Article

Imagination, Cognition and

Differences in Personality: Consciousness in

Theory, Research, and Clinical
Practice
Recumbent, Ecstatic 0(0) 1–18
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Terms of Dream Recall, DOI: 10.1177/0276236617743006
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Imagined Interactions,
and Heart Rate

James M. Honeycutt1

Abstract
Research has demonstrated the health benefits of a wide range of spiritual practices
such as meditation and prayer, and similar nonspiritual practices like mindfulness.
Shamanism is a spiritual practice that uses dream recall during ecstatic trances, and
scientific research has shown health benefits of dream recall. Researchers have long
realized the importance of intrapersonal communication occurring in daydreams,
called imagined interactions (IIs), and recently extended the theory to include
night dreams. IIs serve six functions: rehearsal, relational maintenance, catharsis,
conflict-linkage, self-understanding, and compensation. This study investigates the
health effects of ecstatic posture on dream recall in conjunction with the functions
of IIs. Results indicate that ecstatic posture while recalling dreams is associated with
both heart rate and heart rate variability. However, the II function determines
whether the effect is positive or negative.

Keywords
shamanism, recumbent ecstatic trance postures, dreams, imagined interactions,
heart rate

1
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Corresponding Author:
James M. Honeycutt, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.
Email: sphone@lsu.edu
2 Imagination, Cognition and Personality 0(0)

The most individual level of communication is intrapersonal communication.

In fact, some scholars have argued that it is the foundation of all communication
(Honeycutt, 2003; Honeycutt, 2010). Honeycutt (2003) discusses how intraper-
sonal communication encompasses different types of dreaming: The way that
society communicates in our complex daily lives may only be understood after
we are able to comprehend that communication utterly relies on our particular
perceptions. It encompasses daydreaming and nocturnal lucid dreaming in the
form of rapid eye movement and introspection. The purpose of this article is to
examine differences in ecstatic postures which are nonverbal, ritualistic body
postures that are found in prehistoric cave paintings and indigenous effigies
which emanate from the hunter-gatherer tribes including Nordic and Mayan
cultures and how they are associated with emotional valence in dream recall.
Indeed, reading nonverbal communication signs such as body posture and facial
expression has been an important factor in sleep and brain neuroscience research
(e.g., Lee et al., 2015) and to psychotherapists in understanding the deeper
feelings of clients who often are not willing to express their feelings verbally.
First, we provide an overview of shamanism and trance postures. Then, we
discuss the connection between dreaming and imagined interactions (IIs).

Shamanism and Ecstatic Trance Postures

The principles of general systems theory correspond to shamanism as it provides
a technique for people to increase esteem as they become aware of inner poten-
tial while exploring their spiritual relationship to the universe and other life
forms and to each other (Brink, 2013). Shamanism uses dream recall to enhance
information transfer to the conscious, waking mode and its application to heal-
ing (Hunt, 1989; Winkelman, 2000). Brink (2017) discusses how ecstatic trance
postures can help people override negative beliefs, salvage the lost innocence of
the soul in a technological society, and create harmony within the family, com-
munity, and cultural supra-systems. He combines cognitive behavioral therapy,
narrative therapy, and dream analysis in a series of case studies to deal with
various psychological issues including agoraphobia, panic attacks, irrational
anger, mood swings, obsessive behaviors, and control.
The similarities and differences between ecstatic trance and ecstatic posture
should be made. Ecstatic trance is induced by rapid stimulation to the nervous
system. Ecstatic or shamanic trance may be induced by dancing, drum beating,
rattle shaking, or clapping at a rate of about 210 beats per minute (Brink, 2013;
Goodman, 1990). Goodman examined ecstatic postures among her students at
Denison University and discovered the relationship between body postures and
ecstatic trance in which body postures had a specific effect on the trance experi-
ence. Some postures triggered a healing experience, other postures triggered
journeying into the underworld, some triggered journeying in the middle
world, and some journeying in the upper world (N. E. Brink, personal
Honeycutt 3

