Fabrication of remote control gantry crane:-

Abstract: -
In this time material lifting to a height place is one of the top task and lots of labor required for
this and much physical work also required. To avoid this problem we design a remote control
gantry crane system in this project. In this project we not only lift the material but also we rotate
material to 360 degree in a top height level. For this we use 10 rpm 12V DC motor to lifting a
material to top level and another same motor we use rotating the lifting material to 360 degree.
We use a mechanical pulley for lifting the material and fit this pulley to DC motor shaft. And use
mechanical wheel for rotating 360 degree and again fit this mechanical wheel to DC motor shaft.

Block Diagram: -
POWER SUPPLY UNIT

In most of our electronic products or projects we need a power supply for converting mains AC
voltage to a regulated DC voltage. For making a power supply designing of each and every
component is essential. Here I’m going to discuss the designing of regulated 5V Power Supply.

Let’s start with very basic things the choosing of components

Component List :

1. Step down transformer

2. Voltage regulator
3. Capacitors
4. Diodes

Voltage regulator :

As we require a 5V we need LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC.

7805 IC Rating :

 Input voltage range 7V- 35V

 Current rating Ic = 1A
 Output voltage range VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V

LM7805 – Pin Diagram

Operation of Regulated Power Supply

Step Down Transformer

A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required voltage
level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required voltage
value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.

Rectification
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification process.
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into corresponding
direct (dc) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating dc.
Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify both the half cycles of the ac
supply (full wave rectification). Figure below shows a full wave bridge rectifier.

A bridge rectifier consists of four p-n junction diodes connected in the above shown
manner. In the positive half cycle of the supply the voltage induced across the secondary of the
electrical transformer i.e. VMN is positive. Therefore point E is positive with respect to F.
Hence, diodes D3 and D2 are reversed biased and diodes D1 and D4 are forward biased. The diode
D3 and D2 will act as open switches (practically there is some voltage drop) and diodes D1 andD4
will act as closed switches and will start conducting. Hence a rectified waveform appears at the
output of the rectifier as shown in the first figure. When voltage induced in secondary i.e. VMN
is negative than D3 and D2 are forward biased with the other two reversed biased and a positive
voltage appears at the input of the filter.
DC Filteration
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating dc voltage having very high ripple content.
But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free dc waveform. Hence a filter is used. Different
types of filters are used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type filter. Figure
below shows a capacitor filter connected along the output of the rectifier and the resultant output
waveform.

As the
instantaneous voltage starts increasing the capacitor charges, it charges till the waveform reaches
its peak value. When the instantaneous value starts reducing the capacitor starts discharging
exponentially and slowly through the load (input of the regulator in this case). Hence, an almost
constant dc value having very less ripple content is obtained.

Regulation
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current will
change or fluctuate when there is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in load
current at the output of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like temperature
changes. This problem can be eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will maintain the
output constant even when changes at the input or any other changes occur.
 Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable IC regulators or a zener diode operated in
the zener region can be used depending on their applications. IC’s like 78XX and 79XX are used
to obtained fixed values of voltages at the output. With IC’s like LM 317 and 723 etc we can
adjust the output voltage to a required constant value. Figure below shows the LM317 voltage
regulator.

The output voltage can be adjusted with adjusting the values of resistances R1 and R2.
Usually coupling capacitors of values about 0.01µF to 10µF needs to be connected at the output
and input to address input noise and output transients. Ideally the output voltage is given by

Figure below shows the complete circuit of a regulated +5V DC power supply using
transformer, bridge rectifier, filter (smoothing) and a fixed +5 V voltage regulator. Here we can
use IC 7803(for 3V),7809(for 9 V),7812(for 12V) etc.
Application of Regulated Power Supply

Regulated power supply is the main component of electrical,electronics and as well as

automation equipment. Mobile phone charger, oscilator, amplifier are needed the regulated
power supply

Understanding 7805 IC Voltage Regulator

A regulated power supply is very much essential for several electronic devices due to the
semiconductor material employed in them have a fixed rate of current as well as voltage. The
device may get damaged if there is any deviation from the fixed rate. The AC power supply gets
converted into constant DC by this circuit. By the help of a voltage regulator DC, unregulated
output will be fixed to a constant voltage.

