1 SOLAR FACTS

*Kyoto Protocol were to be implemented in full through to 2012 without being watered down, the most it
could achieve would be to bring emissions back down to the already dangerously high levels of 1990.
*Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC has stated that emissions reductions of 60% by
2050 are vital the global climate is to be stabilized.
*The participating countries are tacitly banking on a more efficient fossil energy system, rather than its
replacement with renewable energy.
*There can be no environmental revolution in energy supply without creative destruction in the existing
conventional energy industry.
*The greatest opportunity lie in combining microelectronics with PV technology, what one might call
Solar Information technology.
*In order to estimate the yearly worldwide cost of energy, both the cost of fuel and the cost of new
investments are added to the consumers monthly. In 2008, between $5500 and $7750 billion were paid for
fuel and electricity worldwide (taxes not included).
*International Energy Agency world-wide oil consumption will be 37% higher in 2030 than in 2006.
*The OPEC is annoyed that the industrial countries are investing in renewable energies.

1.1 SOLAR ECONOMY

From fossil *We are living in a fossil economy. Even as the economy scales new technological
fuels to Solar heights, the energy that powers it is condemning it to death.
Power: *Now that people begun to realize that our growing dependence on finite resources may
transforming have dangerous consequences for the planet as a whole, and that this dependence has
the global indeed already led to social catastrophe, and with increasing public awareness of the
economy. growing dominance of technology, there is a crying need for a new concept of political
natural economy.
*The global economy owes its better times to the exploitation of fossil fuels. But they
will also bring it worse times to come.
The power of pyromaniacs
There are two incontrovertible reasons for a bleak future. Firstly, that supplies of fossil
and mineral resources are limited; and secondly, that the processes in which these
resources are used inevitably also overstretch, damage, and even destroy those limited
planetary resources on which our lives depend: the water, the land, and the atmosphere.
*Statistics on world energy consumption show that %32 is generated by burning crude
oil, %25 by burning coal, and %17 by burning natural gas, %5 comes from nuclear fuels,
%14 from combustion of biomass, 6% from hydroelectric. The global economy, and
with it the world, is therefore dominated by pyromaniacs intent on burning ever greater
quantities of fossil fuels for as long as they can possibly do so.
*Making the ground-breaking transition to an economy based on solar energy and solar
resources will do more to safeguard our common future than any other economic
development since the industrial revolution.
Global competition in place of global environmental policy
As things stand today, environmental protection and economic competition are two
aspects of globalization that stand dramatically opposed to one another. The freedom
of global competition has been declared sacred. It has been accorded a higher political
priority than climate protection or conservation of biodiversity. This divide can only be
bridge with a solar resource base.
Reconnecting business and society through solar resources
Re-establishing the natural circular flow of resources is the key to sustainable and
environmentally responsible development in the long term.
*An economy based on solar energy and solar resources will make it possible to re-
establish the links between the development of the economy as a whole and
environmental cycles, stable regional business structures, cultures, and democratic
institutions, links which are essential if the future of human society is to be guaranteed.
Those who still think only in the short term must continue to bow to the laws of fossil-
 fuelled industrialization.
From the Political to the Economic Solar Manifesto
Technologies, power sources, and materials, as the history of the post-Industrial
Revolution period shows, all have their own economic logic, which the manufactures of
the day follow until an optimum use of the relevant development has been achieved.
However, this process is usually understood solely in terms of cost reductions through
technological development and increased productivity; structural considerations are not
addressed.
*is the primacy of physical laws over the laws if the market. In practical economic
terms, this means above all that locally or regionally produced solar energy, foodstuffs
and solar resources should be consumed and marketed in preference to the otherwise
equivalent products. The choice is not between private or public enterprise, between
the free market or the planned economy. It is a question of the physical laws that
govern private and public enterprise, market and planned economy alike.
Captivity or *Very few people are aware that different resource types necessitate different economic
Liberation: structures, and promote different development trends.
Fossil Fuel *The fundamental economic reality of fossil fuels is that they are found in only relatively
and solar small number of locations across the globe, yet are consumed everywhere. The
Supply economic reality of solar resources, by contrast, is that they are available, to varying
Chains degrees, all over the world.
Compared *The modern demand for fuel and mineral resources is the real driving force behind
globalization. Equally, ever increasing demand in all its various forms for fossil fuel and
mineral resources is the only compelling reason why economic independence is no
longer achievable goal for market economics.
The crude Oil Supply Chain
Extraction has become a high-tech and thus highly capital-intensive industry, especially
in the case of secondary oil recovery, in which the last drop are wrung out of an oil field.
Secondary extraction techniques range from flooding with water, polymers, carbon
dioxide (CO2) or corrosive solutions through to water and gas injection. All these
procedures may result in serious environmental damage long before the oil leaves the
well. The extracted oil is then transported, often over thousands of miles, via energy
hungry and accident-prone pipelines and pumping stations, in supertankers or tanker-
trains, to the refineries of the industrialized countries. The refineries – the third link in
the chain crack the oil using fractional dilation, converting it into fuels and feed stocks
for the chemical industry. The refining process causes even more environmental
problems than extraction: emissions of hydrocarbons, sulphur, nitrogen, and carbon
monoxides, and liquid and solid wastes. The consequence is the fourth link in the
chain, which is waste disposal. The fifth link is the storage of refined products, and the
sixth is the shipping of fuels to garages and of other products to their onward
destinations. Fuel combustion in engines, furnaces or power stations and feedstock
consumption by chemical plants form the seventh link.
The web of big oil
Oil refineries do not just produce petrol and diesel. Of the crude oil input, 45.6% is
turned into petrol, 20.9% into diesel or heating oil, 9.4% into kerosene, 1.3% into
naphtha fuels for jet aircraft, 6.8% into residuum, 1.2% into lubricants, 2.9% into
petrochemical feedstock, 3.2% into asphalt, 3.9% into petroleum coke for carbon
electrodes, among other uses, and 3.6% into liquid gas.
A disproportionate change in the demand for one output can displace sales of other
outputs. An enduring imbalance in demand results in increased costs.
The web of big electricity
Global investment in energy between 1990 and 2020 is projected to be around $12.4
trillion, or over $400 billion a year. In Germany, the banks exert control not just
through their lending, but also directly through seats on the supervisory boards of major
electricity generation and supply companies.
Exploiting The solar system, along with the Earth and other familiar planets, will last for about
Solar another 4.5 billion years. Every year, the sun delivers 15000 times more energy than is
resources: consumed by the entire human population. It is therefore utterly grotesque when
The new people continue to assert that humankind's energy needs cannot be me from solar
political and energy alone.
economic *In Germany, for example, the average insolation per square meter per year is 1100
freedom kWh, and aggregate demand is around 500 billion kWh (500 TWh). Average annual
output from PV (not to be confused with maximum efficiency under optimal conditions
at optimal times) is currently 10% of incident solar radiation (sunlight that reaches the
PV panels)- roughly speaking 100 kWh/m2. It follows from this that to produce 500
billion kWh using PV alone, 5000 km2 of solar panels would be needed.
For Germany, this would mean that less than 10 percent of construction surface –
roofs, walls and motorway sound barriers, would need fitting with solar panels.
The Solar Supply Chain
Isolated cost comparisons, between fossil fuels and renewables conceal the breadth of
the spectrum of applications for renewable energy. The key comparison must
encompass the entirety of the respective supply chains.
*Biomass exploitation could follow the pattern of global business concentration and
associated dependency relationships familiar from the fossil fuel industry. Indeed,
multinational corporations are already buying up vast tracts of agricultural and forest
land in order to secure their future position as suppliers of raw materials and energy.
*Sunlight can be converted into electrical energy all over the world and with lowest
distribution costs of all generation technologies. It is just one link in the chain.
The supply chain for solar hydrogen
The use of electricity from renewable sources to electrolyse water into its constituent
hydrogen and oxygen offers significant scope for expanding the spectrum of renewable
energies.
By this means energy can not only be stored, but the hydrogen can also be used as fuel
to drive industrial processes or as raw material for chemicals industry.
Solar Power without Technocracy
Proposals that turn a local resource free of supply dependency into a hyper-centralized
generation and supply system, maximizing dependency, are the product of technocratic
approach that has no regard for social context; an approach which, even without such
engineering mega-projects, has already led to the shaping of society to fit technology,
rather than – finally – adapting technology to meet real needs.
*Renewable energy will liberate society from fossil fuel dependency and from the webs
spun by the spiders of the fossil economy.
Sector El sector electrico esta constituido:
Electrico en • 64% hidraulica
Colombia • 33% termica
*Alrededor de la mitad de generación es privada.
*Capacidad intalada 13.4 GW
*El suministro [electrico en Colombia depende del sistema de interconexión nacional
SIN y varios sistemas locales aislados en las zonas no interconectadas ZNI. El SIN
comprende la tercera parte del territorio nacional.
*El consumo electrico en 2005 48.8TWh.
• Residencial 42.2%
• industrial 31.8%
• Comercial 18%
• oficial 3.8 %
• Otros usos 4.3%
La demanda esta creciendo en un 4% anual. Entonces en 2010 el consumo 59.37
TWh.
• Consumo Diario de Energía 162,66 GWh
• Potencia de Generación Requerida Xg = 32,53 GW
• Usando paneles de 225W =151,309,335 Pvs
• Superficie requeridad para Xg = 224,473,367,4 m2 o = 244,47 Km2, que
equivale a 0,021%,
*Area superficie Colombiana 1.141.748 km2.
*Promedio Radiación Colombia, 5 kWh/m2, se deduce que se necesitan 593.7 km2 en
PV, es decir el 5.1% del territorio nacional.
*De acuerdo con un estudio del Programa de Asistencia en Gestión del sector
Energetico del Banco Munidal, la explotación del gran potencial eólico del pais podría
cubrir más de la totalidad de sus necesidades actuales energeticas.
The Pathological Politics of Fossil Resources
The current focus is on natural gas as a replacement for crude oil, coal, and nuclear power. Renewable
energy is seen as a minor player in energy provision, and renewable resources are thought even less
important
The 21st Resource reserves are in truth the flashpoints for even more (and, in all likelihood, ever
century more acute) conflicts. Crisis and war have thus far remained confined to isolated
writing on the geographical regions.
wall: The It is by no means just the economic growth spurts of China and India which are to
political cost f blame for this. Equally guilty are the rapidly growing global transport industry and rising
fuel and electricity demand – the two sectors which are particularly closely bound up with the
resources political priorities of economic globalization and modernization.
*It was only with the arrival of photosynthesis, which allowed carbon to be
sequestered in the form of plants, that the oxygen vital to the development of aerobic
species was released. If this oxygen is reabsorbed through combustive oxidation of the
sequestered carbon, then aerobic lifeforms will be deprived of the air they need to
survive.
*There has not even been any attempt to calculate how much faster a fossil energy
source will be exhausted once it has to replace an exhausted source.
*Fossil fuel utopias are thought realistic, whereas comprehensive scenarios for solar
energy are deemed unrealistic. Finite resources can be exploited forever; inexhaustible
resources are of limited use. This has been the great contradiction of the 20 th century.
Without change, it will also become the tragedy of this new century.
*Modern colonialism in the form of global capitalism is vastly more effective, but
can only be achieved with the aid of resource extraction companies. There is no need to
assume political responsibility for the dependent territory, so the costs of administration
and policing can be saved. The only requirement is the need to ensure that the
governments of resource-exporting countries do not interrupt the flow of resources to
the industrialized world.
When governments of resources-exporting countries nationalized the extraction
industries in order to increase their share of the profits, sanctions were and continue to
be used to force cooperation, up to and including economic embargo. The most up-to-
date method is to make International Monetary Fund IMF loans contingent on
deregulation and privatization industry.
*In any case, the industrialized countries are skilled exploiters of divergent interests
and political conflict between the oil-exporting countries, judiciously applying the age-
old principle of divide and conquer.
*In a word of global competition, the 'luxury' of concern for the environment must be
earned through further conventional economic growth. This economic philosophy is in
reality a necrosophy – the wisdom of death.
The *Developing world socialism was founded on the industrialization model, but used
distorting centralized economic planning to achieve it.
effects of
fossil supply
chains.
The According to the Stockholm Environment Institute, the additional losses for crude oil
mythology of are 2% during extraction and transport to the refinery, and further 8% in the refinery
fossil energy itself, as measured by comparison with the quantity originally extracted. In the case of
gas, pre-combustion losses are 10%, and 7% in the case of coal. If these fuels are
