HYDROXY CELL VEHICLE (HHO) GAS

ADDITION ON GASOLINE ENGINE

PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS
 Abstract

The objective of this work was to construct a simple innovative HHO generation
system and evaluate the effect of hydroxyl gas HHO addition, as an engine
performance improver, into gasoline fuel on engine performance and emissions.
HHO cell was designed, fabricated and optimized for maximum HHO gas
productivity per input power. The optimized parameters were the number of
neutral plates, distance between them and type and quantity of two catalysts
of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The performance
of a Skoda Felicia 1.3 GLXi gasoline engine was evaluated with and without the
optimized HHO cell. In addition, the CO, HC and NOx emissions were measured
using TECNO TEST exhaust gas analyzer TE488. The results showed that the
HHO gas maximum productivity of the cell was 18 L/h when using 2 neutrals
plates with 1 mm distance and 6 g/L of KOH. The results also showed 10%
increment in the gasoline engine thermal efficiency, 34% reduction in fuel
consumption, 18% reduction in CO, 14% reduction in HC and 15% reduction in
NOx.

Keywords
HHO gas
Gasoline engines
Hydrogen cell
Exhausts emission
Chapter 1
 1. Introduction

A trending global concern, toward lowering fuel consumption and emissions

of internal combustion engines, is motivating researchers to seek alternative
solutions that would not require a dramatic modification in engines design. Among
such solutions is using H2 as an alternative fuel to enhance engine efficiency and
produce less pollution [1]. This is not feasible from a commercial point view;
building a system that generates H2 and integrating it with the engine system yield
an expensive manufacturing cost [2] and impact the vehicle market price. Another
option is blending H2 with Natural Gas
(NG) [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12]. Ma et al. showed that the
H2/NG mixture achieved shorter flame development and propagation periods, and
so, the combustion efficiency is enhanced and emission levels were lower [3].
Musmar and Al-Rousan have designed, integrated and tested a compact HHO
generating device on a gasoline engine. Their results showed that nitrogen oxides
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and fuel consumption were reduced by 50%, 20%,
and ∼30%, respectively, with an addition of HHO gas [13], [14]. The effect of
HHO addition on CI engines was studied by Yilmaz et al.; their results reported an
increase in engine torque by an average of 19.1%, a reduction in CO and
Hydrocarbons (HC) emissions, and Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) by averages
of 13.5%, 5%, and 14%, respectively [15]. Ji et al. [16] have studied the effect of
H2enrichment on a SI methanol-fueled engine, and reported an increase in Brake
Mean Effective Pressure (Bmep) and both the thermal and volumetric efficiencies,
with 3% of H2 by volume of the intake air.
Shivaprasad et al. [17] have experimented on a single cylinder SI gasoline engine
while injecting H2 in the intake manifold in volumetric fractions (Vf) of the intake
air between 5% and 25%. The results reported a continuous increase in Bmep and
thermal efficiency, and a decrease in both HC and CO emissions, with an increase
in H2 fraction. Unfavorably, a corresponding increase in NOx was reported with the
rise in H2%. Wang et al., have conducted a number of
experiments [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23] on a SI 4-cylinder gasoline engine to
investigate the performance of H2/gasoline blends. In most of the experiments, the
engine was operated in a city driving condition of 1400 rpm. Results
in [24] outlined the general qualities offered by H2 without any other modifications
to the engine. Notably, the spark timing of the original gasoline operation was not
modified, despite the predictable fast combustion of H2/gasoline. The results
demonstrate a most profound enhancement in Bmep and thermal efficiency in lean
conditions, and an increase in peak cylinder pressure and an advance in the
corresponding crank angle (CA) with the increase in H2%.
Advantages of CO2, CO and HC reduction, while NOx increased, with higher H2 %,
would be reasoned as follows: reduction of these 3 was attributed to enhanced
combustion kinetics, as H2 combustion produces the oxidizing species of OH and O
radicals that benefit the chemistry of Hydrocarbons (HCs) combustion. Besides,
gasoline fuel flow was reduced with H2 enrichment – to maintain constant global
mixture equivalence and compare the engine performance with pure gasoline – so,
lesser HCs content is in the fuel, which cuts the formation of CO, CO2 and HC and
promotes economic fuel consumption. Furthermore, hydrogen has a
higher diffusion coefficient than that of the gasoline, and so, the gaseous H2 can
disperse thoroughly in the charge and allow for greater mixture homogeneity and
combustion completeness. On the other hand, NOx increase was attributed to the
higher adiabatic flame temperature of hydrogen [24].
Hydrogen has higher flame speed and its gasoline blend can be combusted faster.
Still, as H2 addition widen the mixture flammability limit to leaner fuel
equivalence, the reaction rate will be reduced and combustion would be prolonged
in lean conditions. That is why the effect of spark timing was investigated in [25];
both of the highest thermal efficiency and indicated mean effective pressure (Imep)
were achieved at a significantly retarded CA, compared to pure gasoline at the
same equivalence. The effect of H2 on allowing a leaner operation was studied
in [26]; H2was added at a constant VF, while gasoline flow rate was gradually
reduced until the lean limit (LL) was reached. LL was remarkably extended to an
equivalence of 2.55, instead of 1.45 with unblended gasoline. In [18], the cyclic
variations in IMEP were studied statistically, and H2 was found to smoothen engine
operation as identified by a limited scatter in both the Imep and CA durations of heat
release, when plotted against the number of cycles. This smooth operation effect
was found to prevail in cold starting conditions, as reported in [19]. Reduction in
flames development and heat release periods was attributed to the
lower ignition energy of H2 and its higher flame speed [24], compared to gasoline.
In [20], reported is an interesting study of combining the benefits of lean
combustion with H2 injection to achieve load control. The results reported a
significant reduction in NOx at low and part-load conditions and an increase in the
thermal efficiency for all loads. On the other hand, this H2-assisted lean operation
at low loads suffered an increase in the CA combustion duration, which
compromised the engine stability.
As perhaps in a next step, the use of standard hydroxygen gas (HHO) – produced
by water electrolysis and consisting of H2 and O2 in 2:1 volume ratio – was
investigated in [21], [22] and compared with H2 enrichment at the same VF of the
intake air. Collectively, it was found that HHO-gasoline blends can provide a
comparable performance to H2 blends, if not better. HHO was claimed to grant a
greater enhancement in thermal efficiency and Bmep and notably extend the stable
LL of H2-gasoline blends. HHO was reported to reduce the CA of heat release
duration. Such is desirable as it yields, combined with optimized spark timing, the
heat release process to start-and-end in almost constant volume conditions (state of
an ideal thermodynamic cycle), and so, enhancements in engine efficiency would
be more pronounced. Notably in [21], standard HHO addition was calculated to
increase the energy flow to the engine, contrary to H2, as it gets to higher VF while
maintaining a constant global equivalence. Therefore, a higher Bmep realized with
HHO compared to H2. On the other hand, HHO was reported to raise NOx to levels
even higher than that of H2, which are already higher than these of the original
gasoline fuel. Easier as it seems, adding H2 in the intake manifold substitutes some
of the combustion air. Such can be thought to deteriorate combustion at some point
if the hydrogen content got very high such that the charge entering the cylinder did
not have sufficient O2 concentration to promote combustion completeness.
Moreover, H2 lower density might dramatically inflect the engine volumetric
efficiency (less mass in cylinders). Another study [23] attempted to investigate the
effect of a variable H2 content in HHO gas, and reported an almost constant CO
emission irrespective of the hydrogen fraction as it changed within 0–100%, and
that H2 fraction would control the diameter of particulate emissions.
There is more to be learned regarding the use of H2 or HHO in gasoline engines.
The goal is to emphasize the great qualities they offer such as increased
efficiencyand peak pressure, and alleviate the drawbacks of higher NOx and
reduced mass of the cylinder charge. The first step in this endeavor is to design
a hydrogen generator capable of delivering the required flow for optimum
performance, and to be at an acceptable size and weight for installation on a
passenger vehicle. This would be the main objective of the present study.
Chapter 2
 LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION OF LITERATURE SURVEY