communication, September 16, 2017). Some postures were for divination,

metamorphosis that often takes the form of shape shifting, and some for initi-
ation, which often takes the form of a death–rebirth experience. Some postures
provided a divinatory experience for foreseeing into the future. Other postures
led the participant into the underworld, often considered the world of the uncon-
scious mind; some postures were for journeying through our middle world, the
world we live in; and some for the upper world.
Goodman (1990) and researchers from the Cuyamungue-Institute (USA) and
the Felicitas-Goodman-Institut (Germany) have collaborated in investigating
the effects of 80 different ritual body postures and their symbolic functions.
Each body posture can lead into the alternate reality—or a different field of
consciousness—when performed in conjunction with the proper rhythmic
accompaniment of drumming in terms of 210 beats per minute. Bourguignon’s
(1973) comparative study of 488 societies around the world revealed that 437 (or
90%) were found to use at least one culturally institutionalized method to
experience an altered state of consciousness including yoga and shamanistic
posturing. We believe that when people recall dreams, they do so in various
postures which may have therapeutic purposes. Indeed, the work of Brink (2017)
precisely reveals the ubiquity of ecstatic postures in everyday life. Similarly,
there is research on how sleep positions affect emotions and personality.
Schredl (2002) found that the prone position was related to differences in self-
confidence and anxiety traits compared with the other position groups.
People often recreate sleep positions when relaxing on a couch. In addition,
research on dreaming and right- and left-side sleep positions reveals that left-side
sleepers had more nightmares and less relief-safety compared with right-side
sleepers (Agargun, Boysan, & Hanoglu, 2004). Sleep position was determined
through semistructured interviews in which subjects were questioned about their
usual body positions just before going to sleep, which position they found them-
selves in upon awaking, and which position they exactly kept in bed during the
night. Only those who reported that they found themselves in the same body
position (right or left side) before going to sleep and after awaking, even during
the night were included in the study. The subjects who reported supine, prone,
mixed, and unknown properties were not analyzed because of the small sample
size.
The subjects were interviewed in terms of dream recall frequency, vividness,
bizarreness, nightmare frequency, and dream emotions suggested by Hartmann,
Zborowski, and Kunzendorf (2001). It is interesting that right-side sleepers
reported more sleep quality, happiness, joy, excitement; hope; peace, restfulness;
longing; relief, safety; and love than left-side sleepers.
The ecstatic trance postures are designed to serve a variety of purposes
including divination, healing, metamorphosis, and promoting a death/rebirth
experience (Brink, 2014, 2017). We want to see how the most occurring postures
occur during dream recall as posturing reflects nonverbal signaling of emotion
4 Imagination, Cognition and Personality 0(0)

(Dael, Mortillaro, & Scherer, 2012). A positive dream could be reflected in a

posture showing reflection. The Nordic ‘‘Freyan Diviner’’ trance occurs when a
person has one arm up extended to the underneath of the chin. This trance is
associated with thoughtfulness. Given the research by psychologists and anthro-
pologists at the Cuyamungue Institute for the Study of Ecstatic Trance, we
asked the following research question (see www.cuyamungueinstitute.com/the-
power-of-ecstatic-trance/):

RQ1: What ecstatic postures are associated with the recall of a recent dream that
left positive and negative impression on the individual?