subsequently used to produce electricity, this results in additional losses of 8%. This
means that across the whole supply chain, the losses go beyond the 60% loss
within the power station, amounting to 69% in the case of oil and gas, and 67%
in the case of coal. If the oil is used to fuel motor vehicles, then losses rise to 90%.
*Calculations show that the entire global energy demand can be met from renewable
resources. Renewable energy does not just require different patterns of use; it also need
new sponsors and new investment culture.
*Power stations have to cope with fluctuations in demand which can never be accurately
predicted, so there must always be steam on tap to drive the turbines – which means
that fuel must be burnt even when the demand is low. If demand falls, the steam must
be vented. Depending on the actual load on the power station, further energy losses are
thus inevitable. Steam turbine power stations can achieve their optimum efficiency only
if demand remains constant, which why base-load electricity is the cheapest.
 *In Germany, the figures are 0,1 kW/m2 for PV, 3 kW/m2 for wind power, 500
kW/m2 for coal and 650 kW/m2 for nuclear power. Statistics like this are designed to
create the impression that large-scale electricity generation requires large-scale power
plants capable of producing large quantities of electricity in a very small space. The
figures for coal and nuclear power, however, fail to account for the land requirements of
the entire supply chain from primary energy extraction to the power station, electricity
distribution and waste disposal.
Throwing Off The Fossil Supply Chains
Energy Achieving more effective and more comprehensive energy supplies has always meant
Beyond The the construction and expansion of energy grids. The national grid for electricity in
Grid particular symbolized the conclusion and perfection of the modern energy system.
Consequently, electricity generation technologies are evaluated and selected on the basis
of their compatibility with the national grid, and the technologies for generation from
renewables sources are also being developed for seamless integration with the grid.
*This focus on integrating renewable energy into the national grid shows up most clearly
in the lack of research into electricity storage.
Wireless power: The potential of solar stand-alone and stand-by technologies
*It is calculated that Germany wastes 20 billion kWh annually on stand-by functions,
nearly $2 billion. For the EU, 100 billion kWh a year.
*If stand-alone and stand-by functions were to be powered in future primarily by solar
panels, - in the name of lower costs, greater convenience and environmental protection
– this alone would probably rise the share of renewable energy to well over 10% of the
total electricity demand, enough to replace at least 10000 MW of Capacity in Germany
alone.
*Japanese industry applied for over 6000 patents on PV technology between 1981 and
1995 alone, many of which were for small devices.
The potential for natural and technological solar energy storage
The spectrum of potentially useful storage technologies ranges from electrochemical,
electrostatic (supercapacitors) and electromechanical to thermal and chemical media.
• Electrostatic storage (supercapacitors)
• Electromechanical storage (fly wheels)
• Compressed air
• Electrodynamic storage (superconductivity coil)
• Solar powered electrolysis
• Thermal storage
*Supercapacitors are light and can be extremely small. Though still immature, the
technology combines high energy density and efficiency with low environmental impact.
Their working lifetime is greater than for all other battery types, stretching into the
millions charge/discharge cycles. The cost, though, is still high, and current models are
not very powerful, having been developed for low-power electronics.
*The power storage option that offers the widest variety of applications is electrolytic
extraction of hydrogen, by which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.
Electrolysis is a long-established process; the primary focus of development work is
improved efficiency. The electrolysis equipment consists of a cathode (the negative
electrode) and an anode with a water based electrolyte in between. Electrons are forced
out of the cathode into the electrolyte, and the resulting chemical reaction releases
hydrogen. The anode (positive electrode) sucks electrons out, causing a second reaction
which releases oxygen. It s vital to keep the hydrogen and oxygen gasses separate.
Hydrogen has a high density, and therefore requires little storage space. Its extreme
versatility makes it the ideal fuel.
*Thermal storage uses a enlarged collector area and greater storage capacity. The
system works by using mirrors concentrate heat on the storage unit, where the heat
energy separates hydrogen from magnesium. The hydrogen can then be used as a heat-
transport medium to drive a Stirling engine producing electricity and hot water for the
heating system. Once the hydrogen has been recombined with the magnesium, the cycle
can begin again.
*Fuel cells are power plants in which a form of cold combustion process converts
hydrogen or another gaseous fuel into electricity – effectively reverse electrolysis. Until
hydrogen starts being produced in sufficient quantities, the idea is to run on natural gas.
*Hydrogen can also be produced from biomass on a regional basis, and fuel cells do not
 necessarily have to run on hydrogen.
The untapped Biomass gasification produces a gas which is just as suitable for synthesis as the natural
wealth of gas which is currently used – with the important difference that biomass-derived gas is
Solar almost devoid of sulphur.
Resources *For each TWh of energy, natural gas requires 250 employees, crude oil 260, coal 270
and nuclear power 70, whereas producing solid fuels from crops requires 1145
employees and 100 employees in the case of woodlands.
The An immediate and comprehensive transition to solar energy must take priority over all
profitability of other economic considerations. Any further delay will cost society more than it would
renewable to make the transition. If profitability is not calculated simply by applying the metrics
energy and developed for conventional fossil fuel power generation to solar resources, it will
resources reflected different in cost calculations. As long as the wrong measure continue to be
used, solar resources will trade below their real commercial value.
*The energy cost comparisons that we usually get to see are not as sophisticated as this.
As a rule, they simply compare the unit capital cost of the investment, on the basis of
average cost per kWh of generation capacity. In the case of PV and wind, the
comparison is subject to the proviso that, due to the discontinuous availability of
sunlight and wind, installed plant cannot operate continuously and thus the effective
average annual output is lower than that of a conventional power station. In
consequence, the real cost of energy output from PV and wind power plant is higher
than a simple comparison of capital cost would suggest.
*There is one cost which is avoided with all solar energy installations, with the exception
of biomass combustion: there are no running costs. Long-term cash-flow analysis over
the design lifetime of a product is the only adequate method for calculating cost, and not
just for renewable energy. The trend in business towards decreasing use of such
analysis, because short-term payback periods are increasingly becoming the standard
yardstick for evaluating investments, even to the point of governing liberal economic
policy, deprives the economy of its prospects for the future.
*In construction houses must be durable goods because of their high cost alone. The
economics of modern construction gives primacy to the capital costs of construction,
which are also the crucial factor in the awarding of contracts through competitive
tender. The consequence has been a rapid rise in the incidence of structural problems
appearing soon after construction, due to the use of substandard construction materials.
*Long term operating cost calculations for buildings make solar construction techniques
all but essential.
*Solar costs becomes solar profits.
Towards a Solar Economy
Intro Environmental disasters forced 2 million people to flee their homes. The consequences
for the refugees, from cultural uprooting to social destitution, are incalculable. That
most of these catastrophes result from the meltdown of the fossil energy age is
something that only the terminally blinkered can now contest. The countdown has
begun, and the time bombs are not just ticking more loudly now: many have already
gone off.
*Energy markets that do not give precedence to renewable energy, price cuts without
effective environmental taxation, the encouragement of mergers and acquisitions at the
cost of local solutions: such polices represent an intellectual; step backwards and are all
but irresponsible.
*It is not just a matter of what is simplest to achieve and therefore the pragmatic
response now. The modern fixation with what looks possible today dulls the eye for
what will become indispensable – and then achievable – tomorrow or the day after
Exploiting It is important to bear these trends in mind when evaluating renewable strategies.
Solar Energy • Heightened industrial concentration, with political backing, through strategic
mergers and aggressive competition against smaller firms. The public is left
with the impression that energy firms are becoming increasingly dominant, and
that the need to accommodate to their wishes is greater than ever. In reality,
these firms are mustering their strength for a last life-or-death struggle.
• Attempts to meet political demands for global climate protection in a way that
does not call the future of the nuclear and fossil energy business into question.
 This is the motivation for proposals such as tradable global emissions rights:
‘Yes there must be change, but not in my back yard!’.
• As energy companies have realized that their strategy of categorical rejection of
renewable energy (apart, of course, from the highly profitable hydropower
dams that have long since formed part of the energy mix) is no longer tenable,
they are attempting to ensure that renewable energy reaches the market on
their terms.
• A drive to bring energy suppliers from different sectors together to develop
integrated services, albeit in a way that suits the energy companies, ie, within
existing hierarchical structures.
*All the indications are that the more radical strategy of making the transition to
renewable energy would not only be a better solution to the problem, but would also be
a more popular one, and thus more politically feasible.
*It has already been established that the best way to exploit the potential of renewable
energy is not by replicating the centralized grid. Instead, renewable energy needs its own
supply structure based on high-performance electricity storage.
*When it comes to the privatization of public energy utilities, it ought to go without
saying that only the power stations should be sold, and not the grids.
*It should not be tolerated diesel-powered motorboats whose unavoidable leaks have
serious detrimental effects on water quality, when those boats could just as easily be run
on vegetable oil, in which case leaks would simply provide good fish fodder.
*A ban on sales of hydrocarbon lubricants and detergents should be instantiated, or a
ban on the use of non-recyclable oil-based packaging materials.
Regionalizati The correct response to the all-encompassing process of globalization, as most critics
on of the have realized, is to reconnect economic relationships with their regional basis. Most
Global regionalization schemes attempt to either compensate for a work alongside the
Economy globalization process, or they consist of measures to make national economies more
through Solar attractive locations from which to do business.
Resources *If regionalization is to be an adequate response to globalization, it must take a
completely different course: there must be a revitalized circular flow of goods and
services at the local level, so that more activities can be taken out of increasingly global
supply chains.
*Renewable energy is the ideal tool for bridging the global gulf between rich and poor.
Blindness to the societal consequences, and the enduring mythology and supply-chain
influence of the conventional energy industry, are the only factors that can explain why
renewable energy does not have pride of place in national strategies for economic
development.
*In developing countries whose currency is not yet freely convertible and which
therefore have direct control over their foreign currency reserves are in entirely different
position. The obvious strategy here would be to reallocate foreign currency reserves to
renewable energy by steering investment flows.
*Trade in emissions permits gives industrialized countries the option of buying their way
out of the need to reshape their energy systems, despite the fact that it is the
industrialized countries who most need to change. Developing country governments
are also so mired in chronic budget deficits that it is highly questionable whether they
would use the revenue from permit sales for purchasing and implementing energy-
saving technology in order to limit their need for emissions permits.
*Renewable energy offers a unique opportunity – for developing countries above all,
because they would be pursuing their own individual paths of development, rather than
copying the mistakes of industrialized world.
*Shipping and aviation account for around 15% of all global oil consumption, and the
proportion is set to increase in coming years. As emissions from aircraft cause at least
three times as much damage to the atmosphere as ground-level emissions, aviation as a
tax-exempt polluter causes around 30% of the damage to the atmosphere.
*Oil-drenched international waters and numerous oil-coated coasts are ample testament
to the environmental havoc wrought by shipping industry.
*Talk globally, procrastinate nationally. Action must be taken locally, not globally.
The Visible Over the course of history, many civilizations have fallen victim to their failure to wake
Hand of the up to mortal dangers. The fossil fuel crisis places the entire world in such a life-or-death
Sun: predicament.
Blueprint for *Political initiatives can and must drive and accelerate the replacement of fossil
a Solar World. resources. Waiting for reserves to be exhausted is not an option. Their primary task
must be to end privileged consumption of fossil fuels – which means abolishing direct
and indirect subsidies and absurd tax exemptions and to blaze the trail for renewable
resources.
*The future of society can no longer be secured if the economy is not structured around
primary production.
*The solar global economy makes possible a new global division of labour. Each
national economy exploits the resources directly afforded them by the sun, resources
that no-one can take away; all other needs are satisfied by the free interaction of supply
and demand. Only in this way can the rich diversity of global culture be maintained and
revitalized, or further developed through mutual enrichment.
*Renewable resources will bring a new era of wealth-creating economic development,
initiated not by bureaucratic fiat, but by the free choices of individuals.

