Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A COLLECTION OF TEXTS
WITH NOTES AND EXPLANATIONS
BY
C. J. DE VOGEL
PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT AND MEDIAEVAL
PH.D.,
PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF UTRECHT
VOLUME II
LEIDKN
E. J. BRILL
1953
The publication of this volume is facilitated by a subvention granted by
"The Netherlands Organization for Pure Research" (Z.W.O.)
Copyright 1953 by E. J .
Brill, Leiden, Holland
All rights reserved, including the right to translate or to reproduce
this book or parts thereof in any form
Bibliography 300-305
Index I of names 306-310
II of subjects 310-318
III of Greek words 3*8-337
PREFACE
To this volume have few things to add. Those who take the trouble
I
of reading it understand the purpose of the book. I altered
will easily
my first project so far as to think it better to divide Greek philosophy
after Plato into two volumes, so that after this one there will be a third
containing the Hellenistic systems and Neoplatonism with its preparation.
I wish to express my gratitude to Professor A. Mansion at Louvain,
who kindly read the manuscript of the chapter dealing with Aristotle's
philosophy of nature, and to Professor Fr. Wehrli of Zurich, who was so
kind as to give me the opportunity of reading his manuscript on Lycon
and the two Aristons before it was published, in September 1951, and
of discussing certain points with him x.
1
The references to Prof. Wehrli's edition of the fragments of Heraclides
Ponticus in ch. XIX, 3, were added by himself to the proofs of this work.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
As to the text of Aristotle, I did not follow exclusively one edition.
Generally speaking, I used the editions of Sir David Ross of the Physics,
Metaphysics and Analytica, that of Minio-Paluello of the Categories and
De interpretation, Rackham's of the Ethica Nicomachea, Immisch for
the Politica. For the De anima I used P. Siwek's edition, of the Rhetoric
those of M. Dufour and J. H. Freese, of the Poetics those of By water and
of Hardy. Of Theophrastus' Metaphysics I used, as is indicated, the edition
of Ross-Fobes ;
where newer editions are lacking, the fragments are
taken from Wimmer. For the other Peripatetics I used Wehrli's Schule
des Aristoteles', for the Academy the indicated sources and the existing
collections of the fragments of Speusippus (Lang) and Xenocrates
(Heinze) .
BOOK III
ARISTOTLE
TENTH CHAPTER
LIFE AND WORKS
i PROLEGOMENA: THE ARISTOTELIAN QUESTION
395 Concerning Plato we had to ask the radical question whether the problem
we really know his doctrine; whether his own works do contain this
doctrine, or whether we have to pay more attention to the indications
of his disciples. Thismay be called the Platonic question. It dates from
Trendelenburg's work on the ideal Numbers (1826). One might speak
of an Aristotelian question too, in the sense of a radical problem of the
tradition. Werner Jaeger was the first to raise this matter radically in
his Aristotle of 1923. The problem is due to the following two points*
i. We have not the complete works of Aristotle at our disposal; 2. the
2. The period between the Academy and the Lyceum, which seemed
to be a vacuum
as long as the school-writings were all supposed to be
written during the latest period 2 has now been filled up with a large
,
part of them.
3. Our idea
of the latest period of Aristotle's activity as a teacher
has been considerably changed.
a restriction 397 From the fact that many points in the chronology of the works
of Aristotle are not definitely cleared up, it must not be concluded that
said it very clearly in his Introduction cited above: the reason could
be this, that in the development of Aristotle's thinking after all the
continuity is more important than the difference which might be seen;
in the fact that Aristotle himself did little to eliminate all the traces
works 4.
of his earlier opinions that may be seen in the final form of his
1
J. Bernays, Die Dialoge des Aristoteles in ihrem Verhaltnis zu seinen iibrigen
Werken, Berlin 1863, tries to confine the Platonic influence to the literary form
of Aristotle's early writings. V. Rose, who collected all these platonizing passages
from the Dialogues of Aristotle, went further and concluded that they were spurious
(Aristoteles Pseudepigraphus, Lipsiis 1863).
2
In fact this was the opinion of Zeller (Ph. d. Gr. II 2, 3 p. 155), and also
of Bernays.
3
Mansion, o.c. 2 iQ46, p. 7.
t
4
lb., p. 33/34: "Mais ce qu'il faut noter surtout c'est que, de facon g6n6rale,
Aristote n'a pas jug6 ncessaire de remanier profond6ment ce$ redactions reprises
a quelque cours ant^rieur et ainsi 1'adaptation de la doctrine a des vues devenues
plus tard classiques chez lui, apparait par moments comme bien imparfaite. Cest,
sans doute, qu'il avait davantage conscience de I'unit6 et de la continuite de sa
pensee, que des 6tapes diverses et monies parfois contradictoires entre elles qu'elle
avait parcourues, pour aboutir a son deVeloppement ultime."
[398] LIFE AND WORKS 3
*
'ApujTOTX7)<; TiaTpcx; {Jiev ?jv Nixojxaxou T& yvo<; xai TYJV Te^v/jv ocva9^-
J
povTO<; ei<; Ma^aova TOV 'AcrxXYjTULoii [ry)Tpo<; Si: OaiarlSog, aTroy^vou TLV&<;
,
'Arapvecoc; Tupavvov
3
xal TpteT^ ^povov Trap' auTco StaTpi^ac; ** ejc*
4
ioEupo\iXoi) dcp^ovToc; (ol. 108, 4; a. 345/4) ei<; MUTIXYJVTJV excoptc07) exetOev -
Se 7upo<; OiXtTcrcov &XSTO *** *aT<x IIu66SoTov ap^ovTa (ol. 109, 2; a. 343/2),
*
TTOCTP&C a correction of Van Herwerden. The Mss have
is ul6<;.
**
Wolf; Mss
***
$xeTO Usener; others read
ARISTOTLE [398]
l
xod St^Tpi^e XP VOV ottTaeTTJ Trap* OCUTG> xaO^youfJievo^ 'AXeavSpoi> [JLETOC
8
(xevo^ ei *A07)vac; ea^dXa^ev ev Auxeico %p6 vov ST&V ScoSexa. TCO Si: Tpiaxai-
The poem has been interpreted by Wilamowitz in Aristoteles und Athen II,
p. 412-416. He
declares the construction po>(jLov 9iXia<; to be a metaphor that would
be tolerable "fiir backfische, aber nicht fiir Hellenen", and is most inclined to
explain 9iXta<; as a genitivus causae. "In any case Ar. means that the man about
4 whom he speaks, i.e. Eudemus, founded an altar for Plato for the sake of his
friendship" ("um seiner Freundschaft willen dem Platon einen Altar gestiftet
hat"). Jaeger protests against the assumption that Plato was formally venerated
as a god by his disciples, and I think he is right. Having stated that the dedicator
of the altar is unknown to us, he remarks: "a Greek would surely have assumed
without question that what was meant was that he set up an altar to most honour-
able Philia, in honour of the friendship of the man whom bad men may not even
praise" (Aristotle, p. 108).
*) Hermias had friendly relations with the Macedonian court (an anti-Persian
coalition). probable that on his recommendation Philip invited Aristotle
It is
to be the praeceptor of the young Alexander.
Of his years at the Macedonian court are doubtless Aristotle's six books
on philological problems in Homer ('ATropY^ocTa 'Oinrjpixa), brought to Alexandria
by Demetrius of *Phaleron. Here they became the foundation of philological
studies of the Alexandrian scholars.
For Alexander Aristotle wrote a work Ilepi (jiovapxiaq and another about co-
lonization.
According t6 a decree of the Delphians, found by Homolle in 1895, Aristotle
and his nephew Callisthenes were praised and honoured for having made a list of
the Pythionikai (Dittenberger, 5y//. 3 275). This list, which was a valuable
,
document for the history of Greek literature, must have been made by Ar. in the
very last years of his stay at the Macedonian court or during the first year of his
second stay at Athens, Callisthenes having gone to Asia in 334. Other similar
lists of the victors of the great Dionysia and of those at Olympia are mentioned
As to the last four lines of this elegy, cp. the nrs. 275a, b and 374a of our first
volume.
ference, and sent captive to the Great King. The latter, having vainly
tried to coerce him. into revealing Philip's plans, finally executed him
by a servile supplicium (crucifixion).
TovSe TTOT' on Hermias
ou^ 6aico<; Tcapapou; [Jiaxapcov Oefiiv ayvvjv
exTeivev Ilepa&v To^ocpopcov
ou 9avepo><; Xoy/Y) <povioi<; ev dyoaai
aXX* av&po<; TuaTei ^pY)<ya(jisvo<; SoXiou.
c. Fr. 675 Rose (Athenaeus XV, p. 696 A; also Diog. L. 7). V Hymn to
a, 7ToXu(Jio/Oe yevet
xaXXidTov (Sup,
TS yepac; Ps(3aiou.
says that, "though they have died themselves, 6 7r66o<; ou ouva7r6<xvev" which ;
does not mean "the longing for them" for this can hardly be called dc0<v<xTO<; ,
two kinds 4QQ Ar. used to lecture during the morning hours for a selected
Cp. Cic., De fin. V 12; Ep. ad Att. IV 16, 2; Strabo XIII i, 54, p. 609; Plut.,
Adv. Coloten 14, 4, p. 1115.
eScoxev, 6 8* ei^ SXYJ^LV xo[Ataa<; TOC<; (AST* auTov TuaplScoxev, iSicoTau; av0pa)7rot<; ?
ot xaTaxXetdTa el/ov TOC pi^Xta ouS* eTTtfjieXco^ xeifieva eTreiSyj Se ^a6ovTO ryjv 5
cnrouSYjv TCOV 'ATTaXixwv padiX^cav, 09* ol<; ^v Y) TroXi^, y)TouvTaw pt^Xta et;
r?]v xaTaaxeuTjv TTJS ev HepyafJico pi(3Xto0Y]X7]^, xara -pk Sxpu^av ev Sicopuyt
1
See the remarkable study of C. W. Vollgraff on the Epitaphios: L'oraison
funtbre de Gorgias, Leiden 1952, p. 85-87, and the following section (p. 87-169).
[401] LIFE AND WORKS 7
* 2
TLVI u?ri Sfi voTiac; xal OTJTCOV xaxco0vTa o^e TUOTS dbu^SovTO ot arco roil
yvou<; 'AraXXixcovTi TO) TTjtcp TuoXXcov apyupfccov T<X T 'ApidTOT^Xoix; xal TOC
IOTOU 09paaTou (3ipXfac' 9jv SE 6 'AraXXixcov 9iXo(3tpXo<; (xaXXov YJ 91X6(7090^*
3
810 xal y)Tcov 7r;av6p0cocTiv TCOV Sia(3pco[iaTcov ei^ avTiypa9a xaiva fxer/jveyxe
TYJV ypa9Y)v avaTuXvjpcov oux e5 xal e8a>xev afjiapTaScov TcXyipr] Ta pipXia.
SJ: TOIC; ex TCOV TreptTcaTWv, TOLC; [JLEV TcaXat Tot(;
(JLCTOC 0s69paaTOv,
oux
4
8X0)^ TOC Ptpxta TrXvjv oXCywv xal (JiaXiaTa TWV s^coTeptxoiv , (JLTjSev
ajxapTtcov. -rcoXi 8s ei^ TOUTO xal YJ 'PcofjiTj TrpoaeXapeTO euGuc; yap (jieTa T/]V
xal ETul TCOV aXXcov aujjipaivet TCOV ei<; Ttpaaiv ypa90(Jivcov ^LpXicov xal ev0a8e
xal sv
sv '^
TOC TcXeiaTa TCOV 'ApiaTOTeXou^ xal 0so9pacrTou p^pXicov 9)v, OUTCCO TOTS
1
"in a cave". Athenaeus I 3 a tells us that, before the arranging of the library
at Pergamum, Neleus sold books of Aristotle to Ptolemaeus Philadelphus for the
library at Alexandria.
2
Moths or worms.
3
SiocppcojAaToc worm-eaten parchments.
4
If this accouift is true, we must note that the school- writings of Aristotle
came very near to being lost for ever, and that the full knowledge of his philosophy
barely escaped being confined to the first generation of the School. Up to Cicero
Antiquity would have known Aristotle almost exclusively from his exoteric writings.
We have some reason to doubt this. Zeller II 2, 3 138-154. Interesting from this
point of view is the list, given by Diog. Laert. V, 22-27, which is probably based
on a list made by Hermippus c. 200 B.C. Many of the school-writings of Ar., or
parts of them, are mentioned here under other titles.
5
0oct? Xr)xu6Ceiv declaim commonplaces.
8 ARISTOTLE [402]
First group The list of Diog. begins with 19 works which seem to have been all more or less
popular and belonged to the Platonic period of Ar. The greater part were dialogues ;
some of them bore the same titles as certain dialogues of Plato: Sophisfes, Politicus,
Menexcnus, Symposion. The dialogue Eudemus or Jlepl ^ux?te, written shortly
after 354, was modelled closely on the Phaedo. The Protrepticus, addressed to
Themison, the prince of Cyprus, also belonged to the period of the Academy.
The Ilepi 91X0009(0^, still written in the form of a dialogue, was a work of Platonic
style but with marked differences in doctrine. It dates from the years of Assos.
Second group Of the second group a large number of titles is mentioned. Of the extant works
of Aristotle only book K of the Metaph., and probably the 'AOrjvaicov TroXireta may
be classed among this group.