The circuit is made up of linear voltage regulator 7805 along with capacitors and resistors
with bridge rectifier made up from diodes. From giving an unchanging voltage supply to
building confident that output reaches uninterrupted to the appliance, the diodes along with
capacitors handle elevated efficient signal conveyal.

As we have previously talked about that regulated power supply is a device that
mechanized on DC voltages and also it can uphold its output accurately at a fixed voltage all the
time although if there is a significant alteration in the DC input voltage. ICs regulator is mainly
used in the circuit to maintain the exact voltage which is followed by the power supply.

A regulator is mainly employed with the capacitor connected in parallel to the input
terminal and the output terminal of the IC regulator. For the checking of gigantic alterations in
the input as well as in the output filter, capacitors are used. While the bypass capacitors are used
to check the small period spikes on the input and output level. Bypass capacitors are mainly of
small values that are used to bypass the small period pulses straightly into the Earth. A circuit
diagram having regulator IC and all the above discussed components arrangement revealed in the
figure below.

As we have made the whole circuit till now to be operated on the 5V DC supply, so we
have to use an IC regulator for 5V DC. And the most generally used IC regulators get into the
market for 5V DC regulation use is 7805. So we are connecting the similar IC in the circuit as
U1. IC 7805 is a DC regulated IC of 5V. This IC is very flexible and is widely employed in all
types of circuit like a voltage regulator. It is a three terminal device and mainly called input ,
output and ground. Pin diagram of the IC 7805 is shown in the diagram below.
 The output generated from the unregulated DC output is susceptible to the fluctuations of
the input signal. IC voltage regulator is connected with bridge rectifier in series in these project
so to steady the DC output against the variations in the input DC voltage.

To obtain a stable output of 5V, IC 7805 is attached with 6-0-6V along with 500mA step
down transformer as well as with rectifier. To suppress the oscillation which might generate in
the regulator IC, C2 capacitor of 0.1 uF value is used. When the power supply filter is far away
from the regulated IC capacitor C2 is used. Ripple rejection in the regulator is been improved by
C4 capacitor(35uf) by avoiding the ripple voltage to be amplified at the regulator output.

The output voltage is strengthen and deduction of the output voltage is done capacitor
C3(0.1uF). To avoid the chance of the input get shorted D5 diode is used to save the regulator. If
D5 is not presented in the circuit, the output capacitor can leave its charge immediately during
low impedance course inside the regulators.
A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current(electrical energy) into
mechanical energy. It’s of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally important for
engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed in
this article. In order to understand the operating principle of dc motor we need to first look into
its constructional feature.

The very basic construction of a dc motor contains aelectric current carrying armature which is
connected to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes and placed within the
north south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet as shown in the diagram below.

Now to go into the details of the operating principle of DC motorits important that we have a
clear understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of force acting on the
armature conductors of dc motor.

Fleming’s left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and thumb of our
left hand in such a way that the electric current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field
(represented by the index finger) is perpendicular to the direction of electric current (represented
by the middle finger), then the conductor experiences a force in the direction (represented by the
thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the electric current in the
conductor.
For clear understanding the principle of DC motor we have to determine the magnitude of the
force, by considering the diagram below.

We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a velocity ‘v’ under the
influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by
the charge is given by:-

For the operation of dc motor, considering E = 0

i.e. it’s the cross product of dq v and magnetic field B.

Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.

From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the direction of
electric current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence
the force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field
and electric current is constant.

So if we take the electric current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and
electric current at right hand side of the armature conductor to be − I, because they are flowing in
the opposite direction with respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

∴we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the
armature turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the
rotation of the armature conductor.

