SUPER MAGNET

BRAKING
SYSTEM
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE
LIST OF FIGURES

SYNOPSIS

1 INTRODUCTION
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
3 DESIGN AND DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS
3.1 BRAKE SYSTEM
3.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC
3.3 MOTOR
3.4 MAGNET
3.5 SPRING
4 WORKING PRINCIPLE
5 MERITS , DEMERITS AND APPLICATIONS
6 LIST OF MATERIALS

7 OPERATIONS PERFORMED
8 COST ESTIMATION
CONCLUSION
PHOTOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

NUMBER TITLE

1 OVERALL DIAGRAM
 ABSTRACT

Super magnet brake is the innovative concept based on the magnetic attraction
of the conducting metals. A super magnet brake, like a conventional friction brake, is
responsible for slowing an object, such as a train or a roller coaster. Unlike friction
brakes, which apply pressure on two separate objects, eddy current brakes slow an object
by creating eddy currents through electromagnetic induction which create resistance, and
in turn either heat or electricity. This project consists of the following parts, Round disc
plate, Motor and Magnet.
CHAPTER-1
 1. INTRODUCTION

Brake (device), device used to slow and stop a rotating wheel and thus a moving
vehicle. Brakes such as those on automobiles, trucks, trains, and bicycles use ​friction
between a wheel and another object to slow the motion of the vehicle. The friction
created by the rubbing together of two objects generates a large amount of heat. A brake
system must be capable of dissipating the heat as rotating wheels slow, because excess
heat can cause the brakes to lose their grip and fail.

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic

field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that
pulls on other ferromagnetic materials like iron and attracts or repels other magnets.

A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and

creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a refrigerator magnet
used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are
also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic (or
ferrimagnetic). These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare earth metals, and
some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. Although ferromagnetic (and
ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be
commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field,
by one of several other types of magnetism.
 Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like
annealed iron which can be magnetized but don't tend to stay magnetized, and
magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard"
ferromagnetic materials which are subjected to special processing in a powerful magnetic
field during manufacture, to align their internal microcrystalline structure, making them
very hard to demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field
must be applied and this threshold depends on coercivity of the respective material.
"Hard" materials have high coercivity whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity.

An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire which acts as a magnet when an

electric current passes through it, but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often
an electromagnet is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which
enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.

The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment, or

alternately the total magnetic flux it produces. The local strength of the magnetism in a
material is measured by its magnetization.
CHAPTER -II
 2. LITERATURE SURVEY

An eddy current brake, like a conventional ​friction ​brake​, is a device used to

slow or stop a moving object by dissipating its ​kinetic energy as heat. However, unlike
electro-mechanical brakes​, in which the drag force used to stop the moving object is
provided by ​friction between two surfaces pressed together, the drag force in an eddy
current brake is an electromagnetic force between a ​magnet and a nearby ​conductive
object in relative motion, due to ​eddy currents induced in the conductor through
electromagnetic induction​.

A conductive surface moving past a stationary magnet will have circular ​electric
currents called ​eddy currents induced in it by the ​magnetic field​, due to ​Faraday's law of
induction​. By ​Lenz's law​, the circulating currents will create their own magnetic field
which opposes the field of the magnet. Thus the moving conductor will experience a drag
force from the magnet that opposes its motion, proportional to its velocity. The electrical
energy of the eddy currents is dissipated as ​heat due to the ​electrical resistance of the
conductor.

In an electromagnetic brake the magnetic field may be created by a ​permanent

magnet or an ​electromagnet so the braking force can be turned on and off or varied by
varying the ​electric current in the electromagnet's windings. Another advantage is that
since the brake does not work by ​friction​, there are no ​brake shoe surfaces to ​wear out,
necessitating replacement, as with friction brakes. A disadvantage is that since the
braking force is proportional to velocity the brake has no holding force when the moving
object is stationary, as is provided by ​static friction in a friction brake, so in vehicles it
must be supplemented by a friction brake.
Eddy current brakes are used to slow high-speed trains and ​roller coasters​, to stop
powered tools quickly when power is turned off, and in ​electric meters used by electric
utilities.
 CHAPTER -III

3. DESIGN AND DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS

DIAGRAM FOR SUPERMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM

​MACHINE COMPONENTS

The super magnet braking system is consists of the following components to full
fill the requirements of complete operation of the machine.