Third group The so-called school-writings of Ar. Systematically classified the Corpus Aristo-
tulicum contains the following works:
In the Corpus follows, the short book Ilepl x6a(JLou (De mundo). It is surely not a
work of Aristotle. Probably it dates from the first century i3.C. Its philosophy
bears the traces* of Posidonius.
1
In modern times the authenticity has been doubted, because the idea
work differs from that of Metaph. ZH. Suzanne Mansion pleaded
of substance in this
against the authenticity (Proceedings of the tenth International Congress of Phil.,
Amsterdam 1949, pp. 1097-1100), L. M. de Rijk defends it (in Mnemosyne 1951,
pp. 129-159).
2
A. Mansion, Introd. p. 16, judges the unauthenticity not sufficiently proved.
[402] LIFE AND WORKS 9
III. Psychology.
1. Ilepl ^ u X*te (De anima), 3 books.
2. The so-called Parva naturalia, containing
(1) Ilepl ataOrjaecoc; xal aLaOyjTtov (De sensu et sensibili)
(2) Ilepl [AV7j(ry]<;
xai avajjLVTjaecoc; (De memoria et reminiscentia)
(3) Ilepl UTTVOU (De somno)
(4) Ilepl evuTcvttov (De insomniis)
In the Corpus follows here the short treatise Kepi 7rveu[j/xTo^ (de spiritu), which
may have been written i 250. It contains a later doctrine than was known to
2
Aristotle .
not of Ar. Probably also b. VII, a part of VIII, and b. IX are spurious. A large
collection of facts.
The following 4 works give the author's theories based on them.
2. ITepl ^cpoiv (/.optcov (De partibus animalium), 4 books.
3. Ilepl cowv xivi?)ae6><;( De motu animalium).
4. Ilepl Tuopetai; wwv (De incessu animalium).
5. Ilepl ^cocov yeveaea)? (De generatione animalium), 5 books.
V. Metaphysics.
Ta (jieTa Ta cpuatxa, 14 books, first collected by Andronicus and placed by him
after the Physics, whence they were called by this name. The science we call
metaphysics is named by Ar. himself Trpw-nr) 91X0009 a, or also OeoXoyia.
VI. Ethics.
Next follow in the Corpus the 10 books of the *HOixa Ntxojjiaxeia (Ethica
1.
Ni comae hea) % .
3. Four books of the 'HOixa Eu8Y)[jLia (Ethica Eudemia), namely the books A, B, F,
H. The books A E Z have been left out, because they are the same as E Z H of
1
The
two chapters of this treatise are headed by the editors Ilepl
first
xal Ar. mentions this subject at the beginning of the first chapter, but he
YT)p<o<;.
does not deal with it here.
2
The distinction of veins and arteries, which was unknown to Ar.
io ARISTOTLE'S WORKS [402]
the Nicontachean Ethics. The last three chapters of the Eudemian Ethics (H 13-15)
are also separated and headed as a book VIII (0), e.g. by W. Jaeger.
These three works, of which only the Nic. Ethics are without doubt authentic l ,
are followed in the Corpus by a small treatise Ilepl dcpetcov xocl xaxi&v, which dates
probably from the first century B.C. or A.C.
VII. Politics and Economics.
i. HoXtTixdc, 8 books.
2. not accepted as authentic. The third exists
O^xovojiixa, 3 books, generally
only in a Latin translation.
Of the large collection of 158 politeiai, which was made in the School of Ar.
and on his suggestion, only that of the Athenians has been preserved (found on
a papyrus in 1890). This document being probably not written by Ar. himself
but by a disciple, we had good reason to mention it as belonging to the second
group.
VIII. Rhetoric and Poetics.
1.T^XVYJ ^YjTopixTj, 3 books, of which the third has been suspected, but is now
generally believed to be authentic.
In the Corpus it is succeeded by the 'PyjTopixv] 7upo<; 'AXav&pov, an early Peripatetic
work, but not of Ar. himself.
2. Ilepl 7roi7)TixTJ<;, authentic but fragmentary.
1
The Magna moralia are now generally considered as a work of a generation
after Aristotle,and are in fact proved to be so by various arguments, lastly by
an analysis of the style (K. O. Brink, Stil und Form der ps. Aristotelischen MM.
Thesis of Berlin 1933). As to the Eudemian Ethics, since Jaeger they are generally
believed to be an early .work of Aristotle, from his platonizing period. In a recent
study (Studien zu den Ethiken des Corpus Ar., Paderborn i$q.o) K. J. Schacher
tries to prove that they are not a work of Ar., but of his able disciple Eudemus
of Rhodos. The arguments he gives in order to prove this thesis, are for the greater
part not conclusive. Yet, in my opinion he has shaken the theory of Jaeger as to
the early date of the work in question and opened a new perspective.
8
Certainly it is not necessary to deduce that the six works of the Organum
were all written during the first period, and we can hardly admit that this was
the opinion of Jaeger. But he has left the task of stating this point more precisely
to others.
[403] JAEGER'S CHRONOLOGY n
were already fixed the idea of teleology, the principles of form and matter, potency
:
and act. Consequently J. admits that the first books of the Physics (I and II)
were conceived, and probably written, at Athens, under the eyes of Plato. He
assumes this explicitly for De caelo I, where the hypothesis of aether has been
proposed for the first time as a new solution opposed to Platonism.
At Athens was also written the oldest part of the Politics, the criticism of Plato's
Republic: Pol. II, 2-3. Ar. wrote it before having read the Nomoi. He must have
received this work at Assos and, having read it hastily, have added a short review
of it to the ch. 3 of Pol. II. "Perfectly Platonic" is, according to J., book III
of the De anima, which contains the doctrine of the nous. The actual form of this
book may be of a more recent date, the substance of the thought originates from
the Academy.
404 The years of Assos, Lesbos and the Macedonian court. At Assos was the middle
written the oldest part of the Metaphysics ("Urmetaphysik") the books A (historical
: period
survey, A (a kind of encyclopaedia of philosophical terms), K
1-8 (treating the
same subject-matter as the books B F E, but in an earlier form) next the book ;
A, the so-called Theology, a short survey of the whole metaphysical system, except
ch. 8, which is a later addition; finally chapters 9-10 of the book * M
and the whole
book N, in which the theory of the Ideas is shortly criticized and Speusippus'
2
theory of numbers amply .
The books B and F are also of an early date, but posterior to K 1-8.
P'rom the same time as Metaph. A dates the dialogue Ilepl <piXoao9ia<;, which
contains almost the same criticism of the theory of the Ideas as the first-mentioned
book.
From the period of Assos also date the Eudemian Ethics. Jaeger characterizes
this work as "reformplatonisch". He means by this term, that the author, having
given up the theory of Ideas, wishes to found a new, reformed Platonism. The
main argument for the early date of this work is that the term 9p6v7)ai<; is used
here in the Platonic meaning of philosophical insight into a transcendent reality,
whereas later, in the NIC. Eth., Aristotle uses it to indicate a gi<; TTPOCXTLXY), even
for animals (a kind of instinct for what is or is not harmful to them).
According to J. a part of the Politica too was written at Assos, namely the last
books, H 0, containing the ideal state (dcptoTT) TroXirefac), which is opposed to that
of Plato. To this part of the work belong the books B 3 and F 4 On the other hand,
.
the books A E Z are of a much later date: giving an empirical foundation to the
best constitution, they belong to the third period of Ar.'s activity. Book A has
then been put at the head of the whole, by way of introduction.
As to the Physics, we found that J. rather suggests that books I and II
were written at Athens during the life of Plato. In this case book VII too, which
1
These two chapters are an older introduction to the. discussion of the theory
*
of numbers.
a
In the bookN the name of Xenocrates is not mentioned. His tlleory is criticized
by Ar. very sharply in the book M, which for this reason must have been written
in a later period, namely in the Lyceum, when Xenocrates was the head of the
Academy. During the years of Assos, while Speusippus directed the School of Plato
at Athens, Xenocrates was in the company of Ar.
3
A survey of former theories of the state, partly written at Athens (the ch.
2-3) partly at Assos.
4
Book F treats the notion of 7roXi<; and
12 AR STOTLE'S WORKS [404]
belongs to the oldest parts of Ar.'s works, must be dated in the first period. Book
x
being a later addition (to be dated in the third period), we have the impression,
though J. does not say so explicitly, that Books III-VI must be placed in the middle
period, at Assos or later, but most probably at Assos, because in these years the
author was occupied with what is called by J. speculative physics.
What he states explicitly is, that the form in which we have the work De caelo
dates from these years (at least two years after the death of Plato, but not much
later). The style is near to that of Ilepl 91X0(109^1;; the theory of the movement
of the celestial spheres in B 8 is later than that of the movement of the celestial
bodies in II. 9tX
Also the Ilepl yevaeco<; xal 90opa<;, being a work of "speculative physics", is to
be dated in this period, probably still at Assos. J. sees these works of physics as
being of the same order of ideas as the politics of the ideal state, the ethics based
on theology (the Eudemian Eth.) and that part of the Metaphysics which exhibits
the same character ("Urmetaphysik").
the third 405 Ar.'s second stay at Athens: the years of the Lyceum. There is an im-
period portant province in the works of Ar. which, according to J., originates without
exception from the third period: the research-work, as well on the field of history
as on that of nature. The only argument for this late dating which J. gives, is,
that the expedition of Alexander furnished a great deal of material for zoology
as well as for botany 2 According to this theory all the biological works of
.
To
the third period J. also reckons the whole group of anthropological-physiologi-
cal treatises: De anima I and II, the Parva naturaha without exception. (Not the
doctrine of the nofts in De anima III, which harmonizes with the early ethics
and metaphysics).
J. points especially to the method used in the treatise on divination by dreams,
which being purely experimental differs toto coelo from the point of view in the
4
middle period, in Jlepl 9tXocrc9ta<; .
T&v oiai&v 8aai <pi<ret auvcaraai, Ta? {Jifev ayev/jTou? *a ' i^iptou^ clvat
TOV #7cocvTa ateova, Ta; 8e [iST^xetv yevaeo>? xal 99opas. Sujijiiftyxe 8fc rapt
Ixetva? Ti^tac? ofiaa? xal Qeia? IXaTTOo? -fjfjiiv urcapxetv OecopCa? (xal yap
26 e &v $v TI? axe^aiTo Ttepl auT&v, xal Ttepl &v stSlvat 7to0o3(iev,
Icnrlv oXlya T ^avepa xaTa rJjv ata0Y)aiv) 7 Tcspl 84 TCOV 96apTo>v 9urc5v TS xal
^cocav e67copou(jiev (xotXXov irpis rJjv yvtoaiv Sta Ti mivTpocpov TCoXXa yip Ttspl
3ofxa<TTov ylvo<; Xapot TI<; av T&V uTcap^ivTcov pouX6ptevo; SiaTtoveiv txavo>^.
"E^ei S* exdcTepa x*P LV * Tcov fxv yap eL xaTa (jtixpiv ecpaTrrdfJieOa, 6(jtco^ Sta
T/JV TL(xi6T73Ta TOO yvcopt^eiv ^Stov ?) Ta Trap* Tjpuv <5c7ravTa, &(ncep xal T&V
35 Ipeofji^veov T^> TUX&V xal (juxpiv {Jt6piov xaTiSetv ^8t6v e<mv ^ noXXa STepa xal
>45 a (AeyaXa Si* axpi^sta^ JSetv T<X S4 Sta TO (jtaXXov xal TuXstco yvopt^siv aut&v
Xa(jLpdcvet r})v TYJC; l7naTY)[jL7]<; U7repox*/)v, 2rt 8^ Sia TO 7rX7)criatTSpa ^(JLWV slvat
x
xal TY]<; 9\iaeo><; otxei6Tpa avTixaTaXXaTTSTai TI 7upo<; rJjv Ttspl Ta 6eia
7^ T7)v TrXaaTixyjv, auT&v 8e TWV 9u<Ti auvcrTa>T6)v (JL-J) (jiaXXov aya7r6>(xev TTJV
15 Oecoptav, 8uva(xsvot Ta? atTta? xaOopav. Ai6 St (JLYJ Sud^spatvEtv TratStxco?
y
T7]v ?Tpl Tcav dcTtfjiOTlpcov a>a>v l7ricrx^iv. 'Ev TTaort yap TO&; 9u<rtxot? SVSCTT
TI 6aufjtacTT6v xal xa0cx7Tp *HpaxXtTO(; XlyTat Trpo? TO&J; ?vou? l7Ttv Toic;
30TotauTa tx6pia. 'Opioiox; TE SEI VO^EIV TOV Ttspl ooTivoaouv T&V [loptcov Y)
balances somewhat. TI -
a
$1
- "Nature that created
Syjjjtioupy^acxaa 9\iai<; them as an intelligent artist*
See on the meaning of this version our Ch. XIII, 3, nrs. 499-501.
8
Tcpoailvai Set \ri\ SuorcoTcoiSjjLevov
- "we must not recoil with childish aversion".
14 ARISTOTLE'S WORKS [406]
T&V <rxeucov SiaXeyofAevov JIT] Trepi TYJ<; uXvj^ TcoieiaOai TYJV |rvY)|ry)v,
Ta\yn} X*P IV > XXa TTJ<; 0X7)^ (Jiop9^^, olov xai Trspi oixta<;, aXXa (JLYJ
TrXivOcov
xal TnqXou xai uXa)v xal TOV Tuspl 9uaea)^ Trspi TTJ<; auv6e<jeto<; xai T% 0X7)^ 35
ouaa<;, aXXa (JLY] Trepi TOtiTwv a JJLY) aofi(3aivei x<opi6[jieva TTOTS TTJ<;
Jaeger, calls this "a programme for research and instruction in the Peripatetic
I.e.,
School" which explains to us the spirit that reigns in the works of Ar.'s followers.