In the first phase of this research work, available literature relevant to this work was
reviewed.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In the beginning, all engine experiments were designed for burning a variety of gases,
including natural gas, hydrogen, and propane. There had been many investigations on
hydrogen enriched combustion in internal combustion engines. Rivaz (1807) of Switzerland
invented an internal combustion engine with electric ignition which used the mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen as fuel. He designed a car for his engine. This was the first internal
combustion powered automobile (Bruno 1996, Eckermann 2001, Dutton 2006). Later, he
obtained French patent for his invention in 1807. The sketch of his engine taken from his
patent is shown in Figure 2.1. Cecil (1820) described a hydrogen engine in his paper entitled
"On the application of hydrogen gas to produce a moving power in machinery; with a
description of an engine which is moved by pressure of the atmosphere upon a vacuum
caused by explosions of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air." In this document, he explained
how to use the energy of hydrogen to power an engine and how the hydrogen engine could be
built. This is probably one of the most primitive inventions made i 43 In 1863, Lenoir made a
test drive from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont with his hydrogen gas fueled one cylinder internal
combustion engine Hippomobile with a top speed of 9 km in 3 hours (Energylibrary 2014).
primitive elements by electricity, which will then have become a powerful and manageable
force. Water will one day be employed as a fuel, that hydrogen and oxygen which constitute
it, used singly or together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of light and heat of an
intensity of which coal is not capable. Some day the coal rooms of steamers and the tenders
of locomotives will, instead of coal, be stored with these two condensed gases, which will
burn in the furnaces with In 1920 Erren converted over 1000 S.I engines into hydrogen fueled
engines (Erren & Campbell 1933). His convertion included trucks and buses. For his
inventions he got patent in Great Britain in 1932 (Erren, 1932) and later in the United States
in 1939 (Erren, 1939). Figure 2.1 Patent drawing of Rivaz 44

HYDROGEN ASSISTED COMBUSTION

Hydrogen can compensate some of the demand for hydrocarbon fuel by being combusted
along with gasoline, diesel, or natural gas in an internal combustion engine. This type of
combustion is called dual-fuel combustion. It either uses very small amounts of hydrogen to
modify combustion or uses a large amount of hydrogen as the principal source of energy in
the combustion chamber. This type of operation has been investigated by numerous
researchers for several types of hydrogen assisted combustions.

COMBUSTION OF HYDROGEN WITH GASOLINE

Stebar & Parks (1974) investigated about the hydrogen supplemention by means of extending
lean operating limits of gasoline engines to control the NOX emissions. They carried out their
test in a single cylinder engine. Their results showed that small additions of hydrogen to the
fuel resulted in very low NOX and CO emissions for hydrogen-isooctane mixtures leaner
than 0.55 equivalence ratio. They also obtained significant improvement in thermal efficiency
beyond isooctane lean limit operation. However, HC emissions increased markedly at these
lean conditions. They concluded that the success of hydrogen supplemented fuel approach
would ultimately hinge on the development of both a means of controlling hydrocarbon
emissions and a suitable hydrogen source on board the vehicle. Houseman & Hoehn (1974)
presented the first engine dynamometer test results for a modified fuel system based on
hydrogen enrichment for a V-8 IC engine. The engine burnt mixtures of gasoline and
hydrogen under ultra lean conditions and yielded extremely low NOX emissions with
increased engine efficiency. They produced hydrogen in a compact on-board generator from
45 gasoline and air. They cooled hydrogen-rich product gas and mixed with the normal
combustion air in a modified carburettor. The engine was then operated in the conventional
manner on atomized gasoline with spark ignition, but with hydrogen-enriched air and with a
high spark advance of 40°-50° BTDC. Thus the engine received two charges of fuel: a charge
of gaseous fuel from the hydrogen generator, and the normal gasoline charge. The results on
hydrogen enrichment were compared with the 1973 V-8 baseline stock engine with emission
controls and the same engine without controls and operated at maximum efficiency under
lean conditions. Relative to the stock 1973 350 CID engine, an approximate 10% reduction in
brake specific fuel consumption was measured over the entire level road load speed range.
For the same condition, NOX emissions were reduced to below the equivalent 1977 EPA
Standards. Rose (1995) made researches on the method and apparatus for enhancing
combustion in an ICE through electrolysis and produced hydrogen along with oxygen yielded
enhanced combustion at low engine loads for all types of engines.
 2. Experimental setup and test procedure

2.1. HHO generator

2.1.1. System description

HHO generator used in this study is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of separation tank
(1) which supplies the HHO cell (2) with continuous flow of water to prevent the
increase in the temperature inside the cell and to provide continuous hydrogen
generation.

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Figure 1. (a) Schematic diagram of the HHO gas generation system. (b) HHO separation tank
components.

Oxygen–hydrogen mixture generated from the dry cell will be back to the top of
the tank with some water droplets.
2H2O→2H2+O2

Water droplets will separate and fall to the bottom of the tank with the rest of the
water, while hydrogen and oxygen gases are directed to the engine intake
manifold.
The HHO flow rate was measured by calculating the water displacement per time
according to the setup shown in Fig. 1. The HHO gas leaves the separation tank
and flows into the water open pool (4) bushing the water down of the inverted
graduated cylinder (3). The volume of gas collected in the graduated cylinder per
unit of time was measured as the HHO flow rate. Therefore, the cell productivity
can be calculated from the following equation:
HHOproductivity=volumetime

2.1.2. HHO dry cell

Stainless steel tumblers were used as the electrodes. There are 16 electrodes
16 × 20 × 0.2 cm thickness, configured as shown in Fig. 2 in alternate form
(+,2N,−), where (+) represents the positive electrode, (N) is neutral, and (−) is
the negative electrode. Amperage flows from the negative battery terminal through
the neutral plates to the positive plate and onto the positive terminal. Neutrals
reduce the plate voltage, share the same amperage and increase surface area for
HHO production. The gap between adjacent tumblers was limited to 1 mm using
rubber gaskets. In addition, 20 × 24 × 1 cm thickness cover plates were made of
acrylic to provide visual indication of electrolyte level. HHO cell is supplied
by electrical energy from the engine battery which is recharged by the
engine alternator.
1. Download high-res image (178KB)
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Figure 2. HHO fuel cell. (a) A schematic diagram of HHO cell. (b) Plates’ arrangement
(using 2 neutral plates). (c) HHO dry cell with Water inlet and gas outlet ports.

