CELLULAR REPRODUCTION AND GENETICS Arabidopsis thaliana

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(mouse ear cress)
INHERITANCE AND VARIATION OF TRAITS
Oryza sativa (rice) 24
o Heredity = it is where traits are passed on from Zea mays (corn) 20
parents to offspring.
o Variations = it demonstrates differences among
o Every living thing undergoes reproduction.
individuals.
o The cellular level of reproduction, in the for of cell
CHROMOSOMES division, provides growth in living organism.
o Growth is a permanent increase in size resulting from
- Are rod-like structures made of DNA and protein
cell division and cell differentiation to form tissues
- Storage units of genes
and organs in multicellular organism.
2 Kinds of proteins in chromosomes o Cell can increase in size to a certain point, after which
most of them undergo division.
A. Histones
- Proteins that DNA wraps around THE ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES IN CELL DIVISION
- Helps hold shape of chromosome and allows
o Cell division is an essential aspect of life.
DNA to pack tightly
o It enables a multicellular organism to grown and
B. Nonhistones
reach the adult size.
o Do not aid in packing of DNA, instead they
o It makes possible the replacement of worn out or
control specific regions of the DNA
damaged cells and keeps the total number of cells in
an adult organism relatively constant.
o Chromosomes consist of two identical halves (each
half is called a chromatid) THE TYPES OF HUMAN CELLS
o Chromatids form when DNA makes a copy of itself
o The human body is composed of two general types of
prior to cell division
cells:
o When the cell divides, each new cell receives one
1. Body cells or somatic cells
chromatid
2. Sex cells
o Chromatids are held together by a centromere

o The human body cells or somatic cells

Chromosome numbers of selected organisms
Organisms Chromosome number
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(common yeast)
Caenorhabdites elegans
(roundworm)
Drosophila melanogaster
(fruitfly)
Canis lupus familiaris (dogs)
Homo sapiens (man)
o Like blood cells, bone cells, skin cells and muscle
cells
o Are diploid in number (abbreviated as 2n)
o Has 23 pairs of chromosomes
o 22 pairs = autosomal chromosomes
o 1 pair = sex chromosomes
o XY = male sex chromosome
o XX = female sex chromosome
o Every cell of an organism produces by sexual
reproduction has 2 copies of each autosome (one from
each parent)
o The two copies of each chromosome are called
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homologous chromosomes – same shape and size and
carry genes form same trait.
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DIPLOID vs. HAPLOID CELLS
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DIPLOID CELLS
52
- Cells with two sets of chromosomes (2n)
46
- Diploid cells have both chromosomes for each pair as
well as the sex chromosomes
- Diploid cells in humans have 23 pairs, or 46
chromosomes 2n = 46
HAPLOID CELLS
- Human gametes or sex cells are haploid
Sperm - male gamete
Egg - female gamete
- Haploid cells contain only one set of chromosomes
(n)
- Have half the number of chromosomes as diploid
cells and only have one sex chromosome
KARYOTYPE
- Is a picture showing the complete set of chromosome
in one’s cell
o In karyotyping class, chromosomes are isolated,
stained and examined under a powerful microscope
o Before cell starts dividing, the chromosomes are
duplicated
o This process produces sister chromatids
CELL CYCLE
- The series of events in which cells grow and divide
o 2 main parts:
A. Interphase – cell growth and DNA replication
B. Mitosis – nuclear and cytoplasmic division
o The cell cycle is divided into several stages:
 G1 Phase
 S Phase
 G2 Phase
 M Phase
INTERPHASE
o Most of cell’s time spent in this part of cycle
o G1 Phase (Growth 1) = the cell marks the onset of its
cycle there is an increase in the number of cell
organelles.
o S Phase (Synthesis Phase) = DNA replication takes
place
o G2 Phase (Growth 2) = enzymes and proteins
required during M phase are synthesized
o M Phase = is cell division phase / meiosis / mitosis;
nuclear and cytoplasmic division takes place.
o Some cells enter G0 phase where they remain and no
longer grow or divide (Ex: nerve cells)
o The nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct membrane
– bound organelle/
o One or more nucleoli are visible inside the nucleus.
o The chromosome cannot be clearly seen.
o They appear as an irregular mass that is grainy in
appearance because the DNA they contain are
stretched out thinly in the nucleus.
o This facilitates the replication of DNA during S
phase.
o Nuclear division is divided further into:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
o Cytokinesis = is the cytoplasmic division.
CELL DIVISION
o In order for multicellular organisms like plants and
animals to grow, they must produce new cells from
pre-existing cells.
o The cells produced must be the same or identical to
the original or parent cell.
o This type of cell is Mitosis.
o However, there is another type of cell division which
produces daughter cells with half number of
chromosomes as the original parent cell, the resulting
are not similar.
o This type of cell division is called Meiosis.
o In humans, mitosis cell division is important in the
growth of organisms an in repair of worn-out tissues.
o Somatic cells / body cells are involved in mitosis.
o All daughter cells are diploid (2n) and identical to its
parent cell.
2n
46
46 46
2n 2n
PROPHASE
o (early) Each chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids attached at the centromere;
o Structure called asters start to form around the
centrioles;
o The two centrioles move apart to opposite poles;
o (later) Nucleolus disappears;
o Nuclear envelope disappears and spindle fibers
appear. 2n
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METAPHASE
Meiosis I
o The chromosomes line up along the equatorial plate;
23 23
o Each chromosome is attached to a spindle fiber at the n n
centromere.