1.2 TAKING THE SOLAR ENERGY INDUSTRY BEYOND GRID PARITY

*Solar Value Chain framework:
Total Cost / W p⋅CapacityW p
Cost / kWh=
lifespan⋅Anual kWh
where:
• Wp: Site-specific requirements of the installed solar system expressed as Capacity in Watts Peak.
The desires capacity is a predetermined value, and the system is built to that specification.
*The following equation is used to normalize all of the cost factors comprising the total cost
All−Cost
Total Cost /W p=
Total W p
*Conversion efficiency is one of the components comprising the denominator of total Wp.

1.3 STATISTICS & OTHER FACTS

• PV market close to 16 GWp in 2009,
• By the year 2030, the 8 billion people on Earth will face an annual water shortfall of 2700 billion
cubic litres, and the world demand 45 percent more energy than it does now.
• The robust and continuous growth experienced in the last ten years is expected to continue in the
coming years. By the end of 2008, the world cumulative PV power installed was approaching 16
GW and today, almost 23 GW are installed globally which produce about 25 Twh of electricity on
yearly basis.
• The sun provides the 99,97% of energy for natural processes.
• Wind meets 20% of electricity in Denmark, 14% in Spain & Portugal, and 8% in Germany.
Actually wind satisfies 2,5% of electricity demand in the U.S.

Solar Una comparación que permite apreciar la cantidad de energía solar que cada año incide
sobre la tierra es que equivale a cerca de 160 veces la energía de las reservas mundiales de
energía fosil o que es similar a más de 15,000 veces la energía anual usada de los
combustibles fósiles, nucleares y de las plantas hidráulicas.
Water vs. We humans are the thistiest of creatures. Plug your iphone (6 Wh) into the wall, and
Energy about half a liter of water must flow through kilometers of pipes, pumps, and the heat
exchangers of a power plant. Add up all the half-liters of water used to generate the
roughly 17 billion MWh that the world will burn through this year.
*A single google search takes about half a milliliter of water. The 300 million searches we
do a day take 150000 liters.
*The energy in river water supplies about 20% of the world's electricity. Climate
fluctuations make predicting future hydropower ouput tricky. Shrinking rivers, hae
reduced or even shut down power generation when dam reservoirs dropped below
 critiacl leves.
*On average in the Unites States, 28 liters of irrigation water are needed to produce
enough soybeans to propel an average vehicle 1 kilometer (12 gallons of water consumed
per mile driven). Ethanoal produced from corn grown on irrigated fields is almos as bad.
*By 2030 about 8% of U.S freshwater consumption might go toward making biofuels. A
better ideais to use crops that don't require any more water than what local rains provide.
Oil palms in Indonesia and sugarcane in Brazil are already being used to produce biofuels
in large quantities without irrigation.
The Saline In the Persian gulf, where seawater normally contains a lip-puckering 45 grams of salt per
Solution liter, thermal desalination is king. This method vaporizes water to purify it. Pretty
much everywhere else, desalination is done by reverse osmosis, which purifies water
through membranes. Both methods cut down the salt to a drinkable 0.5 gram per liter.
Desalination isn't just energy intensive; there's also the problem of the toxic sludge it
leaves behind. Throwing the brine back into the ocean can kill fish and smaller denizes
of the food chain.
In the future, desalination might just be powered by the very stuff it filters out.
• Thermal Desalination: Evaporation and pumping can consume up to 80
Mwh/ML of water produced. The typical U.S energy price of 0,065 $/kWh
translates to $5200/ML.
• Reverse Osmosis: The freshwater rushes to salty side by the natural process
of osmosis. RO uses hydraulic pressure to shove water molecules in the
oppsite direction, with the membrane holding back the salt. The pressure
needed to push water through the membrane is proportional to the water'
salinity, RO demands at least 3,5MWh/ML.
• Spin Cycle: A reactor that separates particulates from water by sending it
through a long, curved channel. Hydrodynamic forces cause the particles to
become concentrated near the inner wall of the channel, which allows for easy
separation. That reduces the energy demand of permanent to only 2,5
kWh/ML.
• Microbial Fuel Cells: Theyu can generate power by cleaning contaminated
salty water. The bacteria eat salt and other substances in the contaminated
water, and as they clean the water, they generate excess electrons as part of their
metabolic processes.

1.4 EMISSIONS TRADING

Intro It is possible for a country to reduce emissions using a command-control approach,

such as regulation, direct and indirect taxes. The cost of that approach differs between
countries because the Marginal Abatement Cost Curve MAC – the cost of eliminating
and additional unit of pollution – differs by country.
*The nature of the pollutant plays a very important role when policy-makers decide
which framework should be sued to control pollution. CO2 acts globally, thus its
impact on the environment is generally similar wherever in the globe it is released. So
the location of the originator of the emissions does not really from an environmental
standpoint.

Carbon credit *One carbon credit is equal to one tone of CO2.