Dream Recall and Heart Rate

The scientific study of dreams emanates back to psychological analysis of dream
interpretation in terms of Jung and Jaffé’s (1963) archetypal psychology, which
was initially based on Freud’s (1900) analysis. The American Psychological
Association publishes a journal, Dreaming, that explores the functions, clinical
applications, and biological aspects of dreaming from an interdisciplinary per-
spective ranging including anthropology, communication, philosophy, and
sociology.
Research has analyzed the brain scans of people while they were awake
and while they sleep (Eichenlaub et al., 2014). The researchers split a small
sample of 41 participants into two groups by dream recall frequency. Slightly
more than half of the sample in one group remembered dreams at an average
of about five mornings per week and the other group remembered dreams
only two mornings per month. When asleep and awake, the high dream
recallers showed higher levels of activity in the brain’s medial prefrontal
cortex and temporoparietal junction which helps in perception and informa-
tion processing. Hence, dream recall is a matter of individual differences. In
addition, electroencephalograms revealed that the high-recall group had twice
as much awake time throughout the night as compared with low-recallers.
However, the brains of high-recallers responded more strongly to auditory
stimuli. Hence, an implication is that dream recall could be facilitated by
sleeping with sound machines (e.g., waves, rain, wind, nature sounds). In
addition, this is the basis for mobile apps that will wake a sleeper during
the night to facilitate dream recall.
Research has revealed that the neurotransmitters accompanying stress, such
as adrenalin, noradrenalin, and cortisol, tend to decrease while simultaneously
the brain releases the body’s own opiates, called beta-endorphins, into the
bloodstream in combination with ritual body postures (see http://www.ecstatic-
trance.com/pages/trance.html). Therefore, we measured heart rate (HR) in beats
per minute and heart-rate variability (HRV) in milliseconds as the individuals
Honeycutt 5

were recalling the dream. Pioneering research over 40 years ago revealed
increased HR during dream recall when persons were wakened during rapid
eye movement as they were dreaming (Shapiro, Goodenough, Biederman, &
Sleser, 1964).
Given the functions of some of the ecstatic trance postures being associated
with healing and past-life recovery, it is possible that positive dream recall is
associated with a lowered HR as opposed to elevated HR because arousal is
operating in terms of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). HR is controlled
by the autonomic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
which is associated with relaxation while the SNS is associated with adrenalin,
stress, and arousal (fight, flight, freeze). HR increases as the SNS is activated
(Robertson, Biaggioni, Burnstock, Low, & Paton, 2011). Hence, the following
hypothesis was tested on the basis of recalling negative dreams resulting in more
arousal and stress.

Hypothesis 1: Negative dream recall is associated with higher heart rate compared
to positive dream recall.

Dreams and Imagined Interactions

Dreams are defined as instances of mental activity during sleep (Schredl, 2000).
They are a central aspect of human experience, as every human being experi-
ences dreams every night (Aserinsky & Kleitman, 1953; Wittmann & Schredl,
2004). Large amounts of empirical evidence support the continuity hypothesis of
dreaming, which states that dreams are heavily influenced by waking-life actions,
feelings, thoughts, and other stimuli (Schredl, 2003). This evidence has been
confirmed in studies analyzing dream content, including the frequency of
appearances from romantic partners (Shredl & Reinhard, 2012), vague emotions
such as stress (Breger, Hunter, & Lane, 1971), and images of major life
events such as divorce (Cartwright & Lamberg, 2000). Social activities and inter-
actions are represented more often in dreams than cognitive activities are
(Schredl, 2000).

Dream Recall
The recall of dreams is difficult, though it is a skill that can be trained through
journaling and storytelling (Dale & DeCicco, 2013). Women tend to have more
frequent dream recall than men (Barrett, 2007). Dreams that are difficult to
recall may be characterized by relatively little emotional affect. However, influ-
ences such as vividness, arousal, and interference play a role in dream recall. The
salience hypothesis proposes that dream content that is salient, that is, novel,
intense, or unusual, is more easily remembered. There is considerable evidence
6 Imagination, Cognition and Personality 0(0)

that vivid, intense, or unusual dream content is more frequently recalled

(Watson, 2003).
On this basis, the following hypothesis was tested:

Hypothesis 2: Women will recall more dreams than men.