*,
As to Ar. himself, J describes the spirit of his later years as opposed to his former
.
means of the everlasting longing of the human heart to penetrate the mysteries
of the imperishable and invisible world, and is ready to content himself with the
merest corner of that hidden truth, while the precedence of real science (YJ TYJ<; TUI-
uTrepox'O) is now clearly assigned to empirical research. This is the praise
<JT7)|A7)<;
of devotion to the small, the confession of allegiance to the study that fulfills its
highest achievements in the History of Animals, the collection of Constitutions,
the history of the theatre, and the chronicle of the Pythian competitions."
"He (Ar.) organizes and overcomes the manifold (&rceipov) of appearances, which
3
Plato simply passes over" .
the organi- 407 To the third period of Ar.'s activity belongs also the organization of the
aation of
writing of a complete history of the sciences. Theophrastus was charged with the
science
waiting of a detailed History of philosophy (the Ouoixcov S6$ai in 18 books), from
Thales up to his time. This work has been the basis for all later doxography.
Eudemus of Rhodos had to write a History of the mathematical sciences (arithmetic,
geometry, and astronomy), probably also of theology.
Meno wrote the History of Medicine, the 'laTpixdc, known to us by a papyrus-
fragment.
J. mentions here, too, the great illustrated work 'AvaTo{iat, a collection which
was regularly used in the medical lectures of the Lyceum. Ar. often refers to it
in his treatises.
the revision 408 To this last period belongs, finally, the revision of the theory of the
of the theory First Mover in
Metaph. A
8. This revision is based on new astronomic theories :
of the FirstE U(J OXUS admitted 26 celestial spheres, his (indirect) disciple Callippus assumed
Mover
^. ^ r h^^if comes in Metaph. A 8 to 47 or 55, and accordingly postulates
the existence of thet same number of Unmoved Movers. J. thinks this to be an
innovation after the original theory, which admitted of only one Unmoved Mover,
who alone governs the kosmos which is one, and is called therefore 0s6<;. Thus in
1
"em Forscnungs- und Unterrichtsprogramm der peripatetischen Schule".
2
We view of Ar. directly at the beginning of his Physics (I i)
shall find this
and of his Metaphysics (A 2). See our nrs. 470 and 519 (982a 23 - 26 ); also Eth. Nic.
2- 4
I, I095b (our nr. 566).
8
"Ar. organisiert und iiberwindet das Apeiron der Erscheinungen, das Platon
iiberfliegt", Jaeger says. The truth of this statement, however, seems to me doubt-
ful,because Plato in the Philebus designed as the especial task of philosophy the
determining of "the intermediate stages" between the One and the Apeiron.
[408] JAEGER S CHRONOLOGY 15
chapters A 7 and 9-10, which form a close unity. The 8th chapter is clearly a later
addition.
Phys. VIII also gives a revised treatment of the question of the First Mover,
and must be of a later date l .
409 To complete the image we have to make to ourselves of Ar.'s third period Parts of the
according to Jaeger, we must state the following points. Politics, Ethics
1. First the empirical books (A E Z) of the Politics must be reckoned to this and MetaP h -
last period, as they are based on the material of the 158 constitutions; then also
j
book A, which is an introduction to the whole.
2. J. does not say explicitly that the Nic. Ethics are to be placed in this period
too. This seems, however, to be an almost inevitable conclusion. First by the char-
acter of the work. The empirical books of the Politics are characterized by J. as a
phaenomenology of veal political life. Now the Nic. Ethics give such a phaenomenology
of moral life. And secondly, the relation to the Eudemian Ethics. We
have seen that
by J. this work was placed in the middle period. The Nic. Ethics, representing a
later phasis of Ar.'s thought, then seem almost necessarily to have been written
in the third period.
3. Finally the central books of the Metaphysics: Z H
0, containing the doctrine
of substance and that of potency and act, and with them the introductory book E.
Are they to be placed in the third period ? Such seems to be the opinion of J.,
though he only says explicitly that book M, which criticizes Xenocrates, must
have been written in the years of the Lyceum. The thesis of J., however, is not to
say that Ar. has abandoned metaphysics during this period and has turned to merely
empirical research, but rather that he has changed his conception of metaphysics,
the object of this science having been first to him supra-sensible being, after- ^
wards the Sv ?j t>v, which means: being in all its nuances, being in its multiplicity.'
Now this is in harmony with the spirit of empirical research. Thus it fits well to
the third period.
1
We treat this question in our Ch. XIII, 5.
2
W. D. Ross remarks in the Introduction to his Aristotle-Selections (New-
York 1938, p. XIV: "The attempt to trace the development of Ar.'s thought
through his works is still in its infancy." Yet the main conclusions of J. are well
established in his opinion, and he adopts almost J.'s whole chronology.
3
Histoire de la Philosophic I, 1926.
4
Geschichte der Phil. I, "1926.
16 ARISTOTLE'S WORKS [410]
E. Bignone uses the traces of the lost works of Ar. for the study of Epicurus.
Jaeger's theory of the revision of the doctrine of the First Mover has found
an almost general agreement up to the very last years 1 So by .
/. LagrangeM .
serious 4jj a> A. Mansion of Louvain has been the first to criticize J.'s
**
objections of .
He remarks first that Metaph. A must be of a much later date than J. thinks it is,
so that the distance of time which lies between ch. 8 and the rest of this book
can by no means be so great as J. assumes it to be. Secondly, Ar. has left his
Metaph. unfinished. This fact implies that he worked at it till the end of his life.
It is impossible to accept that the work we have was finished before 335 3 .
Other 412 The objections of Mansion and Von Ivanka were based on a purely historical
protests method. Such is M. de Corte (in La doctrine de I'in-
not the case of the protest of
telligence chez Ar., Paris 1934) against the genetic method, applied by Jaeger to
the study of Ar. De Corte starts from the Thomistic interpretation of Ar. as being
the right one. Now the doctrine of Thomas on the intellectus agens as a part or
perhaps rather as a function of the human soul may have been a real correction
of Ar.'s doctrine of the nous; it is, however, more a philosophical than a purely
historical interpretation 5 But, if the method of W. Jaeger is to be criticized,
.
1
Since the interesting study of Ph. Merlan on Ar.'s Unmoved Movers in Traditio
of 1946, others too find traces of a plurality of Unmoved Movers in Ar.'s early
works. See our* nr. 518.
2
In the Revue Ntoscholastique de Louvain, 1927, pp. 307 ff. and 423 ff.
s
In fact, I do not think this to have been the opinion of J. Vid. supra (nr. 409).
4
Scholastik VII, p. 27 ff.
6
F. Nuyens remarks rightly that the texts of Ar. point rather to the Averroistic
interpretation of the nous as a substantia separata.
6
Dr. Nuyens wrote a review of this work in Studien 1939, p. 66 f. I did ;
The 6th treatise of the Parva Nat. however, the De long, et brev. vitae, is nearer
to the De anima. It forms a transition to the third period. As to the rest of the bio-
logical works, only the De gener. anim. represents the same view as the De anima,
and therefore belongs to the final period.
5. Concerning the Metaph. N. confirms the early date of the book A, B, K 1-8,
M y-io and N; also that M1-9 belongs to the final period. Book T has no texts
relative to the soul, but E has. The view of the soul in this book is near to that of
De anima. It must be dated shortly before this work.
N.'s criterion leads to an exact determine' tion of the date of books Z H 0. These
books presuppose the definition of soul in De anima. Consequently they belong
to the last years of Ar.'s activity. In book , however, are also older traces. So
this book, as we have it, is probably a later redaction of an earlier treatise.
Book I gives no indications as to its date.
Concerning A Nuyens confirms the objection of Mansion against Jaeger. Soul
and body are considered in this book as form and matter of the living being.
This must have been written after De anima, i.e. very late. Chapter 8 is a later ad-
dition, but as to time it is not far removed from the rest.
6. N. determines also the date of the NIC. Ethics. Whether this work belongs
to the third period, to the beginning of it or to the end, is a question which was
left open by Jaeger. Both Mansion and Ross date the work very late. N. comes to
other conclusions the psychology which is presupposed here, is not that of De anima;
:
it is much nearer to Plato. For this reason the work must be dated surely ten years
before the DC anima: it may have been written towards the end of the middle
period or at the beginning of the third.
7. Also regarding the Politics N. comes to an important conclusion. We saw
a that books IV- VI were reckoned by Jaeger to the third period, and that the first
book was added, according to him, afterwards as an introduction to the whole.
Now the relation of body and soul appears to be conceived in this book in a clearly
mechanical way, and soul is divided into parts as was done by Plato but not in
Ar/s De anima. So this first book may have been written early in the third period,
but by no means very late.
8. N. too cites the fifth chapter of the De part. anim. I and comments on it in
a somewhat different way from Jaeger: we cannot cite this beautiful chapter as
a document in illustration of a "positivistic" period in Ar/s development. This
author never cultivated science at the cost of speculative philosophy. Both go
together, up to the end of his activity. The science which he defends here, is
according to himself the prerogative of the <pu<jet 91X630901.
9. Finally the De anima. The third book is not of an early date, as it was in the
opinion of Jaeger, and also of Ross. Its doctrine of the nous is not Platonic; it is
no remainder of a, former period, but just the result of the psychology of the final
period. The work shows a unity of composition; the problem of the nous pervades
the whole.
A is closely connected with the De anima De sensu
part of the Parvd naturalia :
Verbeke remarks first that it is impossible to date whole works of Ar. on the
ground of a few texts in which the relation soul-body is touched upon. In the same
treatise may be earlier and later parts (as Doring proved that the first book of
the De parlibus is of a much earlier date than the following books of this treatise,
and Drossaart L,ulofs that both in the De Somno and in the De insommis there are
sections of an earlier and a more advanced date). Secondly he points out that the
arguments adduced by N. for the early date of the Topics are not conclusive;
thirdly that there arc serious difficulties as to the chronology of the Nic. Ethics,
the doctrine of the nous in this last work being much nearer to Plato than is
supposed by N.
1 myself had to make an objection to N. regarding the early date he attributes
to the llspl 91X0 CTO 9 tag. Now, because the chronology of the physical treatises is
based by N. on that of this dialogue, this point too must be revised.
The main result of the work of N. remains that the biological works of Ar. are
of a much earlier elate than Jaeger had admitted; that the later books of the
Metaphysics are of the author's latest years, and consequently that neither the
"research"-work of Ar. is to be attributed as a whole to his latest period, nor the
metaphysical speculation to a former phase of his development
1
.
Jaeger himself, when he visited our country in July 1950, whether my impression
on this point was right. He confirmed to me that it has never been his intention
to make a radical separation between a metaphysical and a "positivistic" period
in Ar.'s development. He did not think it possible to date books Z H
of the
Metaph. more precisely, but he did not intend to exclude the possibility that they
might have been written very late.
ELEVENTH CHAPTER
THE EXOTERIC WRITINGS
i THE EUDEMUS OR IIEPI TTXIIS
the theme 415Ar. wrote this dialogue shortly after the death of Eudemus
of Cyprus, a companion of his in the Academy of Plato, who died in Sicily
under the standard of Dio (354). The story of his death is told by Cicero.
a. Cic., De div.
I 25 (Fr. 37 R.):
the soul no 415 i n this dialogue Ar. defends the immortality of the soul and
armo y
a ^ ac k s ^e doc t T i ne that the soul is the harmony of the body. Philoponus,
TTttxpxei. 8& TOCI<; ouaiaic; xal TO (jirjS^v aura!*; Ivavrtav elvat. "Substances never have
contraries". Soul, then, is a substance, as is said directly by Plotinus, Enn.
IV 7, 8: T6 JJL&V (sc. 7rp6Tpov, 73 ^x-r)) ouafac, ^) 8& apjxovta oux ouafoc.
1
Jaeger, though he does not think the Categ. authentic cites another parallel
,
between a Platonic argument (Phaedo 93 b-d) why the soul is no harmony, and
a formula in the Categ. Plato says: the soul is either good, moral and rational,
or the opposite. Now these opposed constitutions are a sort of harmony and dis-
harmony of the soul. But the attributes "good" etc. and their opposites admit
of a {laXXov xal YJTTOV. Consequently, if harmony --- soul, the soul would admit
of degrees, which is impossible. Cp. Categ. 3 b 33 -4 a9 Aoxei 8k. 7) ouata ^YJ In&ixe-
:
oOai TO (jtaXXov xal TO TJTTOV. E.q.s. "Substance does not admit of degrees".
alaxoc;, Y) ap(Jiovia Spa uyteia xal ta^ix; xal xaXXo<; ^WXT] Se ouSev eari TOUTCOV
OUTE uyteia cpTjfxl OUTS ta/u^ OUTS xaXXoc; ^u^rjv yap elye xal 6 0epatTYj<;.
cov. oux Spa eoViv f) ^ux^) apjiovia.
the soul
Simplicius in Ar., De anima
c. I 3, says that, according to Ar. an eidos
in the Eudemus, the soul is an eidos.
Fr. 46 R.:
Kal ev Toi EuSyjfjLco TCO Tcepl ^u^c; auTCp ysypafji^vcp SiaXoyto
TYJV fyvxr^ slvai.
remarks that in this period the young Ar. was still dependent on Plato
J., I.e.,
in metaphysics, but completely independent of him in the sphere of logic and
methodology. "The fundamental attitude embodied in the doctrine of the categories,
and the main portions of the doctrine itself, had been developed before Ar. dared
to shake the metaphysical foundation of Plato's philosophy" .
