Independent Suspension System

INDEPENDENT VEHICLE WHEEL SUSPENSION
1. INTRODUCTION TO SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction: -
The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles, not direct but through some
form of springs. This is done to isolate the vehicle body from the road shocks, which
may be in the form of bounce, pitch, roll or sway. These tendencies give rise to an
uncomfortable ride and also cause additional stress in the automobile frame and body.
All the parts, which perform the function of isolating the automobile from the road
shocks, are collectively called a suspension system.
Broadly speaking, suspension system consists of a spring and a damper. The
energy of the road shock causes the spring to oscillate. These oscillations are
restricted to a reasonable level by a damper, which is more commonly called a shock
absorber.
1.2 Objectives of Suspension System :-

1) To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to vehicle
components and minimize the effects of stresses due to them on the mechanism of
the motor vehicle.
2) To safeguard the occupants from the road shocks and to provide the
cushioning effect.
3) To preserve the stability of vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in
motion.
4) To keep the body perfectly in level while traveling over rough uneven
ground, i. e. the up and down movements of the wheels should be relative to the
body.
5) To provide the requisite height to the body structure and to bear the
torque and braking reactions.
1.3 Basic Considerations :-

 Bouncing :-
Complete body movement in vertical direction or raising up or down
of vehicle body. It can be either front end or rear end bounce.
COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 1
 Pitching :-
Rocking chain or rotating action produced in vehicle about transverse
axis through it parallel to the ground. It is due to the out-of-phase movement of front
suspension with respect to rear suspension.
 Rolling :-
Center of Gravity of vehicle is considerably above the ground while
cornering, i. e. taking a turn. Centrifugal force acting through CG produces a
movement of vehicle about longitudinal axis. This is called Rolling.
 Vertical Loading :-
When rear wheel comes across a bump or a pit on the road, it is
subjected to vertical force, tensile or compressive depending upon nature of road
irregularity. They are absorbed by elastic compression, shear, bending or twisting of
spring.
 Brake Dip :-
On braking, nose of a vehicle has a tendency to be lowered or to dip.
Similarly, torque load during acceleration cause the front of the vehicle to be lifted.
This depends on position of CG relative to ground, wheelbase and other suspension
characteristics.
 Side Thrust :-
Centrifugal force acting during cornering, cross-winds, cambering of
road etc.
 Unsprung Weight :-
Weight of vehicle components between suspension and road surface.
This includes rear axle assembly, wheels, tyres, brakes etc. Sprung weight, i. .e.
weight supported by vehicle suspension system includes frame, body, engine and
entire transmission system. Weight of unsprung parts should be as small as possible;
otherwise it causes greater shocks in vehicle.

2. INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION SYSTEM
2.1 Independent Suspension: -

When a vehicle with rigid-axle suspension encounters road irregularities, the
axle tilts and wheels no longer remain vertical. This causes whole of the vehicle to tilt
on one side (Fig. 1, bottom). Such a state of affairs is not desirable. Apart from
causing rough rides, it causes ‘wheel wobble’. The road adhesion is also decreased.
Fig. 1: Comparison of Rigid-axle and Independent Suspension

Top - Independent Suspension, bottom - Rigid-axle Suspension
To avoid this, wheels are sprung independent of each other, so that tilting of
one doesn’t affect the others (Fig. 1, top). Independent suspension is the suspension
system arrangement for connecting road wheels to frame in which rise or fall of one
wheel has no direct effect on other wheels. In these suspension systems, car is not
tilted as each wheel can rise or fall freely following an uneven road surface. As
compared to heavy commercial vehicles independent suspension systems are more
advantageous for light and fast cars. But to provide support for keeping the road
riding steady as well as to provide grip to each of wheels, heavy vehicles also require
an independent suspension for traveling over very rough areas.
2.1.1 Advantages of Independent Suspension :-
Independent suspension offers following advantages over rigid-axle type
suspension :
 Comfort –
Independent Suspension absorbs the bumps and jolts that cause driver
and passenger discomfort and fatigue. Businesses in some industries looking to
improve their bottom line will find the comfort afforded by the independent
suspension system in translating the passenger satisfaction to a good value.
Independent Suspension System allows each wheel to

move independently smoothing out rough, uneven turf.
Fig. 2: Comfort in Independent Suspension
 Traction –
Independent Suspension maximizes ground contact by providing

constant downward pressure on the drive wheels. The importance of traction is
undisputed in some cases. Breaking contact, especially on hillsides, can result in
hazardous slippage, even rollovers.
Fig. 3: Effect of Independent Suspension on Traction

 Elastic strain energy per unit weight stored in a coil or torsion bar spring is greater
than in case of semi-elliptic leaf spring, which means lighter springs can be used in
case of independent suspension.
 The independent suspension systems are greatly advantageous for front, rear or both
suspensions due to the fact that more components can be mounted on rigid vehicle
frame resulting them to become spring weight. Thus unsprung weight is reduced,
which ultimately reduces tire scrub and hence increases tire life.
 On the other hand, solid beam axles are unsprung weight. This results in greater
inertia; working them to rise or fall slowly while following an uneven road surface.
 Compared to rigid axle type, softer springs can be used without increasing rolling
effect. Soft springs improve road comfort.
 When anti-roll bar is used in independent suspension, springs employed may be
even softer, as in event of vehicle cornering where anti-roll bar will provide forces
necessary to result body roll.
 In case of independent suspension, it is possible to locate springs apart enough to
obtain understeer conditions, which is always preferred to oversteer conditions.
 With independent suspension, steering geometry is not altered with spring
deflection as in case of conventional; rigid axle type suspension where effect is
especially noticeable during braking or acceleration.
 In this, engine and chassis frame can be placed relatively lower which means engine
position can be moved forward resulting in more space for passengers.
2.2 Front Wheel Independent Suspension :-

It improves ride quality and helps to eliminate front wheel shimming,
wheel fight and tramp. The beam axle or front axle used in motor vehicle has a
number of disadvantages due to which an improved form of front suspension known
as Independent Front Suspension is used. The disadvantages of rigid frame axle are:
 Hard springing due to small maximum spring deflection.
The vertical axle movement is limited to the extent of clearance between axle and
engine.
 Accurate control of steering geometry is not possible.
 High unsprung weight resulting in minimum wheel adhesion.
 For providing clearance, engine is to be situated behind axle. Greater comfort can
be obtained by moving engine forward so that there is more accommodation for
passengers within wheel base.
 Oversteer effect produced due to poor roll stiffness necessitating close together
mounting of front springs.
In this system, wheels are connected to frame in such a way that
movement of one wheel is independent of other or movement of one wheel has no
effect on other wheel.
This system now used on most of passenger cars has each of front
wheel supported independently by a coil or leaf spring. It helps to provide softer
springing action, improved steering, and better contact of road wheels. With bumpy
road surface, a better ride for occupants as engine can be mounted nearer the front of
vehicle. A typical type independent front suspension arrangement is shown in figure:

Fig. 4: Typical Independent Front Suspension Arrangement
A coil spring is retained between an upper spring seat in the car frame
and a lower spring seat known as lower control arm, which is part of lower suspension
arm. Through a pivot, one end of suspension system is attached to car frame in order
to attach other end of lower suspension arm to lower end of steering knuckle.
Similarly, upper end of steering knuckle is attached through a swivel ball joint to
upper suspension control arm. A pivot is used to attach inner end of upper suspension
arm to frame. A telescopic type of shock absorber placed inside spring is used in most
of the cars.
Advantages of independent front suspension are same as mentioned
earlier. Five types of independent suspensions are in use for front axle:
1. Wishbone type or Parallel Link type
2. MacPherson Strut type
3. Vertical Guide type
4. Trailing Link type
5. Swing Half-axle type
2.2.1 MacPherson Strut Independent Front Suspension :-
Being advantageous, this type of suspension system is most commonly
used. It is lighter, simpler with less unsprung weight, providing constant camber when
wheels move up or down. Also it gives maximum room in engine compartment.
The MacPherson strut front suspension system was invented in the
1940's by Earl S. MacPherson of the Ford Motor Company. It was introduced on the
1950 English Ford and has since become one of the predominate suspensions systems
of the world. This simple system utilizes the piston rod of the built-in telescopic shock
absorber to also serve as the kingpin axis. Normally, a coil spring is mounted over the
strut assembly, in which case, a thrust bearing at the top of the spring prevents spring
wind-up during turns. The lower link may be in the form of an ordinary A-arm. More
commonly, a narrow transverse link (sometimes called a track rod) locates the lower
end of the strut in the transverse direction and a separate member called a radius rod
locates the assembly in the longitudinal direction. However, the anti-roll bar can serve
as the longitudinal link and thereby eliminate the separate radius rod.
The advantages of the MacPherson strut include its simple design of

fewer components, widely spaced anchor points that reduce loads, and efficient
packaging. From a designer's viewpoint, its disadvantages include a relatively high
overall height, which tends encourage a higher hood and fender line, and its relatively
limited camber change during jounce. A disadvantage on the consumer level is the
comparatively high cost of servicing the shock absorber.
A small camber change during jounce and rebound is characteristic of

the strut design. The vehicle roll center is controlled by raising or lowering the
inboard anchor point of the transverse link, and by varying the steering axis
inclination.
Fig. 5: The MacPherson Strut Front Suspension

In India, this system has been used in Maruti (Suzuki) 800 cars. This is
claimed to provide increased road safety, improved ride comfort, light and self-
stabilizing steering, which means that car continues along its chosen line of travel
when brakes are applied even though road surface may vary.
Urbacar utilized a specially designed miniature MacPherson that did

not suffer as badly from the tall shock-tower syndrome of existing designs. Another
interesting concept utilizes a flat spring as the transverse link. The idea of replacing a
suspension link with a leaf spring has been tried in a variety of configurations.
Difficulties have centered on the high longitudinal loads imposed caused by braking,
and the limited deflection characteristics typical of leaf springs. However, the lower
loads typical of low mass vehicles, along with the greater control over spring
characteristics provided by composite spring designs, offer an opportunity for a new
look at unconventional suspension systems.
2.3 Rear Wheel Independent Suspension :-

Though rear wheels are not to be steered, yet there is considerable
difficulty in rear wheel springing if power has to be transmitted to rear wheels. But,
even rear wheel independent springing is coming into prominence because of distinct
advantages over rigid axle type.
Greater part of extra weight of passengers and luggage has to be
carried by rear suspension in most of the cars. It is usually seen that suspension
springs which are very stiff for car with driver only, they will be very soft for car
when it is fully laden, i. .e. the springs will be very stiff for car with only driver to
carry while for fully laden car they are correct. The damper, which prevent spring
from bouncing, the same difficulty occurs with their settings. A variety of means are
used by designers to solve these difficulties.
In one rigid unit known as live axle, driving axles combine right angle
drive. differential, axle shafts and wheel hub mountings. It is connected to propeller
shaft. The unit connected to propeller shaft is attached to vehicle structure in such a
way so that it can move up and down on its springs and can cope with loads as well as
torque on turning forces imposed on it. Further rear suspension is designed in such a
way as to position the axle for minimizing bouncing and associated vibrations to
which it is liable while mounting off, braking and cornering, particularly. For
suppressing bouncing of springs, dampers, which are mostly hydraulic and telescopic
type, are widely used.
2.4 All-Wheel Independent Suspension :-
It is for sure that though costly, front and rear wheel independent
suspension are combined in modern vehicles that has given birth to All-Wheel
Independent Suspension, or Four-Wheel Independent Suspension as called for four-
wheelers. It is one of the most sophisticated technologies that are incorporated in new-
age vehicles like Chevrolet Optra (GM, USA), Toyota Corolla (Toyota, Japan), Toyota
Highlander, Nissar Murano (Canada), which are very few names to mention. In this
arrangement, rise or fall of any of front or rear wheels has no direct effect on other
wheels. It is employed not only in automobiles but also has other applications in
lawn-mowers, four-wheel tank crawlers and many others.
Four-wheel independent suspension delivers a darn comfortable
highway ride. It is a type of suspension in which all wheel are mounted to separate
suspension members with no rigid-axle connecting them. Therefore, a disturbance
affecting one wheel has no effect on opposite wheels. Four-wheel independent
suspension reduces unsprung weight, improves ride and handling over rough surface
and permits room for a larger trunk. It combines advantages of front wheel and rear
wheel independent suspension. It is mostly used in light and fast cars, e.g. all sports
utility vehicles (SUVs), and racing cars. It is used in Santra, Pulsar NX, Stanza,
Axxcess and Maxima
Nissar Murano, Canada