The cell productivity was tested without being connected to the engine with 2
different catalysts, KOH and NaOH, to find the best electrolyte with best
concentration experimentally. The calculation was done based on the following
equation:

•
mH2=VV/Kmole×M
V: Hydrogen volume collected = 1/9 displaced volume of the cylinder 3.
V/Kmole : Volume occupied by one kmole = 22.4 m3/Kmole
 M: Molecular weight of hydrogen = 2
•
Energy gained = mH2 × LHVH2
LHVH2 = 121,000 kJ/kg
•
Energyconsumed=Volt×Ampere×Time
•
HHOcellefficiency=EnergygainedEnergyconsumed

2.1.3. HHO separation tank

The HHO separation tank and its components are shown in Fig. 1b. It was
constructed from 3.5 in PVC pipe (1) with a capacity of 2.2 L. A standard 4 in
PVC end caps (2) were used to seal the top and bottom. A 0.5 in PVC ball
valve (3) was used to refill the tank with Distilled water with dissolved catalyst.
Hoses were used for water inlet (4) and HHO gas outlet from the cell, the
condensed water and dissolved catalyst are carried to the cell through outlet (5) and
HHO gas outlet (6) to the engine. It is equipped by a Pressure gauge (7) with
vacuum range 0–1 bar and a spring loaded vacuum breaker.

2.2. Engine and test bed description

These research experiments were performed on Skoda Felicia engine whose

specifications are shown in Table 1; tests were carried out at engine speeds of
1500, 2000 and 2500 rpm with different loads.
Different engine parameters are measured, on a test rig which is illustrated in Fig.
3. Engine load was measured by Froude hydraulic dynamometer (2), engine speed
and air flow rate by Vag-Com Diagnostic Systems (VCDS) (3), engine fuel
consumption is measured by self-build inclined manometer (4), and engine
emission by exhaust gas analyzer model TE488 (5).
1. Download high-res image (83KB)
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Figure 3. Schematic diagram of engine and test bed description.

The testing is conducted for the taken engine operated with gasoline as base fuel
without using the HHO cell and with using HHO cell connected to the inlet
manifold. A constant speed test at variable load has been performed on this engine.
The engine is tested and the measured data are collected at the same operating
conditions for both cases of HHO/gasoline and gasoline fuel only.
For the safety purpose, HHO generation system is connected to the engine intake
manifold through two flash-back arrestors which close gasoline engine in event of
the intake manifold flashback. Fig. 4 shows the schematic diagram of the HHO
system with safety component installed to the engine.
1. Download high-res image (72KB)
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Figure 4. Schematic illustration of the HHO system with safety component installed on the
engine.
 Internal combustion engine
"ICEV" redirects here. For the form of water ice, see Ice V. For the high speed train, see ICE
V.

Diagram of a cylinder as found in 4-stroke gasoline engines.:

C – crankshaft.
E – exhaust camshaft.
I – inlet camshaft.
P – piston.
R – connecting rod.
S – spark plug.
V – valves. red: exhaust, blue: intake.
W – cooling water jacket.
gray structure – engine block.
Diagram describing the ideal combustion cycle by Carnot

An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of

a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of
the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-
temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some
component of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or
a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into
useful mechanical energy.

The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne
Lenoir around 1859[1] and the first modern internal combustion engine was created in 1876
by Nikolaus Otto (see Otto engine).

The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion
is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along
with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second
class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and
most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as
previously described.[1][2] Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine.[2]

In contrast, in external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, energy is

delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion
products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium,
heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel
fuel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many stationary applications, most
ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as
cars, aircraft, and boats.

Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such
as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There is a growing usage of renewable
fuels like biodiesel for CI (compression ignition) engines and bioethanol or methanol for SI
(spark ignition) engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be obtained from either fossil
fuels or renewable energy.
History

Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion

engines. In 1791, John Barber developed the gas turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented
a gas engine. Also in 1794, Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was
also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John
Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine. In
1807, French engineers Nicéphore (who went on to invent photography) and Claude
Niépce ran a prototype internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions,
the Pyréolophore. This engine powered a boat on the Saône river, France. The same year,
the Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by an
electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be
applied industrially.

In 1854 in the UK, the Italian inventors Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci tried to patent
"Obtaining motive power by the explosion of gases", although the application did not
progress to the granted stage.[3] In 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-
fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas
engine. In 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled
internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-cycle engine. In
1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gasoline engine. Later, in 1886, Karl
Benz began the first commercial production of motor vehicles with the internal combustion
engine. In 1892, Rudolf Dieseldeveloped the first compressed charge, compression ignition
engine. In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel
He 178became the world's first jet aircraft.

Etymology

At one time, the word engine (via Old French, from Latin ingenium, "ability") meant any
piece of machinery—a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A "motor"
(from Latin motor, "mover") is any machine that produces mechanical power.
Traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as "engines"; however, combustion engines
are often referred to as "motors". (An electric engine refers to a locomotive operated by
electricity.)
In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an
engine, but the engines that sit on the transom are referred to as motors.[4]

Applications

Reciprocating engine as found inside a car

Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and
water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser
extent, locomotives (some are electrical but most use Diesel engines[5][6]). Rotary engines of
the Wankel design are used in some automobiles, aircraft and motorcycles.

Where high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the
form of combustion turbines or Wankel engines. Powered aircraft typically uses an ICE
which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes can instead use jet
engines and helicopters can instead employ turboshafts; both of which are types of turbines.
In addition to providing propulsion, airliners may employ a separate ICE as an auxiliary
power unit. Wankel engines are fitted to many unmanned aerial vehicles.

Big Diesel generator used for backup power

ICEs drive some of the large electric generators that power electrical grids. They are found in
the form of combustion turbines in combined cycle power plants with a typical electrical
output in the range of 100 MW to 1 GW. The high temperature exhaust is used to boil and
superheat water to run a steam turbine. Thus, the efficiency is higher because more energy is
extracted from the fuel than what could be extracted by the combustion turbine alone. In
combined cycle power plants efficiencies in the range of 50% to 60% are typical. In a smaller
scale Diesel generators are used for backup power and for providing electrical power to areas
not connected to an electric grid.