Captación y El Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio climático (IPCC) fue
alamacenami creado en 1988 por la Organización Meteorológica Mundial (OMM)y el Programa de las
ento de CO2 Naciones Unidas para el Medío Ambiente (PNUMA),
*La captación y almacenamiento del CO2 (CAC) constituyen un proceso consistente en
la separación del CO2 emitido por la industria y fuentes relacionadas con la energía, su
transporte a un lugar de almacenamiento y su aislamiento de la atmósfera a largo plazo.
El CO2 sería comprimido y transportado para ser almacenado en formaciones
geológicas, en el océano, en carbonatos minerales, o para ser utilizado en procesos
industriales.
*La tecnología disopnible permite captar enter el 85 y 95% del CO2 tratado en una
 planta de captación. Una central electrica con un sistema de CAC necesitaría,
aproximadamente, entre el 10 y el 40% mas de energía.
*Se estima que la aplicación de la CAC a la producción de electricidad, en las
condiciones vigentes en 2002, elevará los costos de generación de electricidad entre 0,01
y 0,05 dolares por kWh, dependiendo del combustible, la tecnología específica, la
ubicación y las circunstancias nacionales.

1.5 RETSCREEN

Clean energy In order to benefit from RET (Renewable energy technologies), potential users, decision
project and policy makers, planners, project financiers, and equipment vendors must be able to
analysis quickly and easily assess whether a proposed clean energy technology makes sense. This
analysis allows for the minimum investment of time and effort and reveals whether or
not a potential clean energy project is sufficiently promising to merit further
investigation.
The core of the tool consists of a standardise and integral project analysis software
which can be used worldwide to evaluate the energy production, life-cycle costs and
greenhouse gas emission reduction of various types of proposed energy efficient and
renewable energy technologies.
*Clean energy technologies consist of energy efficient and RET. Clean energy
technologies that fall into category energy efficiency typically include:
• Combined heat and power systems.
• Efficient refrigeration technologies.
• Efficient lighting systems.
• Ventilation heat recovery systems.
• Variable speed motors for compressors and ventilation fans.
• Improved insulation.
• High performance building envelopes and windows.
*A renewable energy resource is one whose use does not affect its future availability. For
example, every unit of natural gas burned in order to heat a building results in one less
unit of natural gas for future needs. In contrast, using solar energy to heat the building
does nothing to reduce the future supply of sunshine.
*Normally, project planners should apply cost-effective energy measures first, and then
consider RET.
*Greenhouse gasses include:
• Carbon dioxide.
• Methane.
• Nitrous oxide.
• Water vapour.
• Ozone
• Several classes of Halocarbons.
Greenhouse gasses are so-called because their presence in the atmosphere does not
block sunlight from reaching the earth's surface, but does slow the escape of heat from
the earth.
*The RETScreen Clean energy Project Analysis Software allows the user to estimate
the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions associated with using a clean energy
technology in place of conventional energy technology.
*Energy efficiency measures are applied to local systems and RETs make use of local
resources. Therefore, transactions tend to be between local organizations. When money
stays within the local area, its multiplier effect within the area is increased.
Renewable energy electricity generating technologies
• Wind Energy Systems
*The turbines used to charge batteries and pump water off-grid tend to be small, ranging
from as small as 50W up to 10 kW. For isolated grid applications, the turbines are
typically larger, ranging from about 10 to 200 kW. The largest turbines are installed on
central grids and are generally rated between 1 and 2 MW, but prototypes design for use
in shallow waters offshore have capacities of up to 5 MW.
*The energy available from the wind increases in proportion to the cube of the wind
speed, which typically increases with height above the ground.
*At minimum, the annual average wind speed for a wind energy project should exceed 4
m/s at a height of 10 m above the ground.
• Small hydro systems
• Photovoltaic Systems
*The largest arrays have capacities in excess of 5 MW.
*PV systems are cost-effective in small off-grid applications. Unfortunately, without
subsidies, on-grid applications are rarely cost-effective due to high price of PV modules.
• Renewable energy heating and cooling technologies.
◦ Biomass heating. It consists of a heating plant, a heat distribution system,
and a fuel supply operation. Biomass fuels (wood residues, agricultural
residues, municipal solid waste, etc).
◦ Solar air heating. It consists of a transpired collector absorbs incident
sunshine and warms the layer of air adjacent to it. A fan draws this sun-
warmed air through the perforations, into the air space behind the
collector and then into the ducting within the building, which distributes
the heated air through the building, which distributes the heated air
through the building or the industrial processes. Solar air heating also has
huge potential in industrial processes which need large volumes of heated
air, such as in the drying of agricultural (coffee) products.
◦ Solar water heating. Depending on the type of solar collector used, the
weather conditions, and the hot water demand, the temperature of the
water heated can vary from tepid to nearly boiling. Most solar systems are
meant to furnish 20 to 85% of annual demand for hot water.
◦ Passive solar heating.
◦ Ground-source heat pump. It provides low temperature heat by extracting
it from ground or a body of water and provide cooling by reversing this
process. It has three major components: the earth connection, a heat
pump, and the heating or cooling distribution system. Since the energy
extracted from the ground exceeds the energy used to run the heat pump,
GSHP “efficiencies” can exceed 100%, and routinely average 200 to 500%
over a season. Heat pumps typically range in cooling from 3.5 to 35 kW (1
to 20 tons of cooling).
Preliminary Feasibility Studies
• Pre-feasibility analysis (make decision). A quick and inexpensive initial
examination (profitability and cost-effectiveness). It is characterized by the use
of readily available site and resource data, coarse cost estimates, and simple
calculations and judgements often involving rules of thumbs.
• Feasibility analysis (make decision)
◦ Physical characteristics.
◦ Financial viability.
◦ Environmental, social.
◦ Involve energy auditing, resource monitoring, site visits, computer
simulation, and prices.
• Engineering and development (make decision)
◦ Design and planning
◦ planning, arrangement, and negotiation of financial, regulatory, contractual
and other non-physical aspects of the project.
▪ Training
 ▪ customer relations.
▪ Community consultation.
• Construction and commissioning
*The conditions indicating good potential for successful clean energy project
implementation typically include:
• Need for energy system.
• New construction or planned renovation.
• High conventional energy cost.
• Interest by key stakeholders.
• Hassle free approvals process.
• Easy access to funding and financing.
• Adequate local clean energy resources.
Analysis Fundamental to the RetScreen SW us a comparison between a “base case” -typically the
Software conventional technology or measure – and a “proposed case” - the clean energy
technology.
*RetScreen provides a five step energy analysis
• Energy Model. Calculates the annual energy production or energy savings.
• Cost Analysis. The user enters the initial, annual, and periodic costs for the
proposed case system as well as credits for any base case costs that are avoided
in the proposed case. (pre-feasibility or feasibility study)
• Emission Analysis. The user has the choice between performing simplified,
standard or custom analysis, and can also indicate if the project should be
evaluated as a potential Clean Development Mechanism CDM project.
• Financial Analysis.
• Sensitivity and Risk Analysis. It assist the user in determining how uncertainty
in the estimates of various key parameters may affect the financial viability of
the project.
RETScreen has a variety of purposes:
• Feasibility Studies
• Project lender due diligence
• Market Studies
• Policy Analysis
• Information dissemination
• Training
• Sales of products and/or services
• Project development and management
• Product development R&D
*The box “Reducing the Cost of pre-feasibility Studies” shows how this capability
has already been instrumental for a project identification initiative.
Databases
*The meteorological DB:
• Ground-based meteorological
• NASA's satellite
*Hydrology data.
*Product data.
*Cost data
Greenhouse This model calculates the GHG emission profile for a Base Case System (Baseline), and
Gas (GHG) for the Proposed Case System (clean energy project). The GHG emission reduction
Emission potential is obtained by combining the difference of the GHG emissions factors with
Reduction other information calculated by RETScreen, such as the annual energy delivered.
Analysis • Combustion produces not just carbon dioxide but also methane and nitrous
Model oxide. These two, are converted into their equivalent carbon dioxide emission
according to their “global warming potential”.
• The transmission and distribution (T&D) losses in electrical systems that feed
into a grid must be considered. Modern, industrialized grids tend to have
losses of around 8 to 10%.
• CHG credits transaction fee %.
*The RetScreen Software takes into account the emerging rules from the Kyoto
Protocol that are associated with three specific mechanism:
• The Clean Development Mechanism CDM
• Joint Implementation JI
• Emission Trading
Carbon Sequestration
factors included in Carbon sequestration:
• forest management practices for different tree species and geographical
regions.
• The costs of land and competing prices for agricultural products.
• The ultimate disposition of forest materials.
• Potential for fire damage.
• Harvesting for use in different kinds of end products.
• Carbon management policy.
*Conclusions are striking. Estimated costs for sequestering up to 500 million tons of
carbon per year- an amount that would offset up to one third of current annual U.S.
Carbon emissions- range from $30 to $90 per ton.,
*The primary sources of the slow but steady increase in atmospheric carbon are fossil
fuel combustion, which contributes approximately 5,5 gigatons (billion metric tons) of
carbon per year, and land-use changes, which account for another 1,1 gigatons. In
contrast, the oceans absorb from the atmosphere approximately 2 more gigatons of
carbon than they release, and the earth's ecosystems appear to be accumulating another
1,2 gigatons annually. In all, the atmosphere is annually absorbing 3,4 gigatons of
carbon more than it is releasing.
*While the annual net increase in atmospheric carbon may not sound large compared
with the total amount of carbon stored in the atmosphere -750 gigatons- it adds up
over time.
*In essence, forests and other highly productive ecosystems can become biological
scrubbers by removing (sequestering) CO2 from the atmosphere.
*Among the key factors that affect estimates of the cost of fore carbon sequestration ae:
• The tree species involved, forestry practices utilized, and related rates of carbon
uptake over time.
• The opportunity cost of the land – that is, the value of the affected land for
alternative uses.
• The disposition of biomass through burning, harvesting, and forest product
sinks;
• Anticipated changes in forest and agricultural prices
• The analytical methods used to account for carbon flows over time.
• The discount rate employed in the analysis
• The policy instruments used to achieve a given carbon sequestration target.
*There has also been research on mechanisms to increase the rate at which oceans
extract and store carbon from the atmosphere. Additionally, it may be possible to
increase the rate at which ecosystems remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store the
carbon in plant material, decomposing detritus, and organic soil. In essence, forests and
other highly productive ecosystems can become biological scrubbers by sequestering
CO2 from the atmosphere.
*The costs of carbon sequestration are typically expressed in terms of monetary
amounts (dollars) per ton of carbon sequestered: that is,as the ratio of economic inputs
to carbon sequestration outputs for a specific program. The denominator, carbon
sequestered, is determined by:
• Forest management practices.
• Tree species.
• Geographical location and characteristics.
• Disposition of forest products involved in a hypothetical policy or program.
The numerator represents:
• The summed cost of land.
• Planting and management
• Possibly secondary costs or benefits, such as non-climate environmental
impacts or timber production.
*Among U.S. Studies, the range of estimates for overall forest carbon sequestration
potential is from 0,9 to 4,6 tons per acre per year (0,4 hectare, in other words from 2,25
 tons to 11,5 tons CO2 per acre per year).
*A mature forest can can soak up the equivalent of 440 tonnes of CO2 per hectare in
the 50-100 years it takes to reach maturity (4,4-8,8 tonnes per year).
*1 m3 of timber can absorb 1,83 tons of CO2 and release 1,62 tons of oxygen per year.