➢ Braking system
➢ Motor
➢ Magnet
➢ Acrylic disc
➢ Spring
➢ Bearing
➢ frame
➢ Rectifier
3.1 BRAKE SYSTEM
​Every car has a service brake system, operated by foot pressure on a pedal while the
car is in motion, and a hand-operated emergency brake system employed for parking and
as a backup to the service brake system. The service brake system uses fluid forced by
pistons through small flexible pipes (brake lines) to transmit the pressure of the driver's
foot to the brake mechanisms

3.2 MOTOR

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A

current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an
external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the
conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of
from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while
like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a
DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying
conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.

Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a
magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or
winding with a "South" polarization).
 Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (armature), stator, commutator,
field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors, the external magnetic field is
produced by high-strength permanent magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the
motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole
pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to
the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being
electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor
layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such
that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator
magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the
stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next
commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor,
the rotation reverses the direction of ​current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip"
of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a
very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You
can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of
its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there.
Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out
the power supply. This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage
motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it
would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is
cyclic with the position of the rotor).
 So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the
workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript required):

A few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two
others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact
to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge
up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later,
but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series
wiring:
 There's probably no better way to see how an average ​DC motor is put together,
than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the
destruction of a perfectly good motor.

The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same model that
Solarbotics sells) are available for (on 10 lines / cm graph paper). This is a basic 3-pole
DC motor, with 2 brushes and three commutator contacts.

The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite common, and
has a number of advantages. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for
the windings -- a particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The core
also conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven harder
than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive
compared with other construction types.
 But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature has a
relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also results in
high winding inductance’s which limit brush and commutator life.

In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a 'coreless'

armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural integrity.
As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent magnet can be mounted ​inside the
rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-core
motors of comparable size, extending brush and commutator life.

The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors;

meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are somewhat prone to
overheating. As a result, this design is generally used just in small, low-power motors.
Beamers will most often see coreless DC motors in the form of pager motors.

Again, disassembling a coreless motor can be instructive -- in this case, my

hapless victim was a cheap pager vibrator motor. The guts of this disassembled motor are
available (on 10 lines / cm graph paper). This is (or more accurately, was) a 3-pole
coreless DC motor.

DC MOTOR CALCULATION
SPECIFICATION:

Speed N = 1000 RPM

Voltage V = 12 Volt
Current I = 0.3 A (loading condition)
Current I = 0.06 A (No Load Condition)
Power P =V x I=12x0.3 = 3.6 WATT
P= 0.0048 HP
Motor Efficiency = 36%
Motor shaft diameter = 6 mm

FORMULEA
Good science project does not stop with building a motor. It is very important to measure
different electrical and mechanical parameters of your motor and calculate unknown
values using the following helpful formulas.
This formula could be used in many cases. You may calculate the resistance of your
motor by measuring the consumed current and applied voltage. For any given resistance
(in the motors it is basically the resistance of the coil) this formula explains that the
current can be controlled by applied voltage.
Electrical power of the motor is defined by the following formula:

P​in​ = I * V
Where,
Pin – input power, measured in watts (W)
I – current, measured in amperes (A)
V – applied voltage, measured in volts (V)
Motors supposed to do some work and two important values define how powerful the
motor is. It is motor speed and torque – the turning force of the motor. Output mechanical
power of the motor could be calculated by using the following formula

P​out​ = Τ * ω
Where,
Pout – output power, measured in watts (W)
τ – torque, measured in Newton meters (Nm)
ω – angular speed, measured in radians per second (rad/s).
Calculate angular speed if you know rotational speed of the motor in rpm:
ω = N * 2π / 60

Where,
ω – Angular speed, measured in radians per second (rad/s);
rpm – rotational speed in revolutions per minute;
π – Mathematical constant pi (3.14).
60 – Number of seconds in a minute.
Efficiency of the motor is calculated as mechanical output power divided by electrical
input power:
E = P​out​ / P​in
Therefore
P​out​ = P​in​ * E
After substitution we get
Τ*ω=I*V*E
Τ * N * 2π / 60 = I * V * E
Connect the motor to the load. Using the motor from generator kit is the best way
to do it. Why do you need to connect the motor to the load? Well, if there is no load –
there is no torque.