1
Ar. p. 46, with note 3. I think the arguments adduced by J. on this point
not decisive. I am rather inclined to accept the authenticity of the Categ. and to
explain the doctrine of the Trpconr) ouala in this treatise as a strong reaction of the
author against the theory of the Ideas, which may be placed at the beginning of
the years of Assos.
22 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [4*7 J
J., ^(y. p. 48, rightly pointed to the Platonic style and spirit of this answer:
To yeva0ai
JA-JJ
is not merely "not to be born"; it also means "not to enter into
Becoming".
the doctrine fc. proc lus in Plat. Remp.\ Ar. fr. 41 R.:
accepted by Aeyei Se xal 6 Sai(JLOVLO<; 'Api<TTOTXv)<; aiTiav Si* YJV sxstiOev [isv Eoucra '/]
Ar.
^U^TJ Seupo sTTiXavOavsTai TCOV exec Osa^aTcav, svTsuOev Ss
sxe TWV svTauOa
The exeZ OsajjiaTa are doubtless the Ideas.
the nous 4jg a. That the nous was considered by Ar. during this period
the soul as & P a rt of the soul (unlike the later doctrine of the De anima), appears
from the passage of Simpl. cited supra (416c: the soul an eidos), Fr.
46 R., where he continues (after the words eI86<; TL dcTro^aiveTat T/JV
elvai )
:
xal ev TOUTOK; eTraivei TOU^ T<OV elScov SexTLXY]v Xeyovya^ T'/JV 4(U X"') V > ^X
aXXa TY)\) voY)Tix7]v dx; TCOV aXTjOcov SeuTepco^ eiStov yvcoo-Tixyjv TC^J
yap
vco T<i
The question might be asked here whether the words ou^ oXrjv e.q.s. are still
a report of Ar.'s view in the Eudemus, or whether they rather contain an explanation
of Simplicius. In the first case which seems to be the right one this fragment
would prove that the doctrine of the nous as the highest part ot the human soul,
which therefore alone is divine and immortal, originates in the very first period
[418] THE EUDEMUS 23
of Ar.'s thought l This doctrine differs from that of De anima, where the nous
.
61 R. (from n as akm
b. Ar., fr. v lamblichus, Protr. ch. 8,' p.
-
48 ed.
T Pistelli)/ :
immortal
OU&EV ouv 6etov TI [jiaxapiov i>7rap*/i Tot^ av0pco7roi<; TuXvjv EXSIVO
ye (Jiovov
OC<*LOV o"7rou&YJ<; oaov ECJTIV ev Y](JUV vou xal TOOTO yap {JLOVOV SOIXEV
<ppovYj<7<o<;.
elvai TCOV Yj(JLTepcov dOavaTov xal p.6vov OEIOV. xal Tiapa TO TYJS TOiauT7)<; Suva-
[JLEO^ SovaaOai XOIVCOVEIV, xatTrep cov 6 PLO^ aOXto(; (puaei xal /aXeTcoc;, 6fjico<;
OUTCO;; coxovojJiTjTai x a P L ^ VT<0 ^ COOTTE SOXSLV 7rpo<; T<X 6cXXa Osov elvai TOV a*vGpco-
TUOV. 6 vouc; yap YJJJUOV
6 0eo^, stTS 'EpfjioTifJio^ CITS 'Avaayopa<; eiTre TOUTO,
xal OTL 6 OvY]To^ aiwv (xepoi; zyzi Oeou
c. Ar., Metaph.
24 26
1070 a - A 3, .
EJ Ss xal u<7Tpov TI UTCojJievci, orxsTTTeov STC' evicov yap ou&ev xcoXuei, otov
TOIOUTOV, (JL7] Tracra aXX* 6 voO^ Traorav yap aSuvarov
In the preceding lines the author has spoken of the advantages of the
fiio<; 0wp7jTixfS(;, being that of the activity of the mind (YJ TOU vou Vpyia).
He then continues:
C
O 8s TOIOUTO^ av ELY](3iog XPELTTCOV 7j xaT* avOpcoTTov ou yap '^
TOO (Tuv0Tou, ToaouTco xal 7) svEpyEia TY]^ xara TYJV aXXYjv apETYjv. Ei 8*J) 0stov
6 vou<; TTpo^; TOV avOpcoTrov, xal 6 xaTa TOUTOV (3io^ Osio^ Tipo^ TOV avOpcoTrivov
piov.
Now this vou<; is not only in man, but it is a part of him, and his chief
and best part. Sjp we could even say that man is his nous. 1178 a 2- 4 :
1
I do not think it is already explicitly present in the Kudemus, but it is very
near. Certainly Dr. Nuyens is not right in admitting that the limitation of im-
mortality to the nous is a characteristic of the last period of Ar.'s development.
Koss and Mansion have rightly pointed out that this doctrine is of very early date.
24 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [419]
2 THE PROTREPTICUS
the theme 419 The Protrepticus was an exhortation to the philosophic life, the
pio<; OecopY)Tix6<;, such as it was understood in the Academy. It was
addressed to Themiso, the prince of Cyprus. Against the pragmatistic
conception of knowledge in the school of Isocrates Ar. here fervently
defends the beauty and the happiness of the purely contemplative life,
which is exercised solely for its own sake. We have the answer from the
ecrav aXX* oux ev TCO yiyvcoaxeiv jxovov OUTS yap oyiatvofjLev TCO yvcopi^eiv TOC
TroiTjTixa TYJ uyieia<; aXXa TCO TrpocpspeaOai TOL<; aco[Jiacnv OUTS 7cXoi>TOU(JLev TCO
yiyvcoaxsiv TrXouTOV aXXa TCO xexT^aOat TroXXvjv oucriav, ouSe TO TTOCVTCOV [JLC- 5
yiaTOv e5 ^cojjtev TCO yiyvcoaxeiv <5tTTa TCOV OVTCOV aXXa TCO TcpdcTTeiv e5 TO yap
euSaifJiovelv aX7)0to<; TOUT* ^GTLV. COCTTS TrpooTjxei xal TTJV 9iXocro9tav
e<TTiv cI>9XijJLO^ ^TOI Tcpa^tv slvai TCOV ayaOcov
ayaOa xal TOC avayxata' Sia^spet yap TcXetaTov. TOC (JLSV yap Si* eTspov ayaTrco-
jjieva TCOV 7rpay(jtaTCov cov avei> ^v aStivaTov, avayxaia xal auvama XEXTEOV,
oaa 8s Si' aTropaivf] (jLTjSev eTspov, dcyaOa xupico?. ou yap SYJ ToSe 5
auTa, xav
[Jtev aipeTov Sia ToSe, ToSe Se Si* #XXo, TOUTO TS eic; aTreipov ofyeTai Trpoiov,
aXX' tdTaTal TUOU. yeXoiov oSv ^87) TcavTeXcoc; TO y)Tev OCTTO 7uavTO<; co^eXeiav
STepav Tcap* auTO TO Trpayjxa xal TL o3v ufJLiv S^eXo^ xal TI ^pY)(Ti,[jLOv epcoTav.
co^ aXv]0co<; yap, coarcep Xeyojjiev, et TI? ^(Jia^ olov st; (j-axapcov vrjaout;
TV) Siavoia xo{Jiiaeiev. exet yap ouSevo^ XP e ^ a ^^ TC^ V aXXcov TIVO^ S9eXo(; 10
av yevoiTO, [Ji6vov,8e xaTaXeiTieTai TO StavostaOai xal Oecopetv, ovirep xal
vuv eXeOOepov <pa[jiev PIOV elvai. et 8e TauT* eciTlv dXY)0Y] TUCOC; oux av aiaxu- 7
aSuvaTo^ etr) 8u eauTov. ouxouv 06 (jLejjLTtTo^ 6 |xia06<; earTi Trj<; eTcicTTY)[JLY)^ TOL^
av6pco7roi<; ouSe [JLixpov TO ytyvojjievov arc' auT^<; ayaOov. codTuep yap Trj<;i5
8txaiocruv7)(;, &^ 9aaiv ot ao9ol TCOV TTOIYJTCOV, ev aSou xo|ju6[jie0a Ta? Scopeac;,
OUTCO T^C; 9pov7)aeco ev (jtaxapcov vyjaoic;, co^ Soixev. ouSev o5v 8etv6v, av jx^
9atv7jTat xpyjaifiT] o5aa {jtYjS' axp^Aipicx; ou yap co9Xi|JLOv aXX' aya0y]v auT/)v
elvat 9a{xev, ouSe Si* STepov aXXa 81* eauTTjv alpecdOai auTTjv TrpoanQxei.
[4*9] THK
In Metaph. A 2, 982 a 11 -*8 we shall again find the theme that philosophy alone
is exercised for its own sake and not wtiat&s TWOS Svcxev (our nr. 519).
xpdtTiaTov, T^V 8J: v6[xov (Kp^ovTa xal xtipiov clvat (x6vov o5to? Si
xal X6YO<; aTii <ppov^aeei<; I<JTW. In Si T<; tv xavv
choice, lying in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by a
rational principle, and as the <pp6vi(jio<; would determine it" (our nr. 57 Ib).
Here again the 9p6vt.pLo; has the arbitrium of what is good.
II. W. Jaeger has pointed out that the meaning of the term <pp6vr}<n<; as it is
used here differs from that in the Nic. Eth.: in the Protr., as'in the Eud. Eth. t
9p6vYjm< is used in the Platonic sense of the word, which means philosophical
Insight, based on the knowledge of a transcendent reality whereas in the Nic.
Eth. it means simply?>rac&cfl/ wisdom, which has nothing to do with a transcendent
reality, and may be predicated even of animals (Eth. Nic. VI 5, ^140 b ). It is
w
no longer directed towards the general, but towards the concrete. In Eth. Nic.
VI 7, 1141 b3 -5 it is therefore said explicitly that men like Anaxagoras and Thales
,
were not fp^vtptot, but 00901, because they were indifferent to their own advantage,
but strove after knowledge of the eternal laws of the universe (our nrs. 590a
and 591b). <
In the following passage of the Protr. we shall see that 9p6vi{io<; and <iof6<; are
here almost identic.
26 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [42OJ
after
xTYJaig TE xal XP*) aL S (109 Ca<;, 7]
Ss ao9ia TCOV (jLeytaTCov dyaOcov, ou Se Set
Xp^fJKXTtov fjiv vxa TiXetv 59* 'HpaxXeoix; cmf)Xa<; xal TcoXXaxu; xivSuvetletv,
aXXa [JiY)
TOU e5 yXi^ea6ai, xal rate; TCOV rcoXXcov auTov dxoXouOetv
Y)V
aXXa (JLY] TOU^ TtoXXou^ atodv ral^ aurou, xal ra fjtev xpYjfjtaTa ^vjTel'v TWV Se
xaXeov {jLY)Se{JLiav eTTLfjieXeiav TroLstaOat TO Tuaparcav.
The formula eS ^v is used by Ar. in the Nic. Eth. I 4, 1095 a 19 as a general and ,
the theory 421 That the author the Protr. still accepts the metaphysical
of
still accepted basis of the theory of the Ideas, appears from the following passage.
5
ICTTIV au T co v yap ICTTI OeaTYjc, aXX ou (jii[jL7][jLaTcov. Movo^ yap icpcx;
TY)v 9\iai,v pXcTTtov ^7] xal Trpo^ TO Ostov, xal xaOarcep av t xu[3epvY]T7)^ TI^
^ al'Sicov xai, (JLOVLJJLCOV ava^ajjisvos TOU PLOD Tat; ap'/at; 6p(jia xal ^vj
Concrete things arc ajueipa and therefore not knowable; science has as its object
"the determinate": Ta a>pia(j(ivx. Cp. Jaeger, Ar. p. 93. The same term is used in
Protr. c. 6 (fr. 52 R., p. 60, 1. 21 ft.).
[^ 22] THE PROTREPTICUS 27
<7xiaypa9iav. 60ev xal XeyeTai *aXoa<; TO [r/jSev elvat, TOV avOpcoTtov xal TO
[jLTjSev elvai pefSaiov TCOV avOpa>7riva)v. ia/u<; TS yap xal [isysOo^ xal xaXXo^
5yeXa><; ecra xal ou8evo<; aia. xaXXo<; ye rcapa TO [rqSev opav axpipe^ Soxet
clvai TOIOUTOV. ei yap TK; eSiivaTO pXeTretv xaGaTiep TOV Auyxea 9actv, 6g Sta
TO>VTOL^wv etopa xal TG>V SevSpwv, TIOT' av e'So^ev etvat Tiva TYJV o^iv avexTov
opav s^ otcov auveCTT7]X xaxcov Tifial 8e xal So^ai Ta ^7]Xo6(jisva (JtaXXov TCOV
;
XOITTCOV dcSt,Y]yY]Toi) ye(jiL ^Xuapta^. TCO yap xaOopcovTt TOJV atStoiv Tt Y]Xt6iov
c. Next follows the fr. 61 R. on the divine character of the nous, N ?^ s alone
which alone is immortal. Our nr. 418b. immortal
423 Dr. Nuyens, Fr. cd. p. 93 ff., has pointed to what'seems to him
to be some later elements in the Protr. of Ar., namely firstly the idea
of teleology in nature, and secondly what he calls the instrumental
conception of the relation soul-body.
1
After UTT* ocuyas a word lias probably dropped out: TOU oucovo; is possible
(after Tim. 37 d).