Small engines (usually 2‐stroke gasoline engines) are a common power source
for lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, leafblowers, pressure
washers, snowmobiles, jet skis, outboard motors, mopeds, and motorcycles.

Classification

There are several possible ways to classify internal combustion engines.

Reciprocating

By number of strokes

 Two-stroke engine
 Clerk cycle[7]
 Day cycle
 Four-stroke engine (Otto cycle)
 Six-stroke engine

By type of ignition

 Compression-ignition engine
 Spark-ignition engine (commonly found as gasoline engines)

By mechanical/thermodynamical cycle (these 2 cycles do not encompass all reciprocating

engines, and are infrequently used):

 Atkinson cycle
 Miller cycle
Rotary

For rotating-crankcase radial-cylindered engines, see Rotary engine.

 Wankel engine

Continuous combustion[edit]

 Gas turbine
 Turbojet, through a propelling nozzle
 Turbofan, through a ducted fan
 Turboprop, through an unducted propeller, usually with variable pitch
 Ramjet
 Rocket engine

Reciprocating engines[edit]

See also: Diesel engine and Gasoline engine

Structure[edit]

Bare cylinder block of a V8 engine

Piston, piston ring, gudgeon pin and connecting rod

The base of a reciprocating internal combustion engine is the engine block, which is typically
made of cast iron or aluminium. The engine block contains the cylinders. In engines with
more than one cylinder they are usually arranged either in 1 row (straight engine) or 2 rows
(boxer engine or V engine); 3 rows are occasionally used (W engine) in contemporary
engines, and other engine configurations are possible and have been used. Single cylinder
engines are common for motorcycles and in small engines of machinery. Water-cooled
engines contain passages in the engine block where cooling fluid circulates (the water jacket).
Some small engines are air-cooled, and instead of having a water jacket the cylinder block
has fins protruding away from it to cool by directly transferring heat to the air. The cylinder
walls are usually finished by honing to obtain a cross hatch, which is better able to retain the
oil. A too rough surface would quickly harm the engine by excessive wear on the piston.

The pistons are short cylindrical parts which seal one end of the cylinder from the high
pressure of the compressed air and combustion products and slide continuously within it
while the engine is in operation. The top wall of the piston is termed its crown and is
typically flat or concave. Some two-stroke engines use pistons with a deflector head. Pistons
are open at the bottom and hollow except for an integral reinforcement structure (the piston
web). When an engine is working the gas pressure in the combustion chamber exerts a force
on the piston crown which is transferred through its web to a gudgeon pin. Each piston
has rings fitted around its circumference that mostly prevent the gases from leaking into the
crankcase or the oil into the combustion chamber. A ventilation system drives the small
amount of gas that escape past the pistons during normal operation (the blow-by gases) out of
the crankcase so that it does not accumulate contaminating the oil and creating corrosion. In
two-stroke gasoline engines the crankcase is part of the air–fuel path and due to the
continuous flow of it they do not need a separate crankcase ventilation system.

Valve train above a Diesel engine cylinder head. This engine uses rocker arms but no
pushrods.

The cylinder head is attached to the engine block by numerous bolts or studs. It has several
functions. The cylinder head seals the cylinders on the side opposite to the pistons; it contains
short ducts (the ports) for intake and exhaust and the associated intake valves that open to let
the cylinder be filled with fresh air and exhaust valves that open to allow the combustion
gases to escape. However, 2-stroke crankcase scavenged engines connect the gas ports
directly to the cylinder wall without poppet valves; the piston controls their opening and
occlusion instead. The cylinder head also holds the spark plug in the case of spark ignition
engines and the injector for engines that use direct injection. All CI engines use fuel injection,
usually direct injection but some engines instead use indirect injection. SI engines can use
a carburetor or fuel injection as port injection or direct injection. Most SI engines have a
single spark plug per cylinder but some have 2. A head gasket prevents the gas from leaking
between the cylinder head and the engine block. The opening and closing of the valves is
controlled by one or several camshafts and springs—or in some engines—a desmodromic
mechanism that uses no springs. The camshaft may press directly the stem of the valve or
may act upon a rocker arm, again, either directly or through a pushrod.
Engine block seen from below. The cylinders, oil spray nozzle and half of the main bearings
are clearly visible.

The crankcase is sealed at the bottom with a sump that collects the falling oil during normal
operation to be cycled again. The cavity created between the cylinder block and the sump
houses a crankshaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons to rotational motion.
The crankshaft is held in place relative to the engine block by main bearings, which allow it
to rotate. Bulkheads in the crankcase form a half of every main bearing; the other half is a
detachable cap. In some cases a single main bearing deck is used rather than several smaller
caps. A connecting rod is connected to offset sections of the crankshaft (the crankpins) in one
end and to the piston in the other end through the gudgeon pin and thus transfers the force
and translates the reciprocating motion of the pistons to the circular motion of the crankshaft.
The end of the connecting rod attached to the gudgeon pin is called its small end, and the
other end, where it is connected to the crankshaft, the big end. The big end has a detachable
half to allow assembly around the crankshaft. It is kept together to the connecting rod by
removable bolts.

The cylinder head has an intake manifold and an exhaust manifold attached to the
corresponding ports. The intake manifold connects to the air filter directly, or to
a carburetor when one is present, which is then connected to the air filter. It distributes the air
incoming from these devices to the individual cylinders. The exhaust manifold is the first
component in the exhaust system. It collects the exhaust gases from the cylinders and drives
it to the following component in the path. The exhaust system of an ICE may also include
a catalytic converter and muffler. The final section in the path of the exhaust gases is
the tailpipe.

4-stroke engines[edit]
Diagram showing the operation of a 4-stroke SI engine. Labels:
1 ‐ Induction
2 ‐ Compression
3 ‐ Power
4 ‐ Exhaust

The top dead center (TDC) of a piston is the position where it is nearest to the valves; bottom
dead center (BDC) is the opposite position where it is furthest from them. A stroke is the
movement of a piston from TDC to BDC or vice versa, together with the associated process.
While an engine is in operation, the crankshaft rotates continuously at a nearly
constant speed. In a 4-stroke ICE, each piston experiences 2 strokes per crankshaft revolution
in the following order. Starting the description at TDC, these are:[8][9]