Measure current, voltage and rpm. Now you can calculate the torque for this load
at this speed assuming that you know efficiency of the motor.
Motor torque changes with the speed. At no load you have maximum speed and zero
torque. Load adds mechanical resistance. The motor starts to consume more current to
overcome this resistance and the speed decreases. If you increase the load at some point
motor stops (this is called stall). When it occurs the torque is at maximum and it is called
stall torque. While it is hard to measure stall torque without special tools you can find this
value by plotting speed-torque graph. You need to take at least two measurements with
different loads to find the stall torque.
And the formula for calculating torque will be

Τ = (I * V * E *60) / (N * 2π)

​= (0.3x12x0.36x60)/100x2​π

Torque = 0.124Nm

Torque (T) = 1.265kgcm

3.3 MAGNET:
 A magnet is a material or object that produces a ​magnetic field​. This magnetic
field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that
pulls on other ​ferromagnetic​ materials, such as ​iron​, and attracts or repels other magnets.

A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is ​magnetized and

creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a ​refrigerator magnet
used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are
also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ​ferromagnetic (or
ferrimagnetic​). These include ​iron​, ​nickel​, ​cobalt​, some alloys of ​rare earth metals​, and
some naturally occurring minerals such as ​lodestone​. Although ferromagnetic (and
ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be
commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field,
by one of several other types of ​magnetism​.

Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like

annealed ​iron​, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and
magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard"
ferromagnetic materials such as ​alnico and ​ferrite that are subjected to special processing
in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal ​microcrystalline
structure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a
certain magnetic field must be applied, and this threshold depends on ​coercivity of the
respective material. "Hard" materials have high coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have
low coercivity.

An ​electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an

electric current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often,
the coil is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the
magnetic field produced by the coil.
 The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its ​magnetic moment or,
alternatively, the total ​magnetic flux it produces. The local strength of magnetism in a
material is measured by its ​magnetization​.

The ​magnetic flux density (also called magnetic B field or just magnetic field, usually
denoted B) is a ​vector field​. The magnetic B field ​vector at a given point in space is
specified by two properties:
1. Its direction, which is along the orientation of a ​compass needle​.
2. Its magnitude (also called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the
compass needle orients along that direction.

In ​SI​ units, the strength of the magnetic B field is given in ​teslas​.

The term magnet is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent
magnetic field even in the absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of
materials can do this. Most materials, however, produce a magnetic field in response to
an applied magnetic field; a phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several types
of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them.

The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the
structure of the material, particularly on its ​electron configuration​. Several forms of
magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including:
● Ferromagnetic and ​ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as magnetic;
they are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These
materials are the only ones that can retain magnetization and become magnets; a common
example is a traditional ​refrigerator magnet​. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include
ferrites and the oldest magnetic materials ​magnetite and ​lodestone​, are similar to but
 weaker than ferromagnetics. The difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is
related to their microscopic structure, as explained in ​Magnetism​.

● Paramagnetic substances, such as ​platinum​, ​aluminum​, and ​oxygen​, are weakly attracted
to a magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that of
ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using
extremely strong magnets. Magnetic ​ferrofluids​, although they are made of tiny
ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic
since they cannot be magnetized.

● Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and ferromagnetic

substances, diamagnetic substances, such as ​carbon​, ​copper​, ​water​, and ​plastic​, are even
more weakly repelled by a magnet. The permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than
the ​permeability of a vacuum​. All substances not possessing one of the other types of
magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force on a
diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely
strong ​superconducting magnets​, diamagnetic objects such as pieces of ​lead and even
mice​[17] can be ​levitated​, so they float in mid-air. ​Superconductors repel magnetic fields
from their interior and are strongly diamagnetic. There are various other types of
magnetism, such as ​spin glass​, ​superparamagnetism​, ​super diamagnetism​, and ​meta
magnetism​.

● Magnetic recording media: ​VHS tapes contain a reel of ​magnetic tape​. The information
that makes up the video and sound is encoded on the magnetic coating on the tape.
Common ​audio cassettes also rely on magnetic tape. Similarly, in computers, ​floppy
disks​ and ​hard disks​ record data on a thin magnetic coating.
● Credit​, ​debit​, and ​ATM cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip on one side. This
strip encodes the information to contact an individual's financial institution and connect
with their account(s).

● Common ​televisions and ​computer monitors​: TV and computer screens containing a

cathode ray tube employ an electromagnet to guide electrons to the screen.​[20] ​Plasma
screens​ and ​LCDs​ use different technologies.