28 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [423]
Trep TO Sia T^V^ [AifJietTat yap ou TVJV T^V)V 73 ^uai^ aXXa auTT) TY)V
*
3I1EPI <DIAOi;O<I>JAS
the first 424 ln the first book of his 11. 9tX. Ar. seems to have treated of
the history of philosophy, including the Orient.
mentioned fAayoix;) TCOV AiyuTCTttov xal Siio xaT* auTOix; elvai ap/ac;, ayaOov Satjiova
xal xaxov Saifxova, xal TCO [xev ovo(xa elvai Zeu<; xal 'Qpo{jiaa8*/]<;, TO) 8e
xal
We know that, in Plato's later years, the Academy was keenly interested in
oriental wisdom. The doctrine of Zarathustra was mentioned also in the Alcib. Mai.,
[424] PERI PHILOSOPHIAS 2Q
certainly not a work of Plato but a product of his school in its early years
l
which is .
See :
J. Bidez, Eos ou Platon et I* Orient, Brussels 1945. Jaeger, Ar.p. 131 ff.
Jaeger, Ar. p. 129 explains this as an instance of the author's view that the
f.,
same truths reappear human history several times. Thus in De caelo I 3, 270 b 19
in ,
where he says, speaking of the name of the "first body" (aether) "It seems too that :
the name of this first body has been passed down to the present time by the ancients,
who thought of it in the same way as we do" 2 oo yap <5bra!; ou8 Sic; dXX* dcTreipdbac;
Set vojx^eiv Ta<; OCUTCXC; a<pixvet<jOai. 86e;ac; efcc; 7)(i.a<;.
etc; T& SUVOCT&V exaa-nqc; xal T/VT)(; xai cpiXoaocpiac; xal TuaXtv 90etpo[ievcov xod TOCUTOCC; TOCC;
(sc. that the first principles are regarded as gods) Ixetvcov olov Xet^ava Trept-
"While probably each art and each science has often been developed as far
as possible and has again perished, these opinions, with others, have been pre-
3
served until the present like relics of the ancient treasure" .
425 a. In the second book Plato's doctrine of the ideal Numbers Second
was criticized. Fr. 9 R. (Syrianus in Ar. Metaph. 12, 9) :
'O(JioXoye [r/jSev etpyjxevai Trpoc; T<X<; exstvcov (sc. the Platonics before
Xenocrates) uTroOeoreic; (jiYjS' 8Xco<; 7rapaxoXou6ev TOLC; eiS-yjTixocc; apiO^ou;,
ETEpcH Twv fjLaOy][jLaTtxcov elev, (jtapTupsc ra ev TW ^ TCOV Tuepl T^C; 91X0-
TOUTOV TOV Tpovrov n ci(TT e txXXoc; apiOfJioc; at ESeai, {
the theory
b. Probably this passage belonged to a general criticism ot the
doctrine of the Ideas. We know, both from Proclus and from Plutarchus, criticized
that Ar. criticized this doctrine sharply in his Dialogues.
Fr. 8 R. (Proclus ap. loann. gramm., de mundi aetern. II, 2):
Ka! xtvSuveiiet (JiYjSev OUTCOC; 6 avyjp exetvoc; (6 'ApKTTOTsXV)^) aTUOTCotyjaaaOai
TWV nXaTCovoc; we; TY)V TCOV tSecov UTcoQecriv, ou JJLOVOV sv Xoytxotc; dtXXa xa! . . .
xa! ev TOCC; SiaXoyotc; (ra9^crTaTa xexpaywc; (JLTJ SiivaaOai TCO ^oyjiaTi TOUTCO
<ju|X7caOev x&v TIC; auTOv otY)Tai Sia ^tXoveixtav avTiXeyetv.
1
The arguments adduced by E. de Strycker in Les Etudes Classiques of 1942
are decisive.
2
Transl. of W. K. C. Guthrie.
8
Transl. of W. D. Ross.
30 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [425]
Ta^ y [r/)v tSsa^ TiEpl cov EyxaXst TCO HXaTCOVL TtavTaxou xivcov 6
<(JLT(X TOC <pu(jixa, ev Tol'<;> cpuaixoo^, t,a TCOV s^toTspixcov SiaXoycov, cpiXovEtxo-
philosophy of religion.
TWO sources a< Ar., fr. io R. (Sextus, Adv. dogm. Ill, 20-22):
of religious , , , M ^ , , ^ ,
belief ApiaTOTeXr]^ oe a?ro ouoiv ap^cov evvoiav Uecov eXeye yeyovevai ev TO^ av-
c;,
(XTCO T TCOV TTSpl ^U^"J]V GTUfJLpaiVOVTCOV Xal OCTTO TO)V fJLT(Op6)V. aXX'
OCTTO fjLV TO)V TCSpl T7)V ^U^Y)V (TUfjlpatVOVTCOV Sl(X Toi^ V TOt^ UTTVOL^ yiVOfJLEVOU^
vOou<na(7[JLou<; xal Tac; (jiavTLa^. orav yap, 973(7^, EV TOJ UTCVOUV xaO*
yvr^Tai 7) ^u*/*/),
TOT rfjv tStov aTroXapouca 9uortv 7cpo{JtavT\ieTai TE xal 5
7ipoayopUi Ta {jiXXovTa. ToiarjTT] SE SCTTI xal v TCO xaTa TOV OavaTOv x^P^"
f/
TCOV ao)[jLaTCov. a7ioSXTaL youv xal TOV Tuoiyjryjv O(JLY)pov coc; TOUTO
vTa 7T7rot7]X yap TOV (JLEV IlaTpoxXov EV TCO avaipELaOaL Trpoayo-
pUOVTa 7Tpl "ExTOpO^
TYJ<; avat,p<TCO(;, TOV S' "ExTOpa 7Tpl TY]^ 'A^lXXeCO^
TXUT7J^. X TOUTCOV OUV, 97JCTLV, UTCEVOT^CTaV ol avOptOTTOl LVai Tl 0OV, TO Ol
xaO' auTo 01x6^; TYJ ^UXY) TUOCVTCOV ETTKTTYjfJiovixcoTaTov. aXXa SY] xal CXTTO
TCOV [JLETECOpCOV 0aca(JLVOL yap {JLSO* Y)(JLpaV (JLEV YjXlOV TCSplTTOXoUVTa, VUXTCOp
SE TTJV EUTaxTOv TCOV aXXcov aaTSpcov xtvvjaiv, svofjuo^av slvai Ttva Osov TOV
TTJ<; TOtauTYjc; XIVYJGECOC; xal UTaia<; atTiov. TOLOUTO<; (JLEV xal 6 'ApiaTOTeXT)^.
The thought is of Plato and the Academy. Cp. Laws XII 966 d: our nr. 394a-
Cosmic order fo pr n R. Sextus (ib. 26-27) expresses this last view in rather
the existence picturesque colours. The passage may be taken quite well from Ar.'s
of God(s) n.
9iX. II.
COGTUEp yap EL TL<; ETcl T7J? TpCOlXY]^ Xa0^6(JLVO<; ISY]<; SCOpa T7]V TCOV 'EXXYJVCOV
CTTpaTEiav [jLETa TcoXXou x6<T(jLou xal Ta^sco<; TOI<; TueStoi^ Trpoatouaav ,,t7T7u^at;
JJLEV TTpCOTa (TUV LTTTTOKTIV Xal OXa9tV, TCS^OU^ S* E^OTClOEV*', TUOCVTCO^ OCV 6 TOLOOTOc; 5
etc; svvoiav YJXOs TOU STI sort Tt<; 6 SiaTacjacov TTJV TOtauTYjv Ta^iv xal yxXsu6-
JJLEVOC; TOL<;
UTT* auTov xoa[Jiou{JLvoL<; <jTpaTicoTai<;, olov NaTCOp y] &XXo<; TIC; TCOV
[426] PERI PHILOSOPHIAS 3!
habitavisscnt bonis et inlustribus domiciliis quae essent ornata signis of the den
We have to state that the rupture with Platonism has become a fact here: the rupture
the ideal World a transcendent Reality which alone is truly real and of which w th
sensible things are images the ideal World of Plato has disappeared. There is Platonism
a
just one reality: the sensible world in which we live. Its beauty and order point
the philosopher to a*divine Maker Surely this is a Platonic thought. But in the
1
.
later philosophy of Ar. it has disappeared completely: the Prime Mover of Phys.
VI II and Metaph. A is not the Maker of the kosmos as it is said in IT. 9tX.. II.
Two conclusions must be drawn from this fact :
i. As in this work of Ar. the theory of the Ideas has been abandoned, while
1
Surely not in the biblical sense of a Creator, but in the sense all Greeks gave
to the term: the "Builder of the Universe" who "made the kosmos", i.e. who
arranged formless matter into a kosmos.
32 EXOTERIC WRITINGS [427]
accepted in the Protr. (our nr. 42 la), it is impossible that the dialogue
it is still
7u. would be anterior to the Protr. Hence the chronology of Jaeger must be
<piX.
right on this point, and it must be stated that the criterion of Nuyens has failed
x
here .
2. in this work, n. 9iX., Ar. admits of a Demiourgos, who "made the kosmos"
As
in the Greek sense of the term, while in the so-called "theology" of Metaph. no A
trace of this view can be found, it is impossible that this last book was written
by its author at a rather early date, such as during the years of Assos or even
before them. On the contrary, the chapters A 7, 9 and 10 represent a very different
mind, and we must suppose that a considerable space of time elapsed between
the half- Platonic view of II. <piX. and the full-grown Aristotelian view of Metaph. A.
So on this point A. Mansion appears to be right when he dates this book of the
Metaph. much later than Jaeger does.
On the other hand, on the well-known words of De caelo I 4, 271 a 33 ,,'O 8k 6e&s :
xal $i <pu(jt<; ouS&v jxar/jv Tcotooatv" a great light is poured by the present fr. from
II. <piX. It has been supposed 2 that these words are a mere literary form, an expres-
sion without any real meaning, because they do not fit in with Ar.'s view of the
Prime Mover in Phys. VIII and Metaph. A. True, but they do fit in excellently
with the belief of the young Ar. in IT. 9tX., who, having rejected the theory of the
Ideas, still keeps the religious principle of Plato that a divine Mind must be the
cause of order in the visible world.
428 The spirit of the Timaeus still speaks in the following fragments
of II. 9tX.
the spirit of a pr .
I4
** R. (Seneca,
\
Ouaest.
V nat. VII 30,
> ~> i):
/
the Timaeus
Egregie Aristoteles ait numquam nos verecundiores esse debere quam
cum de dis agitur. si intramus templa compositi quanto hoc magis . . .
opaTOV Oeov TjXtov xal aeXvjvjqv xal TO SXXo TCOV TrXavvjTCov xal dbrXavcov tb$
aXy)6coq TreptexovTa TtavOeiov.
This fr. belonged to the third book TC. cpiX.
A dialectical 429 a. A formal proof of the existence of God seems to have been
existence of given by Ar. in the so-called argumentum ex gradibus.
God 1 from me to pretend that this criterion is altogether useless. No,
It is far
but should be applied with greater prudence and controlled from other points
it
of view.
a
By Mansion in his Introd. a la Phys. Ar.
[429] PERI PHILOSOPHIAS 33
Ka06Aoi> yap ev ol<; ecrrL TI P&TIOV, ev TOUTOK; Icrrf TI xal (Scpicrrov. CTTEL
o5v eaTiv ev TOI*;' oSaiv #XXo <5XXou peXTiov, gaTiv Spa TI xal apia-rov, orap
SIT) av TO Oetov.
Anothei proof 17 R.
A second
b. is given in the fr. :
*H apx>) 5) p-ta Y)
TtoXXaL xal ei {Jtev (jita, Sx ^
T^ *)Tou[jievov ei Se
73 TSTayfievat YJ
&TOCXTOL. aXX' el [Jiev <5cT<xxToi, dcTaxTOTepa TOC e^ aurcov, xal
oux e<m xo<T(jio<;6 xoafioc; aXX* axoajjua, xal eaTL TO Tiapa cpiicriv TOO xaTa
This text reminds us of the final passage of Metaph. AS: T<X Se ovra ou
TroXiTcijeaOat xax&c "oux dya06v TroXuxoipav(y)" etc.
430 The fragments 18-26 concern the kosmos and the Third book
eternity of the
doctrine that the celestial bodies have souls. With the first thesis Ar.
is against Plato's doctrine in the Tim. (at least as he took it) with ;
the latter he showed himself to be still closely connected with the doctrine
of the Academy.
Cic., De nat. deorum I 13, 33 (Ar. fr. 26 R.). The Epicurean Velleius difficulties
is speaking. doctrine
of God
Aristotelesque in tertio de philosophia libro multa turbat a magistro
suo Platone non dissentiens. modo enim menti tribuit omnem clivinita-
tem, modo mundum ipsum deum dicit esse, modo alium quendam
praeficit mundo eique eas partes tribuit ut rtplicatione quadam mundi
l
smotum regat atque tueatur. turn caeli ardorem deum dicit esse, non
intellcgens caelum mundi esse partem, quern alio loco ipse design arit
deum. quo modo autem caeli divinus ille sensus in celeritate tanta
1
1 do not think, after all, that by the words replicatione quadam Cic. means
a retrogade movement, such as is meant by Plato in Pohticus 270 d (T^J TOU TT(XVT&<;
dcveiXt^eO' an<i D Y Ar. in Metaph. A 8, 1074 a (a9aipa<;
2
aveXiTTouaac;). Since the . . .
chief aspect of Aristotle's theory of the movement of the celestial bodies is that
they move by a motion returning on itself, i.e. by a circular movement, I think that
the plain and obvious sense of Cicero's words is to state that, sometimes, Ar.
admitted a God to whom he attributed the role of governing and m'aintaining the
movement of the universe by a motion returning on itself. Festugiere, Le Dieu
cosmique p. 245 f., adopts the interpretation of J. Moreau who suggests that by
replicatione quadam Cicero meant the movement of the first heaven which turns
round in the opposite sense to that of the planets. In fact, since the motion of the
first heaven is considered by Ar. as the Trpcoryj 90900 (De caelo II 12), one could
conservari potest ? ubi deinde illi tot dii, si numeramus etiam caelum
deum ? cum autem sine corpore idem vult esse deum, omni ilium sensu
privat, etiam prudentia. quo porro modo moveri carens corpore, aut 10
quo modo semper se movens esse quietus et beatus potest?
