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OP AMP INTRODUCTION
An ideal op amp has infinite gain for differential input signals. In practice, real
devices will have quite high gain (also called open-loop gain) but this gain won’t
necessarily be precisely known. In terms of specifications, gain is measured in terms
of VOUT/VIN, and is given in V/V, the dimensionless numeric gain.
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Also, an ideal op amp has zero gain for signals common to both inputs, that is,
common-mode (CM) signals. Or, stated in terms of the rejection for these common-
mode signals, an ideal op amp has infinite CM rejection (CMRR).
The ideal op amp also has zero offset voltage ( = 0), and draws zero bias current
( = 0) at both inputs.
Gains of 100 dB – 130 dB are common for precision op amps, while high speed
devices may have gains in the 60 dB – 70 dB range.
In practice, real op amps can have CMR specifications of up to 130 dB for precision
devices, or as low as 60 dB–70 dB for some high speed devices.
Within real devices, actual offset voltages can be as low as 1 µV or less, or as high as
several mV. Bias currents can be as low as a few fA, or as high as several µA.
Virtually all op amp feedback connections can be categorized into just a few basic
types.
These include the two most often used, non-inverting and inverting voltage gain
stages, plus a related differential gain stage.
The op amp non-inverting gain stage, also known as a voltage follower with gain, or
simply voltage follower, is shown below in Figure
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This op amp stage processes the input VIN by a gain of G, so a generalized expression
for gain is:
Feedback network resistances RF and RG set the stage gain of the follower. For an
ideal op amp, the gain of this stage is:
The op amp inverting gain stage, also known simply as the inverter, is shown in
Figure .The inverter can be viewed as similar to a follower, but with a transposition
of the input voltage . In the inverter the signal is applied to of the feedback
network, and the op amp (+) input is grounded. The feedback network resistances,
and set the stage gain of the inverter. For an ideal op amp, the gain of this stage
is:
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The inverter’s gain behaviour, due to the principles of infinite op amp gain, zero
input offset, and zero bias current, gives rise to an effective node of zero voltage at
the (−) input. The input and feedback currents sum at this point, which logically
results in the term summing point. It is also called a virtual ground, because of the
fact it will be at the same potential as the grounded reference input.
GAIN STABILITY
LOOP GAIN
The product AVOLβ which occurs in the above equations is called loop gain, a well-
known term in feedback theory. The improvement in closed-loop performance due to
negative feedback is, in nearly every case, proportional to loop gain. The term "loop
gain" comes from the method of measurement. This is done by breaking the closed
feedback loop at the op amp output, and measuring the total gain around the loop.
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Approximately, closed-loop output impedance, linearity, and gain instability errors
reduce by the factor A β, with the use of negative feedback.
SLEW RATE
Slew rate is defined as an output voltage rate limit usually caused by the current
necessary to charge a capacitance.
OP AMP CHARACTERIZATION
A model for a noni deal op amp that includes some of the linear, static nonidealities:
Where
= differential input resistance
= differential input capacitance
= common mode input resistance
= common mode input capacitance
= input-offset voltage
CMRR = common-mode rejection ratio (when v1=v2 an output results)
= voltage-noise spectral density (mean-square volts/Hertz)
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OP AMP CATEGORIZATION
The first stage in Figure 1 consists of a p-channel differential pair M1-M2 with an n-
channel current mirror load M3-M4 and a p-channel tail current source M5. The
second stage consists of an n-channel common-source amplifier M6 with a p-channel
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current-source load M7. Because the OP-AMP inputs are connected to the gates of
MOS transistor, the input resistance is essentially infinite when the OP-AMP is used
in internal applications. For the same reason, the input resistance of the second stage
of the OP-AMP is also essentially infinite. The output resistance is the resistance
looking back into the second stage with the OP-AMP inputs connected to small
signal ground:
Where R0=output resistance and ro6 and ro7 are the internal resistance of transistor
M6 and M7 respectively. Although this output resistance is almost always much
larger than in general purpose bipolar OP-AMP, low output resistance is usually not
required when driving purely capacitive loads. Since the input resistance of the
second stage is essentially infinite, the voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure 1 can
be found by considering the two stages separately. The small signal voltage gain of
first stage (basic diff amp) is given by
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(B) OPERATIONAL TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER (OTA)
INTRODUCTION
Any real OTA will thus have circuitry to process the input voltages with low input
current over a wide common mode input range, to produce an internal representation
of the input differential voltage and to provide a current to the output that is relatively
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independent of the output voltage. Since an OTA can be used without feedback, the
maximum output current and with it the transconductance can often be adjusted.
Bandwidth is infinite.
When =
GAIN
It is the ratio between output voltage and differential input voltage. Since the output
signal is much larger than the input signal, so it is commonly called as large signal
voltage gain.
PHASE MARGIN
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This is the absolute value of the open-loop phase shift between the output and the
inverting input at the frequency at which the modulus of the open-loop amplification
is unity.
GAIN MARGIN
M1 and M2 transistor are used as differential input.M31 and M41 are current mirror
and M4 to M41 aspect ratio is k:1 and id is directly proportional to aspect ratio hence
current in M4 is K times current in M41 and similarly current in M5 is k times M3
and hence we get the differential output.
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COMPARISON OF OPAMP VS OTA
OP AMP OTA
High Input Impedance and low output High Input Impedance and high output
Impedance Impedance
Used with external feedback for creating All nodes are at low impedance except for
circuits. Used as an output buffer. the input and the output nodes.