1. Intake, induction or suction: The intake valves are open as a result of the cam lobe
pressing down on the valve stem. The piston moves downward increasing the volume
of the combustion chamber and allowing air to enter in the case of a CI engine or an
air fuel mix in the case of SI engines that do not use direct injection. The air or air-
fuel mixture is called the charge in any case.
2. Compression: In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston moves upward
reducing the combustion chamber volume which reaches its minimum when the
piston is at TDC. The piston performs work on the charge as it is being compressed;
as a result its pressure, temperature and density increase; an approximation to this
behavior is provided by the ideal gas law. Just before the piston reaches TDC, ignition
 begins. In the case of a SI engine, the spark plug receives a high voltage pulse that
generates the spark which gives it its name and ignites the charge. In the case of a CI
engine the fuel injector quickly injects fuel into the combustion chamber as a spray;
the fuel ignites due to the high temperature.
3. Power or working stroke: The pressure of the combustion gases pushes the piston
downward, generating more workthan it required to compress the charge.
Complementary to the compression stroke, the combustion gases expand and as a
result their temperature, pressure and density decreases. When the piston is near to
BDC the exhaust valve opens. The combustion gases expand irreversibly due to the
leftover pressure—in excess of back pressure, the gauge pressure on the exhaust
port—; this is called the blowdown.
4. Exhaust: The exhaust valve remains open while the piston moves upward expelling
the combustion gases. For naturally aspirated engines a small part of the combustion
gases may remain in the cylinder during normal operation because the piston does not
close the combustion chamber completely; these gases dissolve in the next charge. At
the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens, and the
sequence repeats in the next cycle. The intake valve may open before the exhaust
valve closes to allow better scavenging
COMBUSTIVE PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN(brown gas)-

Wide Range of Flammability- As can be seen the flammability limits (= possible mixture
compositions for ignition and flamepropagation) are very wide for hydrogen (between 4 and
75 percentage Engine Splendor, Air cooled Cubic Capacity 100 cc Stroke 4 Stroke Brake
Power 7.37 HP (5.4KW) @ 8000 RPM Speed 1500 RPM Number of Cylinders Single Radius
of the Brake Drum 0.083m 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0 50 100 150 Br ak e Po we r (k
W ) Load (%) GASOLINE GASOLINE + BROWN'S GAS hydrogen in the mixture) to
gasoline (between 1 and 7.6percentage).

Low Ignition Energy-Hydrogen has very low ignition energy.

High Auto ignition Temperature-The high auto ignition temperature of hydrogen allows
larger compression ratios to be used in a hydrogen engine than in a hydrocarbon engine.

High Flame Speed- Hydrogen has high flame speed at stoichiometric ratios.Some basics the
burn speed of hydrogen is 0.098 to 0.197 ft/min (3 to 6 cm/min) compared gasoline´s 0.00656
to 0.0295 ft/min (0.2 to 0.9 cm/min).

High Diffusivity- Hydrogen has very high diffusivity. Firstly, it facilitates the formation of a
uniform mixture of fuel and air. Secondly, if a hydrogen leak develops, the hydrogen
disperses rapidly. Thus, unsafe conditions can either be avoided or minimized.

Low Freezing point- Thus this creates no starting problem in the cold environment
 3. Results and discussion

3.1. HHO cell results

Fig. 5 shows the effect of KOH concentrations on the HHO cell average efficiency.
It is found that 6 g/L of KOH as catalyst gives better efficiency at different engine
speeds. It is also found that 4 g/L of NaOH gives better highest thermal efficiency
compared to other NaOH concentration at different engine speeds as shown in Fig.
6.

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Figure 5. Average efficiencies for using different concentrations of KOH at different engine
speeds.

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Figure 6. Average efficiencies for using different concentrations of NaOH at different engine
speeds.
 Fig. 7 compares the results of 6 g/L of KOH with those of 4 g/L of NaOH, and it is
found that 6 g/L KOH gives highest efficiency at different motor speeds (see Fig.
7).

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Figure 7. Average efficiencies for using concentrations of 6 g KOH and 4 g NaOH per liter at
different engine speed.

3.2. Engine performance

Figure 8, Figure 9 show the effect of introducing HHO gas to the combustion on
both thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption. It is noted that HHO gas
enhances the combustion process through increasing engine thermal efficiency and
reducing the specific fuel consumption. Comparing HHO gas to commercial
gasoline fuel, HHO is extremely efficient in terms of fuel chemical structure.
Hydrogen and oxygen exist in HHO as two atoms per combustible unit with
independent clusters, while a gasoline fuel consists of thousands of large molecules
hydrocarbon. This diatomic configuration of HHO gas (H2 and O2) results in
efficient combustion because the hydrogen and oxygen atoms interact directly
without any ignition propagation delays due to surface travel time of the reaction.
On ignition, its flame front flashes through the cylinder wall at a much higher
velocity than in ordinary gasoline/air combustion [3]. The released heat of HHO
facilitated breaking of the gasoline molecules bonds and hence increasing reaction
rate and flame speed and then combustion efficiency is increased.
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Figure 8. Overall thermal efficiency improvement with HHO over pure gasoline fuel at
different engine speeds; (a) 1500 rpm, (b) 2000 rpm, and (c) 2500 rpm.

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Figure 9. Effect of varying the engine dynamometer load on BSFC; (a) 1500 rpm, (b)
2000 rpm, and (c) 2500 rpm.

It is also noted that introducing HHO gas to the fuel/air mixture has a positive
impact on the octane rating of gasoline fuel. Therefore the engine compression
ratio can be raised and more gain in the efficiency can be obtained. In addition the
ignition advance could be increased to maximize the engine torque without
knocking of engine.
 3.3. Engine emissions

The effect of supplying the gasoline engine with HHO gas on the carbon
monoxideCO, unburned hydrocarbon HC and nitrogen oxides NOx is presented
in Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 12 respectively.

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Figure 10. Effect of varying the engine dynamometer load on CO emission; (a) 1500 rpm, (b)
2000 rpm, and (c) 2500 rpm.

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Figure 11. Effect of varying the engine dynamometer load on HC emission; (a) 1500 rpm, (b)
2000 rpm, and (c) 2500 rpm.
1. Download high-res image (141KB)
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Figure 12. Effect of varying the engine dynamometer load on NOx emission; (a) 1500 rpm,
(b) 2000 rpm, and (c) 2500 rpm.

CO is highly affected by the fuel to air ratio of the engine, so using a blend of
HHO gas reduces significantly the presence of carbon monoxide in the exhaust due
to decreasing the gasoline fuel consumption.
In Fig. 11, it is clear that, at fixed speed the unburned hydrocarbon increases as the
load increases. This is due to more fuel is introduced to achieve the desire engine
torque and hence it leads to increase in HC emission. It also noted that there is a
reduction in HC emission when the engine runs with HHO/gasoline than gasoline
fuel only. This is owing to the high O2 % in HHO gas being injected into the intake
manifold which in turn enhances the fuel oxidation process and reduces the HC
emission.
High NOx emission is usually increased with high flame temperature and excess
air. Introducing HHO into the intake manifold results in reducing the amount of
gasoline which leads to lean mixture and hence, resulting in reduction in the flame
temperature. Therefore, lower NOx emission is obtained as shown in Fig. 12. HHO
gas shifts all emission curves downward, since it enhances the combustion
characteristics and consequently reduces the fuel consumption at any speed. The
obtained results from this work have comparable trend as those for
reference [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26].
The voltmeter and ammeter were calibrated at the electrical laboratory and
the dynamometer was calibrated in the internal combustion laboratory, both
laboratories are located in Alexandria University. It was found that the error is less
than 1%. The error analysis, which is given below, shows the uncertainty of the
measured data.
Uvolt=±0.01voltUamp=±0.01amp