The continuity theory of dreaming (Schredl, 2003) suggests that night dreams
are related to our waking life. The contemporary theory of dreaming
(Hartmann, 2000) suggests that night dreams fall on a continuum of lucidity
and functions compared with daydreams. In light of this, it makes sense to
examine the features of IIs as well as their association with HR for positive
and negative dreams. IIs are a type of daydreaming and social cognition invol-
ving mental imagery that are theoretically grounded in symbolic interactionism
and script theory in which individuals imagine conversations with significant
others for a variety of purposes (Honeycutt, 2003). However, IIs should have
some similarities to night dreams. Both involve visual and verbal imagery as well
as sharing the range of emotional valence that is experienced during both activ-
ities (Honeycutt, 2003). IIs have six functions including compensation (substi-
tuting for real interaction), rehearsal (message planning), catharsis (emotional
release), conflict-linkage (recalling arguments), self-understanding (understand-
ing the etiology of values and beliefs), and relational maintenance (intrusive
thinking about a relational partner that psychologically maintains the relation-
ship in the mind). It is possible that these functions may be associated with
dream recall. For example, as a person is recalling a negative dream, they
may feel catharsis. We did not feel in generating a hypothesis because no
prior studies have been done in this exclusive area. Therefore, we tested the
following question.

RQ2: During recall of a positive or a negative dream, are imagined interaction

functions correlated with heart rate?

Method
Participants
The participants for this study were a sample of undergraduates enrolled in
communication courses at a large southern university. The sample of N ¼ 122
ranged in age from 18 to 35 years and the mean age was 20.87 (SD ¼ 2.26). Of
them, 34 were men and 85 were women, and 3 did not report their gender.
Students received credit worth 3% of their final grade through the research
participation system that contained IRB consent.
Honeycutt 7

Procedure
Participants arrived at our interaction lab, which resembles a comfortable living
room with a comfortable couch. They were greeted by a research assistant (RA)
who obtained consent and informed them that they should list a positive and
negative dream that occurred recently that they vividly recall and rate on a scale
how positive or negative each dream was. Next, the subject rested in a prone
position on a couch to ensure a resting HR and mimic a sleeping position. The
RAs flipped a coin to randomize the order in which subjects describes the posi-
tive or negative dream. The lights were dimmed while a nightlight was on in
order to mimic sleeping conditions. A small sound machine with ocean waves
was in the background. After the resting period, subjects were fitted with
emWave2 devices that reliably measure HR and HRV (see http://www.heart-
math.com/emwave-technology/) and were asked to verbally describe the positive
and negative dreams in randomized order while being videotaped.
Later, the subjects were seated at a computer and asked to respond to several
self-report measures, including demographics, questions about dream recall, and
the Survey of Imagined Interaction (Honeycutt, 2010). After the self-report
phase, the subjects were debriefed and released.

Instrumentation
A series of 7-point Likert scales were used to measure how often dreams were
remembered (1 ¼ never, 7 ¼ always), how often they were not remembered, how
specific and detailed the recalled dreams were, and how long ago they occurred.
These items were used as a manipulation check and covariates in later analyses.
In addition, we asked them how positive and negative the recalled dreams were.
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed excellent goodness of fit
(CFI ¼ .97, RMSEA ¼ .04) Value of a for the scale was .78. II functions were
measured using the items from the short-form of the Survey of Imagined
Interaction, which is a series of Likert scales pertaining to the six functions.
CFAs of the scales yielded good fit indices with CFI’s ranging from .96 to
1.00 and RMSEA’s ranging from .00 to .08. The alpha reliabilities were good:
conflict-linkage (a ¼ .77), compensation (a ¼ .75), rehearsal (a ¼ .86), relational
maintenance (a ¼ .75), understanding (a ¼ .88), and catharsis (a ¼ .81).

Data Coding
Brink (2005) discusses Nordic and Mayan postures and presents pictures of
them. We used a combination of deductive and inductive coding. The first
phase was designed to see which postures should be coded based on the purpose
of the typology of previously identified ecstatic trance postures (e.g., healing).
We created a coding system of 14 postures as noted in the recumbent positioning
8 Imagination, Cognition and Personality 0(0)

of our subjects based on hand, arm, and leg positioning. For example, the
Nordic Hallstadt Warrior position is a pose that reflects standing up. Yet,
Brink’s (2013) pictures are clear in showing arm and hand locations in the
postures. These postures are listed here followed by one word in parentheses
that signifies the function: Nordic Tanum Lower World Posture (serenity),
Nordic Freya Initiation Posture (thoughtfulness), Nordic Hallstalt Warrior
(vigilance), Tangaroa posture (birthing), Nordic Freyr Diviner (divination),
Mayan Oracle (divination), South American Lower World (wandering),
Realm of the Dead (courage), Jaguar ((metamorphosis), Chiltan Spirits
(healing), Greek Youth (death/rebirth), Chichen Itza (metamorphosis), Mayan
whistle (judgment), and La Tolita (metamorphosis). Two coders were trained in
identifying our recumbent postures. The Cohen’s k coefficient revealed good
intercoder agreement with a chance-corrected agreement of 82%.