That Velleius found sonic difficulties in Ar.'s theories about the first principle
or God, is comprehensible and not without reason. When he says that Ar. called
now "Mind" God, now the Universe, or "Someone else" whom he put at the head
of it, or even aether (caeli ardorem), we can understand what is behind it. In fact,
Ar. admitted one dcpxv) (fr. 17). He called it God and seems to have conceived his
idea of an Unmoved Mover at an early date: even if Metaph. A 6 and 7 are
much later, we have a proof for the existence of a Prime Mover in Phys. VII i, and
we see Ar. occupied with the problem of motion in the De caelo and De gen. et
corr. In De Caelo 11 3 he calls "the heaven" a Oeiov awpta which as such must be in
eternal movement, i.e. in circular movement. For Oeou Ivepyeta aOavaala, TOUTO 8'
loTl <OY) atSio^. &CJT' avayxY) TCO Oeuo XIVYJCTLV at&tov uroxpxetv. Now, this being so, it
is contradictory to admit of a Prime Mover with the purpose of excluding a regressus
iai bodies That the stars are animated beings, was proved by Ar. first by the
following argument.
Cum igitur aliorum animantium ortus in terra sit, aliorum in aqua,
in acre aliorum, absurdum esse Aristoteli videtur in ea parte quae sit
ad gignenda animantia aptissima, animal gigni nulluin putare. sidera
autem aetherium locum obtinent. qui quoniam tenuissimus est et
Plato, Tim\ 39 e, spoke of the four elements as peopled by living beings. Cp.
Epin. 984 d, where the fifth element (aether) is mentioned, an argument for
the later date of this dialogue.
We find the argument again in Philo, who interprets the inhabitants of the
air as angels l and finally in Apulcius, in the De deo Socratis (on the daemonium)
,
VIII 137. He too makes "daemons" out of the inhabitants of the air.
.
they are
Sensum autem astrorum atque intellegentiam maxume declarat ordo animated
corum atque constantia (nihil est enim quod ratione et numero moveri
possit sine consilio), in quo nihil est temerarium nihil varium nihil
fortuitum. ordo autem siderum et in omni aeternitate constantia neque
5 naturam significat (est enim plena rationis) neque fortunam, quae arnica
varietati constantiam respuit. sequitur ergo ut ipsa sua sponte suo
in Theirdivini
"
sensu ac divinitatc moveantur. Nee vero Aristoteles non laudandus
j x -j. x ty proved by
eo quod omnia quae moventur aut natura moveri censuit aut vi aut t h e ir move-
voluntate; moveri autem solem et lunam et sidera omnia; quae autem ment
10 natura moverentur, haec aut pondere deorsum aut levitate in sublime
Cp. Plato, Laws X, 888 and the Epin. 982 a sqq., where is spoken of an
e sqq.
apiary) pouXeu<Ji<; of the stars, by which they accomplish their circular movement.
point explicitly, e.g. in the Nic. EtH. F 5, 1112 a
21
Later Ar. denies thjs Tiepl :
d. Also the doctrine that nous is of the same substance as the heavenly Notts of the
bodies, viz. aether, appears to have been taught by Aristotle, probably in stance as the
II. T
<piX. heavenly
bodies
Cic., Acad. post. I, 7, 26:
doctrine of the intelligences of the spheres, the last of which is the "active intellect"
of man (intellectus agens separatus). Hence the disputations of Western philosophers
of the 1 3th century: de unitate intellectus (Albertus Magnus, Bonaventura, Thomas,
and again Duns Scotus). In the i6th century we find the doctrine of the consub-
stantiality of mind with the stars in Jacob Boehme. By his influence it appears
again in certain poems of the Dutch i7th century poet Jan Luyken
1
.
1
Vid. A. C. M. Meeuwesse, Jan Luyken als dichter van de Duytse Lier, diss.
Utrecht 1952, p. 234/5 and 271 (the modern author did not understand the doctrine).
TWELFTH CHAPTER
LOGIC
i THE SCHOOL-WRITINGS. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
432 Strictly speaking Ar.'s logic does not belong to the system of
philosophy according to his own intention. Ar. made a systematical
division of all human thinking. There is no place for logic in this scheme.
'H [Jiev yap 90(71x7] Tcepi /wp terra (JLV aXX* o6x axivTjTa, T% Se [laOyjixaTixYJc; theoretical
evta Tcept axtv7)Ta [JLEV
ou /captaTa S^ tarox; aXX' ox; ev uXyj TJ
Se TrpcoTT) xat thinking
r
av ELY] TcpcoTT) eTutaTYjfjiT] el 8' gain Ti ouciia axLVYjTOc;, auTT) TcpoTepa xal 91X0-
We shall consider this conception of metaphysics more closely in our ch. XIV, i .
The 433
place
of logic
According to Ar. logic has the character of a propaedeusis to all
sciences. He calls it T<X avaXimxa (the term "logic" is of a later date;
it is generally used by Stoic writers in the first century), and Ar. thinks
it necessary to study this discipline before exercising any science at all.
2-5
a. Ar., Metaph. T 3, 1005 b :
J
"Oaa S YX P^ (Tl T ^ v ^YOVTCOV TIVS<;
l '
ruepl TYJC; aXvjOeiac; ov Tporcov SsZ
J
aXXa axouovrac; ^YJTEIV - One should not inquire into the formal principles of
(JLY)
parts: logic, physics (including metaphysics), ethics. See our vol. III.
x the
b. already remarked that the Topics would have been
Brandis Topics
written very differently, if their author had had in his mind a clear t h e Anal.
1
Ober die Reihenfolge der B ticker des Aristotelischen Organons. Abh. der Berl.
Akad. 1833.
a
Die Entwicklung der aristotelischen Logik u. Rhetorik, 1929.
8
Die Entstehung der ar. Logik, Berlin 1936.
4
Greek Foundations of traditional Logic, New-York 1942.
40 LOGIC [435]
The latter cites the opening phrase of the Topics in order to prove
that here the doctrine of the syllogism is not presupposed.
18 - 21
Ar., Top. I i, 100 a :
'H (jiev 7tp60eai<; TYJS TupayiiocTeia^ |ji0oov supeiiv, deep* 9j<; SuvYjaofieOa
aoXXoyi^ecrOat, Trepl TTOCVTOS TOO rcpoTeOevTO^ TroopX^fiaTo^ eJ; evSo^cov, xal
Xoyov i>7rex VTS ? (JW)6v epoufiev uTievavTiov.
Next follows: TTpcoTov oftv ir)Teov T e<m auXXoytCTfioc; xal TIVSC; auToo Sux9opai, e.q.s.
Kapp thinks that this has been added later. It more probable perhaps that this
is
introductory chapter has been added later by the author and has been adapted
by him to the characterof the whole work.
'O[Jic!>vi)(Jia XeysTou &v Svojxa [Jiovov xoivov, 6 S& X<XT<X To(>vo(Jia X6yo<;
Tpo<;, olov coov 8 TE avOpcoTroc; xal TO
univocal 5 x a6_8.
Jb^
2uvcovu(JLa Se XeysTat &v TO TS SvofJta xotv6v, xal 6 xaTa Toiivofxa
ouaLac; 6 auTO^, olov ^coov 8 TC (SvGpcaTcot; xal 6
derivatively c Ib.,
'
I a 12 - 15 :
Ilapcovofxa Se XeyeTat 8cra arco Ttvo^ Sia9lpovTa Tyj TUTCOCTSI TTJV xaTa TOU-
1
Thus E. Kapp in Gr. Foundations etc. It seems to me very doubtful whether
this thesis is right. W. D. Ross says (Ar., p. 21 f.): "The categories some or all
of them appear in almost every one of Aristotle's works, and the doctrine is
everywhere treated as something already established".
[436] THE CATEGORIES 41
b. Ib. 4, ib 25 -2a4 :
the te
?
Tcov XOCTOC (jL7]8e[jL(av <ju[Ji7uXoxY)v Xsyofjisvcov Sxao~Tov YJTOI ouaiav
Y)
TTOCTOV 7]
TTOIOV ^ 7Cp6<; Tl 7)
7TOU TJ
7COTS YJ
XEOaOoCl Y) ^Xeiv ^ ^OLELV 7]
Si: ouata [Jiev coc; TUTTCO eiTcetv olov avOpcoTroc;, CTCTTO^ TUOOOV 8e olov
TToiov &
olov Xeuxov, ypa(ji(jLaTt,x6v Trpoc; TI 8s oTov SiTrXaaiov,
piTTY)^
Y)(JLt(Tl), pLEl^OV
V Al)XStO) 1 SV ayopa 7TOTS 8e olov i'$i$j 7TpU<7LV
*
7TOU 8e olov ,
*
20 23
The same list occurs in Top. I 9, 103 b - .
In other places xetaOai and ^x etv are omitted the other eight are cited as forming ;
Ross (Ar., p. 22) remarks: "It seems as if he had later come to the conclusion
that posture and possession are not ultimate, unanalysable notions".
In Top. I o instead of ouaia the term T <m is used, both in the sense of substance
and in that of essence. In other places Ar. uses in the latter sense the term TO TI vjv
9 - 10
elvoci, e.g. Top. 8, 103 b where he speaks about the "conversion" or interchange
,
of terms:
'AvdcyxY) Trav TO ru&pi Tivoq xaTYjyopo^svov >5 Tot avTLxaTYjyopetaOai. TOO TrpayfjiaToc;
$1 (17) xal el {JL^V avTtxaTTjyopeiTat, 6po<; r) ?8tov av etyj EL (/Iv yap <j7][jLaCvei.
TO TI vjv slvai,
o p o q, el Se (JL7) oYjjjLaivei, t S i o v.
TIC; av6p<07co<; ev etSei (Jiev uTrapxet TCO av6pco7rcp, y^voc; 8e TOO etSoix; earl TO
^wov SeiJTepat ouv a^Tat, XeyovTai ouatai, olov 8 Te fivOpcoTro^; xal TO coov.
According to this jpassage oucria in its first and proper sense means: the concrete,
individual being.
Now according to book 2, of the Metaph. substance is not the individual, but the
T ICTTI, i.e. the essence or quiddity, which is neither purely individual for it is the
intelligible "form" of the concrete being nor purely universal for it is bound
up with matter. See: A. M. de Vos, La vraie substance d'apres la Mtiaphysique
1
The fact that the Lykeion is mentioned, is used by Jaeger as an argument
for the later date of the treatise (Aristotle, p 46 n. 3). Butcp. Plato, Euthyd. 271 a.
42 LOGIC [438]
d'Aristote (in Proceedings of the tenth internat. Congress of Phil., Amsterdam 1949,
p. 1094 ff.). For this reason, S. Mansion (ib., p. 1097 ff.) stating that the doctrine
of the Categ. is the farthest removed from Plato, infers that this treatise is not au-
thentic, as there is no period in Ar.'s development in which we could place it.
L. M. de Rijk argues against this (in Mnem. 1951, p, 148 if. and in The Cat-
egories of being, p. 51 f.).
b A
10 21
in Metaph. 8, IOI7 b , .
sense in two , \ ,
other places ^i (JLSV yap xaUoXou, oux eaovTat ouartat ouuev yap TOW xotvcov TOOS Tt
"Ex TS 87] TOUTWV Oecopoucri 9avep6v OTI ouSev TWV xaOoXou urcap^ovTcov J
ouata SCTTL, xal cm ouSev ayjfJiatvet TWV XOLV^ xaTY)yopoi>[alva>v 2 ToSe TL,
aXXa TotovSe.
Ar. is proving here that universals are no substances. Yet it would be too rash
to conclude that substances are in his final opinion individual things, even when
he gives us some reason to make this inference. He is not yet at his final conclusion.
We have to face the question again in dealing with the metaphysics.
other char- 439
Besides by the definitions, given under 438a, the author char-
of substance acterizes substance by the following three points.
24 25
a. Substances never have contraries. Categ. 5, 3 b - :
MaXtaTa Se tStov TTJ<; ouartac; Soxet elvai TO TauTOV xal ev apiOfjico 6v T&V
evavTicov elvai SEXTLXOV.
IIp&Tov Set O^crGai TL ovojia xal TL pvj(Aa, IrceiTa TL eaTLv aTro^acrLc; xal
xal a7co9avaic; xal Xoyo<;.
v
E(ra oi5v sv Tfj fl T&V iv rfj cni(A(3oXa, xai T& Words **
A statement will be true when it combines two notions which are an image of two
combined elements in reality; it will be untrue in the opposite case. So this passage
10, 1051 b (our nr. 557):
8
does not contradict the famous passage in Metaph.
