw conclusions. We must define the population so
that it is clear whether an element is a member of the population. The
population of our market study may be all men within a 15-mile radius of
center-city Mumbai who have family incomes between 5000 and 10000 and
have completed at least 11 years of school. A man living in Mumbai with a
family income of 7500 and a college degree would be a part of this
population. A man living in Mumbai or with a family income of 4500, or with
5 years of schooling would not qualify as a member of this population.
Self Assessment Questions
11. A population is a collection of all the elements we are studying
(True/False).
12. A population is the fraction of _______________.
13. Studying a sample is time consuming (True/False).

2.6 Data Presentation

All business decisions are based on the evaluation of some data. When
numerical data is listed in the same order as it is collected, it is known as
raw data. The following example shows the use of different kinds of data in
statistics:
Suppose that 10 boys and 5 girls enter in a competition. Assume that the
boys‟ competition was won by Ayush Poddar who finished the race in 25
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minutes and 15 seconds. Similarly, assume that the girls‟ competition was
won by Nabnita Choudhury in 30 minutes and 10 seconds for the same
race. However, the names and finishing times for all participants were
recorded in order of finishing. The first three positions won were given
awards.
The above example contains much different kind of data. The information
that puts each contestant into the category of boy or girl is known as
qualitative data. For example, the information that the winner Nabnita
Choudhury is a female is “qualitative data”.
The order in which the winners finished is known as, “ordinal data”. The
persons finishing first, second, third etc., are examples of ordinal data.
All these voluminous data must be presented in a condensed form to the
management without any loss of information contained in it. Hence, the
collected data must be organized, carefully summarized and presented
either in the form of tables or graphs that can be easily interpreted. The
tools of classification and presentation of statistical data are listed as
follows:
 Frequency distribution
 Cumulative frequency distribution
 Relative frequency distribution
 Charts
2.6.1 Frequency distribution
Frequency distribution is a better way to arrange data. It helps in
compressing data. For constructing a frequency table, we divide the data
into groups of similar values (class) and then record the number of
observations that fall in each group. If the statistical data are of repeating
nature, then they should be presented in the form of the number of
occurrences of each value of the data of a particular type. A frequency
distribution is defined as, “the list of all the values obtained in the data and
the frequency with which these value occur in the data”.
The frequency distribution can be classified into discrete frequency
distribution and continuous frequency distribution, which are demonstrated
in Tables 2.1 and 2.2, respectively. In table 2.1, the variable has discrete
numerical value. But the monthly income is a continuous variable (table 2.2).

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Table 2.1: Discrete Frequency Distribution

Income category Number of persons (Frequency)
Low income 400
Medium income 300
High income 200

Table 2.2: Continuous Frequency Distribution

Monthly income (Rs), class interval Number of persons(frequency)
0 – 4000 10
4000 – 8000 20
8000 – 12000 30
12000 – 16000 40
16000 – 20000 60
20000 – 24000 30

2.6.2 Cumulative frequency distribution

The above tells us the number of units in each class interval, it does not tell
directly the number of units that lie below or above the specified values of
the class intervals. This can be determined from a „cumulative frequency
distribution‟. The cumulative frequency distribution is a modified form of
frequency distribution, as shown in table 2.3. In a given row, the value of the
last column is the cumulative value of the frequencies shown in its last but
one column up to that value.
Table 2.3: Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Monthly income Number of Cumulative
(Rs), class interval persons(frequency) frequency
0 – 4000 10 10
4000 – 8000 20 30
8000 – 12000 30 60
12000 – 16000 40 100
16000 – 20000 60 160
20000 – 24000 30 190

i. 2.6.3 Relative frequency distribution

The frequency distribution is a summary table in which the original data is
condensed into groups and their frequencies. But, if a person would like to
know the proportion or the percentages of cases in each group, instead of

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simply the number of cases in each group, he can do so by constructing a

relative frequency distribution table. The relative frequency distribution as
shown in table 2.4 is formed by dividing the frequencies in each class of the
frequency distribution by the total number of observations.
Table 2.4: Relative Frequency Distribution
Number of
Monthly income Cumulative Relative cumulative
persons
(Rs), class interval frequency frequency
(frequency)
0 – 4000 10 10 10/190 = 0.05
4000 – 8000 20 30 20/190 = 0.10
8000 – 12000 30 60 30/190 = 0.16
12000 – 16000 40 100 40/190 = 0.21
16000 – 20000 60 160 60/190 = 0.32
20000 – 24000 30 190 30/190 = 0.16

ii. 2.6.4 Charts

Statistical data can be presented in the graphical form (or charts), which are
classified as: pie chart, bar chart, histogram, frequency polygon and ogive
curve.
Pie chart
Pie chart is a circle whose area is divided proportionately among the
different components by straight lines drawn from the centre to the
circumference of the circle. When statistical data are given for a number of
categories, and we are interested in the comparison of the various
categories or between a part and the whole, such a chart is very helpful in
effectively displaying the data. For drawing a pie chart (Fig.2.1), it is
necessary to express the value of each category as a percentage of the
total. The chart can be drawn with the help of a compass and a protractor. A
numerical example has been demonstrated its application.