Toyota Highlander, Japan
Fig. 6: Vehicles with Four-wheel Independent Suspension
3. AUTOMOBILE RIDE, HANDLING AND SUSPENSION DESIGN
The ride and handling characteristics of an automobile center on

characteristics of the tires. Tires are vehicle's reaction point with roadway. They
manage input of forces and disturbances from road, and they are the final link in
driver's chain of output commands. Tire characteristics are therefore a key factor in
the effect the road has on the vehicle, and in the effectiveness of output forces that
control vehicle stability and cornering characteristics. The tire's basic characteristics
are managed by system of springs, dampers, and linkages that control the way in
which tires move and react to disturbances and control inputs.
The bounce and steering movements of wheels provide for a variety of

simultaneous needs. They provide steering input for directional control, they
compensate for (or utilize) body roll to improve cornering ability, and they move
vertically in response to roadway irregularities in order to smooth out the ride and
maintain adhesion. Wheels are connected to sprung mass through linkages and are
therefore affected by the rolling and pitching movements that occur about suspensions
system's reaction centers. The mechanical requirements for directional control,
cornering forces, and ride comfort are continuously changing according to roadway

and driving conditions. The suspension and steering linkages are designed to allow
the wheels to move as needed to meet dynamic requirements of various combinations
of events. However, the designer is normally constrained by mechanical conflicts
between structural members, engine and drivetrain, and other components that also
must fit into the vehicle. Consequently, errors in geometry are common, and actual
suspension system often falls short of the ideal in a variety of ways.
3.1 Ride Comfort :-
The quality referred to as "ride comfort" is affected by a variety of

factors, including high frequency vibrations, body booming, body roll and pitch, as
well as the vertical spring action normally associated with a smooth ride. If the
vehicle is noisy, if it rolls excessively in turns, or lurches and pitches during
acceleration and braking, or if the body produces a booming resonance, occupants
will experience an "uncomfortable ride."
The ride quality normally associated with vehicle’s response to bumps

is a factor of relatively low frequency bounce and rebound movements of the
suspension system. Following a bump, the undamped suspension (without shocks) of
a vehicle will experience a series of oscillations that will cycle according to the
natural frequency of the system. Ride is perceived as most comfortable when the
natural frequency is in the range of 60 to 90 cycles per minute (CPM), or about 1 Hz
to 1.5 Hz. When the frequency approaches 120 CPM (2 Hz), occupants perceive ride
as harsh. Consequently, suspension of the average family sedan will have a natural
frequency of about 60 to 90 CPM. A high-performance sports car will have a stiffer
suspension with a natural frequency of about 120 to 150 CPM (2 to 2.5 Hz).
Originally, human sensitivity to ride frequency was believed to be

associated with natural oscillations of an adult human body during a walking gait. An
adult walks at the rate of about 70 to 90 steps per minute (frequency), and the torso
moves up and down about 2 inches (amplitude) with each step. Early designers
therefore attempted to constrain vehicle oscillations to those limits, the ride was
indeed comfortable, and the theory was therefore believed to be correct. Today, our
information about human sensitivity to vibrations is more sophisticated. We know that
amplitude affects human sensitivity to frequency, and that there are some frequencies
that are especially uncomfortable. For example, a frequency in the range of 30 to 50
CPM will produce motion sickness. The visceral region of the body objects to
frequencies between 300 and 400 CPM. The head and neck regions are especially
sensitive to vibrations of 1,000 to 1,200 CPM (18 to 20 Hz). These are the types of
vibrations that are likely to emanate from tires or from axle hop. Longitudinal
oscillations are sensed primarily in torso. Surprisingly, humans are most
uncomfortable with longitudinal vibrations in 60 to 120 CPM range (the region of
greatest comfort for vertical vibrations). Discomfort from longitudinal disturbances
occur when the vehicle pitches or when the seats lean rearward at a higher-than-
normal angle.
The perception of ride quality is degraded by virtually any disturbance

experienced by the occupant. Human sensitivity varies according to nature of
disturbance. Consequently, a "good ride" depends on the overall design of vehicle,
rather than just design of suspension system. To produce a comfortable ride, high-
frequency vibrations of wind and drivetrain noise must be minimized and properly
isolated, and suspension must be set in appropriate rubber mountings to isolate high-
frequency roadway-induced vibrations. However, natural frequency of suspension
system is still considered the cornerstone of a comfortable ride.
The static deflection rate of suspension determines its natural

frequency. Static deflection is the rate at which the suspension compresses in response
to weight. Other factors, such as the effects of damping (shocks) and system friction,
alter the natural frequency of the suspension system. However, the primary
determinate is the undamped static deflection rate. If this rate is used in calculations,
results will likely be very close to the actual value needed for a smooth ride.
The static deflection rate of suspension is not same as the spring rate.
Springs are located inboard of the wheels where they are normally subjected to
mechanical advantage of suspension linkages. Static deflection is related to the
distance the sprung mass (essentially the body) moves downward in response to
weight. A static deflection of 10 inches in response to a weight equal to that of sprung
mass will produce a natural frequency of 1 Hz. A 5-inch deflection produces a 1.4 Hz
frequency, and a 1-inch deflection results in a 3.13 Hz frequency.
3.2 Implications of High Payload-to-Vehicle Weight Ratio :-

As vehicle mass is reduced, the payload-to-vehicle weight ratio
naturally increases, which has trickle-down effects throughout the vehicle. An
extremely low mass automobile, in the order of 1,000 pounds or less, for example,
will have an unusually high payload-to-vehicle weight ratio.
Variations in payload affect natural frequency of suspension. The

critical damping force also varies with load. Over-damping (above 100 percent)
dramatically reduces ride quality. In order to avoid over-damping at light loads, some
degree of under damping is usually accepted at the fully laden weight. Also, a passive
suspension in combination with a high payload-to-vehicle weight ratio require a
relatively high static deflection rate (a stiff suspension) in order to avoid undesirable
effects on vehicle ride height. Ride height refers to the height of the body at a given
load. It is important to keep ride height variations within predetermined limits in order
to maintain headlight dip angle, provide adequate suspension stroke, and to provide an
appropriate ground clearance. Load naturally affects the standing height of the
vehicle. As load increases, the vehicle rests lower on its suspension, and at lighter
loads it rests higher. Heavy loads in the luggage compartment can affect the pitch of
the vehicle.
The importance of a high payload-to-vehicle weight ratio becomes

more apparent when the effect of payload on a standard sedan is compared to the
effect of the same payload on a hypothetical ultralight vehicle. For example, a
standard sedan of 3,500 pounds curb weight and a natural frequency of 1.2 Hz will
rest 0.7 inch lower with the weight of two, 175-pound occupants aboard. The same
static deflection rate in a 1,000-pound vehicle will cause the body to rest 2.45 inches
lower with an equal, two-occupant load. A deflection of this magnitude will cause
significant changes in the geometric relationship of suspension components. With a
single occupant load, such a suspension would also allow the body to list to one side.
In order to equal the payload-induced deflection of the large car, the 1,000-pound
vehicle must have a static deflection rate of 2 inches, which will result in a relatively
stiff, sports-car-like ride of 2.2 Hz natural frequency. Consequently, an ultralight
vehicle with a relatively high ratio of payload to vehicle weight will also have a
relatively stiff ride. A self-leveling suspension and active damping could improve the
suspension characteristics, but at higher cost and increased mass.
Payload variations can also have a much greater effect on center of

gravity of a low mass vehicle. Payload typically comes in human packages ranging
from about 125 to 200 pounds each. A two-occupant load would therefore represent
roughly one-third of the curb weight of a 1,000-pound vehicle. The same load
amounts to only 10 percent of the curb weight of a 3,500-pound automobile. The
effect of payload variations on center of gravity therefore becomes increasingly more
significant as vehicle weight is reduced. Target handling characteristics of an
extremely low mass vehicle should be based on the fully laden weight.
3.3 Ratio of Sprung to Unsprung Weight :-
Unsprung weight includes the mass of tires, brakes, suspension