Results
Manipulation Checks
We checked that the recall of dreams was specific and recent. A one-tailed t test
in which an average score of 4 was used as the test value indicated that our
participants reported that they recalled dreams that occurred within the last
week up to one day ago and that their memories were specific and detailed:
t(121) ¼ 19.15, p ¼ .000, M ¼ 5.30, SD ¼ .75. There were no differences in recall-
ing positive (M ¼ 6.76, SD ¼ 2.61) or negative dreams: M ¼ 6.35, SD ¼ 3.32,
t(101) ¼ 1.05, ns. In addition, subjects were asked if the way they positioned
themselves on the couch mirrored their typical sleep position and they responded
in the affirmative. They were also asked the extent to which the layout of the lab
with the dimmed lights and sound machine was realistic in mimicking an area to
sleep, using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ¼ not at all to 7 ¼ very much.
The one-tailed t test supported the ecological validity of the lab setup:
t(121) ¼ 14.67, p ¼ .000, M ¼ 5.78, SD ¼ 1.34. The results are discussed in the
order of the research questions and hypotheses.

RQ1: What ecstatic postures are associated with the recall of a recent dream that
left positive and negative impression on the individual?

A frequency count of the recumbent, ecstatic postures revealed that the most
occurring poses were the La Tolita, Metamorphosis posture (36.4%) followed
by the Hallstalt Warrior posture (19.4%), Mayan Divination Oracle (15.9%),
and the Chiltan Healing Spirits posture (14.8%). Hence, these trances accounted
for 85.5% of the postures. Figures 1 to 4 display the original postures.
The remaining percentage was distributed among the other postures. Based on
this division, we used a one-way analysis of covariance in which dream recall
Honeycutt 9

Figure 1. La Tolita Mayan Metamorphosis Posture derived from the Chichen Itza.

was the covariate and these four postures were the independent variables.
The dependent variable was how the recalled dream made them feel.
There was a significant effect for ecstatic postures on positive dream recall:
F(4, 70) ¼ 3.72, p ¼ .015. Figure 5 reveals a plot of the means. Post-hoc tests
revealed that the Mayan Divination pose resulted in the highest level of positive
feelings about the dream followed by the Chiltan Healing Pose while the La
Tolita, Metamorphosis, and Hallstalt Warrior poses yielded the least positive
affect. There was no significant effect for recumbent postures on negative dream
recall: F(4, 57) ¼ .94, p ¼ .447.

H1: Negative dream recall is associated with higher heart rate compared to positive
dream recall.
10 Imagination, Cognition and Personality 0(0)

Figure 2. Norse Hallstatt Warrior posture.

This hypothesis was supported. The HR when reporting on a negative dream

was slightly higher (M ¼ 85.98, SD ¼ 10.24) compared with positive dream
recall: M ¼ 83.82, SD ¼ 9.63, t(121) ¼ 3.33, p ¼ .001. In addition, HRV was
higher when recalling a positive dream (M ¼ 724.96, SD ¼ 81.40) compared
with the negative dream: M ¼ 707.16, SD ¼ 80.88, t(121) ¼ 3.01, p ¼ .003. HRV
is a measure of the beat-to-beat changes in HR measured in milliseconds. The
moment-to-moment variations in HR are often overlooked when average HR is
singularly examined. Yet, HRV is an indicator of health and fitness. As a marker
of physiological resilience and behavioral flexibility, it reflects our ability to
Honeycutt 11

Figure 3. Mayan Oracle Divination posture.

adapt effectively to stress and environmental demands (see http://www.heart-

math.com/science-behind-emwave/).