UEngineload=±0.125ibUEnginerpm=±50rpm

UEnginevolumetricfuelconsumption=±0.025cm3

UEnginepower=∂P∂L×UEngineload2+∂P∂N×UEnginerpm2

UEnginepower=N2800×0.1252+L2800×502

Engine power Uncertainty min engine rpm 1500 max engine rpm 2500

min engine load 5 ib max engine load 20 ib

±0.11 ±0.37

UHHOcellpower=∂P∂V×Uvolt2+∂P∂I×Uamp2

UEnginepower=(I×0.01)2+(V×0.01)2

HHO cell power Uncertainty min HHO cell volt max HHO cell volt

min HHO cell amp max HHO cell amp

±0.13 ±0.135
 FABRICATION
Different processes used for fabricating the engine:

Grinding:

Grinding is a finishing process used to improve surface finish, abrade hard materials,
and tighten the tolerance on flat and cylindrical surfaces by removing a small amount of
material. Information in this section is organized according to the subcategory links in the menu
bar to the left.

In grinding, an abrasive material rubs against the metal part and removes tiny pieces of
material. The abrasive material is typically on the surface of a wheel or belt and abrades
material in a way similar to sanding. On a microscopic scale, the chip formation in grinding is
the same as that found in other machining processes. The abrasive action of grinding generates
excessive heat so that flooding of the cutting area with fluid is necessary.

Reasons for Grinding:

1. The material is too hard to be machined economically.

2. Tolerances required preclude machining. Grinding can produce flatness tolerances of

less than ±0.0025 mm (±0.0001 in) on a 127 x 127 mm (5 x 5 in) steel surface if the surface is
adequately supported.

3. Machining removes excessive material.

A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of various power tools or

machine tools used for grinding, which is a type ofmachining using an abrasive wheel as the
cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the workpiece
via shear deformation.

Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must show high surface quality (e.g., low
surface roughness) and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions
in grinding is on the order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a finishing
operation and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to 0.50 mm depth. However, there
are some roughing applications in which grinding removes high volumes of metal quite rapidly.
Thus, grinding is a diverse field.
Types:

These machines include the:

• Belt grinder, which is usually used as a machining method to process metals and other
materials, with the aid of coated abrasives. Sanding is the machining of wood; grinding is the
common name for machining metals. Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all kind
of applications like finishing, deburring, and stock removal.

• Bench grinder, which usually has two wheels of different grain sizes for roughing and
finishing operations and is secured to a workbench or floor stand. Its uses include shaping tool
bits or various tools that need to be made or repaired. Bench grinders are manually operated.

• Cylindrical grinder, which includes both the types that use centers and the centerless
types. A cylindrical grinder may have multiple grinding wheels. The work-piece is rotated and
fed past the wheels to form a cylinder. It is used to make precision rods, tubes, bearing races,
bushings, and many other parts.

• Surface grinder which includes the wash grinder. A surface grinder has a "head" which
is lowered to a work-piece which is moved back and forth under the grinding wheel on a table
that typically has a controllable permanent magnet for use with magnetic stock but can have a
vacuum chuck or other fixturing means. The most common surface grinders have a grinding
wheel rotating on a horizantal axis cutting around the circumference of the grinding wheel.
Rotary surface grinders, commonly known as "Blanchard" style grinders, have a grinding head
which rotates the grinding wheel on a vertical axis cutting on the end face of the grinding wheel,
while a table rotates the work-piece in the opposite direction underneath. This type of machine
removes large amounts of material and grinds flat surfaces with noted spiral grind marks. It
can also be used to make and sharpen metal stamping die sets, flat shear blades, fixture bases
or any flat and parallel surfaces.

• Tool and cutter grinder and the D-bit grinder. These usually can perform the minor
function of the drill bit grinder, or other specialist tool-room grinding operations.

• Jig grinder, which as the name implies, has a variety of uses when finishing jigs, dies,
and fixtures. Its primary function is in the realm of grinding holes and pins. It can also be used
for complex surface grinding to finish work started on a mill.
• Gear grinder, which is usually employed as the final machining process when
manufacturing a high-precision gear. The primary function of these machines is to remove the
remaining few thousandths of an inch of material left by other manufacturing methods such as
gashing or hobbing.

• Die grinder, which is a high-speed hand-held rotary tool with a small diameter grinding
bit. They are typically air driven using compressed air, but can be driven with a small electric
motor directly or via a flexible shaft.

Drilling:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary-cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is
pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions
per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work-piece, cutting off chips from the hole
as it is drilled.

Exceptionally, specially-shaped bits can cut holes of non-circular cross-section; a

square cross-section is possible.

Process:

Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and the presence
of burrs on the exit side. Also, the inside of the hole usually has helical feed marks.

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the work-piece by creating low
residual stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed
material on the newly formed surface. This causes the work-piece to become more susceptible
to corrosion and crack propagation at the stressed surface. A finish operation may be done to
avoid these detrimental conditions.

For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may form long spirals
or small flakes, depending on the material, and process parameters. The type of chips formed
can be an indicator of the machinability of the material, with long chips suggesting poor
material machinability.

When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the workpiece surface.
This minimizes the drill bit's tendency to "walk", that is, to be deflected from the intended
center-line of the bore, causing the hole to be misplaced. The higher the length-to-diameter
ratio of the drill bit, the greater the tendency to walk. The tendency to walk is also preempted
in various other ways, which include:

Establishing a centering mark or feature before drilling, such as by:

• Casting, molding, or forging a mark into the work-piece

• Center punching

• Spot drilling (i.e., center drilling)

• Spot facing, which is facing a certain area on a rough casting or forging to establish,
essentially, an island of precisely known surface in a sea of imprecisely known surface

• Constraining the position of the drill bit using a drill jig with drill bushings

Surface finish produced by drilling may range from 32 to 500 micro-inches. Finish cuts
will generate surfaces near 32 micro-inches, and roughing will be near 500 micro-inches.

Cutting fluid is commonly used to cool the drill bit, increase tool life, increase speeds
and feeds, increase the surface finish, and aid in ejecting chips. Application of these fluids is
usually done by flooding the work-piece with coolant and lubricant or by applying a spray mist.

In deciding which drill to use it is important to consider the task at hand and evaluate
which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a variety of drill styles that each serve a
different purpose. The sub-land drill is capable of drilling more than one diameter. The spade
drill is used to drill larger hole sizes. The indexable drill is useful in managing chips.

Boring:

Boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled, by means of a
single-point cutting tool, for example as in boring a gun barrel or an engine cylinder. Boring is
used to achieve greater accuracy of the diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut a tapered
hole. Boring can be viewed as the internal-diameter counterpart to turning, which cuts external
diameters.