linkages and other components that move in unison with wheels. These components
are on roadway side of springs and therefore react to roadway irregularities with no
damping, other than pneumatic resilience of tires. The rest of mass is on the vehicle
side of springs and therefore comprises the sprung weight. Disturbances from road are
filtered by the suspension system and as a result are not fully experienced by sprung
weight. The ratio between sprung and unsprung weight is one of the most important
components of vehicle ride and handling characteristics.
Unsprung weight represents a significant portion of total weight of

vehicle. In today's standard-size automobile, weight of unsprung components is
normally in range of 13 to 15 percent of the vehicle curb weight. In the case of a
3,500-pound vehicle, unsprung weight may be as high as 500 pounds. A 500-pound
mass reacting directly to roadway irregularities at highway speeds can generate
significant vertical acceleration forces. These forces degrade the ride, and they also
have a detrimental effect on handling.
Early pioneers believed that primary job of suspension system was to

absorb bumps and smooth out the ride. Today we understand that an equally important
function of suspension is to keep the tires in contact with road. This is not as easy as it
might appear to be. When a tire encounters an irregularity, the resulting forces tend to
reduce contact pressure and therefore degrade adhesion. Obstacles impart a vertical
acceleration to tires that increases in proportion to the forward speed of the vehicle
and size of obstacle. The greater the accelerated mass (unsprung weight) the greater
the kinetic energy. In a sense, a raised obstacle throws tires away from the roadway. A
depression causes the surface to rapidly drop away leaving the tire to follow along
when inertia can be overcome by the downward pressure of the springs. Both
occurrences reduce the tire's contact-pressure and tires can actually become airborne
if the forces are great enough.
The forces generated by roadway irregularities (bumps) must be

overcome by springs in order to keep tires in contact with road. The force of the
springs comes from compressive load imposed by the weight of the vehicle. The
lighter the vehicle, the less compressive force is available, and easier it is for vertical
motion of wheels to overcome the inertia of the sprung mass and transfer motion to it
as well. The ideal combination occurs when ground pressure is maximized and inertial
forces are minimized by a high sprung-to-unsprung weight ratio. A high ratio keeps
the tires more firmly in contact with road, and it also produces the best ride.
The sprung-to-unsprung weight ratio is particularly important to the

design of extremely low mass vehicles. The necessarily higher suspension frequency
produces a rougher ride, which can be accentuated by smaller tires typical of smaller
cars. Smaller diameter tires react more violently to bumps and potholes. Their reduced
radius causes them to move deeper into depressions and climb more quickly over
obstacles. The higher acceleration rates are offset to a large degree by reduced mass of
smaller tires. Tests have shown, however, that smaller tires do in fact produce a
rougher ride, even though they are lighter. With smaller, lighter vehicles, it is even
more important to keep the ratio of sprung to unsprung weight as high as possible in
order to reduce the undesirable effects of smaller tires.
Regardless of the perspective, every component of unsprung mass

must be more closely scrutinized in low mass vehicles in order to keep unsprung
weight to an absolute minimum. The advantages for designer in this regard are that a
low mass vehicle will impose significantly lower structural demands on components,
and lower operating speeds result in greatly reduced unsprung acceleration forces.
3.4 Cornering Dynamics :-
According to Newton's First Law, a moving body will continue moving

in a straight line until it is acted upon by a disturbing force. Newton's Second Law
refers to the balance that exists between the disturbing force and the reaction of the
moving body. In case of automobile, whether disturbing force is in the form of a
wind-gust, an incline in the roadway, or the cornering forces produced by tires, force
causing turn and force resisting the turn will always be in balance.
Vehicle "feel" and handling characteristics have to do with the way in

which vehicle's inertial forces and cornering forces of the tires act against each other.
The magnitude and vector of inertial forces are established by the vehicle's weight and
balance. In a turn, angular acceleration results in a force that is centered at vehicle
center of gravity and acts in a direction away from turn center. The ability to
overcome these forces and produce a controlled, stable turn depends upon the
combined characteristics of the suspension and tires. The job of suspension system is
to support, turn, tilt and otherwise manage the tires and their relationship to the
vehicle and ground in a way that will maximize their capabilities.
3.5 Tires In a Turn: -
At relatively low speeds (parking lot maneuvers), vehicle turns

according to geometric alignment of wheels. The wheels roll in the direction they are
heading, and vehicle turns about the point established by a projection of front axles
intersecting a projection of the rear axle. As speed increases, the actual turn center
moves forward due to the slip angle of the tires. Following figure illustrates location
of turn center

.
Fig. 7: Vehicle Turn Center
Slip angle is related to lateral load or cornering force of tire. As lateral
loads increase due to higher cornering speeds, tires creep to the outside of turn and
therefore move in a direction that is different from their heading. The difference
between the tire's heading and direction of travel is called the slip angle.
Vertical load on the tires has an effect on the lateral cornering force
generated at a given slip angle. In general, cornering force increases as the vertical
load increases, but the increase is not proportional to load. The tire's ability to develop
cornering force, in relation to its vertical load, is known as its "cornering coefficient".
Tire cornering coefficient declines as vertical load increases. However, the inertial
forces of a vehicle in a turn increase in proportion to the increase in weight.
Consequently, tires that are more lightly loaded can handle greater g-loads during
turns, which is a feature that is especially relevant to the handling characteristics of
low mass vehicles. The graph in Figure 8 shows the relationship between vertical load
and cornering coefficient. The coefficient is determined by percentage of rated load
that is represented by actual vertical load imposed on tire. Graph in fig. 9 provides
another way to view the relationship between slip angle, vertical load, and lateral
cornering force.

Fig. 8: Tire Cornering Co-efficient
Fig. 9:Tire Cornering Forces

Another cornering force comes from tire's camber angle. When a tire
rolls at a camber angle, it generates a lateral force in direction in which it is leaning.
The lateral force is known as "camber thrust". The thrust produced by camber angle is
much less than force produced by slip angle. However, it can be a significant
component of total forces that contribute to vehicle handling characteristics.
3.6 Oversteer and Understeer :-
The weight bias of the vehicle determines its inherent

oversteer/understeer characteristics. A vehicle that is heavier at front will tend to
understeer and one that is heavier at rear will oversteer. A vehicle in which weight is
equally distributed between front and rear axles tends to exhibit neutral steer
characteristics. Although inherent understeer/oversteer characteristics of a vehicle are
determined by its weight distribution, design of the suspension and selection of wheel
and tire size can enhance or moderate those characteristics.
Understeer results when slip angle of the front tires is greater than slip
angle of rear tires. A greater steering angle is then required in order to maintain the
turn. When steering angle reaches full lock and the turn cannot be maintained, vehicle
drifts to the outside. In an understeer condition, the driver is attempting to negotiate a
turn, but vehicle mushes ahead refusing to cooperate. Oversteer produces just the
opposite condition.
During oversteer, the slip angle of rear tires is greater than front.
Consequently, the turn-rate increases on its own and driver therefore reduces steering
angle to compensate. During severe oversteer, steering angle may reach full lock in
opposite direction while vehicle continues on into the turn. The vehicle is then said to
"spin out." A vehicle that understeers is considered safer in the hands of average
driver.
An obvious solution to negative effects of understeer and oversteer