H2: Women will recall more dreams than men.

This hypothesis was confirmed. Women reported more dream recall

(M ¼ 5.38, SD ¼ 1.08) than men: M ¼ 4.51, SD ¼ 1.30, t(115) ¼ 3.72, p ¼ .000.
12 Imagination, Cognition and Personality 0(0)

Figure 4. Chiltan Healing Posture, 300 to 800 AD (Cerro de las Mesas, Veracruz State,
Mexico).

RQ2: During recall of a positive or a negative dream, are imagined interaction

functions correlated with heart rate?

In order to answer the third research question, we used partial correlation in

which extent of dream recall was a covariate. HR during the positive dream
recall was associated with maintaining relationships (partial r ¼ .22, p ¼ .046).
The same pattern was observed during negative dream recall. HRV was asso-
ciated with II compensation during the negative dream recall (partial r ¼ .31
Honeycutt 13

Figure 5. Positive dream trances and emotional affect.

p ¼ .004) and HR in beats per minute (partial r ¼ .28, p ¼ .008). Catharsis was
associated with HRV during the negative dream recall (partial r ¼ .24, p ¼ .024).
Similarly, self-understanding was associated with HRV during the negative
dream recall (partial r ¼ .20, p ¼ .05). The intensity of negative dream feelings
was associated with lower HRV (partial r ¼ .25, p ¼ .023). The pattern of these
partial correlations reveals that there is more cardiovascular reactivity during
recall of negative dreams. The only exception was the association between main-
taining relationships and HR during positive dream.

Discussion
We discovered some similarities in the arm positions to Goodman’s ecstatic
trance postures. Although lying down totally changes the nature of the effect
of what these postures communicate, what they communicate in a prone pos-
ition is still interesting and likely meaningful. This examination of the effect of
the prone postures on dream recall offers a new dimension in understanding a
person’s dreams.
14 Imagination, Cognition and Personality 0(0)

As noted earlier, sleep position and postural stances are associated with
dream recall. It is interesting that recall of positive dreams was associated
with the recumbent Mayan Divinity and the Chiltan Healing Spirits pose. The
Mayan Oracle Divination ecstatic posture is one in a series of the divination
postures that has been found to help access guidance, insight, and wisdom.
When recalling a dream, the person is reliving the dream and subconsciously
this posture attempts to reinforce the drive for wisdom in telling the dream.
Relatedly, Hartmann (1998) discusses the importance of the thick and thin
boundaries in dream recall and how thin boundaries are associated with more
dream recall which we controlled for in terms of the lucid recall of recent
dreams. Hartmann found that people with thin boundaries have more night-
mares with more bizarre content. However, we found that the intensity of affect
in negative dream recall was not associated with the recumbent Hallstalt, Norse
Warrior trance. However, a limitation of our study is that we did not explicitly
ask for recall of nightmares because of IRB restrictions.
One of the most significant results of this study is that negative dream recall is
associated with higher HR compared with positive dream recall. Although, in
this study, rapid stimulation to the nervous system was not used in the induction
of trance as with ecstatic trance, it would typically increase the activity of the
parasympathetic nervous system with an increase in HR. But with such ecstatic
trance stimulation, an unusual drop in blood pressure also is likely to occur. This
unusual occurrence is sometimes considered a preliminary stage of dying, an
occurrence that is often mentioned in the experiences of shamans. On the other
hand, nighttime dreams may go in either direction. The sympathetic response,
the quieting and relaxing response as hopefully occurs with deeper alpha sleep, is
likely associated with pleasant dreams, whereas nightmares trigger the parasym-
pathetic nervous system, the flight or fight response and increases HR.
We replicated earlier studies revealing that women recalled more dreams than
men. There are subtle differences in the way men and women think, express
feelings, perceive feelings, and participate in the world. The reason for these
differences could be to a variety of explanation including socialization,
evolutionary, or biological factors (Baumeister, 2005). Consistently, research
has revealed a variety of sex differences in dreaming including dreaming
more about family members and people they know while men dream less
about familiar characters. Their descriptions are more vivid and lengthier
(Hall & Van de Castle, 1966). Our replicated findings notwithstanding, simila-
rities and differences in dreaming usually have more to do with a person’s back-
ground, personality traits, levels of introversion and extroversion, cultural
environment, belief system, and worldview, than to do with an individual’s
sex (Garfield, 1988).
Finally, the recall of positive and negative dreams was associated with various
II functions. The pattern that was most evident consisted of negative dreams
being associated with HRV in terms of compensation, catharsis, and
Honeycutt 15