Rubber based cropping system

*Rubber based agroforestry involve complex and diversified cropping system that
combines the growing of rubber and other agricultural crops in one area. A desirable
rubber based cropping system would give a good economic yield while protecting the
environment, conserving soil, water and nutrients.
Perennial tree crops as in the case of forest trees, are known to function as natural
“Sponges” for absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. Carbon sequestration is achieved
through the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere and its conversion into cellulose and
organic matter.
The rubber tree Heva brasiliensis was first introduced as a crop for plantation
agriculture several years ago from the wilderness of the Amazon Jungles. Hence, one can
expect Hevea to behave as a typical tropical rain forest tree that would at least function
as efficient as forest trees in CO2 sequestration.
Moreover, technological practices that are known slow down soil CO2 oxidation and
increase CO2 fixation and storage are also being adopted in rubber plantations. Such
strategies include improved soil and water conservation practices such as leguminous
cover cropping, application of organic manure, mulching, inter-cropping etc., which are
known to have helped in the increased enrichment of soil organic CO2 by about 30 to
50% from about 1.9% CO2 to 2.39% CO2 in the lower depth of soils and to 2.9 CO2 %
in the top soil.
Carbon accumulation within the mature Hevea ecosystem in the early years of maturity
comprises mainly the carbon locked up within the mature tree through increase in dry
matter accumulation, from within the inter-row leguminous cover system and associated
litter, decomposing Hevea leaf litter and branch material arising from self pruning and in
shed reproductive parts including mature seed and fruit components and within the
fertile top soil region. Annual leaf fall which includes falling branches twigs and fruit is
estimated to be around 3.7 to 7.7 ton/ha.
*the total amount of carbon sequestered in one hectare of rubber plantation made up of
tree biomass, latex produced and contribution from leguminous cover crops amount 680
mt in 33 years (1,8 mts height), or just 586 mt of rubber trees themselves.
*The possible credit benefit revenue entitlement per hectare at the end of 33 years at the
rate of US$12 per mt is about us$ 7032.
*A tree planted in tropical; sequester atmospheric dioxide at an average of 50 pounds of
carbon dioxide per tree per year. Nevertheless, we can roughly estimate the amount of
CO2 sequestered in a given tree, and if we divide by the three's age, get a yearly
sequestration rate.
• Determine the total (green) weight of the tree.
• Determine the dry weight of the tree.
• Determine the weight of carbon in the tree.
• Determine the weight of carbon dioxide sequestered in the tree.
• Determine the weight of CO2 sequestered in the tree per year.
*Tropical tree plantations of pine and eucalyptus can sequester an average of 10 tons of
carbon per hectare per year. Therefore to determine the weight of CO2 sequestered in
the tree, multiply weight of carbon in the tree by 3,663. Eucalyptus destroy the water
table and the soil.!
Financial The model makes the following assumptions:
Analysis • The initial investment year is year 0.
Model • The costs and credits are given in year 0 terms, thus the inflation rate is applied
from year 1 onwards.
• The timing of cash flows occurs at the end of the year.
*Debt payments are a constant stream of regular payments that last for a fixed number
of years.
*Cash flows keeps track, on a yearly basis, of all expenses (outflows) and incomes
(inflows) generated by the clean energy project.
*Asset depreciation or capital cost allowance, depends on the depreciation method
 chosen:
• None.
• Declining balance. It depreciates the asset more quickly in the early years of
the project, leading to more depreciation earlier rather than in the later years of
the asset's useful life.
• Straight line. It assumes that the capitalised costs of the project, as specified
by the depreciation tax basis, are depreciated with a constant rate over the
depreciation method.
The yearly depreciation of assets is used in the model in the calculation of income taxes
and after-tax financial indicators.
When there is no depreciation, the model assumes that the project is fully capitalised at
inception, is not depreciated through the years and therefore maintains its depreciated
value through its life.
*Loss carry forward (e.g. a negative net income) in a given year can sometimes be used,
according to some taxation rules, lo lower taxes in the same year.
*Internal rate of return IRR is the discount rate that causes the Net Present Value
(NPV) of the project to be zero. Not that the IRR is undefined in certain cases, notably
if the project yields immediate positive cash flow in year zero.
*Simple payback SP is the number of years it takes for the cash flow (excluding debt
payments) to equal the total investment.
*Equity payback also year-to-positive cash flow is the first year that the cumulative
cash flows for the project are positive.
*The Net Present Value NPV of a project is the value of all future cash flows,
discounted at the discount rate, in today's currency.
*The Annual Life Cycle Savings ALCS is the levelised nominal yearly savings having
exactly the same life and NPV as the project.
*The Benefit-Cost Ratio B-C is an expression of the relative profitability of the
project. It is calculated as a ratio of the NPV of annual revenues (income and/or
savings) less annual costs to the project equity.
*The Debt Service Coverage DSC is the ratio of the operating benefits of the project
over the debt payments.
*The Energy Production Cost is the avoided cost of energy that brings the NPV value
to zero.
Sensitivity It shows the parameters which have the greates impact on the financial indicators.
and Risk *The Risk Analysis Model is absed on a “Monte Carlo Simulation”, which is a method
Analysis whereby the distribution of possible indicator outcomes is generted by using randomly
Models selected sets of values as input parameters, within a predetermined range, to simulate
possible outcomes.

1.6 PROTOCOLO INTERNACIONAL DE MEDICIÓN Y VERIFICACIÓN DEL

DESEMPEÑO PIMVD.