Now let's examine the expression of torque when the armature turn crate an angle of α with its
initial position.

The torque produced is given by,

Where α is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or the
initial position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.

The presence of the term cosα in the torque equation very well signifies that unlike force the
torque at all position is not the same. It in fact varies with the variation of the angle α. To explain
the variation of torque and the principle behind rotation of the motor let us do a step wise
analysis.
Step 1:
Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the angle α =
0.

Since α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is maximum
given by τ = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of rest of the
armature and sets it into rotation.

Step 2:
Once the armature is set in motion, the angle α between the actual position of the armature and
its reference initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it becomes 90°
from its initial position. Consequently the term cosα decreases and also the value of torque.

The torque in this case is given by τ = BILwcosα which is less than BIL w when α is greater than
0°.

Step 3:
In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of the rotor
is exactly perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. α = 90°, and as a result the term cosα = 0.

The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by,

i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does
not come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of dc motor has been
engineered in such a way that the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this
point of null torque. Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual
position of the armature and the initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.

DC MOTOR

DC Motor has two leads. It has bidirectional motion

 If we apply +ve to one lead and ground to another motor will rotate in one direction, if
we reverse the connection the motor will rotate in opposite direction.

 If we keep both leads open or both leads ground it will not rotate (but some inertia will be
there).

 If we apply +ve voltage to both leads then braking will occurs.

H-BRIDGE

This circuit is known as H-Bridge because it looks like ” H” Working principle of H-Bridge.

 If switch (A1 and A2 )are on and switch (B1 and B2) are off then motor
rotates in clockwise direction
 If switch (B1 and B2 )are on and switch (A1 and A2) are off then motor
rotates in Anti clockwise direction
 we can use Transistor, mosfets as a switch ( Study the transistor as a a switch)

H-Bridge I.C (L293D)

L293D is a H-Bridge I.C. Its contain two H-Bridge pair.

Truth Table

Input 1 Input 2 Result

0 0 No rotation

0 1 Clockwise rotation

1 0 Anti clockwise rotation

1 1 break

Note:-

 Connect motors pins on output 1 and output 2 and control signal at input 1 and input 2
will control the motion
  Connect another motor pins on output 3 and output 4 and control signal at input3and
input 4
 Truth table for i/p 3 and i/p 4 is same as above shown
 0 means 0 V or Low
 1 means High or +5V
 In Enable 1 and Enable 2 if you give high then you observe hard stop in condition 0 0 and
11. Unless slow stop of motor on low signal
 Required Motor voltage has given on pin 8 (Vs) i.e 12V DC – 24V DC

AC Motor Construction
Three-phase AC induction motors are commonly used in industrial applications. This type of
motor has three main parts, rotor, stator, and enclosure. The stator and rotor do the work, and the
enclosure protects the stator and rotor.

Stator Core
The stator is the stationary part of the motor’s electromagnetic circuit. The stator core is made up
of many thin metal sheets, called laminations. Laminations are used to reduce energy loses that
would result if a solid core were used.
Stator Windings Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of
insulated wire are inserted into slots of the stator core.

When the assembled motor is in operation, the stator windings are connected directly to the
power source. Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it surrounds, becomes an
electromagnet when current is applied. Electromagnetism is the basic principle behind motor
operation.
Rotor Construction
The rotor is the rotating part of the motor’s electromagnetic circuit. The most common type of
rotor used in a three-phase induction motor is a squirrel cage rotor. Other types of rotor
construction is discussed later in the course. The squirrel cage rotor is so called because its
construction is reminiscent of the rotating exercise wheels found in some pet cages.

A squirrel cage rotor core is made by stacking thin steel laminations to form a cylinder.
Rather than using coils of wire as conductors, conductor bars are die cast into the slots evenly
spaced around the cylinder. Most squirrel cage rotors are made by die casting aluminum to form
the conductor bars. Siemens also makes motors with die cast copper rotor conductors. These
motor exceed NEMA Premium efficiency standards.