Contains compensation capacitor in its
circuitry between the 2 stages (Miller
compensation).
Op-amp becomes unstable with larger Better frequency capabilities than op-amp.
load capacitances. As load capacitance increases the phase
margin increases and the OTA is stable.
The gain for op-amp is fixed. The gain of OTA is linearly dependent upon
amplifier bias current for hundreds of
decades, which make the OTA based circuits
tunable.
The op-amp performance degrades at The OTA has a very high bandwidth
higher frequencies.
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2.OP AMP CIRCUITS AND THEIR SIMULATION
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3. DIFFERENTIATOR
Using the virtual ground concept potential concept (VN=0), we get the current
through capacitor as
( )
4. INTEGRATOR
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∫ ∫
( ) ∫ ( ) ( )
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The basic high pass filter is similar to LPF with the capacitor and resistors
switched from their places.
Applying KCL at node X we get
Hence
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) … (1)
( )
( )
( )
…. (2)
( )
( )
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8. SECOND ORDER HPF
The transfer function of second order HPF can be derived in similar way as
second order HPF. The transfer function is given as
( )
( ) ( )
⁄( )
( )
( )
( )
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(B)SIMULATION RESULTS
1. INVERTING AMPLIFIER
3. DIFFERENTIATOR
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4. INTEGRATOR
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7. SECOND ORDER LOW PASS FILTER
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3.COVERSION OF OP-AMP CIRCUITS TO OTA BASED
CIRCUITS
The conversion for some basic fundamental Op-amp circuits to respective OTA
based circuits is done below. These fundamental circuits can then be used to replace
the fundamental blocks of circuits in op-amp based circuit.
1. INVERTING AMPLIFIER
( )
Now this is an equation for a circuit having two OTA’s and can be drawn as
follows:
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( )
Or we can write,
( )
3. DIFFERENTAITOR
( )
Writing gm for R , gives us
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4. INTEGRATOR
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( )
⁄
⁄ ⁄
( )
Now this equation can be implemented using the following circuit:
( )
( )
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Where ( ) and G(s) =
The system H(s) is simply the differentiator and G(s) is the inverting amplifier.
Hence the OTA base circuit is given as follows:
AN EXAMPLE OF CONVERSION:
The conversion of above circuit is done to get the OTA based circuit as follows:
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4. OTA CIRCUITS AND ITS SIMULATION
(A)MATHEMATICAL ANALYSYS
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From these two we get
=
Hence
=-( + + ).
=-
=-( + + ).
= =
= and =
= =
, = =0
= =
( )
And
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( )
( )
hence
So, R= 1/
= .
=( )sC
. =( )sC
( )
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6. LOW PASS FILTER
⁄
( )
⁄
( )
( )
⁄
Where,
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8. ALL PASS FILTER
( )
( )
9. BI-QUAD FILTER
( )
( )
( )
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V1=V2=0, V3=Vi, g2 = 2 g1
The eqn. (1) becomes
( )
( )
which represents a high pass filter
( )
( )
All-pass filter
The realization conditions are
V2=0, V2=V3= Vi, g2 =2 g1
The eqn. (1) becomes
( )
( )
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When and
Hence,
With and
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(B)SIMULATION RESULTS
The simulation result for various circuits for which mathematical analysis is done is
presented below.
1. RESISTOR
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3. LOW PASS FILTER
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5. BIQUAD FILTER
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(C)HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
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4.SUMMARY
The study of both OTA and Op-amp basics was carried out and it was found that
there are certain advantages of OTA over the op-amp. The main advantages are
higher bandwidth and controllable variable gain, in case of OTA.
These advantages of OTA can be put to great use and result in a more interesting
class of circuits called electronically tunable circuits. The ability to control gain in
the OTA according to the relation:
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A1. THE LM13600 IC
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The LM13700 improves upon the CA3080 by adding linearization to the OTA
inputs. While this improves the linear input range greatly, it lowers input impedance
and changes the distortion properties. It uses a Wilson mirror also for the tail current.
Since a Wilson mirror needs more voltage headroom, the common mode voltage
range is reduced on the negative rail and the potential for the tail current input is
increased in comparison with the CA3080, which may become important in certain
applications.
The LM13600 and the LM1370
0 differ only in the way the bias current for the buffer (which is not shown here) is
produced. The LM13700 uses a constant bias current according to the datasheet,
while in the LM13600 the bias is a mirrored copy of the tail current. This can lead to
CV feedthrough to the output when the tail current is changed rapidly.
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A2. ABOUT MULTISIM
Multisim is widely used in academia and industry for circuits education, electronic
schematic design and SPICE simulation.
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REFERENCES
[3] Design of OTA-C Active Low Pass Filter using multiple OTA’s,Rajeshwari S.
Mathad,M. M.Mutsaddi, S. V. Halse , IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSRJAP)
ISSN – 2278-4861 Volume 1, Issue 4 (July-Aug. 2012)
[8] Design and Simulation of Two Stage OTA Using 0.18μm and 0.35μm
Technology Hitesh Modi, Nilesh D. Patel , International Journal of Engineering and
Advanced Technology (IJEAT) ISSN: 2249 – 8958, Volume-2, Issue-3, February
2013 .
[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_transconductance_amplifier
[10] http://mysite.du.edu/~etuttle/electron/elect22.htm
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