Introducción Este protocolo incluye procedimientos que, cuando se implementan, permiten a los
compradores, vendedores y financieros de los proyectos de energía y agua, cuantificar el
desempeño de la Medida de la Conservacion del Agua y Medidad de Conservación
de Energía (ECM) (WCM) así como el ahorro de energía.
*Hay dos aspectos básicos en la verificación del desempeño ECM que se cubren:
• Veirficación de: i) La exactitud de las condiciones base, como se especificán en
el contrato entre el comprador y vendedor y ii) la completa instalción y
adecuada operación de equipo/sistemas nuevos especificados en el contrato.
• Verificación de la cantidad de ahorros de energía y/o ahorros en el costo de la
energía que se presentan durante el plazo del contrato.
*Mientras que las modificaciones efectivas en costo pueden reducir típicamente el uso de
energía en las edficiaciones existentes en un 30%, el diseño eficiente por medi del uso de
tecnologías existentes y efectivas en así como técnicas pueden reducir el uso de energía
en las construcciones nuevas en un 50%.
*Mientras que algunos ESCOs han empezado a solicitud creditos directamente, otras
 compañias podrían ver que es más sencillo trabajar con compañías públicas o privadas
para agregar y manejar la reventa de emisiones, un servicio que puede simplificar
significativamente el proceso de solucitud de créditos para los desarrolladores de los
proyectos.
Financiamien Contaros de desempeño
to de la Cuando una garantía de desempeño esta involucrada en un proyecto de eficiencia en
eficiencia en energía financiado, éste de puede clasificar en un contrato de desempeño. Es importante
energia y la reconocer que hay dos instrumentos separados en dichas transacciones – el instrumento
importancia de préstamo y la garantía. Generalmente, ésta ultima garantiza que en algún nivel de
de medición y precio definido, se generarán ahorros de energía suficiente para satisfacer las
verificación obligaciones de pago financieras.
Los contratos ECM tienen que incluir un método claro para:
• Evaluar el desempeño del proyecto.
• Determinar la distribución de los ahorros.
El papel de la Medición y Verificación es proporcionar ese método, - como medio de
cuantificar el desempeño ECM instalado y para calcular los ahorros que se acumulan
como resultado de una eficiencia mejorada.
*En algunos casos, sería preferible que el propietario consiga una tercera parte para
determinar si se están cumpliendo los acuerdos.
*Los estimados de ahorros de energía generalmente se basan en una suposición de que
las instalaciones operarán en base a un horario pre-estimado o de un perfil de carga. La
asignación de responsabilidades para estos cambios son componentes críticos del
contrato. Por ejemplo, un contrato ejecutado podría estipular que el propietario es
responsable por las horas de operación de un sistema de iluminación y el ESCO es
responsable por asegurar que el sistema se comporte correctamente.
*Es importante observar que todos los métodos para definir los ahorros son estimados.
El desempeño puede medirse, los ahorros no pueden ser medidos.
• Opción A: Se determinan los ahorros midiendo la capacidad o eficiencia de un
sistema antes y después de una modificación y multiplicando la diferencia por
factor “estipulado” o acordado, como las horas de operación o la carga en un
sistema.
• Opción B: las cargas individuales son monitoreadas durante un periodo de
tiempo especifico o continuamente después de hacer una modificación para
determinar el desempeño y este desempeño medido se compara con una linea
base para determinar los ahorros.
• Opción C: determinan los ahorros estudiando el uso general de energía en
unas instalaciones e identificando los efectos de los proyectos de energía de los
cambios en los patrones de uso de energía en general (requiere 9-12 meses de
observación).
• Opción D: Enfoque de simulación calibrado.
Panorama de La verificación de las condiciones de base línea y posteriores a la instalación implica
la Medición y inspecciones, mediciones alatorias y/o comisionamiento de actividades. El
Verificación comisionamiento de actividades incluye:
• Supocisiones del disegno ECM
• Documentación del propósito del disegno para uso del contratista, propieatario
y operadores.
• Pruebas de desempegno funcional y documentación necesaria para evaluar la
aceptación del ECM.
• Ajuste ECM para que cumpla con todas las necesidades reales dentro de la
capacidad del sistema.
*Para el resto de los agnos del contrato, el ESCO ofrece informes anuales (o de algún
otro intervalo). Estos informes incluyen la documentación de inspección del
equipo.sistemas instlados y probablemente valores de ahorros actualizando los datos
obtenidos y analizados durante cada agno del contrato.
*El uso de la ebergía de base línea, el uso de la energía posterior a la instalación y los
ahorros de energía (y en costos) se pueden determinar utilizando una o más de las
siguientes ytécnicas de Medición y verificación:
• Cálculos de ingenieria.
• Medición y monitoreo.
 • Análisis de la Facturación del Medidor de Servicios Públicos.
• Simulaciones por Computadora.
• Estipulaciones Acordadas por el propietario y ESCO.
*Comunmente se entiende que varios ECM's interactuán entres sí. Por ejemplo, las
cargas de iluminación reducidas poeden reducir el consumo de energía para el
acondicionamiento del aire pero aumentan el consumo de calefacción. En casos donde
los efectos interactivos tienen que ser medidos, se necesitan desarrollar planes de
Medición y verificación para el uso de la electricidad, enfriamiento y uso final en
calefacción.
*La mayoria de la energía asociada con el consumo de fuentes de abastecimiento de agua
municipal se utilizan en el sitio, principalmente para calentar el agua de las casas y
edificios mientra que una parte mucho menor se consume fuera del sitio para propósitos
de bombeo y tratamiento. Muchas ECM's y WCM's llevan a ahorros de energía
significativos reduciendo las necesidades.
*Para los proyectos que involucran ahorros significativos de agua caliente de los
ECM's de agua en grandes instalaciones así como otros ECM's, un medidor
independiente de agua para la demanada de agua caliente podría ayudar a distinguir la
fuente de los ahorros en energía. En algunos de estos casos, la extrapolación de los
ahorros en energía basados en un factor pre-acordado de la supuesta eficiencia del
sistema de calefacción, es suficiente.
*La “Regla Practica” estima poner costos de Medición y Verficación en un 10%-20%
del costo típico de construcción del proyecto.
Técnicas de Medición de parametros electricos
instrumentaci *La forma más común de detectar la corriente eléctrica para la eficiencia de energía y
ón y las aplicacinoes de ahorros es por medio de un transformador de corriente o
medición transductor de corriente (CT). Los CT's se colocan en cables conectados con cargas
especificas como motores, bombas o luces, en el tablero que da servicio a la carga o
directamente en la carga.. Estos CT's después se conectan a un medidor o medidor de
energía. Los CT's so variables, muy confiables y ofrecen una solución de bajo costo
(típcamente 50 a 100 dólares por CT) para medir la corriente AC. Los CT's divididos
permiten la instalación sin desconectar la carga.
*Los medidores de watts del equipo de enfriamiento típicamente leen niveles de
potencia mucho menores que las mediciones de voltaje y corriente medidas en el sitio
individualmente debido a los factores de potencia menor asociados con los enfriadores
cargados parcialmente.
*Una precaución relacionada implica la práctica del uso de una medición de corriente
como un proxy para las mediciones de potencia de los análisis de motores, El
problema es que la corriente no es una función lineal de la carga. Con cargas bajas, la
corriente no cambia mucho; es el factor de potencia el que cambia con cargas bajas. El
factor de potencia de los motores de inducción cambia con la carga, bajando
significativamente por debajo de setenta y cinco por ciento (75%) de carga. Los motores
cargados por debajo del nivel son más la norma que la excepción en plantas industriales
y causan consumos excesivos de potencia y un factor de potencia bajo. Es malo basarse
en las mediciones de corriente para aproximarse a la potencia del motor.
Esta situación se compone cuando existen desequilibrios en el voltaje de la fase. Las
variaciones del voltaje nominal del sistema también afectan las características de
desempeño del motor. Un voltaje de noventa por ciento (90%) nominal da como
resultado once por ciento (11%) de aumento en la corriente y uno por ciento (1%) de
incremento en el factor de potencia. Un voltaje de ciento diez por ciento (110%)
nominal da como resultado un siete por ciento (7%) de reducción en la corriente y un
tres por ciento (3%) de reducción en el factor de potencia. El procedimiento que se
recomienda para obtener datos de potencia del motor es seguir la práctica ingenieril
generalmente aceptada de uso de equipo de medición de potencia RMS verdadero de
muestreo digital. Esta técnica es aún más necesaria si los dispositivos de producción
armónicos y transmisiones de frecuencia variable se encuentran en el mismo circuito
dando como resultado la posibilidad de voltajes armónicos en las terminales del motor.
*Cuando ocurre la distorsión de formas de onda, la relación entre las lecturas promedio
y los valores verdaderos RMS cambia drásticamente. Los medidores de promedios y
detectores de picos son inexactos y son tecnologías inadecuadas para la medición de
formas de onda distorsionadas. Por otra parte, la tecnología digital de muestreo es el
método que se recomienda para medir las formas de onda no-sinusoidales. El equipo de
medición digital de estado sólido muestrea el voltaje y la corriente simultáneamente para
producir valores instantáneos que se guardan en la memoria junto con su producto y
cuadrados individuales. Periódicamente, el medidor calcula RMS y promedia los valores
para obtener la potencia y energía verdadera de RMS.
*La norma IEEE 519-1992, Prácticas y Requisitos Recomendados por IEEE para
el Control Armónico en los Sistemas de Potencia Eléctrica, requiere de una
velocidad de muestra de 3 kHz en el estudio de las armónicas del sistema de potencia. Se
recomienda que el equipo de medición de potencia seleccione la Norma 519 de IEEE
de velocidad de muestreo cuando haya problemas de armónicas.
*La potencia real se puede medir directamente utilizando transductores de watts
(dispositivos que determinan los sensores de corriente y potencia del voltaje). Los
dispositivos que integran la potencia con el tiempo se llaman “transductores watt-hora”.
Medición de la Temperatura
las mediciones de temperatura computarizada mas comúnmente utilizadas utilizan uno
de los cuatro metodos básicos para reducir temperaturas:
• Detectores de temperatura de resistencias (RTDS)->
Método común para medir la temperatura del aire y del agua en los campos de
administración de energía es con los RTD´s que se encuentran entre los elementos más
exactos, reproducibles, estables y sensibles térmicamente disponibles. La teoría atrás de
un RTD es que la resistencia eléctrica en muchos materiales cambia con la temperatura.
En algunos materiales, este cambio se puede reproducir mucho y por consiguiente se
puede utilizar como una medida exacta de la temperatura. Estos dispositivos son
económicos y disponibles fácilmente en paquetes de configuración para medir las
temperaturas de aire interior y exterior así como temperaturas de fluidos en agua
enfriada o sistemas de calefacción. Considerando su desempeño total, el RTD más
popular son los dispositivos de Platino de 1,000 ohm y 100 en varios paquetes
incluyendo despostilladuras de cerámica, tiras flexibles e instalaciones de termopozos.
Los RTD´s de cuatro cables ofrecen un nivel de precisión que es pocas veces requerido
en la industria de contratación del desempeño y se encuentran comúnmente en servicios
de alta precisión o en el laboratorio. Hay RTD´s de tres cables para compensar las
aplicaciones donde se necesita un RTD con un cable largo expuesto a condiciones
variables del medio ambiente.
Los RTD´s de dos cables se tienen que calibrar en el campo para compensar la longitud
y no deben tener cables expuestos a las condiciones que varían significativamente de las
medidas.
La instalación de RTD´s es relativamente sencilla con la ventaja de que el cableado de
cobre convencional puede utilizarse a diferencia a otro cableado de termocople más
caro.
• Sensores termoeléctricos (termocoples)->
La termometría de termocoples es donde se utilizan dos metales diferentes para generar
un voltaje que cambia con la temperatura. En general, los termocoples se utilizan cuando
se necesitan datos de temperaturas altas razonablemente exactos.
◦ Platino - Rodio (Tipo S o R)
◦ Cromel - Alumel (Tipo K)
◦ Cobre - Constantano (Tipo T)
◦ Hierro - Constantano (Tipo J)
La principal desventaja de los termocoples es su señal de salida débil, haciéndolos más
sensibles al ruido eléctrico y siempre requieren de amplificadores.
• Termómetros de Tipo Resistencia Semiconductores (Termistores)->
Los termistores son sensores de temperatura de semiconductores y generalmente
consisten de un óxido de manganeso, níquel, cobalto y uno de los varios otros tipos de
materiales que se muelen, mezclan, presionan y sintetizan. Una de las principales
diferencias entre termistores y RTD´s es que los primeros tienen un gran cambio de
resistencia negativa con temperatura. Los termistores no son intercambiables y su
relación de temperatura-resistencia no es lineal. Son dispositivos frágiles y requieren del
uso de líneas de potencia con cobertura, filtros o voltaje DC. Como los termocoples,
estos dispositivos pocas veces se encuentran incluidos en la contratación del desempeño.
• Dispositivos de Semiconductores de Unión que También se llaman
Sensores de Temperatua de Circuito Integrado IC->
Algunos diodos de semiconductores y transistores también muestran sensibilidad
reproducible a la temperatura. Dichos dispositivos generalmente se hacen de sensores de
Circuitos Integrados (IC) y pueden venir en varios tamaños y formas. Estos dispositivos
se encuentran en algunas ocasiones en aplicaciones de HVAC donde se requiere una
salida lineal fuerte y un costo bajo. Los sensores de temperatura tienen un error absoluto
bastante bueno pero requieren de una fuente de energía externa, son frágiles y están
sujetos a errores causados por el auto-calentamiento.
Mediciónde la Humedad
En general, la mayoría de las mediciones de humedad no “miden” en realidad la
humedad pero miden el efecto de la humedad utilizando una medición indirecta. Las
mediciones de humedad relativa (indirectas) incluyen:
◦ El Sicomedidor de Evaporación
◦ Resistencia Eléctrica o Conductividad
◦ Elongación
◦ Capacitancia-Reactancia
◦ Infrarrojo
◦ Radio-Frecuencia
◦ Mediciones Acústicas
El equipo para medir la humedad relativa está disponible con varios proveedores y la
instalación es relativamente sencilla. Sin embargo, la calibración de los sensores de
humedad sigue siendo una gran preocupación y se deberá describir cuidadosamente y
documentarse en cualquier contrato.
Medición del Flujo
La selección de un medidor de flujo para una aplicación en particular requiere de saber
qué tipo de fluido se está midiendo, qué tan sucio o limpio está, cuáles son las
velocidades más bajas del fluido que se esperan para ese fluido y qué tipo de presupuesto
está disponible.
En general, los sensores de fluido se pueden agrupar en cuatro tipos diferentes de
medidores:
◦ Medidores de Flujo de Presión Diferencial (por ejemplo, Medidor de
Placa con Orificio, Medidor Venturi, Medidor del Tubo de Pitot)
◦ Medidores de Obstrucción de Flujo (por ejemplo, Medidor de Área
Variable, Medidor de Desplazamiento Positivo, Medidor de Turbina,
Medidor de Paleta Tangencial, Medidor de Vórtice)
Los medidores de vórtice no tienen partes en movimiento y son adecuados para
mediciones de gas, vapor o flujo de líquido. Requieren de un mantenimiento mínimo y
tienen mucha exactitud y se pueden repetir a largo plazo. Los medidores de vórtice
proporcionan una señal de salida digital lineal (o análoga) que se puede capturar con el
equipo de monitoreo/medidor para formar tendencias.
◦ Medidores sin Interferencia (por ejemplo, Medidor Ultrasónico,
Medidor Magnético)
En todos los medidores descritos previamente, se necesita de cierta interferencia con el
flujo para extraer una medición. Recientemente, se desarrollo una clase nueva de
medidores que es capaz de extraer una medición sin colocar una obstrucción en la
corriente del fluido. Los medidores de flujo ultrasónicos miden las velocidades de fluido
limpio detectando pequeñas diferencias en el tiempo de tránsito y las ondas de sonido
que se toman de una corriente de fluido en un ángulo. Se han desarrollado varios diseños
que utilizan pasos múltiples, configuraciones de trayectoria múltiple. Se han desarrollado
medidores de flujo ultrasónico de abrazadera exactos que ahora facilitan la medición
rápida de las velocidades de fluido en tuberías de diferentes tamaños. Una exactitud de
uno por ciento (1%) del flujo real a dos por ciento (2%) de toda la escala es posible
ahora a pesar de que esta tecnología sigue siendo cara. Recientemente, se desarrolló un
medidor de ultrasonido que utiliza el principio de Doppler en lugar del tiempo de
tránsito. En dicho medidor, se necesita cierta cantidad de partículas y aire para que la
señal rebote y sea detectada por el receptor. Los medidores de efecto Doppler están
disponibles con una exactitud que va de dos a cinco por ciento (2-5%) de toda la escala y
tiene precios que son menores a los de los dispositivos ultrasónicos de efecto de tiempo
de tránsito estándares. El costo del medidor es independiente al tamaño del tubo.
◦ Medidores de Flujo de Masa (por ejemplo, Medidor de Flujo de Masa
Coriolis, Medidor de Flujo de Masa de Inercia Angular)
Los medidores de flujo magnéticos miden el disturbio que causa un líquido en
 movimiento en un campo fuerte magnético. Los medidores de flujo magnéticos
generalmente son más caros que otros tipos de medidores y brindan ciertas ventajas que
otros medidores no pueden dar, incluyendo la alta exactitud y las partes que no hay en
movimiento que se pueden ir desgastando. La exactitud de los medidores de flujo
magnético están en un uno y dos por ciento (1-2%) del rango de flujo real. Los costos de
los medidores dependen del tamaño de la tubería para medidores de flujo magnético
cuyo barreno o garganta es del mismo tamaño que el fluido.