● Speakers and ​microphones​: Most speakers employ a permanent magnet and a

current-carrying coil to convert electric energy (the signal) into mechanical energy
(movement that creates the sound). The ​coil is wrapped around a ​bobbin attached to the
speaker ​cone and carries the signal as changing current that interacts with the field of the
permanent magnet. The ​voice coil feels a magnetic force and in response, moves the cone
and pressurizes the neighboring air, thus generating ​sound​. Dynamic microphones
employ the same concept, but in reverse. A microphone has a diaphragm or membrane
attached to a coil of wire. The coil rests inside a specially shaped magnet. When sound
vibrates the membrane, the coil is vibrated as well. As the coil moves through the
magnetic field, a voltage is ​induced across the coil. This voltage drives a current in the
wire that is characteristic of the original sound.

● Electric guitars use magnetic ​pickups to transduce the vibration of guitar strings into
electric current that can then be ​amplified​. This is different from the principle behind the
speaker and dynamic microphone because the vibrations are sensed directly by the
magnet, and a diaphragm is not employed. The ​Hammond organ used a similar
principle, with rotating ​tonewheels​ instead of strings.

● Electric motors and ​generators​: Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an
electromagnet and a permanent magnet, and, much like loudspeakers, they convert
 electric energy into mechanical energy. A generator is the reverse: it converts mechanical
energy into electric energy by moving a conductor through a magnetic field.

● Medicine​: Hospitals use ​magnetic resonance imaging to spot problems in a patient's

organs without invasive surgery.
● Chucks are used in the ​metalworking field to hold objects. Magnets are also used in other
types of fastening devices, such as the ​magnetic base​, the ​magnetic clamp and the
refrigerator magnet​.

● Compasses​: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer free to align itself
with a magnetic field, most commonly ​Earth's magnetic field​.

● Art​: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs, and other
ornamental articles, allowing them to be attached to refrigerators and other metal
surfaces. Objects and paint can be applied directly to the magnet surface to create collage
pieces of art. Magnetic art is portable, inexpensive and easy to create. Vinyl magnetic art
is not for the refrigerator anymore. Colorful metal magnetic boards, strips, doors,
microwave ovens, dishwashers, cars, metal I beams, and any metal surface can be
receptive of magnetic vinyl art. Being a relatively new media for art, the creative uses for
this material is just beginning.

● Science projects: Many topic questions are based on magnets. For example: how is the
strength of a magnet affected by glass, plastic, and cardboard.
Magnets have many uses in ​toys​. M-tic uses magnetic rods connected to metal spheres
for ​construction​. Note the geodesic pyramid.

● Toys​: Given their ability to counteract the force of gravity at close range, magnets are
often employed in children's toys, such as the ​Magnet Space Wheel and ​Levitron​, to
amusing effect.
● Magnets can be used to make jewelry. Necklaces and bracelets can have a magnetic
clasp, or may be constructed entirely from a linked series of magnets and ferrous beads.

● Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper clips) that are
either too small, too hard to reach, or too thin for fingers to hold. Some screwdrivers are
magnetized for this purpose.

● Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate magnetic metals (iron,
steel, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals (aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The
same idea can be used in the so-called "magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected
with a magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty.

● Magnetic levitation transport, or ​maglev​, is a form of transportation that suspends,

guides and propels vehicles (especially trains) through electromagnetic force. The
maximum recorded speed of a maglev train is 581 kilometers per hour (361 mph).

● Magnets may be used to serve as a ​fail-safe device for some cable connections. For
example, the power cords of some laptops are magnetic to prevent accidental damage to
the port when tripped over. The ​MagSafe power connection to the Apple MacBook is
one such example.

● Magnetism is a property of materials that respond to an applied ​magnetic field​.

Permanent magnets have persistent magnetic fields caused by ​ferromagnetism​. That is
the strongest and most familiar type of magnetism. However, all materials are influenced
varyingly by the presence of a magnetic field. Some are attracted to a magnetic field
(​paramagnetism​); others are repulsed by a magnetic field (​diamagnetism​); others have a
 much more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field (​spin glass behavior and
antiferromagnetism​). Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are
known as non-magnetic substances. They include ​copper​, ​aluminium​, ​gases​, and ​plastic​.
Pure ​oxygen​ exhibits magnetic properties when cooled to a ​liquid​ state.