In the same way dcXY)6^<; and (fttuftfjc X6yo? are defined by Plato, Soph. 263 b-d
(our nr. 343). Ar. builds on the foundation which has been laid by Plato.
According to the definition of X6yo^ (see our next nr.) in ch. 4, this word does
not only indicate a phrase or sentence; it can also indicate a part of it, an "ex-
pression" consisting of words which have a meaning separately. Consequently
the T$ before xaX6s ITCTCCH; ought not to be dropped.
b. Ib. 3, i6b- 8 :
verb
A6yo cnr)(jtavTix J]
<
,
eav TI
"Ecm 8^ X6yo<; a7^a<; (jilv <n}fjLavTix6<;, . . . 8i ou Tra?, aXX* ev propositions
<5) T& aXTjOeieiv 7^ ^eiSeaOai UTrdcpxei, oux Iv Sc urcapxet, olov eux^)?)
X6yoc (JL^V, aXX' o^Te aXTjG^ o(>Te tjjeuSif)<;. oi o5v SXXot a9tGf0o)crav
8 - 12 simple
b. Ib. 5, 17 a .
propositions
*E<ra 8^ el^ 7cpo>To<; Xoyo? ol 8'
44 LOGIC [442]
>^
particular O 5 TO<? Si 7) xaOoXou ^ ev [jiepsi 73 aSioptaTo^. X^yw Se xaBoXou (JL^V TO wavrl TQ
svavTtav elvai T/]V auTTjv eTrtarTTQjjLYjv 73 TO TTJV 7]Sov7]v JJLTJ elvai ayaOov.
I. ,,lTp6Tacii(; est propositio ad conclusionem inde efficiendam praemissa".
II. The division of propositions into universal and particular is called a division
according to quantity. Ar. makes it first in De interpr. 7, where he gives the fol-
lowing examples:
(a) Universal propositions:
Ila?
The division into affirmative and negative propositions, which has been made
in De interpr. 6, is called in traditional logic a division according to quality.
Traditional scheme:
a. All x is y Universal affirmative Sa P
e. No x is y Universal negative S e P
i. Some x is y Particular affirmative S i P
o. Some x is not y Particular negative S o P
assertoric, 'Eicel Se Traaa TrpoTaat*; ecmv TJ TOU uTrapyetv T\ TOU ei; avayxTic;
apodcictic, * ~
problematic Y)
TOU
[443] THE ANALYTICA PRIORA 45
29 - 30
Again in An. pr. I 8, 29 b :
c. Between the four kinds of propositions which are mentioned sub a the relations
between
following relations are possible.
propositions
Sa P contraries S e P
tessara
logica
T6 atai #(Jia uTcdpxew TC xal \rf\ urudpxeiv aSiivarov TO> auTto xal xara TO
aur6 auTT) 89) Traacov e<m pepaiOTaTY) T&V ap^aiv aSuvarov yap 6v-
TIVOUV TauTov uTcoXajjipavsLv elvat xal (JLYJ elvat. 816 7uavT<; ot a7roSeixvuvTe<;
avai xal
22- 24 principium
c. Ib., 77 a :
exclusi tertii
T6 8* &7cav cpavai Y] a?tocpavat YJ etc; TO aSiivaTov a7r68et^i<; . xal
8
ouS* del xa66Xou, dXX' 8aov Ixav6v, txaviv 8 eTrl TOU
For instance, a mathematician will not say in general that either the affirmation
or the negation is true, but that this or that line is straight or not straight,
This is the so-called principium exclusi tevtii, another formulation of the princ.
contradictionis.
says yes or no. That is: he "grasps one part ol the avT^aai?". Then the questioner
takes the other position. He continues asking. The responder has to see that he
does not contradict himself; the questioner tries to get from the answers of his
opponent a syllogism for his own thesis.
This, then, is the "reasoning from opinions that are generally accepted about
every problem propounded to us" (auXXoyKeoOai ruepl TraWx; TOU 7cpoTe0vTo<;
7cpo(3X^(Jt,aTO< ! !v&6cov), as it was said in Top. 1 i (cited supra, nr. 435b), for
which the author said that he was seeking the right method in that work a method
which, in fact, has been found later in the An. pr.
25 12
b. The same passage continued (24 a -b ) :
^ <&7r69aai<; TIVO<; xaTa TIVO<; TOV eipYjfJilvov TpoTcov, aTuoSetXTixY) S, sav 0X738^ 30
5
^ xal Sta Tc5v e^ apx^<? U7co8eascov SLX^jjievT) , SiaXexTixv] Ss 7cuv6avo[jLv6i 24
6
[xv IpcoTYjatc; avTt^aarecoi; , auXXoyi^o(ievcp Se XTJ^I^ TOU <paivo^vou xal
!v86ou, xa0<iTcep cv
28 37
Examples taken* from Top. I 4, 101 b -
1
.
a - draws
ouXXoyiCeim a conclusion.
8
Xocpe&v e.q.s.
-
"by first assuming that some predicate
1
applies or does not apply
to some subject' (H. Tredennick).
4
ouXXoyicmxT) j/iv Tcp6Ta<jis
- the premiss of a syllogism.
6
8i& T&V i% dtftx^? uTToOloecov eCXTjpL^vYj - "if it is based on fundamental postu-
lates". &PX^fc OKoO^asti; are unprovable first principles, which are assumed in
science: axioms or postulates. Ar. defines them in An. post, I 2, 72 a 14 .
* - a
question to his partner, which of the two possibilities
!p<i>TT)<n<; dtvTi9dtaeco<;
T& xaO' o3 xaTTjyopetTai, ?) TcpoaTiOsfjiivou Y) SiaLpoufjisvou TOU slvai xal JAY) elvai.
447 _a .
Ib., 24 b
18 - 22
:
syllogism
avayxTjc; cru(JLpatvei TO) TauTa elvat. Xeyco 8e TW TauTa elvat TO Sta Tau
TO 8e Sia TOCUTOC aufjipatveiv TO [JiyjSevoc; e^coOev opou TrpocrSsl'v
TO yev^aOai, TO avayxatov.
22 - 26 Perfect and
b. Ib., 24 b :
TeXetov (jiev
oSv xaXoi auXXoyiajjiov TOV [jf/jSevoc; aXXou TrpoaSeofxevov Tcapa syllogisms
I.e.: when the premisses have been formulated incompletely, so that something
must be added in order to make the form of the syllogism complete.
26 30 "To be wholly
C. Ib., 14 b - :
T ^ A contained in"
rpv 'csx ,
*,,\
r , x > N N .
'
lo oe ev oXco ivai Tpov Tpco xat TO xaTa 7ravTO<; xa-r/jyopEoaUai UaTEpou
0(XTpOV TaUTOV ECTTLV. XyO(JLV TO XaT(X TCOCVTO^ XaT7]yOpLCT6at,
An example of T& Iv SXqi elvai: All men are mortal. Represented in a diagram:
(All S is P).
p
1 - 13
448 An. pr. 1*2, 25 a :
ou [JiYjv
xa66Xou aXX* ev fjtipei, olov el Traaa -/jSovJ) aya06v, xal aya06v TI elvai
Y)8ovY)v T&V Se xaTa9aTix7)v avTiaTp<peiv avayxr) xaTa pipo^ 10
ev [jiipei TYJV [jiev
(el yap vjSovT) TK; aya66v, xal aya06v TI &TTOCI Y)8ov)f)), TYJV Se crTepy)TixY)v oux
avayxaiov ou yap el #v0pco7ro<; (JLY) uTcap^st Tivl fc><o, xal q)ov oux
Tivl
- the
TTjv (assertoric) affirmative premiss.
8& xaTTjyopixYjv
In ch. 3 rules are given for the conversion of terms in apodeictic and proble-
matic premisses.
moods of T ,, .
Ka P? wntes on
,
thls P assa R e:
syllogism
"It is one of the most impressive passages in Aristotle's writings, unsurpassed
in itsproud objectivity, when after careful preparation he introduces his syllogistical
principle, which has predetermined the history of logic for more than two thousand
years".
26- 30
Syllogism a 25 b :
Aicopiafzevcov Se TOUT<OV XeyofJiev r$t\ &a Ttvcav xal TTOTC xal 7uc5<; ytveTat26
(TuXXoytajJLO^ uarepov Se XexTeov Trepl aTroSet^eco^. ?rp6Tepov Se Trepl
3
Cp. Top. \ i, 100 a 22 - 33 :
'A7r68eil;u; (Jiev o5v ecmv, oTav it, aXyjOcov xal 7rpoVro>v 6 auX-
Xoyta(jL6(; fj, StaXexTixoc; 8^ cuXXoyLo^oc; 6 iZ, ivSo^wv auXXoYt^M- evo<5 ("which draws
its conclusion from probable premisses").
We shall see proof more precisely denned in the An. post.
The first 32 2
fe 35 b -2& a 1
"
oOv opoi Tpet<; OUT(O(; ex^ai 7rp6<; aXXyjXou^ COCTTC TOV ea^aTov ev 32
oXco elvai TW fia(p xal TOV [jiiaov ev oXco TCO TupcoTw ^ elvai ^ fjt/y) elvai, avayxyj
TWV &xpcov elvai auXXoyiajjiov TeXeiov. xaXco Se (jieaov [lev o xal auTO ev &XX<o 35
xal SXXo ev TOUT<O eaTiv, o xal Tyj 6^oei yiveTai {Jteaov S^pa Se TO auT6 Te ev
6v xal'ev & aXXo ecTiv. et yap TO xaTa TiavTOc; TOU B xal TO B xaTa A
TOU F, avayxv] TO A xaTa 7ravTO<; TOU F xar/jyopeurOat ?rp6Tepov
1
The above sentence might be translated also as: "The assertoric universal
negative premiss is necessarily convertible in its terms".
2
GY. Foundations etc., p. 66.
3
TrpcoTcov is defined in An. post. I 2 as e dpx&v obcelwv.
[449] THE ANALYTICA PR1ORA 49
40 yap etp>)Tat TTCOC; TO xaTa 7tavTO<; Xyo[Jiev. ofAolw? Se xal e T& (JL&V xaTa A |
Celarent
26a8evo<; TOO B, T& $k B xaTa 7ravTO<; TOU F, STL TO ouSevl TGJ F U7rap?;ei. A
Instance of a syllogism of the first Figure: Example
All men
are mortal (propositio) maior 7rp6Ta<ji<;
SaM
SaP Barbara
Scheme : MeP
SaM
SeP
%
c. Two
other r^odes are possible, namely a i i and e i o (second premiss
particular), which are called by the names Darii and Ferio.
d. Ar. concludes his exposition of the First Figure thus (ib. 26 b 28 - 33) :
28, 29 AyjXov Se . . . STL TcavTec; 01 ev auTw auXXoyiajjiol T^Xsiot elm xal STL
31 TravTa T<X TrpopXvjfjiaTa SebcvuTai Sta ToriTou ToG axv^aTos
*
*" Y^P T ^
xal TO fjL>]Sevl xal TO TIVI xal T& (JLY)
TIVI uTtapxetv. xaXco Sk TO TOLOUTOV
second
pr. I 5, 26b -27a :
34 3
450 a. An.
"
Se TO auTO TCO filv Travrl T<*i Se jnqSevl UTiapxif), ^ exaT^pco TcavTl YJ
jjL7)Sev(, T& (lev ax>)(Aa TO TOIOUTOV xaXco Se^Tepov, (jtaov Se ev auT(p Xya> TO 35
xar/jyopoufxevov afj^oiv, ixpa Se xa0* &v XeyeTat TOUTO, [xet^ov 8e Sxpov TO
Tq> (Jt^aco xeC(jtevov, IXarrov Se T6 TroppcoTepeo TOU [Jtlaou. TtOeTai Se TO
S^co (lev T&V Sxpcov, TUptOTOV Se Tyj Oeaet. TeXetoc; jxev o5v oux SorTat 27
Scheme : PM Diagram :
SM
S P
7- 9
b. In this figure there will be only negative syllogisms. Ib. 28 a :
'Eav Se TO> auTCJi TO fzev TcavTl TO Se [JL7]Sevl uTrapxfl, >3 ^(A^co TravTl 7^ fjiy]Sevt,
10
TO [xevax^(Aa TO TOIOUTOV xaXco TptTOv, (jieaov S' ev auToS Xeyco xaO' o5 &[iyu>
Ta xaTTjyopoujJLeva, <5cxpa Se T<X xaT7]yopo\i[JLeva, (Jtei^ov S* dcxpov TO Tcoppca-
Tepov TOU (xeoou, SXaTTOV 8e TO eyyuTepov. TtOeTat Se TO [jiaov e^ca jxev Tc5v
ixpcov, Sa^aTov 8e Tyj O^aei. TeXeto<; (JLCV o5v ou yiveTai auXXoyi(j(jL6(; ouS* ev 15
TOUT6) T<I) ax^ocTi, SuvaTO<; S' e'aTai xal xa06Xou xal (JLTJ
xaOoXou TCOV opcov
Darapti gvTcov Tipo^ TO [Jieaov. xaOoXou [xev o5v OVTWV, 8Tav xal TO II xal TO P
T<j> S uTcapXY), ^TI Tivl Tw P TO II uTrap^eL e^ avayxyjc;.