After die casting, rotor conductor bars are mechanically and electrically connected with end
rings. The rotor is then pressed onto a steel shaft to form a rotor assembly.

Enclosure
The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings). The
stator is mounted inside the frame. The rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air gap separating
it from the stator. There is no direct physical connection between the rotor and the stator.
The enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from water and other environmental
elements. The degree of protection depends upon the type of enclosure. Enclosure types are
discussed later in this course.

Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. Some motors, like the one
shown in the following illustration, use a fan, also mounted on the rotor shaft, to cool the motor
when the shaft is rotating.

Induction Motor Design Principle

 We all know that an electric motor is used for the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy may be used for the pumping of liquid from one
place to other by using pumps or even to blow air by blowers or ceiling fans. The conversion of
electrical power to mechanical energy takes place in the rotating part of the motor. In D.C.
Motors, the electric power is conducted directly to the armature (the rotating part) through
brushes & commutator. Thus we can say a D.C. Motor as a conduction motor. But in case of an
A.C. Motor, the rotor does not receive electric power by conduction, but by Induction. Thus they
are called as induction motors. This can be compared with the secondary winding of a
transformer. These induction motors are also called as rotating transformers. Of all motors, it is
generally a 3-phase or a poly-phase induction motor is used in a larger extent in many industries

The Direction of rotation of an Electric motor is given by Fleming's Left Hand rule:

o It shows the relation between the direction of "thrust" on a conductor carrying a "current"
in a "magnetic field".
o Keep the Thumb, Index finger & the Middle finger of the left hand at right angles to each
other.The First finger or the index finger indicates the direction of the Field.
o The seCond finger or the middle finger represents the direction of the Current.
o The THumb represents the direction of the THrust or the direction of motion of the
conductor.

Also other important Law is the Faraday's Law Of Electro Magnetic Induction.There are 3
important rules/laws of electro magnetic induction.They are as follows:

1. An EMF is induced in a coil whenever the flux through the coil changes with time.

2. The magnitude of induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux.
3. The direction of the EMF is such as to oppose the change in flux.

Why Does A Rotor Rotate?

If a 3-phase supply is fed to the stator windings of a 3-phase motor, a magnetic flux of
constant magnitude, rotating at synchronous speed is set up. At this point, the rotor is stationary.
The rotating magnetic flux passes through the air gap between the stator & rotor and sweeps past
the stationary rotor conductors. This rotating flux, as it sweeps, cuts the rotor conductors, thus
causing an e.m.f to be induced in the rotor conductors. As per the Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, it is this relative motion between the rotating magnetic flux and the
stationary rotor conductors, which induces an e.m.f on the rotor conductors. Since the rotor
conductors are shorted and form a closed circuit, the induced e.m.f produces a rotor current
whose direction is given by Lenz’s Law, is such as to oppose the cause producing it. In this case,
the cause which produces the rotor current is the relative motion between the rotating magnetic
flux and the stationary rotor conductors. Thus to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts to
rotate in the same direction as that of the rotating flux on the stator windings, trying to catch it
up. The frequency of the induced e.m.f is same as the supply frequency.

Cogging Of Induction Motors

 Sometimes, when the supply voltage is low, the squirrel cage induction motor refuses to
start. This happens when the number of stator teeth and the number of the rotor teeth is equal,
thus causing a magnetic locking between the stator and the rotor. This phenomenon is other-wise
called as teeth-locking or Magnetic locking. This problem can be overcome by having the
number of rotor slots prime to the stator slots.

Plugging of Motor

The Induction motor can be stopped immediately by just interchanging any two of the
stator leads. When an induction motor is rotating at a high speed, during emergency if situation
arises that the motor has to be stopped immediately, can be done by interchanging any 2 leads of
the stator supply. By doing this, it reverses the direction of the revolving flux, which produces a
torque in the reverse direction, thus causing a breaking effect on the rotor. This breaking period
is called the “Plugging” period.