● The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on temperature (and other variables
such as pressure and applied magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more than one
form of magnetism depending on its temperature,

● FORCE OF MAGNETIC DISC

B​m​2​A​m
F ​=
8π x 10​-7

● B​m​ - ​magnetic flux density​ in tesla (assume;​ 0.1T​ to ​0.4 T​) in air gap

● A​m​ is the area of the magnet covering the iron plate in m​2

● Radius of magnet (R) = 12.5 mm

​ 3 x 3.14 x (radius of magnet) ​

2
●
A​m =

2​ -3
●
A​m =
​ 3 x 3.14 x (0.0125)​ = 1.47 x 10​

0.1​2​ (1.47 x10​-3​)

F ​=
8π x 10​-7

● ​F =​ 5.85
​ N ~ 6 N ​(in ideal condition)
● I – moment of inertia = MR​2​/2

● angular acceleration= 2x3.14xN/60x1

● M- Mass of disc = 1 kg

● Motor speed = 1000 rpm

● T = (MR​2​/2) (2x3.14xN/60)

● T = (1 (0.09)​2​/2) (2x3.14x100/60)

● T = 0.042 Nm
3.4 ACRYLIC DISC

● Torque T = F r
● Force require to stop the disc
● F = T/r
● F = 0.042 / 0.09
● F = 0.47 N~ 0.5 N
● Force generated is greater than required force.
3.5 SPRING
The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles not direct but through some form
of springs. This is done to isolate the vehicle body from the road shocks which may be in
the form of bounce, pitch, roll or sway. these tendencies give rise to an uncomfortable
ride and also cause additional stress in the automobile frame and body. All the parts
which perform the function of isolating the automobile from the road shocks are
collectively.
A Springing device must be a compromise between flexibility and stiffness. If it
is more rigid, it will not absorb road shocks efficiently and if it is more flexible it will
continue to vibrate even after the bump has passed so we must have sufficient damping of
the spring to prevent excessive flexing.
 A spring is a flexible ​elastic object used to store mechanical ​energy​. Springs are
usually made out of ​hardened steel​. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened
stock, while larger ones. A spring is a mechanical device, which is typically used to store
energy and subsequently release it, to absorb shock, or to maintain a force between
contacting surfaces. They are made of an ​elastic material formed into the shape of a ​helix
which returns to its natural length when unloaded this is called return spring. Springs are
placed between the road wheels and the vehicle body. When the wheel comes across a
bump on the road, it rises and deflects the spring, thereby storing energy therein. On
releasing, due to the elasticity of the spring, material, it rebounds thereby expending the
stored energy. In this way the spring starts vibrating, with amplitude decreasing gradually
on internal friction of the spring material and friction of the suspension joints till
vibrations die down.

3.6 BEARING:

A bearing is a ​machine element​ that constrains relative motion to only the desired
motion, and reduces ​friction​ between ​moving parts​. The design of the bearing may, for
example, provide for free ​linear​ movement of the moving part or for free ​rotation around
a fixed axis​; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the ​vectors​ of ​normal forces​ that
bear on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing
friction. Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions
allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.
 Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as ​shafts​ or ​axles​ within
mechanical systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the
structure supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the ​plain bearing​, consists of a shaft
rotating in a hole. ​Lubrication​ is often used to reduce friction. In the ​ball
bearing​ and ​roller bearing​, to prevent sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers or
balls with a circular cross-section are located between the races or journals of the bearing
assembly. A wide variety of bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the
application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and
performance.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "​to bear​";a bearing being a machine
element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings
are ​bearing surfaces​, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the
form, size, ​roughness​ and location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices
installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most
demanding applications are very ​precise​ devices; their manufacture requires some of the
highest standards of ​current technology

Dimensions of bearings used:

Inner Dia: 35.36MM

 Outer Dia: 83.82MM

TYPES:

There are at least 6 common types of bearing, each of which operates on different
principles:

● Plain bearing​, consisting of a shaft rotating in a hole. There are several specific styles:
bushing, ​journal bearing​, sleeve bearing, rifle bearing, ​composite bearing​.