would seem to be that cars ought to be designed for neutral steer. Neutral steer is
theoretical ideal in which slip angle of front and rear tires increase in unison
throughout the range of steering angles. Unfortunately, factors that influence vehicle
dynamics are not so precisely manageable. With the slightest encouragement, a car
with neutral steer characteristics can easily cross over into an oversteering condition.
Consequently, designers prefer to create some degree of understeer in order to avoid
oversteer.
3.7 Tuning the Suspension of a Completed Vehicle :-
When the suspension is designed, certain handling characteristics are

targeted. However, mechanical compromises, errors, or limitations of the art may
result in a vehicle that does not handle precisely as intended. Even after the vehicle is
finished, suspension can be tuned for different cornering characteristics. The variables
available for tuning the suspension include changes in tire and rim size, tire inflation
pressure, and stiffness and location of anti-roll bar.

The anti-roll bar is essentially a transverse-mounted torsion bar
designed to reduce body-roll during turns. It exerts no influence on suspension when
wheels bounce in unison. If vertical movement on one side exceeds vertical
movement on other, anti-roll bar exerts an opposing force. Along with its primary
function of reducing body-roll, anti-roll bar will also reduce combined cornering force
and adhesion limits of side-by-side tires that are being acted upon. Consequently,
location and stiffness of bar can be modified to influence oversteering or
understeering characteristics of vehicle.
An oversteering tendency will be reduced by locating anti-roll bar at

front where it will reduce cornering force and adhesion of front tires. If vehicle
understeers, anti-roll bar should be located at rear. If an anti-roll bar is already
required at both ends of vehicle to achieve adequate roll stiffness, use an anti-roll bar
of greater stiffness/diameter at the end of vehicle where reduced cornering force is
desired, and use a less-stiff/smaller-diameter bar at the other end.
Changing the tire's inflation pressure has limited effect on handling

characteristics. Inflation pressure influences slip angle of tire. A softer tire will require
a greater slip angle in order to achieve equal cornering forces. Also a lower inflation
pressure will cause the tire to reach its limit of adhesion at lower g-loads.
Consequently, increase the inflation pressure at end of the vehicle requiring greater
cornering forces (greater adhesion). Reduce the inflation pressure for reduced
adhesion and cornering forces.
Tire/wheel size is another important variable. Larger diameter tires

tend to ride more smoothly, and they also develop greater cornering forces. However,
installing larger tire to improve cornering is not always practical. Larger tires can
cause clearance problems if the vehicle was not design for them, and they also affect
suspension geometry. An alternative approach would be to install same tires on wider
rims. This provides a wider cross-sectional base for tires and thereby improves
cornering. Wider tires also aid in cornering, but at the expense of a rougher ride. Tires
with a lower aspect ratio (low profile tires) develop significantly greater cornering
forces and therefore can be used to improve handling of a vehicle with marginal
handling characteristics. Within limits, varying tire-size, rim-width and inflation-
pressure can adjust cornering forces to achieve desired overall performance.
3.8 Effect of Polar Moment of Inertia :-
The moment of inertia has to do with a body's resistance to angular

acceleration. Polar refers to the ends. Consequently, polar moment of inertia of a
vehicle is related to mass that is located near front and rear. The effect of polar mass
can be experienced by rotating a dumbbell back-and-forth around a central axis. The
weight concentrated at the ends makes the barbell resist changes in direction. A ball of
equal weight will reverse directions with little effort because the mass is concentrated
at the center. Most passenger cars are designed with a relatively high polar moment of
inertia. The engine is located over front or rear axle and the fuel and luggage are
located at the opposite end. The center of vehicle is hollow to provide room for
occupants.
A low polar moment of inertia results in a vehicle with more

responsive handling, but it also produces a choppier ride. A vehicle with high polar
mass is less nimble, but it offers a smoother ride. Sports cars tend to have a low polar
moment of inertia for nimble handling, and they also tend to ride more roughly than
passenger cars. Normally, a good balance between ride and handling can be achieved.
The designer does not have to decide between one and the other extreme.
3.9 Rollover Threshold :-
At the most fundamental level, a vehicle's rollover threshold is

established by simple relationship between height of center of gravity and maximum
lateral forces capable of being transferred by tires. Modern tires can develop a friction
coefficient as high as 0.8, which means that vehicle can negotiate turns that produce
lateral forces equal to 80 percent of its own weight (0.8 g) before the tires loose
adhesion. The cg height in relation to effective half-tread of vehicle determines the
L/H ratio which establishes lateral force required to overturn vehicle. As long as side-
force capability of tires is less than side-force required for overturn, vehicle will slide
before it overturns. This analysis is useful for comparing the rollover propensity of
various vehicles, as shown in Table 1. Under dynamic conditions, however, a vehicle's
rollover threshold is a more complicated issue.
Table 1: Rollover Threshold Comparison
Vehicle Type CG Height Tread (inches) Rollover Threshold

(inches) (lateral g-load)
Sports Car 18-20 50-60 1.2-1.7
Compact Car 20-23 50-60 1.1-1.5
Luxury Car 20-24 60-65 1.2-1.6
Pickup Truck 30-35 65-70 0.9-1.1
Passenger Van 30-40 65-70 0.8-1.1
Medium Truck 45-55 65-75 0.6-0.8
Heavy Truck 60-85 70-72 0.4-0.6
Rapid onset turns impart roll acceleration to the body that can cause
the body to overshoot its steady-state roll angle. This happens with sudden steering
inputs, it occurs when a skidding vehicle suddenly regains traction and begins to turn
again, and it occurs when a hard turn in one direction is followed by an equally hard
turn in the opposite direction (slalom turns). The vehicle's roll moment depends on
vertical displacement of center of gravity above its roll center. The degree of roll
overshoot depends upon balance between the roll moment of inertia and roll damping
characteristics of suspension. An automobile with 50 percent (of critical) damping has
a rollover threshold that is nearly one third greater than the same vehicle with zero
damping.
Overshooting steady-state roll angle can lift inside wheels off the
ground, even though vehicle has a high static margin of safety against rollover. Once
lift-off occurs, the vehicle's resistance to rollover rapidly diminishes, which results in
a condition that quickly becomes irretrievable. The roll moment of inertia reaches
much greater values during slalom turns wherein forces of suspension rebound and
the opposing turn combine to throw the body laterally through its roll limits from one
extreme to other. The inertial forces involved in overshooting the steady-state roll
angle can exceed those produced by turn-rate itself.
Tripping is another cause of rollover in an otherwise rollover-resistant

vehicle. Tripping occurs when a vehicle skids against an obstacle, such as a curb. In
this case, the lateral speed of vehicle is suddenly arrested and extremely high
momentary loads are imposed across vehicle's center of gravity. If load spike exceeds
vehicle's rollover threshold, rollover will occur.
Fig. 10: Rollover Caused by Tripping
Nature of these conditions and resulting forces are difficult to predict in real-
world conditions. Consequently, best design for rollover protection will include
adequate roll damping and greatest possible static margin of safety against rollover.
3.10 Relationships of Steering Axis Inclination, Caster, Camber, and Pivot

