Linguistics

Why linguistics? Why there is a subject called Linguistics?

Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

This tells us that Linguistics is a science. For a long time the humanities were not
considered to be sciences. At present, we talk about social sciences, Linguistics
is a science; Anthropology is a science; but in the past only physics and
Chemistry and mathematics, that is the “hard sciences”, were considered to be
sciences. So, with this definition we are saying that Linguistics is a science, it has
the status of a science, and its object of study is language.

Which aspects of language?

When we consider language, we have to consider many aspects. One is the

system of language, which is sth that we have been studying for a long time,
like Phonetics, Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics. In first year, we studied that
language consist of a series of interrelated levels which include Phonetics,
Morphology, Syntax and Semantics.

That is the formal aspect of the study of language, but also we can study how
language works in society. For example, in English, when do you call someone
by using the first name or Mr. and the surname; which question should be asked,
which questions are proper to ask with people that are not familiar to us. That is
the study of language in a social group. For someone coming to Argentina,
está bien tutear, usar el “vos”, decir “che”, etc., and that is also part of Linguistics
studies.

Linguistics is not just the study of the system, is the study of the system and how
language is used in a social group. For example, in Argentina we overuse the
imperative and that is a social characteristic.

Also we study language and the mind, how our mind gets to know our first
language, the mother tongue, how we get to learn a foreign language.

Also we study how language can be taught.

Also we study how language can take on different meanings according to the
context in which it is used. For example, “It’s raining!!!” can mean different things
and it is not only information about the weather, it can mean something else.
 Language: substance and form

What is the substance of Language? Enumerate the elements.

The substance of Language is like the ingredients the language has. As a matter
of fact we can define the substance of the language as the raw material out of
which all languages are form.

The substance of Language is made up of, or consist of,

-the phonic substance, it includes all the phonemes that we can make as human
beings. The phonemes of English, Spanish, Japanese, African languages, all the
phonemes.

-the graphic substance, it includes all the graphemes that are used to represent
oral language in writing. For example, the graphemes of Chinese are completely
different from the graphemes of Spanish.

-the functions of language: are the jobs we do with language, that is to say, our
intentions when we use language. Functions are stated with a gerund. When we
say “Sorry”, our intention is not just to say “sorry”, we have a psychological
intention that is apologizing. “Would you like some coffe?” offering; Yes, please,
accepting; No, please, refusing; Good morning, greeting.

They are common to all languages, in all languages people greet, people offer,
congratulate others, people accept, people refuse, and so on. When we are
planning a lesson for teaching we have to wonder “what are we teaching beyond
grammar, what are we teaching our students to do?” Asking information about
daily routines, life styles.

-the notions of language, are the categories into which we organize reality. For
example, we can say, it is eleven o’clock in the evening, the notion is time. The
notion of size, shape, location, contrast, and so on. While, the word while can be
used with different notions, While you copy this, I’ll go downstairs time; While
some students are very active, others are very sleepy, contrast.

The form of a language is described when we analyse the system of that

particular language, and the analysis of the system of a language includes the
study of Phonetics, Morphology, Syntax and Semantics. So we can say that each
language has its own form. English has its form, Spanish has its form and what
is that form like? Well, study Phonetics, Morphology, Syntax and Semantics and
you will describe that language.
From all the phonemes that we have in the substance of language, Spanish takes
a few phonemes, English takes others, some are the same like /f/, others are
different. Chinese takes other phonemes. So, each language from all the
phonemes that we have, take a few of them, not all of them. And the functions
are the same in all languages. In all languages people greet, apologize, ask for
information; and the notions are also the same. What changes is how we express
the functions and notions.

-The same function can be fulfilled through different language exponents or

grammatical forms. For example, let’s think of the function asking someone to
do something, can be expressed by means of can you…; could you…; would
you mind…?; Open the window, please.

And the other way round…

-A certain language exponent can fulfil different functions in different context. For
example:

Will you open the window? Making a request, asking somebody to do

something.

It’s hot tonight. When you get home, will you open the window? Asking for
information about a future action.

Questions beginning with Can you…? can be used for asking about ability, or
making a request.

Can you read? In class 3rd year at LV: making a request.

If I ask to a five-year-old child: asking for ability.

This is important in teaching, because if in the same lesson children learn can
you swim? , and Can you tell the time? It can be quiet confusing because they
are different functions, and the answers are different. Yes, I can for the first, and
10:00 o’clock respectively.