Analogy with the Mechanical Clutch

The Rotor Cu loss = Slip * Rotor Input

 This is evident by considering the working of mechanical clutch, used in automobiles. By
visualizing the figure pf plate clutch, it is evident that the torque on the drive shaft must be equal
to the torque on the driven shaft. Further, it should be emphasized that the these two torques are
the one and the same, because the torque is caused by the friction between the two plates. Let $1
and $2 be the angular velocities on these two shafts assuming the plate clutch is slipping.

Then input = T*ω1

Output= T* ω 2

But ω 2 = ω 1*(1-s)

So output = T* ω 1*(1-s)

Loss = T* ω 1 – T* ω 2

Loss = T* ω 1 – T ω 1*(1-s)

Loss = s * T ω 1

Thus

Loss = slip * input.

COIL

An electromagnetic coil (or simply a "coil") is formed when a conductor (usually

an insulated solid copper wire) is wound around a core or form to create an
inductor or electromagnet. When electricity is passed through a coil, it generates heat. One loop
of wire is usually referred to as a turn, and a coil consists of one or more turns. For use in
an electronic circuit, electrical connection terminals called taps are often connected to a coil.
Coils are often coated with varnish or wrapped with insulating tape to provide
additional insulation and secure them in place. A completed coil assembly with taps is often
called a winding. A transformer is an electromagnetic device that has a primary winding and
a secondary winding that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to another by inductive
coupling without moving parts. The term tickler coil usually refers to a feedback coil, which is
often the third coil placed in relation to a primary coil and secondary coil. A coil tap is a wiring
feature found on some electrical transformers, inductors and coil pickups, all of which are sets of
wire coils. The coil tap(s) are points in a wire coil where a conductive patch has been exposed
(usually on a loop of wire that extends out of the main coil body). As self induction is larger for
larger coil diameter the current in a thick wire tries to flow on the inside. The ideal use of copper
is achieved by foils. Sometimes this means that a spiral is a better alternative. Multilayer coils
have the problem of interlayer capacitance, so when multiple layers are needed the shape needs
to be radically changed to a short coil with many layers so that the voltage between consecutive
layers is smaller.
Battery:-

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric
cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when
connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external device. When a
battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing
the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the
external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow
out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a
device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to additionally include
devices composed of a single cell.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode
materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery
used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable)
batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket;
the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include
the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics
such as laptops and smartphones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and
wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries used in cars and
trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or
emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales
each year,[5] with 6% annual growth.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as
gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in producing
mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.

Primary

Main article: Primary cell

Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly. These are
most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only
intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and
communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable
primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible
and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend
against attempting to recharge primary cells.[25] In general, these have higher energy densities
than rechargeable batteries,[26] but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain
applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of disposable batteries include
zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

Secondary

Main article: Rechargeable battery

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be charged
before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state.
Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called
chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used in
automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed
container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe
dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively
heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high
surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more
important than weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery,
which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive
industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized
sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life.[27] VRLA
batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in
applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of
increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel
metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the
dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher
capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.

In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL,
which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,[28] nanoball batteries that allow
for a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-
of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low
self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.

Cell types

Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and
designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.[29]

Wet cell
A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid covers
all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet
cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry.
They can be built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how
electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is
important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or
secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell
were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove
cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry
was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry
for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies,
but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These applications commonly
use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.

Dry cell

Further information: Dry cell

Line art drawing of a dry cell:

1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7.
chemical mixture

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a
wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid,
making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically
fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to
avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until
the development of the gel battery.
A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with a
nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc–
manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the
form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is
ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between
the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium
chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the
ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

Molten salt

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They
operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

Reserve

A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long
period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding
electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for
an electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun: The acceleration
breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve
batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage
(years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications
becomes activated on immersion in water.