● Rolling-element bearing​, in which rolling elements placed between the turning and
stationary races prevent sliding friction. There are two main types

● Ball bearing​, in which the rolling elements are spherical balls

● Roller bearing​, in which the rolling elements are cylindrical rollers

● Jewel bearing​, a plain bearing in which one of the bearing surfaces is made of an
ultrahard glassy jewel material such as ​sapphire​ to reduce friction and wear

● Fluid bearing​, a noncontact bearing in which the load is supported by a gas or liquid,

● Magnetic bearing​, in which the load is supported by a ​magnetic field

● Flexure bearing​, in which the motion is supported by a load element which bends.

3.7 FRAME:

The frame is basically made up of mild steel.

The reasons for the selection are
Mild steel is readily available in market .It is economical to use and is available in
standard sizes. It has good mechanical properties i.e. it is easily machinable . It has
moderate factor of safety, because factor of safety results in unnecessary wastage of
material and heavy selection. Low factor of safety results in unnecessary risk of failure. It
has high tensile strength.

Frame dimensions:

length: 403.86MM

Width: 312.42MM

Height: 100MM

3.8 RECTIFIER:

A rectifier is an electrical device that ​converts​ ​alternating current​ (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to ​direct current​ (DC), which flows in only one direction.
The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms,
including ​vacuum tube​ ​diodes​, ​mercury-arc valves​, copper and selenium oxide
rectifiers, ​semiconductor diodes​, ​silicon-controlled rectifiers​ and other silicon-based
semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and
motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called ​crystal radios​, used a "​cat's whisker​"
of fine wire pressing on a crystal of ​galena​ (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact
rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of
DC ​power supplies​ and ​high-voltage direct current​ power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of
power. As noted, ​detectors​ of ​radio​ signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating
systems ​flame rectification​ is used to detect presence of a flame.

Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of
rectification alone produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of
current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and
computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by
a ​battery​). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an ​electronic
filter​ (usually a ​capacitor​) to produce a steady current.

Here, A 12v rectifier is used.

RECTIFIER DEVICES:

Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum

tube ​thermionic diodes​ and copper oxide- or selenium-based ​metal rectifier​ stacks were
used.​[1]​ With the introduction of semiconductor electronics, vacuum tube rectifiers
became obsolete, except for some enthusiasts of vacuum tube ​audio equipment​. For
power rectification from very low to very high current, semiconductor diodes of various
types (​junction diodes​, ​Schottky diodes​, etc.) are widely used.

Other devices that have control electrodes as well as acting as unidirectional

current valves are used where more than simple rectification is required—e.g., where
variable output voltage is needed. High-power rectifiers, such as those used
in ​high-voltage direct current​ power transmission, employ silicon semiconductor devices
of various types. These are ​thyristors​ or other controlled switching solid-state switches,
which effectively function as diodes to pass current in only one direction.

RECTIFIER CIRCUITS:

Rectifier circuits may be single-phase or multi-phase (three being the most

common number of phases). Most low power rectifiers for domestic equipment are
single-phase, but three-phase rectification is very important for industrial applications
and for the transmission of energy as DC (​HVDC​).
SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIERS

HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

In half-wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative

half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of
the input waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification
requires a single diode in a ​single-phase supply​, or three in a ​three-phase supply​.
Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce
far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate
harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.

The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal half-wave rectifier for a ​sinusoidal input
voltage is:

where:

Vdc, Vav​ – ​the DC or average output voltage,

Vpeak,​ ​the peak value of the phase input voltages​,
Vrms, the ​root mean square​ (RMS) value of output voltage.

CHAPTER-IV
 4. WORKING PRINCIPLE

The super magnet brake consists of a round disc plate in which small, small
magnets are encrypted on it. It is made to rotate by means of a motor coupled to it. The
motor centre shaft is connected to the shaft from the round disc plate. Two iron plates
separated by some distance which distance to be larger than that of the thickness of the
disc plate provided the metal iron plates will slide up to the circular disc. When, the
motor starts running, the disc plates will also rotating the same direction to the direction
of the motor. While it reached the certain speed, the iron plates is made to slide on the rail
such that the round disc will be right in between the two iron plates. The moment when
the iron plates moved towards the disc, the rotating disc will slower down and finally it
stops.
 CHAPTER -V

5. MERITS, DEMERITS AND APPLICATIONS

5.1 MERITS

➢ The super magnet brake does not have any mechanical contact with the rail, and
thus no wear, and creates no noise or odor.
➢ Super magnet brake can be used at high speeds both for emergency braking and
for regular braking.
 ➢ Easy to implement

➢ Easy to handle

➢ Low cost

5.2 DEMERITS

➢ Need to put high power magnets.