Radius In Front Suspension Systems :-
Geometric relationships of front wheels would be relatively simple if it

were not for the fact that they also steer the vehicle. Once wheels take on job of
steering, dynamic requirements and angular relationships become much more
complicated. With early beam axles, kingpin provided steering movements. First
kingpins were aligned perpendicular to ground and as a result, steering movements
were very simple; a wheel steered around its axis just like a door swings on a hinge.
However, a suspension with a perpendicular kingpin has no self-aligning
characteristics, and slightest bump at one wheel can impart significant steering inputs.

Consequently, perpendicular kingpin was discarded very early on. Thereafter, kingpin
was attached to axle at an angle so the swivel line projected outboard and forward
toward the ground plane. The lateral tilt is known as steering axis inclination and
longitudinal tilt is called caster angle.
3.10.1 Steering Axis Inclination :-
Steering axis inclination refers to lateral tilt of the axis around which
wheel rotates when it is steered. By leaning the steering axis inboard at top (or
outboard at bottom), swivel-line is projected much nearer the tire centerline at ground
level. That reduces directional disturbances caused when tire encounters an obstacle.
If steering axis meets the ground inboard of tire centerline, an obstacle will cause
wheel to steer outboard. If steering axis projects outboard past the tire centerline, an
obstacle will create a steering input toward inside. A steering axis that meets ground at
tire centerline eliminates steering inputs of obstacles, but it also eliminates "feel" of
road.
The distance the steering axis is offset from tire centerline is called
"pivot radius". Cars are normally designed with a positive pivot radius (tire centerline
is outboard of swivel-line at ground level) in order to provide a feel of road. However,
if pivot radius is too great, obstacles can then produce uncomfortable steering inputs
that, in extreme, can
Fig. 11: Pivot Radius
Cause loss of control. Other requirements of suspension system, as

well as mechanical conflicts between components, may prevent designer from
locating steering axis projection appropriately close to tire centerline. Wheels can then
be set at a slight positive camber angle to move the contact patch inboard toward
swivel line.
Steering axis inclination is responsible for most of the self-centering

force of steering system. Steering axis of passenger cars normally leans inboard 10 to
15 degrees. The incline places the swivel-line the wheels off-plane with ground. As a
result, a steering movement in either direction moves the wheels downward and lifts
vehicle upward. Weight of vehicle therefore produces a resultant that keeps wheels
aligned to vehicle heading.
Fig. 12: Effects of Steering Axis Inclination
3.10.2 Caster Angle: -
Caster angle introduces a new element. Caster angle refers to

longitudinal inclination of steering axis. It creates a self-centering force that is
somewhat different from one created by lateral steering axis inclination. A positive
caster is established when steering axis meets the ground ahead of center point of
contact patch (a point directly under axle). Most passenger cars have a positive caster
of the order of 0 to 5 degrees. Positive caster causes wheel to trail behind steering
axis. When vehicle is steered, caster angle develops an opposing force that tends to
steer the vehicle out of turn. Refer Fig. 13 for a drawing of caster angle.

Fig. 13: Caster Angle

Another effect of caster angle is that it causes camber angle to change
when wheels are steered. When vehicle is steered, inside wheel progresses into a
positive camber and outside wheel progresses into a negative camber. Considered
independently of steering axis inclination, effect of caster in a turn is to drop the side
of the vehicle on the outside of turn and to raise it on inside of turn.
3.10.2 Camber effect:-
Camber is lateral inclination of wheel. If wheel leans out at top, away

from vehicle, it has a positive camber angle. With a negative camber angle, wheel
leans inward at top. Camber-changes occur when the body leans during a turn and
when wheels move vertically through jounce and rebound. A wheel set at a camber
angle produces "camber thrust," which is a lateral force generated in direction of the
lean. Magnitude of camber thrust is substantially less than forces generated by slip
angle (direction in which tire is rolling). Bias ply tires produce significantly greater
camber thrust than do radial tires.

Fig. 14: Camber Thrust
As a general rule, vehicle will handle well if camber angle meets

certain criteria. At fully laden ride height, front wheels should assume a zero or
slightly positive camber angle. During jounce, as wheel moves upward through its
arc, camber should progress to a negative angle in relation to vehicle. Purpose of
negative camber angle is to maximize cornering forces by keeping the outside tire
upright or at a slightly negative camber angle as body leans to outside of turn. Second
purpose of negative camber is to minimize lateral movement, or tire scrubbing, at the
contact patch.
When wheels move through arc prescribed by suspension linkages,

they may be dragged laterally inboard and outboard as they move up and down.
Lateral movement causes a scrubbing action at contact patch, which reduces adhesion
and shortens tire life. Severe lateral scrubbing can also cause a condition known as
"bump-steer." A suspension system with a large scrubbing action will cause vehicle to
veer to one side when adhesion or vertical wheel movement is not equal at both side-
by-side wheels. Ideally, camber angle will change during jounce enough to
compensate for suspension-induced lateral movement at hub. Camber change should
also compensate for body roll to keep outside wheel from lean away from turn. Tire
scrubbing (changes in tread) should be minimized by good suspension design, and
camber changes should be minimal as well.