Fig. 2.1: Sample Pie chart

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Example 1 Construct a pie chart for the following data: Principal exporting
countries of Cotton (1000 bales)-1955-56
U.S.A India Egypt Brazil Argentina
6,367 2,999 1,688 650 202

Source: Statistical Methods by N.G.Das

Solution:

Fig. 2.2: Principal Cotton Exporting Countries

Bar chart
In bar charts, we make use of rectangles to present the given data. It
consists of a group of equispaced rectangular bar, one for each category (or
class) of given statistical data. The bars starting from a common base line
must be of equal width and their lengths represent the value of statistical
data. A bar chart can be set up in different forms: vertical, horizontal.
Vertical bars are used to represent time series data or data classified by the
values of a variable. Horizontal bars are used to depict data classified by
attributes only.

Fig. 2.2: Bar chart of income distribution

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Example 2: The following table shows the average approximate yield of food
grains in lbs. per acre in various countries of the world in 1988-89.

Country India Bangladesh SriLanka Nepal Bhutan

Yield in lbs. per acre 845 567 760 453 234

Indicate this by a suitable diagram, which will highlight the relative

backwardness of Bhutan in this regard.

Fig. 2.4: Average Yields of Food Grains in lbs per Acre in Various Countries

Histogram
In the representation of „histogram‟, the given data are plotted in the form of
series of rectangles. Class intervals are marked along the X-axis and the
frequencies along the Y-axis according to a suitable scale. Unlike the bar
chart, which is one dimensional meaning that only the length of the bar
material and not the width, a histogram is two-dimensional in which the
length and the width are important. A histogram is constructed from a
frequency distribution of grouped data, where the height of the rectangle is
proportional to the respective frequency and the width represents the class
interval. Each rectangle is joined with the other and the blank spaces
between the rectangles would mean that the category is empty and there
are no values in that class interval.

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Fig. 2.5: Sample Histogram

Frequency polygon
A „frequency polygon‟ is a line chart of frequency distribution in which either
the values of discrete variables or the mid-points of class intervals are
plotted against the frequencies and these plotted points are joined together
by straight lines. Since the frequencies don‟t start at zero or end at zero, this
diagram as such would not touch the horizontal axis. However, since the
area under the entire curve is the same as that of a histogram which is
100%, the curve must be „enclosed.‟ The starting mid-point is joined with a
„fictitious‟ preceding mid-point whose value is zero. This makes the
beginning of the curve touch the horizontal axis. The last mid-point is joined
with a „fictitious‟ succeeding mid-point, whose value is also zero. Now, the
curve will end at the horizontal axis. The enclosed diagram is known as the
„frequency polygon‟.

Fig. 2.6: Sample Frequency Polygon

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Ogive curve
An accounts officer of SMU may be interested in finding out the number of
staff members who have paid in less than 30 days or who have taken more
than 50 days to make payments. To answer such questions we draw
cumulative frequency curves, also known as Ogives. Ogive curve is a
cumulative frequency curve. These ogives are of two types. One of these is
“less than” and the other is “more than” ogive. In less-than-ogive curve, the
“less than” cumulative frequencies are plotted against upper boundaries of
their respective class intervals. But, in the more-than-ogive, the “greater
than” cumulative frequencies are plotted against the lower boundaries of
their respective class intervals.

A B
Fig. 2.7: (A) More-than Ogive Curve (B) Less-than Ogive Curve

Activity 3: Present the data of table by a suitable histogram.

Table: Average monthly salary of 1030 employees in construction industry
Monthly Number of Frequency density of workers
earnings workers (Per Rs.10 of earning)
50-60 25 25
60-70 100 100
70-80 100 150
80-90 150 200
90-100 200 110
100-110 180 70
110-130 50 60

What do you mean by cumulative frequency distribution; „More than‟ and

„less than‟ type of distribution? Illustrate with the help of an example.