There are various types of boring. The boring bar may be supported on both ends, or it
may be supported at one end. Line-boring implies the former. Back-boring is the process of
reaching through an existing hole and then boring on the "back" side of the work-piece.
 Because of the limitations on tooling design imposed by the fact that the work-piece
mostly surrounds the tool, boring is inherently somewhat more challenging than turning, in
terms of decreased tool holding rigidity, increased clearance angle requirements and difficulty
of inspection of the resulting surface (size, form, surface roughness).

Boring and turning have abrasive counterparts in internal and external cylindrical
grinding.

Machine tools used:

The boring process can be executed on various machine tools, including general-
purpose or universal machines, such as lathes or milling machines, and machines designed to
specialize in boring as a primary function, such as jig borers and boring machines or boring
mills, which include vertical boring mills and horizontal boring mills i.e., work-piece sits on a
table while the boring bar rotates around a horizontal axis; essentially a specialized horizontal
milling machine.

Turning:

Turning is a engineering machining process in which a cutting tool, typically a non-

rotary tool bit, describes a helical toolpath by moving more or less linearly while the work-
piece rotates. The tool's axes of movement may be literally a straight line, or they may be along
some set of curves or angles, but they are essentially linear. Usually the term "turning" is
reserved for the generation of external surfaces by this cutting action, whereas this same
essential cutting action when applied to internal surfaces is called "boring". Thus the phrase
"turning and boring" categorizes the larger family of processes. The cutting of faces on the
work-piece that is, surfaces perpendicular to its rotating axis, whether with a turning or boring
tool, is called "facing", and may be lumped into either category as a subset.

Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently requires
continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe which does not. Today
the most common type of such automation is computer numerical control, better known as
CNC.

When turning, a piece of relatively rigid material is rotated and a cutting tool is
traversed along 1, 2, or 3 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can
be either on the outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring) to produce
tubular components to various geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes could even be
used to produce complex geometric figures, even the platonic solids; although since the advent
of CNC it has become unusual to use non-computerized toolpath control for this purpose.

The turning processes are typically carried out on a lathe, considered to be the oldest
machine tools, and can be of four different types such as straight turning, taper turning,
profiling or external grooving. Those types of turning processes can produce various shapes of
materials such as straight, conical, curved, or grooved workpiece. In general, turning uses
simple single-point cutting tools. Each group of workpiece materials has an optimum set of
tools angles which have been developed through the years.

Shearing:

Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation
of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the
process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type
operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates,
however rods can also be sheared. Shearing-type operations include: blanking, piercing, roll
slitting, and trimming. It is used in metalworking and also with paper and plastics.

Several cutting processes exist that utilize shearing force to cut sheet metal. However,
the term "shearing" by itself refers to a specific cutting process that produces straight line cuts
to separate a piece of sheet metal. Most commonly, shearing is used to cut a sheet parallel to
an existing edge which is held square, but angled cuts can be made as well. For this reason,
shearing is primarily used to cut sheet stock into smaller sizes in preparation for other
processes. Shearing has the following capabilities:

• Sheet thickness: 0.005-0.25 inches

• Tolerance: ±0.1 inches (±0.005 inches feasible)

• Surface finish: 250-1000 μ-in (125-2000 μ-in feasible)

The shearing process is performed on a shear machine, often called a squaring shear or
power shear, that can be operated manually (by hand or foot) or by hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electric power. A typical shear machine includes a table with support arms to hold the sheet,
stops or guides to secure the sheet, upper and lower straight-edge blades, and a gauging device
to precisely position the sheet. The sheet is placed between the upper and lower blade, which
are then forced together against the sheet, cutting the material. In most devices, the lower blade
remains stationary while the upper blade is forced downward. The upper blade is slightly offset
from the lower blade, approximately 5-10% of the sheet thickness. Also, the upper blade is
usually angled so that the cut progresses from one end to the other, thus reducing the required
force. The blades used in these machines typically have a square edge rather than a knife-edge
and are available in different materials, such as low alloy steel and high-carbon steel.

Principle:

A punch is used to push the work-piece against the die, which is fixed. Usually the
clearance between the two is 5 to 40% of the thickness of the material, but dependent on the
material. Clearance is defined as the separation between the blades, measured at the point
where the cutting action takes place and perpendicular to the direction of blade movement. It
affects the finish of the cut (burr) and the machine's power consumption. This causes the
material to experience highly localized shear stresses between the punch and die. The material
will then fail when the punch has moved 15 to 60% the thickness of the material, because the
shear stresses are greater than the shear strength of the material and the remainder of the
material is torn. Two distinct sections can be seen on a sheared work-piece, the first part being
plastic deformation and the second being fractured. Because of normal In-homogeneities in
materials and inconsistencies in clearance between the punch and die, the shearing action does
not occur in a uniform manner. The fracture will begin at the weakest point and progress to the
next weakest point until the entire workpiece has been sheared; this is what causes the rough
edge. The rough edge can be reduced if the workpiece is clamped from the top with a die
cushion. Above a certain pressure the fracture zone can be completely eliminated. However,
the sheared edge of the workpiece will usually experience work hardening and cracking. If the
workpiece has too much clearance, then it may experience roll-over or heavy burring.

Sheet Metal Cutting (Shearing):

Cutting processes are those in which a piece of sheet metal is separated by applying a
great enough force to caused the material to fail. The most common cutting processes are
performed by applying a shearing force, and are therefore sometimes referred to as shearing
processes. When a great enough shearing force is applied, the shear stress in the material will
exceed the ultimate shear strength and the material will fail and separate at the cut location.
This shearing force is applied by two tools, one above and one below the sheet. Whether these
tools are a punch and die or upper and lower blades, the tool above the sheet delivers a quick
downward blow to the sheet metal that rests over the lower tool. A small clearance is present
between the edges of the upper and lower tools, which facilitates the fracture of the material.
The size of this clearance is typically 2-10% of the material thickness and depends upon several
factors, such as the specific shearing process, material, and sheet thickness.

The effects of shearing on the material change as the cut progresses and are visible on
the edge of the sheared material. When the punch or blade impacts the sheet, the clearance
between the tools allows the sheet to plastically deform and "rollover" the edge. As the tool
penetrates the sheet further, the shearing results in a vertical burnished zone of material.
Finally, the shear stress is too great and the material fractures at an angle with a small burr
formed at the edge. The height of each of these portions of the cut depends on several factors,
including the sharpness of the tools and the clearance between the tools.