Cell performance

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to
many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a
battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery
warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.
Pulley:-
To calculate the effort required to lift the load we divide the load by the number of ropes (do not
count the rope that goes to the effort). The image on the right shows a four pulley system. The
person lifting the 200kg load experiences a pull equal to only 50kg (200kg/4).

Using the four pulley system on the right, the person certainly experiences an advantage. We call
this advantage the mechanical advantage and is calculated by dividing the load by the effort
(load/effort). The pulley system offers a mechanical advantage of 4.

A pulley, also called a sheave or a drum, is a mechanism composed of a wheel on an axle or

shaft that may have a groove between two flanges around its circumference.[1] A rope, cable,
belt, or chain usually runs over the wheel and inside the groove, if present. Pulleys are used to
change the direction of an applied force, transmit rotational motion, or realize a mechanical
advantage in either a linear or rotational system of motion. It is one of the six simple machines.
Two or more pulleys together are called a block and tackle.
Contents

 1 Belt and pulley systems

 2 Rope and pulley systems
o 2.1 Types of systems
o 2.2 How it works
 3 See also
 4 References

[edit] Belt and pulley systems

A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to a belt. This
allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are
of differing diameters, a mechanical advantage is realized.

A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive, however a belt sheave may be smooth (devoid
of discrete interlocking members as would be found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing
belt) so that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio of the pitch diameter
of the sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with gears and sprockets.

In the case of a drum-style pulley, without a groove or flanges, the pulley often is slightly convex
to keep the flat belt centered. It is sometimes referred to as a crowned pulley. Though once
widely used in factory line shafts, this type of pulley is still found driving the rotating brush in
upright vacuum cleaners.

[edit] Rope and pulley systems

Also called block and tackles, rope and pulley systems (the rope may be a light line or a strong
cable) are characterized by the use of one rope transmitting a linear motive force (in tension) to a
load through one or more pulleys for the purpose of pulling the load (often against gravity.) They
are often included in lists of simple machines.

In a system of a single rope and pulleys, when friction is neglected, the mechanical advantage
gained can be calculated by counting the number of rope lengths exerting force on the load.
Since the tension in each rope length is equal to the force exerted on the free end of the rope, the
mechanical advantage is simply equal to the number of ropes pulling on the load. For example,
in Diagram 3 below, there is one rope attached to the load, and 2 rope lengths extending from the
pulley attached to the load, for a total of 3 ropes supporting it. If the force applied to the free end
of the rope is 10 lb, each of these rope lengths will exert a force of 10 lb. on the load, for a total
of 30 lb. So the mechanical advantage is 3.

The force on the load is increased by the mechanical advantage; however the distance the load
moves, compared to the length the free end of the rope moves, is decreased in the same
proportion. Since a slender cable is more easily managed than a fat one (albeit shorter and
stronger), pulley systems are often the preferred method of applying mechanical advantage to the
pulling force of a winch (as can be found in a lift crane).

Pulley systems are the only simple machines in which the possible values of mechanical
advantage are limited to whole numbers.

In practice, the more pulleys there are, the less efficient a system is. This is due to sliding friction
in the system where cable meets pulley and in the rotational mechanism of each pulley.

It is not recorded when or by whom the pulley was first developed. It is believed however that
Archimedes developed the first documented block and tackle pulley system, as recorded by
Plutarch. Plutarch reported that Archimedes moved an entire warship, laden with men, using
compound pulleys and his own strength.

[edit] Types of systems

Fixed pulley

Movable pulley

These are different types of pulley systems:

 Fixed A fixed or class 1 pulley has a fixed axle. That is, the axle is "fixed" or anchored in
place. A fixed pulley is used to change the direction of the force on a rope (called a belt). A
fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of 1. A mechanical advantage of one means that the
force is equal on both sides of the pulley and there is no multiplication of force.
 Movable A movable or class 2 pulley has a free axle. That is, the axle is "free" to move in
space. A movable pulley is used to multiply forces. A movable pulley has a mechanical
advantage of 2. That is, if one end of the rope is anchored, pulling on the other end of the
rope will apply a doubled force to the object attached to the pulley.
 Compound A compound pulley is a combination of a fixed and a movable pulley system.
o Block and tackle - A block and tackle is a type of compound pulley where several
pulleys are mounted on each axle, further increasing the mechanical advantage. Block
and tackles usually lift objects with a mechanical advantage greater than 2.