self-understanding. These findings are harmonious with Hartmann’s (1998)

findings on dream recall being associated with the desire to seek understand-
ing of one’s self-concept in terms of its etiology. Perhaps, dreams can reinforce
or challenge existing values and beliefs on relationships, change, ideology, and
spiritual beliefs (Barrett, 2007). The catharsis functions of IIs are designed to
deal with anxiety as persons seek to expunge internal tensions. Hence, a
person having a negative dream can explore ways of alleviating anxiety. The
sheer act of the dream recall reveals catharsis as persons relive the episode.
The catharsis function allows people to release emotions and anxiety. It is
interesting that prior research has revealed an association between cognitive
complexity and catharsis (Honeycutt, Vickery, & Hatcher, 2014). In terms of
dream recall, it is interesting to note that earlier studies reveal that neuroti-
cism is associated with catharsis which is compatible with Freud’s (1908/1972)
discussion of neuroticism and poetic imagination (Honeycutt, Pence, &
Gearhart, 2013). Freud discusses how neurotic individuals have a tendency
to engage in too many ‘‘flights of fancy’’ that distract from the reality of the
present moment (cf. Klinger, 1990). In addition, there is abundant research in
the dream journal indicating that dreams help us process emotions and con-
solidate memories (Brink, 2005).

Limitations and Future Research

The exploratory nature of this study with a small sample size and large number
of binary outcome variables limits the use of inferential statistics in this study.
Future confirmatory studies might use a larger sample size or utilize different
outcome variables that are more conducive to inferential statistics.
Future research could examine the postures with an integration of hypnotic
and ecstatic trance. In terms of dream recall, the postures could give the same
direction to hypnotic trance as it does to ecstatic trance. In addition, if the
dreamer was instructed to sit stand or lay in one of the postures, what effect
would the posture have on interpreting the dream? Would the dream be
interpreted as a healing experience, a journey into one of the three worlds, a
divination experience, a shape-shifting experience, or a death–rebirth experience
(N. E. Brinks, personal communication, September 16, 2017)?
In addition, future research could examine the spontaneous use of a posture
as used in this study versus the directed use of a posture as performed by
Goodman. An alternative procedure could be to request the subject to lay, sit,
or stand in a particular posture as a dream is recalled. The effect of the posture
on dream recall might be quite interesting. By randomly assigning one of the
body postures in recalling a dream, with a large enough sample size, the effect of
the posture on the dream recall might become apparent. Brink (2017) has used
this approach in the process of psychotherapy while introducing the postures of
ecstatic trance in the therapy session.
16 Imagination, Cognition and Personality 0(0)

Practical Applications
The results of this study are of interest to practitioners as well as theorists and
researchers. Practitioners have attempted to, and been asked to, interpret
dreams since well before Nebuchadnezzar told the Chaldean ‘‘magicians,
enchanters and sorcerers. . . if you do not make known to me the dream and
its interpretation, you shall be torn limb from limb, and your houses shall be laid
in ruins’’ (Daniel 2). In this study, we examined how ecstatic trances which are
related to healing are reflected in dream recall. In addition, this study supports
the idea that dreams mean something in waking life and affect HR while they are
reexperienced. Dreams are a way we communicate with ourselves.

Author Note
This article was inspired by the Shamanistic, dream research work of Dr. Nicholas Brink,
former book review editor for Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.

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Author Biography
James M. Honeycutt is an LSU Distinguished Professor and director of the
Matchbox Interaction Lab where cognitive studies take place. He has a variety
of books dealing with imagined interactions, cognition, and relationships.