ANAPHASE 23 23 23 23
n n n n
Meiosis II
o Each chromosome splits;
o The spindle fibers pull the chromatids apart to
opposite poles of the cell.

TELOPHASE PHASES OF MEIOSIS

o Spindle fibers disintegrate; nuclear envelope reforms; PROPHASE I

o Nucleolus appears in each nucleus;
o Chromosome uncoils
o After telophase, cytokinesis or division of the
cytoplasm follows.
o The cytoplasm divides forming two identical cells.
o In animal cells, cytoplasm divides by forming
cleavage furrow.
o In plant cells, cleavage of the cytoplasm doesn’t
occur.
o Instead, it forms a cell plate.
Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells
o In animals, cytokinesis occurs by cleavage.
o This process pinches the cell apart.
MEIOSIS
o Also in humans, meiosis occurs in reproductive
organs (female and male gonads) these are the ovaries
and testes respectively.
o Sex cells / gametes (egg cell and sperm cell) are being
produced through meiosis cell division.
o A diploid cell produces four haploid sex cells at the
end of two successive cell division.
o The sex cells are not identical in genetic make up.
o Homologous chromosome undergoes synapsis
pairing (homologous chromosomes have the same
shape, genes and length)
o Asters appear around the centrioles and centrioles
move apart opposite poles.
o Chromatids of each chromosomes cross and twist
around each other (crossing over) the point of
crossing is called chiasma (chiasmata, plural) this
allows exchange of genetic materials (crossing ovetr
is very important because this produces new
combinations of genes, thus VARIATION occurs.
o Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear; spindle
fibers form
METAPHASE I
o Homologous chromosomes align themselves along
the equatorial plate.
ANAPHASE I
o Homologous chromosomes separate and move to
opposite poles of the cell.
TELOPHASE I AND CYTOKINESIS
o Nuclear membrane forms, nucleus and cytoplasm
divides forming two haploid daughter cells; centrioles
replicate.

o Meiosis II is essentially the same as mitosis

- The sister chromatids of each chromosome separate
- The result is four haploid daughter cells

PROPHASE II

o Centrioles move to opposite poles;

o Nuclear envelope disintegrates;
o Spindle fibers form again
METAPHASE II
o Chromosomes arrange along the equatorial plate
along with the spindle fibers.
ANAPHASE II
o Sister chromatids separate; they are pulled towards
the opposite poles.
TELOPHASE II
o Spindle fibers disappear, nuclear envelops form
nucleus and cytoplasm divide, forming four haploid
daughter cells.
SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS
o Meiosis is important in the production od sex cells or
gametes.
o Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis = are processes
resulting to the production of sperm cells and egg
cells respectively.
FERTILIZATION AND VARIATION
o The production of haploid sex cells ensures that when
fertilization (union of egg cell (n) and sperm cell (n)
happens, the zygote contains a diploid number (2) of
chromosomes.
o Meiosis also ensures variation.
o It is made possible through the process of crossing
over, during the Prophase I, crossing over ensures the
formation of gametes with a varied set of genetic
characteristics.
WHEN SOMETHING GOES WRONG DURING
MEIOSIS
o Meiosis may not always proceed normally.
o Accidents sometimes happen.
o These accidents may affect the functioning of the
spindle fibers or the movement of one of more
chromosomes.
o In humans, some accidents have been known to cause
abnormal conditions.
Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number
o Abnormal chromosome count is a result of
nondisjunction.
o Either homologous pairs fail to separate during
meiosis I.
o Or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II.
o When chromosomes in a pair fail to separate from
each other during meiosis I.
o The resulting gametes acquires both members of a
pair of chromosomes.
o If this involves chromosome pair 21, for ex. one of
the gametes contains two copies of the chromosome,
then the individual produced will have 47
chromosomes in his or her cells (wit three copies of
chromosome 21)
o This condition is known as Down’s Syndrome.
o Named after Dr. Langdon Down – who first studied
the condition.
DOWN’S SYNDROME
o People with this condition suffer from variable
degrees of mental retardation, sterility and increased
risk beyond the age 40 of Alzheimer’s disease, which
affects the functioning of the brain.
o It is usually associated with pregnancy in women
above 35 years if age.
o Connection: an extra copy of chromosome 21 causes
down syndrome
CRU DI CHAT SYNDROME
o Sometimes, a piece of chromosome breaks off and
gets lost.
o The effects of this accident depend on the particular
genetic material lost.
o For ex. when a part of chromosome is lost, the
afflicted individual will have a face that is round,
moonlike, cries feebly and is mentally and physically
retarded.
o Cru di chat is a French for cat’s cry, which is the
sound of a baby with this condition makes when he /
she cries.
KLINEFELTER SYNDROME
o A male child with this condition has an extra X
chromosome.
o Lower IQ than sibs
o Tall stature
o Poor muscle tone
o Reduced secondary sexual characteristics
o Gynaecomastia (male breasts)
o Small testes / infertility
TURNER SYNDROME

o A female child with this condition lacks an X

chromosome.

o Several drugs may cause breaks or other

abnormalities in the chromosomes.
o Chlorpromazine (a popular tranquilizer)
o Diphenhydramine (an antihistamine)
o Lysergic acid diethylamide or LSD (a hallucinogen)