[edit] How it works

Diagram 1: A basic equation for a pulley. In equilibrium, the force F on the pulley axle is
equal and opposite to the sum of the tensions in each line leaving the pulley, and these
tensions are equal.

Diagram 2: A simple pulley system—a single movable pulley lifting weight W. The tension
in each line is W/2, yielding an advantage of 2.

Diagram 2a: Another simple pulley system similar to diagram 2, but in which the lifting
force is redirected downward


A practical compound pulley corresponding to diagram 2a

The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are
weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to friction. It is also assumed that the lines do not
stretch.

A Demag hoist using the compound pulley system yielding an advantage of 4. The single fixed
pulley is installed on the hoist (device). The two movable pulleys (joined together) are attached
to the hook. One end of the rope is attached to the crane frame, another to the winch.

In equilibrium, the total force on the pulley must be zero. This means that the force on the axle of
the pulley is shared equally by the two lines looping through the pulley. The situation is
schematically illustrated in diagram 1. For the case where the lines are not parallel, the tensions
in each line are still equal, but now the vector sum of all forces is zero.

A second basic equation for the pulley follows from the conservation of energy: The product of
the weight lifted times the distance it is moved is equal to the product of the lifting force (the
tension in the lifting line) times the distance the lifting line is moved. The weight lifted divided
by the lifting force is defined as the advantage of the pulley system.
It is important to notice that a system of pulleys does not change the amount of work done. The
work is given by the force times the distance moved. The pulley simply allows trading force for
distance: you pull with less force, but over a longer distance.

In diagram 2, a single movable pulley allows weight W to be lifted with only half the force
needed to lift the weight without assistance. The total force needed is divided between the lifting
force (red arrow) and the "ceiling" which is some immovable object (such as the earth). In this
simple system, the lifting force is directed in the same direction as the movement of the weight.
The advantage of this system is 2. Although the force needed to lift the weight is only W/2, we
will need to draw a length of rope that is twice the distance that the weight is lifted, so that the
total amount of work done (Force x distance) remains the same.

A second pulley may be added as in diagram 2a, which simply serves to redirect the lifting force
downward; it does not change the advantage of the system.

Diagram 3: A simple compound pulley system—a movable pulley and a fixed pulley lifting
weight W. The tension in each line is W/3, yielding an advantage of 3.

Diagram 3a: A simple compound pulley system—a movable pulley and a fixed pulley lifting
weight W, with an additional pulley redirecting the lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage of 3.

Diagram 4a: A more complicated compound pulley system. The tension in each line is W/4,
yielding an advantage of 4. An additional pulley redirecting the lifting force has been added.


Figure 4b: A practical block and tackle pulley system corresponding to diagram 4a. Note that
the axles of the fixed and movable pulleys have been combined.

The addition of a fixed pulley to the single pulley system can yield an increase of advantage. In
diagram 3, the addition of a fixed pulley yields a lifting advantage of 3. The tension in each line
is W/3, and the force on the axles of each pulley is 2W/3. As in the case of diagram 2a, another
pulley may be added to reverse the direction of the lifting force, but with no increase in
advantage. This situation is shown in diagram 3a.

This process can be continued indefinitely for ideal pulleys with each additional pulley yielding a
unit increase in advantage. For real pulleys friction among rope and pulleys will increase as more
pulleys are added to the point that no advantage is possible. It puts a limit for the number of
pulleys usable in practice. The above pulley systems are known collectively as block and tackle
pulley systems. In diagram 4a, a block and tackle system with advantage 4 is shown. A practical
implementation in which the connection to the ceiling is combined and the fixed and movable
pulleys are encased in single housings is shown in figure 4b.