-Some words can express different notions. One linguistic exponent can refer to
different notions. For example, the word since. It can be used for different notions:

Since 1990… time

Since we didn’t have a class last night…reason

As we were not here last night… reason

As we move on with the syllabus…time

Do as I tell you… manner

As big as that… comparison

I haven’t finished yet…Time

Yet, I don´t agree with you… Contrast

The genitive: can be used for different notions: possession, relation, names of
institutions, etc.

-One notion can be fulfilled through different linguistic forms/exponents. For

example, the notion of possession: can be fulfilled by means of the verb to have,
a possessive adjective, a possessive pronoun, genitive.

Language has substance and each language has its own form. The form of a
language is described when we analyse the system of that particular language.
The main levels of that system are Phonetics, Morphology, Syntax and
Semantics.

Why do we talk about the substance of Language, and the form of a language?
What are the different meanings of the word language in the previous question?

Language means the human system of communications, and the substance is

common to all languages, to the system of communications of human beings.

The form of a language: because the form is particular for each language, is
characteristic of each language. The natural languages: Greek, Chinese, English.

Phonetics: the study of sounds

What is a phoneme?

It is the smallest unit of contrast in language.

Why is it a unit of contrast? = Account for it

Because if you change one of them, you obtain a new word in contrast, i.e. with
a new meaning.

What is an allophone?
The variation in pronunciation of a phoneme, the concrete realization of a
phoneme. It doesn’t bring about a change of meaning. For instance, in English I
can say /gou/ or /geu/, but the meaning is the same. Estuary English, the spoken
English near the Thames in London.

How can you broadly classify sound in English?

Vowels: within vowels we can distinguish between vowels proper and diphthongs

Consonants:

Semivowels:

What is difference between a vowel and a consonant?

Morphology: the second level of language

The unit of morphology is the morpheme.

What is a morpheme?

It is the smallest unit of meaning or form in language.

Morphemes can be classified into two big groups:

-free morphemes: stand by themselves in writing (when we speak we only use

a word after the other, without pauses). Here we have two subtypes

-free lexical morphemes: carry meaning on their own. They are also
known as content words or lexical words. In this group we find nouns, adjectives,
adverbs, main verbs. And they form and open class, because it is likely to have
introductions and losses. Introductions are the new names given to inventions or
discoveries. For example, if they discover a new species of animal and they have
to give them a name, new words were introduced in the computer field recently.
And losses because: when the objects are no longer used, the words disappear
from the dictionary. We don’t use certain words anymore, like how certain parts
of medieval warrior’s armour were called. Conquerors knew that if you want to kill
a people, kill their language. So when they invaded the place, they prohibit the
native the use of their language, so little by little the words used for their cultural
aspects disappear together with the culture. When the last speaker of a language
dies, he/she dies together with all the culture.

-free functional morphemes: they are also known as form words or

functional words. They do not have meaning of their own. They give form to the
language. They built up the grammatical structure of the language. In this group
we include articles, prepositions, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs,
conjunctions. They form a closed class, because it is not likely to have
introductions or losses in this group. A preposition rarely disappears. In time, it
might be introductions and losses.

What do they have in common, free functional and free lexical morphemes?

They stand by themselves as single words in writing.

-bound morphemes: are always attached to…free lexical morphemes.

-bound derivational morphemes: can be used as suffixes or prefixes.

Suffixes. A) When they are used as suffixes they usually change the
grammatical category of the word. For example,

Clean-ness the addition of the derivational morpheme -ness changes the

adjective clean to the noun cleanness.

Cleaner …

Writer verb to noun

Slowly from adjective to an adverb

B) But the same suffix, like -ish (almost like, similar to), sometimes changes
the meaning, like in

Green greenish adjective to adjective

And sometimes changes the grammatical category, like in:

Child – childish noun to adjective

C) Finally, a suffix can have two functions, like in:

Careless noun to adjective; and also means the opposite

In this case the suffix is changing the grammatical category and the
meaning.

Prefixes: they always change the meaning: co-pilot, unhappy, prehistoric,

but not the grammatical category

i- is only one prefix that changes according to the first sound of the free
lexical morpheme to which it is attached: illegal, irregular, immoral.
-bound inflectional morphemes: they do not change the grammatical category
of a word, they are always used as suffixes, and they indicate special aspects of
that word. For example, play is a verb, if I say played, it is still a verb in the past.
Window is a noun, and if I say windows it is still a noun but in the plural,
comparative, superlative, gender.

Player: -er bound derivational morpheme, it changes the grammatical category

of the word from verb into noun.

Older: -er is bound inflectional morpheme, it indicates a special aspect of the

word adjective in the comparative

Cleaner: when we consider as the person who cleans, then -er bound
derivational morpheme.