5.3 APPLICATION

➢ This brake can be used in trains and in trailer cars

 CHAPTER-VI

6. LIST OF MATERIALS

6.1 FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

 The various factors which determine the choice of material are discussed below.

6.1.1 Properties:

The material selected must possess the necessary properties for the proposed
application. The various requirements to be satisfied Can be weight, surface finish,
rigidity, ability to withstand environmental attack from chemicals, service life, reliability
etc.

The following four types of principle properties of materials decisively affect their
selection

a. Physical
b. Mechanical
c. From manufacturing point of view
d. Chemical

The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal

Conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity, electrical
conductivity, magnetic purposes etc.

The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile,

Compressive shear, bending, tensional and buckling load, fatigue resistance, impact
resistance, elastic limit, endurance limit, and modulus of elasticity, hardness, wear
resistance and sliding properties.

The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of view are,

● Cast ability
 ● Weld ability
● Probability
● Surface properties
● Shrinkage
● Deep drawing etc.

6.1.2. Manufacturing case:

Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or surface qualities
obtainable by the application of suitable coating substances may demand the use of
special materials.

6.1.3. Quality Required:

This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the material. For
example, it would never be desirable to go casting of a less number of components which
can be fabricated much more economically by welding or hand forging the steel.

6.1.4. Availability of Material:

Some materials may be scarce or in short supply. it then becomes obligatory for
the designer to use some other material which though may not be a perfect substitute for
the material designed. the delivery of materials and the delivery date of product should
also be kept in mind.

6.1.5. Space consideration:

 Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the forces
involved are high and space limitations are there.

6.1.6. Cost:
As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material plays an
important part and should not be ignored.
Sometimes factors like scrap utilization, appearance and non-maintenance of the
designed part are involved in the selection of proper materials.
CHAPTER-VII
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED FOR THE FABRICATION OF OUR
PROJECT
operations performed

Metal cutting, welding, grinding,

7.1 Metal cutting:

Metal cutting is the process of working with metals to create individual parts,
assemblies ​Marking out (also known as layout) is the process of transferring
a design or pattern to a work piece and is the first step in the handcraft of metal cutting.
And cutting is done with the help of a cutting machine.
 fig 7.1 metal cutting

7.2 Welding​:

Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create
an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the
welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and
consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually protected by
some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual,
semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century,
arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World
War. Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and
vehicles.
7.3 Surface grinding​:

​uses a rotating abrasive wheel to remove material, creating a flat surface. The
tolerances that are normally achieved with grinding are ± 2 × 10−4 inches for grinding a
flat material, and ± 3 × ​10−4 inches for a parallel surface (in metric units: 5 μm for flat
material and 8 μm for parallel surface).

The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a work holding device

known as a chuck, either electromagnetic or vacuum, and a reciprocating table.

Grinding is commonly used on cast iron and various types of steel. These
materials lend themselves to grinding because they can be held by the magnetic chuck
commonly used on grinding machines, and they do not melt into the wheel, clogging it
and preventing it from cutting. Materials that are less commonly ground are Aluminum,
stainless steel, brass & plastics. These all tend to clog the cutting wheel more than steel &
cast iron, but with special techniques it is possible to grind them.
fig 7.3 surface grinding machine
 CHAPTER-VIII

8.COST ESTIMATION

8.1. MATERIAL COST:

8.2. LABOUR COST:

Lathe, drilling, welding, grinding, power hacksaw, gas cutting cost =Rs
8.3. OVERGHEAD CHARGES:

The overhead charges are arrived by”manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost =Material Cost + Labour Cost

=
=
Overhead Charges =20%of the manufacturing cost
=

8.4. TOTAL COST:

Total cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost +Overhead Charges

Total cost for this project =

CONCLUSION

The project carried out by us will make an impressing mark in the field of
automobile. This is a new innovative friction less effective braking system.
 This project has also reduced the cost involved in the concern. The project has
been designed to perform the required task taking minimum time.

PHOTOGRAPHY
 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Design data book -P.S.G.Tech.

2. Strength of Materials -R.S.Kurmi
3. Manufacturing Technology-M.Haslehurst.
4. Design of machine elements- R.s.Kurumi
5. Design of transmission elements – S.Md.jalaludeen