Fig. 15: Wheel Movements During Bounce
Consideration of camber angle has traditionally emphasized front

wheels. With proliferation of independent rear suspension systems, effects of camber
angle have become just as important at rear of the vehicle. Rear wheel camber
changes can augment cornering forces, and they can influence balance between
oversteer and understeer.
3.10.4 Steering Geometry: -
Idea of steering front wheels around separate axes was invented in

1817 by a Munich carriage builder named Lankensperger. His agent, a fellow by the
name of Rudolph Ackerman, took out an English patent on the invention. Later in
1878, a French carriage builder, Charles Jeantaud, introduced a refinement known as
"Jeantaud Diagram" which provided a more precise prediction of correct geometry.
Today, Lankensperger's invention, alongwith Jeantaud's refinements, is usually
referred to as "Ackerman Steering."
An important requirement for wheels steered around separate axes is

that inside front wheel must turn at a sharper angle than outside wheel. This is due to
the fact that inside wheel moves through a smaller arc. Difference between inside and
outside steering angles progressively increases as wheels are turned more sharply
(higher lock angles). At low steering angles typical of highway speeds, differential
steering is relatively unimportant. Figure 16 illustrates the geometry of Ackerman
Steering.
Fig. 16: Ackerman Steering
Books on chassis design explore the subject in great detail and provide
the graphical and analytical data required to determine length and inclination of
steering knuckles, both ahead of and behind the wheels. Calculations can be quite
involved and must take into account a host of variables in linkage and suspension
system layouts. Several years ago, Walter Korff worked out a table that applies to
simple beam axles with the steering knuckles behind kingpin axes. Since the results of
most calculations must be graphically verified, one could use Mr. Korff's table as a
starting point, then adjust the angles to remove real-world errors.
Table 2: Steering Knuckle Angle

(Refer Fig. 12 for Angle X illustration)
Wheelbase Tread Angle X Wheelbase Tread Angle X

(inches) (inches) (inches) (inches)
100 42.5 100 60
90 38 90 54
72 degrees 66 degrees
80 34 80 48
70 30 70 42
100 45 100 62.5 65 degrees
90 40.5 90 56
71 degrees
80 36 80 50
70 31.5 70 44
100 48 100 64
90 43 90 57.5
70 degrees 64 degrees
80 7 38.5 80 51
0 33.5 70 45
With independent suspension systems, each front wheel is steered
individually by a separate link. This arrangement introduces important new geometric
relationships. The links of a simple rack and pinion steering assembly must be of
correct length and correctly located. If geometric relationships are not correct, bumps
can produce steering inputs. In general, steering linkage should be located near, and
parallel with, the lower suspension link, as shown in Figure 16. Rate of differential
steering is affected by for-to-aft location of steering box in relation to steering
knuckles, as well as by steering knuckle angular offset.
Fig. 17: Steering Link Relationship
3.11 Front Suspension Systems: -
Two types of front suspension systems that account for nearly all
vehicles in production today are double A-arm and the MacPherson strut (both of
which have coil springs), torsion-bar springs, and leaf springs. Double A-arm system
is more expensive than other systems and is more commonly used in sports and racing
cars, which normally have completely independent suspension in the front or rear.
Double A-arm system is more compact, lowering the automobile hood, and creating
greater visibility and better aerodynamics. The McPherson strut system, a coil spring
wrapped around a shock absorber that acts as an upper control arm, is less expensive
than double A-arm and is found in most modern front wheel-drive passenger vehicles.
It is taller than double A-arm suspension and requires a higher hood. It is already
explained earlier in this context.
3.12 Rear Suspension Systems :-
Designers have traditionally invested a great deal of effort in front

suspension design. Often, rear axle was simply hung in place and driving was left to
front. Things have changed in last couple of decades. Rear suspension design has
become just as sophisticated as front. In fact, design variations are probably greater at
rear. Rear suspension systems can be divided into three basic categories:
 Dead Axles, as one-piece beams at rear of front-wheel-drive vehicles

 Live axles with the final drive incorporated.
 Independent suspension systems.
3.12.1 Dead Rear Axle :-
Dead rear axle comes in a variety of configurations. Every layout of

powered rear suspension system becomes a dead axle layout when power is not
transferred to wheels. Rear wheels are not considered as steering wheels. As a result,
even the beam axle is a more docile layout when axle is used at rear in an unpowered
configuration. The most popular dead rear axles include beam axle and the trailing
arm and semi-trailing arm suspensions.
3.12.2 One-Piece Live Axle :-
The live rear axle is similar to the beam front axle or dead rear axle,
except that it is subjected to torsional loads involved in transmitting power to road.
Design is rugged, simple, and relatively inexpensive, but its high unsprung weight
results in a poor ride. Rear axle is not involved in steering so disadvantages are
somewhat less troublesome than those experienced with beam front axle. However,
unsprung weight is very high and as a result design produces a rougher ride and is
very susceptible to wheel hop and tramp.
Traditional live axle of older American cars is the Hotchkiss drive. The
Hotchkiss drive is distinguished by its semi-elliptical leaf springs that also serve as
suspension links. Difficulties with Hotchkiss drive have to do with its limited ability
to transfer torque, its high interleaf friction and high unsprung weight, and imprecise
location of rear axle assembly. Consequently, it is difficult to achieve a good ride and
to appropriately manage torsional loads of braking and power transfer. Braking and
acceleration transfer high torsional loads to axle, which can rotate off plane due to
flexibility of springs.

Fig. 18: Hotchkiss Rear Axle
Designers have attempted to overcome limitations of live axle by

replacing leaf springs with coil springs and locating axle with linkages of various
configurations. Such systems do improve cornering performance, as well as smooth
out the ride. When linkages are introduced, control is also gained over the dive and
squat characteristics associated with acceleration and braking.
3.12.3 Swing Axle :-
Ride and handling are greatly improved when wheels can respond
independently to disturbances. Swing axle design is the most simple way of achieving
an independent rear suspension. Its simple design utilizing the drive axle as transverse
link and inboard universal joints as suspension axis was responsible for its early
attractiveness. With swing axles a disturbance on one side is not transferred to
opposite wheel as it is with a solid axle. Ride and handling are therefore improved.
First swing-axle design to gain wide popularity in the U.S. was the immortal VW
Beetle. When the Beetle was introduced into the U.S., its fully independent
suspension system represented a significant
Step forward in suspension design. However, swing axles do suffer

from characteristic limitations and as a result the design is rarely used on modern cars.
Swing-axles produce large changes in camber and tread during bounce,

and design can become unstable in turns due to "jacking" effect. Setting the wheels at
a negative camber can reduce tendency to jack. However, too much negative camber
can also produce a vehicle with a vague, mushy feel of directional instability. Slings

under the axles or zee brackets can be designed to limit downward travel and thereby
avoid wheel tuck-under. A correctly designed swing axle suspension works reasonably
well, but its undesirable characteristics can never be fully overcome.
Fig. 19: Swing Axle Rear Suspension
3.12.4 Trailing Arm and Semi-Trailing Arm Suspensions :-
With trailing arm and semi-trailing arm suspensions wheels are free to
bounce independently. Each wheel moves up and down around axis of a trailing or
semi-trailing arm. Difference between two designs is that axis of trailing arm is at
right angles to vehicle centerline whereas semi-trailing arm axis angle inboard and
toward rear. Both configurations are popular for either powered or non-powered rear
suspension systems.