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Self Assessment Questions

14. The frequency distribution can be classified into _____________ and
____________ frequency distribution.
15. Ogive curve is a cumulative frequency curve. (True/False)
16. Match the following types of chart and their representations:
i) Pie chart a) Rectangular bar
ii) Bar chart b) Series of rectangles
iii) Histogram c) Circle

2.7 Summary
Let‟s recapitulate the important aspects of the unit:
 In this chapter, at first, we learnt the process of collection of statistical
data at the minimum cost. The collected data must be verified by asking
some standard questions.
 In the second stage, we studied the classification of the data, which is
based on the answers of the first stage questions. In this topic, sources
of primary and secondary data have been discussed. The primary
source generates original data and corresponds to the objective of
investigation. However, the secondary data are often available in
published form, collected originally by some other agency with a
different goal. The primary data is more reliable than secondary data.
There are several methods of collecting the primary data. The choice of
a particular method depends apart from objective, scope and nature of
investigation, on the availability of resources, literacy levels of the
respondents, etc. Secondary data should be collected carefully, only
after examining that these are suitable, adequate and reliable for the
purpose of investigation under consideration.
 In the third stage, we discussed the process of framing the
questionnaires for the statistical enquiry.
 In the fourth stage, we learnt the process of sample selection from the
large population.
 Finally, we discussed the process of displaying results in the form of
frequency distribution, cumulative frequency distribution, relative
frequency distribution and charts. Some numerical examples have been
included in this topic. Exploit and explore the full unit!

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2.8 Glossary
Data: A collection of any number of related observations on one or more
variables.
Data point: A single observation from data set.
Data set: A collection of data.
Raw data: Information before it is arranged or analyzed by statistical
methods.
Sample: A collection of some, but not all, of the elements of the population
under study, used to describe the population.
Population: A collection of all the elements we are studying, and about
which we are trying to draw conclusions.
Frequency curve: A frequency polygon smoothed by adding classes and
data points to a data set.
Frequency distribution: An organized display of data that shows the
number of observations from the data set that falls into each of a set of
mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive classes.
Cumulative frequency: A tabular display of data showing how many
observations lie above, or below certain values.

2.9 Terminal Questions

1. What do you mean by classification? What purpose does it serve?
2. What do you mean by primary data? What are the various methods of
collecting primary data?
3. Define secondary data. What are the sources of secondary data?
4. What is a questionnaire? Discuss the main points that you will take into
account while drafting a questionnaire.
5. Discuss the various methods of presenting the statistical data.

2.10 Answers
Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1. True
2. True
3. Test
4. Uncertainty
5. True

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6. a-b, b-a, c-c, d-eye-e, f-d

7. True
8. Primary data
9. True
10. True
11. True
12. Sample
13. False
14. Discrete, continuous
15. True
16. a-c, b-a, c-b

Answers to Terminal Questions

1. Refer section 2.3 – There are four types of classification of data.
2. Refer section 2.3 – Primary data are those data, which are collected by
the researcher himself. The methods of collecting primary data are
direct, personal observation etc.
3. Refer section 2.3 – When an investigator uses data, which have already
been collected by others, such data are called “secondary data.”
Secondary data sources are statistical abstract of Indian union etc.
4. The „questionnaire‟ is a proforma containing a sequence of questions
relevant to a statistical enquiry. There are certain points that should be
followed while drafting a questionnaire. Refer section 2.4 for the same.
5. The tools of classification and presentation of statistical data are
frequency distribution, cumulative frequency distribution, relative
frequency distribution and charts. Refer section 2.6 for detailed
explanation of each of them.
References:
 Bharadwaj R. (2001). Business statistics. New Delhi Excel books.
 Chandan J. Jagjit Singh., & Khanna, K. (2003). Business statistics,
Vikash Publishing House.
 Das N. (2009). Statistical methods (Vol I), New Delhi: The Mc-Graw Hill
Companies. Richard Levin I., & David Rubin, S. (2007).Statistics for
management, New Delhi: Eastern Economy Edition.
 Gupta C., Vijay Gupta, (2004). An Introduction to statistical methods,
Delhi: Vikash Publishing House.

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Quantitative Techniques in Business Unit 2

 Gupta C.B., & Gupta V. (2004). An Introduction to Statistical Methods.

New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
 Panneerselvam R. (2005). Research methodology. New Delhi: Prentice-
Hall of India Private Limited.
 Shenoy G., Srivastava U., & Sharma. Business Statistics, New Age
International.

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