*Mientras que hay aplicaciones específicas para cada una de estas tecnologías de
medición, los medidores de flujo más comunes que se encuentran en los cálculos de
energía térmica son los medidores 1 y/o 2 que se describen arriba - medidores de
presión/obstrucción diferencial. Hay interés en la tecnología de medición sin
interferencia para desglosar los costos de paro de las bombas y tubos de corte.
Medición dela Energía Térmica
El enfriamiento que dan los enfriadores de las instalaciones se registra en BTU´s y se
determina por el valor calculado midiendo el flujo de agua enfriada en galones por
minuto (GPM) y el diferencial de temperatura (delta-T) entre el basto de fuente enfriada
y el retorno de agua enfriada. Un medidor de Btu, puede ser un dispositivo
independiente o un medidor de Btu “virtual” como parte de un dispositivo de
medición/registro más grande, hace un cálculo interno de Btu en tiempo real en base a
las entradas provenientes de un medidor de flujo descrito anteriormente y los sensores
de temperatura así como de las constantes del software del calor específico del fluido
que se vaya a medir (como algoritmo o como matriz de número). Estos medidores de
Btu electrónicos ofrecen una exactitud mejor a la de un uno por ciento (1%). Son más
atractivos para instalaciones más grandes o más críticas donde la exactitud es la
preocupación principal. Un beneficio adicional es la disponibilidad de datos de operación
de tiempo real como la velocidad de flujo, temperatura (abasto y retorno) y velocidad de
Btu.
Cuando se mide el rango de temperatura diferencial angosto (delta-T) típico de los
sistemas de agua enfriada, los dos sensores de temperatura deberán compararse o
calibrarse a la tolerancia más estrecha posible. Con el propósito de calcular las cargas
térmicas en Btu por hora, es más importante que los sensores se comparen o calibren
con respecto uno del otro. Si se pone atención a este detalle se maximiza la exactitud del
cálculo de Btu.
Monitoreo y La nueva construcción ofrece un recurso de “oportunidad perdida”: cuando el equipo
Construcción de diseno.construcción no incorpora rendimiento en una identificación cuando se
para construye por primera vez, el propietarioa (y la comunidad) o incropora estas
Construccion oportunidades en un futuro y a un mayor costo, o puede perder oportunidades de
es Nuevas rendimiento de manera permanente durante la vida del edificio.
Negociación El Nox y los VOCs (precursores del ozono), particulas y SO2 (precursor de lluvia acida)
de Emisiones son el foco de muchos programas de negociación. Se pretende eliminar la producción
de clorofluorocarburos (CFCs) que destruyen la capa de ozono.
*Uno de los primeros programas de negociación ambiental en USA, es el progrma
bancario, de compensación, nettign y bubbie
*La negociació intra países permitiría que los países (supuestamente industrializados) con
altos costos marginales de disminución para créditos de reducción de emisiones de
países (supuestamente países en vías de desarrollo) con menores costos marginales de
disminución.
 2 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Intro The explicit purpose: “to shift the focus of development economics from national
income accounting to people centred policies”.
*His approach defined human development as the processes of enlarging a person's
“functioning and capabilities to function, the range of things that a person could do an
be in her life,” expressed in the HDRs as expanding “choices”.
*The idea that purpose of development is to improve human lives by expanding the
range of things that a person can be and do, such as to be healthy and well nourished, to
be knowledgeable, and to participate in community life. Development is about removing
obstacles such as illiteracy, ill health, lack of access to resources, or lack of civil and
political freedoms.
*The human development approach is unique in its emphasis on assessing development
by how well it expands the capabilities of all people. Thus, economic growth is only a
means and not an end in itself.
 3 DESIGNING THE FUTURE

Facts *Technology is racing forward but our societies are still based on concepts and methods
devised centuries ago.
*In our dynamic universe all things change. Change occur in all living and no-living
systems. Although humans meet it with a lot of resistance, change is inevitable.
 4 VENUS PROJECT

Intro *One of the basic premises of The Venus Project is that we work towards having all of
the Earth's resources as the common heritage of all the world's people. Anything less will
simply result in a continuation of the same catalogue of problems inherent in the present
system.
*The Venus Project advocates the transition from a monetary-based society to the
eventual realization of a resource-based global economy.
*The money-based system evolved centuries ago. All of the world's economic systems -
socialism, communism, fascism, and even the vaunted free enterprise system - perpetuate
social stratification, elitism, nationalism, and racism, primarily based on economic
disparity.
*Our technology is racing forward yet our social designs have remained relatively static.
In other words cultural change has not kept pace with technological change. We now
have the means to produce goods and services in abundance for everyone.
*A monetary system developed years ago as a device to control human behaviour in an
environment with limited resources. Today money is used to regulate the economy not
for the benefit of the general populace, but for those who control the financial wealth of
nations.
*Today, much of the technology needed to bring about a global Resource-Based
Economy exists.
 5 SIEMBRA