Sheared edge:

A variety of cutting processes that utilize shearing forces exist to separate or remove
material from a piece of sheet stock in different ways. Each process is capable of forming a
specific type of cut, some with an open path to separate a portion of material and some with a
closed path to cutout and remove that material. By using many of these processes together,
sheet metal parts can be fabricated with cutouts and profiles of any 2D geometry. Such cutting
processes include the following:

 Shearing - Separating material into two parts

 Blanking - Removing material to use for parts
Conventional blanking

Fine blanking

 Punching - Removing material as scrap

Piercing

Slotting

Perforating

Notching

Nibbling

Lancing
 Slitting

Parting

Cut-off

Trimming

Welding:

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or

thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and
adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become
a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce
the weld. This is in contrast with soldering andbrazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-
point material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the work
pieces.

Some of the best known welding methods include:

• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) - also known as "stick welding", uses an electrode
that has flux, the protectant for the puddle, around it. The electrode holder holds the electrode
as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from atmospheric contamination.

• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) - also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas), uses a
non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas such as Argon or Helium.

• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) - commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a
wire feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows an argon-based shielding gas
or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to protect it from atmospheric
contamination.

• Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) - almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a
special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without shielding gas, depending on
the filler.

• Submerged arc welding (SAW) - uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and
a blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from
atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under the flux blanket.
• Electroslag welding (ESW) - a highly productive, single pass welding process for
thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to
vertical position.

Arc welding:

These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use
either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes.
The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as
a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.

Processes:

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW);
it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding. Electric current is used
to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod, which is made of filler
material (typically steel) and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation
and contamination by producing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas during the welding process. The
electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary.

Forging:

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized

compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or a die.

Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part.
As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain deforms to follow the
general shape of the part. As a result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to
a piece with improved strength characteristics.

Most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and
carefully heat-treated to correctly shape the work-piece, as well as to withstand the tremendous
forces involved.
 There are many different kinds of forging processes available, however they can be
grouped into three main classes:

• Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases

• Upset: length decreases, cross-section increases

• Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow.

The most common type of forging equipment is the hammer and anvil. The principle
behind the machine is simple: raise the hammer and drop it or propel it into the work-piece,
which rests on the anvil. The main variations between drop-hammers are in the way the hammer
is powered; the most common being air and steam hammers. Drop-hammers usually operate in
a vertical position. The main reason for this is excess energy that isn't released as heat or sound
needs to be transmitted to the foundation. Moreover, a large machine base is needed to absorb
the impacts.

To overcome some shortcomings of the drop-hammer, the counterblow machine or

impactor is used. In a counterblow machine both the hammer and anvil move and the work-
piece is held between them. Here excess energy becomes recoil. This allows the machine to
work horizontally and have a smaller base. Other advantages include less noise, heat and
vibration. It also produces a distinctly different flow pattern. Both of these machines can be
used for open-die or closed-die forging.

Effect:

Before the material is hardened, the microstructure of the material is a pearlite grain
structure that is uniform and lamellar. Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and cementite formed
when steel or cast iron are manufactured and cooled at a slow rate. After quench hardening, the
microstructure of the material form into martensite as a fine, needle-like grain structure.

Before using this technique it is essential to look up the rate constants for the quenching
of the excited states of metal ions.

Equipment:

There are four types of furnaces that are commonly used in quench hardening:

 salt bath furnace,

 continuous furnace,
  box furnace,
 Vacuum furnace.
Each is used depending on what other processes or types of quench hardening are being
done on the different materials.

Quenching media:

When quenching, there are numerous types of media called quenchants. Some of the
more common include: air, nitrogen, argon, helium, brine, oil and water. Experience shows
that olive oil is particularly efficient as a good quench. These media are used to increase the
severity of the quench.

Filing:

Filing is a material removal process in manufacturing. Similar, depending on use, to both

sawing and grinding in effect, it is functionally versatile, but used mostly for finishing
operations, namely in de-burring operations. Filing operations can be used on a wide range of
materials as a finishing operation. Filing helps achieve work-piece function by removing
some excess material and de-burring the surface. Sandpaper may be used as a filing tool for
other materials, such as glass.
 WORKING PRINCIPAL

This works on the principal of electrolysis process.Electrolysis is the process that converts
water to gas. The electrical supply for the process is used from your Vehicles battery and
alternator.An electrical power source is connected to the two electrode materials which are
placed in the water. Hydrogen will appear at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode,
where electrons enter the water), and oxygen will appear at the anode material (the positively
charged electrode).ie reduction at cathode and oxidation at anode occurs According to ideal
faradaic efficiency. The amount of hydrogen generated is twice the number of moles of
ADVANTAGES OF THE PROJECT-

 Eliminate harmful exhaust emission that pollute the environment and contribute to global
warming. Your engine will add oxygen to the environment instead of polluting it.

 Increase in mileage of vehicle 45% to 60%.

 Increase in life of engine oil more than 2 to 3 times

 Increase in pick-up of vehicle

 Better smoother running engine

 Remove carbon deposits up to 50% and prevent future carbon build up

 Reduce knocking of engine

 Reduce the operating temperature of the engine.

 Decreases oil consumption of engine

 Fuel Saving can be between 30% to 60 % depending up on viscosity of fuel, Driving style,
Road conditions & other parameters.
 FEASIBILITY,NEED AND FUTURE SCOPE OF THE TOPIC

This project have a reliability in itself being an automobile. This project is also very
economical since the major factor of high level of fuel(petrol) prices in the country, would be
reduced. All the components used in the project are real and available easily. such type of
bikes or automobiles are needed more in india because these reduces the air pollution and the
amount of money involved in the fuel consumption. Currently, in India, air pollution is
widespread in urban areas where vehicles are the major contributors and in a few other areas
with a high concentration of industries and thermal power plants.Hydrogen is a fuel with heat
content nearly three times that of gasoline. From our work we experimentally found out that
the efficiency of an IC engine can be rapidly increased by mixing hydrogen with gasoline.
Hydrogen is the Key to a Clean Energy Future. Thus the hydrogen powered bike would be
the major automobile used by the country since the fuel used have more advantages as
compare to the conventional fuels.
 Conclusion

Laboratory experiments have been carried out to investigate the effect of HHO gas
on the emission and performance of a Skoda Felicia 1.3 GLXi engine. A new
design of HHO fuel cell has been performed to generate HHO gas required for
engine operation. The generated gas is mixed with a fresh air in the intake
manifold. The exhaust gas concentrations have been sampled and measured using a
gas analyzer. The following conclusions can be drawn.
1.
HHO cell can be integrated easily with existing engine systems.
2.
The engine thermal efficiency has been increased up to 10% when HHO gas
has been introduced into the air/fuel mixture, consequently reducing fuel
consumption up to 34%.
3.
The concentration of NOx, CO and HC gases has been reduced to almost
15%, 18% and 14% respectively on average when HHO is introduced into
the system.
4.
The best available catalyst was found to be KOH, with concentration 6 g/L.

5.
The proposed design for separation tank takes into consideration the safety
precautions needed when dealing with hydrogen fuel.

It is recommended for the future work to study the effect of both compression ratio
and ignition advance on the engine performance and emissions with introducing
HHO gas into the gasoline engine.
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