Other pulley systems are possible, and some can deliver an increased advantage with fewer
pulleys than the block and tackle system. The advantage of the block and tackle system is that
each pulley and line is subjected to equal tensions and forces. Efficient design dictates that each
line and pulley be capable of handling its load, and no more. Other pulley designs will require
different strengths of line and pulleys depending on their position in the system, but a block and
tackle system can use the same line size throughout, and can mount the fixed and movable
pulleys on a common axle.
Machine Table Design:
The design of base table in made in rectangle in section and is made from cast iron to provide
good strength with cheap cost. The table is provided with a measuring scale to marks the work
piece with appropriate length of cut

Electric Motor:

 A suitable 3 phase or 1 phase motor should be mounted on motor plate belt for motor
pulley and cutter roll pulley. Check the v belt alignment and v belt tension. The belt
tension between the motor and block roll pulley most be suitably adjusted.
 For his loosen the lock most turn the tension adjusting bolt. On completion of adjustment
the lock nut. When correctly adjusted v belt will have a play of 10 mm. About their
mean position
 Check the direction of cutter look pulley as per arrow mark on pulley. The electrical
power supply must be connected after fitting the motor start the unit and absorb the
direction of the rotation of the shaft. Rotation should be anti clockwise when viewed
from pulley side
Shaft & Cutter Assembly:
 A high surface finish mild steel shaft is used for embedding the cutter at its counter for
cutting purpose. The shaft is rigidly fixed with the cutter to avoid any accidental failure
of its assembly

Pully & V-Belt:

 A pulley and v – belt mechanism is used for the transfer of torque power from the motor
to shaft containing cutter. Two pulleys are used one at the motor output and another at the
main shaft. The v belts are used with a size of 30’x 10’ for connecting these pulleys
HOW TO Wire a DPDT rocker switch for reversing polarity

When you need to control a DC motor (such as a DC linear actuator) you usually need to be able
to swap the polarity on the wires going to the motor.

A double pole, double throw switch is used for this purpose but you have to wire it up correctly
to reverse the polarity going to the linear actuator.

Step 1: Required materials

You need the following materials:

-DPDT rocker switch

-insulated disconnect terminals (female) x 6
-wire
-wire cutter/crimper/stripper tool
-a linear actuator or DC motor to control

Step 2: Connecting the wires to the disconnect terminals

First you need to cut a bit off each wire that will be going to the motor. This is the jumper that
will allow the polarity to swap.
I'm using blue and brown wire. THE COLOR OF THE WIRE IS NOT SIGNIFICANT. You
can use red and black, or any combination of wire color. Because you'll be swapping the polarity
back and forth on the actuator, the color of the wire, and whether they are on the right side or the
left doesn't matter.
Twist together one end of the blue jumper wire and the end of the main blue wire. Then push this
into the disconnect terminal and crimp with the wire tool.
Do the same for the brown wire.
At the end of the blue jumper attach another disconnect terminal.
Do the same for the brown wire.
Attach the main blue terminal to one of the poles on the side, attach the main brown termainl to
the pole right next to it.
Attach the blue jumper connector to the opposite corner, and the brown jumper to the other
corner to form an 'X' across the switch.
Step 3: Connecting the wires to the disconnect terminals (for power)

Similar to the last step take another wire that will go to the +12V DC (or whatever you are
using). I am using blue wire.
Attach this to a disconnect terminal.
Do the same with another piece of wire (I used brown). This will go to ground.
Attach these to the center poles of the switch.
With my switch it doesn't matter which poles it's attached to, as there is no up and down for the
switch. If you don't like it just turn the switch upside down. Otherwise test before installing the
switch.
Step 4: Done!
Step 5: UPDATE: Wiring Diagram

Conclusion:-
Finally we design the entire project and tested in accepts its work properly and fulfill my aim of
the project.