5.1 FACTS

Intro Estructurar un proyecto de carbono cuesta alrededor de $250 a 300 mil dolares por lo
que consideran que no es viable para menos de 10000 hectareas.
*El cambio climático anade otro reto más al sistema alimentario mundial, un sistema que
se espera alimente a una población en crecimiento que pasara de los 6,800 millones de
hoy a 9,100 millones en 2050. (El numero de personas que padecen hambre crónica ha
superado los mil millones).
Financiación Bajo la convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático
del carbono (CNMUCC) del Protocolo de Kyoto, se han creado distintos mecanismos basados en el
para mercado para ayudar a los paises a cumplir los objetivos de emisiones y apoyar la
pequenos mitigación del cambio climatico. Esto ha evolucionado en un mercado de carbono
productores regualdo que ha crecido rápidamente en los últimos agnos, superando los 100,000
millones de dólares estadounidenses.
*Actualmente, las únicas practicas AFOLU (Actividad Forestal y Otros Usos de la
Tierra) aceptadas por los mercados regulados de la CMNUCC son:
• Forestación
• Biogas
 • Limitación de metano
• Generación de energía por biomasa.
*Aunque hay unos pocos pocos proyectos AFOLU a pequena escala, las barreras de
entrada en los mercados de carboo son todavía altas, debido a los altos costes de
transacción, así como a la falta de información sobre ek funcinoamiento de estos
mercados.
El Contexto de la Financiación del Carbono y los Créditos de Carbono
En la agricultura y la silvicultura, son varias las fuentes y sumideros que emiten, absorben
y almacenan tres tipos de GEI:
• Dióxido de carbon CO2
• Metano CH4
• Oxido Nitroso N2O

*La compensación de carbono conlleva compensar las emisiones que no pueden

evitarse pagando a alguien para que ahorre – secuestre- GEI.
*Mercado de carbono: Plaza económica virtual en la que se compran y venden créditos
de carbono.
Mercados de Carbono: Qué Tipos Exsiten y Como Funcionan
Existen dos tipos de mercados de carbono, los de cumplimiento regulado y los
voluntarios.
*Los tres mecanismos del Protocolo de Kyoto son muy importantes para el mercado
regulado:
• Mecanismo para un desarrollo limpio (MDL)
• Ejecución conjunta (JI)
• Régimen para el comercio de derechos de emisión de GEI de la Unión
Eouropea (ETS)
Algunos paises no han aceptado legalmente el Protocolo de Kyoto, pero tienen otros
esquemas de reducción de GEI vinculantes legalmente, a nivel estata; o regional.
*Los paises en desarrollo solo pueden participar en el MDL. En general, para
proyectos AFOLU a pequena escala en países en desarrollo, el mercado voluntario es
mas interesante que el regulado, porque el mercado MDL tiene unos mecanismos y
procedimientos bastante complejos para el registro de proyectos, que excluyen a la
mayoría de proyectos agrícolas, forestales y de reducción de las emisiones derivadas
de la deforestación y degradación de los bosques (REDD).
MDL
Para los países en desarrollo, el MDL es el más interesante entre los mecanismos del
mercado regulado. Un pais industrializado implementa un proyecto de reducción de
 emisiones en un país en desarrollo. Puede tratarse de un proyecto de forestación, de
eficiciencia energética o de energía renovable. Porque de la retención o recortes de
GEI se generan créditos de carbono (RCE). Estos pertenecen al pais industrializado y
serán utilizados para compensar parte de sus emisiones internas de GEI y cumplir, así,
sus objetivos de emisión.
*Hasta ahora, han sido aprobadas cinco metodologías para agicultura, una para
forestación/reforestación (A/R) y seis para biogas y reciduos agricolas.

*Bajo el llamado MDL se pueden desarrollar actividades de proyecto a pequena escala.

Estas se benefician de modalidades y porcedimientos sencilos, no hay que pagar tasas de
adaptación y se aplican tasas reducidas de registro y administración.
*A los proyectos agricolas sólo se les permite aportar una reducción anual de emisiones
de 60 ktCO2, mientras que a los proyectos de forestación/reforestación es de 16
ktCO2 (representa entre 400 y 800 ha para un proyecto forestal típico de especies en
crecimiento rápido).
Mercado Volntario
Los créditos de Reducción Verficada de las Emisiones de Carbono (VER) son
adquiridos principalmente po el sector privado.
Diseno y Desarrollo de un Proyecto de Carbono
Desarrollar e implementar un proyecto de carbono lleva mucho tiempo, requiere
bastante conocimiento técnico y considerables recursos financieros para su lanzamiento.
• Tipo y objetivo del proyecto.
• Comprobación de recursos.
• Grupo del proyecto. (habitantes, trabajadores), se deben establecer limites
geográficos del proyecto. El área del proyecto debe ser lo suficientemente
grande para que se pueda hablar de un proyecto de carbono.
◦ REDD (minimo 30,000-40,000 ha)
◦ A/R (10,000 ha) estos proyectos deben desembocar en eliminaciones de
GEI de menos de 16 kTons.
• Apoyo institucional.
• Financiación.
• Identificación del realizador del proyecto.
• Siguientes pasos con el realizador del proyecto.
• Planificación y desarrollo del proyecto. (PDD)
• Validación.
• Registro.
Carbon Overall, prices for forest carbon credits ranged from $0,65/tCO2 to more than
Markets 2009 $50/tCO2. Over time, the volume-weighted average price was $7,88/tCO2.
*Average prices for tCERs, which must be replaced or reissued at the end of their
crediting period, were significantly lower at an average $4,76/tCO2. The least expensive
credits were traded in the CCX at $3,03/tCO2.
*Land use changes account for about %20 of global anthropogenic emissions, more than
the entire global transportation sector.
*Forest continue to disappear at a rate of 13 million hectares per year.
*Historically 73% of forestry offsets transactions occurred in the voluntary carbon
markets. The voluntary carbon markets are composed of two distinct components: the
CCX, which is voluntary but legally binding cap-and-trade system, and the broader, non-
binding OTC offset market. Almost all carbon credits in the voluntary OTC market
originate from emissions reduction projects and are thus offsets.
*The OTC market is driven by 'pure voluntary' buyers purchase credits to offset their
own emissions and thus retire their credits immediately upon purchase.
*To ensure permanence, CCX requires a buffer pool of 20% and landowners must
commit to maintain the forest for at least 15 years.
Standards and Methodologies OTC
*An important distinction is between those standards that validate or verify carbon
benefits, and those that evaluate other environmental or social benefits generated by
forest carbon projects.
• American Carbon Registry Forest Projects Standard (ACR). It was the first
voluntary greenhouse gas emissions registry in US. ACR provides carbon
technical services for greenhouse gas accounting, protocol development, offset
and corporate GHG inventory registration and OTC offset transactions and
retirements.
• The Carbon Fix Standard (CFS). The standard applies to A/R but not to
REED. Projects must be in areas that have not been forested 10 years prior to
the start date, and 30% of the credits are required to be retained as a buffer to
account for projects shortfalls.
• Climate Action Reserve (CAR). This emits (CRTs) Climate Reserve Tonnes.
Issues of permanence are addressed by requiring landowners to commit to
maintaining carbon stocks for 100 years, and through the maintenance of a
buffer pool.
• The Climate, Community and Biodiversity Standards (CCB Standards). It
includes forest conservation, reforestation. Agroforestry plantations, REDD
etc. The CCB standards are focused on social and environmental impacts (“co-
benefits”) and do not include a mechanism for generating emissions reduction
certificates. To generate carbon credits, the CCB standard are often paired with
the VCS or another carbon offset verification standard.
• Greenhouse Friendly. It includes a certification label and was designed to
help Australian businesses to market greenhouse neutral products or services.
• ISO 14064. The standard is meant to be applicable regardless of a country's
current climate policy, and does not apply restriction on project types, size,
location and crediting period. 14064-1 specifies requirements for designing and
developing organization or entity-level GHG inventories. 14064-2 details
requirements for quantifying, monitoring and reporting emission reductions
and removal enhancements from GHG projects. 14064-3 provides
requirements and guidance for GHG information validation and verification.
• Plan Vivo Standards. It doesn't provide methodologies. Rather, each project
must devise its own to be adapted to the specific realities of the project.
• Social Carbon (SCM) is a standard designed to enhance social and
environmental co-benefits of carbon offset projects. It is comprised of a set of
analytical tools that assess the social, environmental and economic performance
of projects.
• The Voluntary Carbon Standard (VCS). Credits verified to the standard are
branded as Voluntary Carbon Units (VCUs). The VCS approach to ensuring
permanence requires 10-60% of credits to be withheld as a buffer reserve,
covering unplanted losses of trees.
 5.2 PERMACULTURE

An Intro to *The rate at which soils are created is at about four tones per annum per acre- much
Permaculture less in dry areas. Soils are created by the fall of rain and the action of plants.
*Of all the forest that we ever had as little as 2% remain in Europe, and 8% in South
America.
*We don't have to look any further than the soil or any further than the forest, to see a
finite world. I think we can say with confidence that we don't have a sustainable
agriculture anywhere in the world, or sustainable forestry.
*When we design for permanence, we go generally toward forests, permanent pastures,
lakes and ponds, and non-tillage agriculture. That s our business.
*We have three ways of water storage. We can store it in the soils, we can store it in
surface earth, and we can store it in sealed catchments. For an agricultural situation, we
will the soils. For domestic situations, we will use earth tanks.
*When you make a farm big, you just accept a suddenly lower productivity and yield.
*Agricultural went from an energy productive to an energy consuming system, just as the
sea has gone from being oxygen producing to oxygen consuming, all because we are
putting too much nutrient into it.
Permaculture in Humid Landscape
Permaculture is an approach to designing human settlements and agricultural systems
that mimic the relationships found in natural ecologies.
Permaculture is sustainable land use design. This is based on ecological and biological
principles, often using patterns that occur in nature to maximise effect and minimise
work. Permaculture aims to create stable, productive systems that provide for human
needs, harmoniously integrating the land with its inhabitants.