When we consider the comparative, then it is a bound inflectional morpheme.

Students: stud- free lexical morpheme; -ent bound derivational morpheme; -

s bound inflectional morpheme. 3

Dangerously: danger- free lexical morpheme; -ous bound derivational

morpheme; -ly bound derivational morpheme 3

Unfortunately: fortun- free lexical morpheme; un- bound derivational

morpheme; -ate bound derivational morpheme; -ly bound derivational
morpheme 4

Taken: bound inflectional morpheme. It is a verb in the past participle.

Shorten: bound derivational morpheme. It changes de grammatical category

of short, an adjective, into a verb.

What is a morpheme? Account for the definition.

We said morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning (free lexical morphemes,

and bound derivational morphemes when they are used as prefixes), or
form. When they change the grammatical category or when they indicate and
aspect of the same grammatical category they are units of forms as well as free
functional morphemes; bound derivational morphemes as suffixes and
bound inflectional morphemes, which are always suffixes.

How can morpheme be classified?

What kind of classes do free morphemes form?

What are ffm, flm, bdm and bim?

Provide an example of words that add the same suffix, but in one it
functions as a bound derivational morpheme and in the other as a bound
inflectional morpheme.

Provide an example of two words that have the same suffix, in one it
functions as a bdm, and in the other word as bim.

Provide an example of a word with a bdm and a bim.

Provide an example of a word with two derivational morphemes.

Word formation processes

Why do we need to form new words?

We introduce new words due to discoveries and inventions.

We coin a word = acuñar una palabra.

A neologism is a new word in a language.

How long is a word a neologism?

Well, it depends on how fast it is spread among the members of a certain speech
community.

There is a lot of regularity in the word-formation processes in language. Even

when it is a neologism, a new word, a new coinage. For example, political parties’
names, like tacherism, macrism, and so on, they follow regular patterns,
especially as far as bm are concerned.

Processes of word formation

-Coinage: it is a process of word formation, one of the least common processes

of word-formation. The introduction of a totally new word in a language.
Sometimes coinage results from the use of trademarks: aspirin, Kleenex,
hoover. Eponyms are words that derive from proper names or names of places,
sandwich, lynch.

-Borrowing: is perhaps one of the most common processes. It is the introduction

of a word from a foreign language. Examples of borrowing into English from
Spanish are: siesta, patio, chocolate, alligator. From Italian into English: pasta,
piano, soprano. From French into English: croissant, garage, fiancé, rouge,
memoir. From Arabic, alcohol.

Different processes can happen when a new word is introduced from a foreign
language:

-sometimes the word keeps the same spelling and the same pronunciation:
jeans, shorts, patio, siesta.

-sometimes they change the spelling and keep a similar pronunciation to that
of the language of origin: fútbol.

-sometimes the spelling remains the same but the pronunciation changes:
diesel.

-sometimes everything changes: the spelling and the pronunciation: orsái, jonrón,
chimichurri from give curry, alligator.

One special type of borrowing is calque or loan-translation. In this process

there is the direct translation of a phrase: honey moon, hot dogs.

-Compounding: is a combining process of two free lexical morphemes.

Sometimes the meaning of the compound derives from the meaning of each of
the elements: fingerprint, wallpaper, spoonfeed, breakfast. But sometimes the
combination of the two elements implied a new meaning that does not derive from
the addition of the meaning of each element like: peanut, lipstick, eggplant,
watermelon.

-Blending is a reduction process plus combining. Usually we combine the

beginning of a word and the end of another word: smog, motel, brunch,
Spanglish, cellphone. But sometimes we have the beginning of a word and the
beginning of another word: sitcom from situational comedy, hi-fi from high fidelity,
modem from modulator/demodulator. In Spanish we have the two processes
portuñol o infomercial.

-Cippling: is a reduction process. Usually used in casual speech, not academic

or formal, long names are clipped, Edward Ed, Susan Su, Michael Mike… Also
common in education: maths, exam, gyms, lab. Gas, bra, fridge, flue, ad.

-Backformation: is a reduction process with a change of the grammatical

category of the word: television televise from noun to verb and reduction of
syllable. Babbysit from babysitter. Sculptor sculpt. In backformation we have a
special type of backformation process which is called hypocorism. There is
reduction but then the word adds –ie or –y. For example, movie from moving
pictures, telly from television.

-Conversion: is just a change of grammatical category. Usually the word keeps

the same meaning: wallpaper to wallpaper from noun to verb, butter to butter
noun and verb.