If rear wheels are powered, final drive is mounted in a fixed location
and each wheel is driven by an axle half-shaft. Each half-shaft is equipped with an
outboard and inboard universal joint to accommodate angular variations during
bounce. Half-shafts also have a telescopic action to accommodate variation in final
drive-to-wheel distance as wheels move up and down. Rear end lift during braking is
countered by downward component at leading end of arms.
Body roll produces camber and toe changes in semi-trailing arm

design. Consequently, camber thrust and modest slip-angle forces can combine to
produce steering inputs as body rolls to outside of turn. Roll-steer effects are at a
minimum when arm axis is parallel to ground and increase when inboard end is raised
or outboard end is lowered. Degree of camber change depend primarily on distance to
instantaneous center. Instantaneous center is normally located no closer than
centerline of opposite wheel. A closer location will produce wheel movements that
emulate the swing-axle, along with negative attributes of tuck-under and unfavorably
large camber change
Fig. 20:Trailing and Semi-trailing Arm Rear Suspension

3.13 Suspension Guidelines for Extremely Low Mass Vehicles: -
Extremely low mass vehicles are often penalized by poor suspension

design. Just the opposite approach is necessary in order to bring out natural handling
capabilities of a low mass vehicle. Whereas a high mass vehicle has greater inherent
stability, a low mass vehicle has greater inherent agility and handling precision. These
natural characteristics can be degraded by poor design, or they can be enhanced by
good design. Use following general guidelines with low mass vehicles.
 Use the fully-laden weight for performance and handling calculations.

 Keep unsprung weight to a minimum. Consider a simplified suspension design,
and use lightweight alloys or plastic composites for springs and structural
members.
 Keep center of gravity as low as possible. Correct cg location is especially
important in low mass vehicles, and even more so in three wheel designs.
 The center of gravity should be ahead of wheelbase mid-point of a four-wheel
platform, and no farther than 35 percent of wheelbase from side-by-side wheels of
a three-wheeler.
 Tread should be as wide as possible and wheelbase as long as possible within
constraints of vehicle package. Locate wheels at each of extreme corners of the
vehicle.
 Use a fully independent suspension, and keep contact patch location stable
(minimal lateral movement).
 Eliminate suspension and steering geometry errors. Go extra mile for precession.
 Establish roll center according to vehicle cg. If cg is extremely low, roll center
may be at, or near ground level. Roll moment should be lower for extremely low
mass vehicles.
 Roll stiffness is essential for low mass vehicles. If vehicle understeers, place anti-
roll bar at rear. If it oversteers, place anti-roll bar at front.
 For increased traction, use wider rims and/or wider tires.
A torsionally rigid platform (frame) is essential for precise handling characteristics.
At freeway speeds, aerodynamic effects will be an important

consideration, and aerodynamic effects increase as weight decreases.

-: CONCLUSION :-
From the data in the proceeding pages, one can come to the conclusion that
Four-wheel Independent Suspension adds more to the luxury of an automobile by
adequately eliminating vehicle rolling and pitching. Though a costly matter at this
stage, as time passes, it will lead to more widespread application with reduced cost as
well, where after, purchasing a luxurious car will not be a mere dream for mass and
class.
I hope the data put forward in this report will be helpful to those who would
like to know more about Independent Vehicle Wheel Suspension and it would be my
pleasure if it proves any helpful information to them in their research activity, if so.
While working on this topic, I could acquire a slice of knowledge and also it
has inspired me to study as much as possible about further developments in it. I would
like to state that this could be our topic of Project Work whereby I would get an
opportunity to learn more about the same.
At last, I would again like to mention my sincere thanks to those who helped
me throughout and made this a memorable experience.

-: REFERENCES :-
1. Books :-
 G. B. S. Narang, “Automobile Engineering”, 5th Edition
1989, Khanna Publishers, pg. 90 - 116
 Dr. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering”, Vol. 1, 8th
Edition, 1999, A.K.Jain, Standard Publishers Distributors,
Delhi, pg. 199 – 245
 Colin Campbell, “Automobile Suspensions”, First Edition,
1981, Chapman and Hall Ltd., London
2. E-References :-
1) www.howstuffworks.com
2) www.ferriesindustries.com
3) www.new-cars.com
4) www.auto-india.com
5) www.autoguide.com
6) www.autos.canada.com
7) www.google.com

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INDEPENDENT VEHICLE WHEEL SUSPENSION

1. INTRODUCTION TO SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

1.2 Objectives of Suspension System :-

1.3 Basic Considerations :-

COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 2

2. INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION SYSTEM

2.1 Independent Suspension: -

Fig. 1: Comparison of Rigid-axle and Independent Suspension

Independent Suspension System allows each wheel to

Independent Suspension maximizes ground contact by providing

Fig. 3: Effect of Independent Suspension on Traction

2.2 Front Wheel Independent Suspension :-

COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 5

COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 6

Fig. 4: Typical Independent Front Suspension Arrangement

The advantages of the MacPherson strut include its simple design of

A small camber change during jounce and rebound is characteristic of

Fig. 5: The MacPherson Strut Front Suspension

Urbacar utilized a specially designed miniature MacPherson that did

2.3 Rear Wheel Independent Suspension :-

Nissar Murano, Canada

COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 10

Toyota Highlander, Japan

Fig. 6: Vehicles with Four-wheel Independent Suspension

3. AUTOMOBILE RIDE, HANDLING AND SUSPENSION DESIGN

The ride and handling characteristics of an automobile center on

The bounce and steering movements of wheels provide for a variety of

COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 11

3.1 Ride Comfort :-

The quality referred to as "ride comfort" is affected by a variety of

The ride quality normally associated with vehicle’s response to bumps

Originally, human sensitivity to ride frequency was believed to be

The perception of ride quality is degraded by virtually any disturbance

The static deflection rate of suspension determines its natural

3.2 Implications of High Payload-to-Vehicle Weight Ratio :-

Variations in payload affect natural frequency of suspension. The

The importance of a high payload-to-vehicle weight ratio becomes

Payload variations can also have a much greater effect on center of

3.3 Ratio of Sprung to Unsprung Weight :-

Unsprung weight includes the mass of tires, brakes, suspension

Unsprung weight represents a significant portion of total weight of

Early pioneers believed that primary job of suspension system was to

The forces generated by roadway irregularities (bumps) must be

The sprung-to-unsprung weight ratio is particularly important to the

Regardless of the perspective, every component of unsprung mass

According to Newton's First Law, a moving body will continue moving

Vehicle "feel" and handling characteristics have to do with the way in

3.5 Tires In a Turn: -

At relatively low speeds (parking lot maneuvers), vehicle turns

COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 17

COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 18

Fig. 8: Tire Cornering Co-efficient

Fig. 9:Tire Cornering Forces

3.6 Oversteer and Understeer :-

The weight bias of the vehicle determines its inherent

An obvious solution to negative effects of understeer and oversteer

3.7 Tuning the Suspension of a Completed Vehicle :-

When the suspension is designed, certain handling characteristics are

COLLEGE OF ENGG PANDHARPUR. 20

An oversteering tendency will be reduced by locating anti-roll bar at

Changing the tire's inflation pressure has limited effect on handling

Tire/wheel size is another important variable. Larger diameter tires

3.8 Effect of Polar Moment of Inertia :-