Instance of this figure: Every seal is a marine animal a
Every seal has lungs a
Some marine animals have lungs i
Scheme: MP Diagram:
MS
SP
[451] THE ANALYTICA PRIORA 51
14- 18
b. In this figure will occur only particular syllogisms. Ib., 29 a :
36 - 37 three terms
a. An. pr. I 25, 41 b :
/ ~ 3 x
required for
AyjXov 8e . . . STL Tcaaa dcTroSet^i^ <rrai Sia Tpuov Spcov xal ou 7rXei6va>v. demonstra-
tion
32 - 33
b. Ib., 42 a :
TOUTOU 8' 8vTo<; cpavepou SyjXov ax; xal ex Suo TcpoTaaecov xal ou TcXeiovtov prci ^ig 8e8
01 yap Tpei<; Spot Suo TUpOTaaei^. required
the middle
c. An. pr. I 32, 47a 39 -b 6
:
term in both
x , , e ,
47 b^ auT6 [Jtev xaT^yopTJ, <5tXXo 8' SXSLVOU aTrapvTJTai, TO TrpwTOv SaTai cr^fxa-
eav 8e xal xaT7]Yopyi xal aTrapvYJTaL OCTUO TLVOC;, TO [Jteaov 2 eav 8* &XXa exetvou
3
xaTYjyopTJTai, 7) TO (JLSV aTrapv^Tat TO 8e xaTTjyopyJTai, TO ea^aTov OUTCO .
6 - 13 In ever y
d. ^4n. r
^r. I 24,
"*> 41 b
^ :
syllogism
6 4
"ETL TS ev aTcavTi (sc. auXXoyt(T[jL<p ) Set xaTYjyopixov Tiva TCOV fipwv elvai one premiss
xal TO xaGoXou ujcapxetv aveu yap TOU xa06Xou 73 oux eaTat auXXoytafio^,
ou Tipoc; TO xetjievov 5 \ TO e^ apx^^ atTYjaeTai 6 KeiaOa) yap TTJV fJLouartxyjv . and one
7 universa
io7)Sov7)v elvat ajuouSatav. et fjiev o3v a^icoaeiev YjSovrjv elvai aTiouSaiav, (JLYJ
syllogisms ,
are validated $avepov Se xal STI TravTe^ oi aTeXeic; cuXXoyiafJiol TeXeiouvTai Sia TOU 30
l
TTpcoTou orx^fJLaTOc;. Y) yap 8eixTixo><; >)
Sia TOU aSuvaTou rcepatvovTai 7tavTe<; .
monstration
reducible to In the preceding passage Ar. has spoken of the procedure of hypothe-
the first tical proof Now in this case too a demonstration is to be reached by prov-
.
principii
To S* ev apxfj aiTeiaOai xal Xafjipdcveiv e<JTi (JLV, co<; ev y^vei Xa(3ecv 4 , ev 28
TCO (AY)
otTToSeixvuvai TO TTpoxeifjievov, TOUTO 8e eTuicu^patvei TcoXXaxw^ xal
s
yap ei 6Xco(;
[JIT] auXXoyi^eTai, xal ei Si ayvcacrTOTepcov vj 6(Jioio)(; ayveoaTtov, 31
xal el Sia TCOV uaTepcav TO TrpOTepov Y) yap aTuoSei^it; ex TriaTOTepov Te xal
TcpOTepcov eCTTiv. TOUTCOV jiev ouv ouSv eaTi TO aiTeiaOai TO e^ ap^vjc; aXX'
e?rel TCX (/.ev
Si' auT6>v Trl^uxe yvtopi^e(J0ai Ta Se Si* SXXcov (at [Jiev yap ap^al 35
yj
Sia TOU dtSuvdtTou - or by reduction ad impossibile.
8ia TYJ<; dvTioTpo9yj<;
-
by means of conversion.
6n - we get a syllogism to the effect that .
TO 7rpoxi(jivov,
40 ere* dcXXa dcTTa TG>V 7r9ux6Tcov 81 exevou SetxvuaOai 8ia TOUTCOV dcTcoSsixviivai,
OUTO> auXXoyio|Ji'vou<;.
455 13 - 19 induction
a. Top. I 12, 105 a :
'ETcaycoyy)
'
(IdTiv) YJ
dbro T&V xaO' IxaaTOv em Ta xaOoXou 9080^, olov
et ICTTL xu(3pvY)T7)<; 6 7TL(iTa(JLVO<; xpaTLaTO<; xal YJVIO/O^, xal oXco^ EOTTLV 6
s
2
6 8s:
auXXoyiajjio^ ptacTTtx(OTpov xal 7up6<; TOIX; avTtXoyixouc; VpyorTpov.
l)7TapXt TW F. OUVL
aVTtC7Tp9l TO F TO) B Xal (Jl7] U7TpTtVt TO (I(70V
6
,
1 -
xoiv6v accessible.
2
ptoccmxcoTEpov
- has more force to overcome opposition.
8
Sia TOU Irfpou -
by one extreme term, sc. the minor extreme, namely concrete
cases.
4
establishing a relation between the other extreme and the
-
CTuXXoytaaaOai
middle term.
6
This remark is a petitio principii. Tredennick has seen rightly that these words
cannot be attributed to Ar. Ross explains them by suggesting that a copyist has
substituted #xoXov for F.
8 - if the middle term is not wider in extension.
el .jjd) uTiepTeCvet T& jxaov
7
Constr. Odcrepov TCOV xaTyjyopou^vcov - the other predicate.
54 LOGIC [455]
(leaou TO Sxpov TC> Tptacp Seixvocnv, YJ Se Sia TOO TpiToo TO Sxpov TCO (JL^CTCJ).
9UGTSI [lev o5v 7cpoTepo<; xal yvtopL(jLcoTepo<; 6 Sia TOU [JL^CTOU cn>XXoyia{Ji6<;, 35
jLtv 8* evayeaTepo<; 6 Sia TT
"This kind of syllogism is concerned with the first or immediate premiss" (1. 30).
AT. means to say that induction supplies, without the aid of a middle term,
the universal proposition which may stand ?s major premiss of a demonstrative
syllogism. Concretely speaking: by means of some special cases (man, horse and
mule) the universal proposition is established.:
Every bileless animal is long-lived.
Now this proposition might be used as the major of the following demonstrative
syllogism :
cannot be true. For this reason then only the syllogism is treated by Ar. in his
doctrine of demonstration, while induction is dealt with in the book on dialectical
syllogism.
^ ^ x
pre-existing Haaa St8a<TxaX[a xal Tcaaa (jiaOTjcr^; SiavoyjTixy) ex Tcpo/JTcap^oucnq*; ytveTai a
knowledge
yvcGaeca^. 9avep6v Se TOUTO Gscopouaiv srcl icaawv at TC yap (JLa0yj[JUXTtxal
T&V e7ri(iTY)(JL(ov Sia TOiiTou TOU Tp67tou 7rapayvovTai xal TCOV SXXcov exaaTY)
Teyvcov. ofjLota^ Se xal icepl TOIK; Xoyou^ oE TS Sia cyuXXoytajJicov xal ol 81* 5
S7ray6>y9]<; a^oTepot yap Sia Tcpoytvcoffxofilvcov TcotouvTat TYJV
CY)
-
"by means of discursive thinking", as opposed to the intuitive
"seeing" of the nods.
[456] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 55
* 2
OL (Jiiv Tuapa UVLVT<OV, ol Si
Xa|JipavovTe<; SeLxvtivTec; TO xa66Xou SLOC TOU
<*><;
earl ai>XXoyLcr(Ji6<;.
11 - 16 Its nature
b. Ib., 71 a :
5
ALX& avayxaiov TcpoyLvcoCTxeLV TO. [xev yap, STL CTTL
8* , TrpouTroXa^paveiv
avayxaLOv, 8k TL T& Xeyojjievov ICTTL 6
T<X iwevai Set, TOC ,
8* <5c[A9<o, olov
&TL
7
(jtev
arcav yj cpTJcrar ^ aTTO^Tjaat aXvjOec; STL S<m ,
TO Si Tp^ycovov, STI ToSl
8
t
, TYJV 8s (xovaSa (JfJi^co, xal Tl onrjjjialvei xal STL
9 - 12 Knowledge
457 a. ^4n. />os^., I 2, 71 b :
eaTtv, STL exetvou atTta eaTi, xal [li] ev8^ea0at TOOT* &XXco<;
Real knowledge is according to Ar. (i) knowledge of the causes; (2) knowledge :
of the necessary, where we can see that it cannot be otherwise. So also in Metaph.
A 1-2.
In An. post. II i Ar. says: We can ask ourselves four kinds of questions, namely:
T& #TI, TO 8i6Ti, (mv. Now the knowledge of the simple fact (TO 8ri)
el gaTi and T
is, according to Ar., not yet true knowledge. then have to know the 816, We
and in such a way, that we see that the thing cannot be otherwise.
The last point means that knowledge in the strict sense of the word is only
possible of what is necessary, not of the contingent. See our next cited passage.
To 8* eTttcmrjTov xal 7aaTY][i7) 8ia<pepei TOO 8oaaTOu xal 8ofyi$, STI Y) (Jiiv
7tt<TTY)[ji7)
xaOoXou xal Si' avayxaicov, T& 8* avayxacov oux evSex^oct <5cXX<o<;
Ta SuvaTa #XXco<;
1
ol JJL^V e.q.s.
- "In the first case (i.e. with syllogism) we take premisses supposing
that they are known and accepted by our opponent".
2
ol 8^ - "In the other case (i.e. with induction) the universal is exhibited through
the fact that the particular is clear".
3
The instance infers the particular from the particular and therefore is called
by Ar. an imperfect form of induction, by which the universal is inferred from the
particular (See An. pr. II 24).
4
In An. pr. 1127 enthymema is defined as a syllogism starting from probabilities
or signs.
8
ra - "that the matter in question exists", i.e.: the fact must be assumed.
ort
8
T& Xey6^ev6v ion - "the meaning of the term used".
T(
7
"E.g. to say that in every question truth lies in the affirmation or negation,
that is to assume the fact" (First case).
8
Second case: the meaning of the term.
56 LOGIC [458]
demonstra-
ra- 1
16
8s xal 81 aTcoSet^ecoc; EiSsvai. aTcoSei^iv 8 Xsyto auXXoyio~(Ji6v E
E7tlCTT7]plOVlx6v 8s XsyCO Xa0' OV TCO xeiv a UTOV 7Ul(JTa[Jl0a. El TOIVUV O~Tl
(Jtev yap earai xal <5veu TOUTCOV, aTuoSei^t^ 8' oix ScrTat ou yap
7Tl(JTlf]|JL73V. 25
conditions
examined i. The premisses must be true.
'AXY)Oyj [lev oijv Sei elvat,, OTL oux edTi TO (JLY)
ov 7it(JTaCT0ai, olov OTI y)
Sta- 25
3. They must be the causes of the conclusion, better known than it,
AiTia T xal yvcopt(jLCOTpa SEI Eivai xal 7rpoTpa, atTta (JLV oTt TOTE ETTI- 29
aTa(jL0a OTav TTJV aiTtav iS(o[jLv, xal rcpoTEpa, L7Tp atria, xal 7upoytvca<rx6-
[IVa OU [JLOVOV TOV TpOV TpOTTOV TO) ^l)VlVai, aXXa Xal TCO lSVat 4 OTI (TTLV.
SE TTpo^ Yj(JLa(; JJLEV TrpoTEpa xal yvcapipicoTEpa T<X lyyuTEpov TYJC; aidOyjarECOc;,
1
He means knowledge of the first, non-demonstrated principles. The question
:
is dealt with in I 3, I 10, and most of all in II 19. See our nrs. 459, 460 and 465.
2
"Unless these conditions are satisfied, the basic truths will not be appropriate
to the conclusion" (G. R. G. Mure).
3
"that the diagonal of a square is commensurate with its side" would be a
(JLT) 6v, and as such it cannot be the object of demonstration.
4
Not only in the second sense mentioned in 456b, namely that of under-
standing the term used, but also in the first sense: that of knowledge of the fact.
[459] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 57
ducible from other premisses. This leads directly to the question how mdemon-
we can know our first premisses and whether there is another kind of strabie
knowledge which does not depend on demonstration. Ar. states first
that we have to start necessarily from indemonstrable first principles.
5- 7 18 - 25
An. post. I 3, 72 b ,
:
'Evtoi (JLSV o5v Sia TO 8etv Ta Tcp&Ta ETCiaTaaOai ou 8oxeZ eTuoTTjfjuq elvat,
l's 8' elvai [Jiev, TTOCVTOV (jievTot a7roSei?;ei<; eivai.
25 eTUcrnfjjJiTjv aXXa xal ap^yjv eTridT^fAYji; elvat Tiva 9a(jiev, fj TOIX; Spouc;
Ar. means that beside demonstrative science there exists a higher and more
fundamental science, which precedes demonstration, namely the intuitive know-
ledge of the first principles (apxat) by the noils.
460 Ar. deals with first principles in chapters 10 and IT of An. post. I.
An. 31 - 32 First
a. post. 1 10, 76 a :
principles
Alyeo 8
J
What are
b. Ib., 76a 37 -b 16 :
special
"Ecm 8' &v xpwvTat, ev rate; aTuoSeLXTixatc; 7ri(jTY)[JLai(;
Ta [Jisv tSia
7ut(jTy](jL7]<;
Ta Se xotva, xotva xaT* avaXoytav, eral xp^crtpLov ye ocrov ev TO>
Ss:
s
xotva Se olov TO taa arco fecov av 9^X7), OTL taa Ta XoiTia. ixavov 8 exaaTov
J
76 b TOUTtov OCTOV ev TO) TauTO yap xav xaTa TuavTcav Xapyj aXX
yevei TuotYjceL, (IT)
1
Iv IxaaTco yevet - in every branch of science.
2
What means by the analogous character of the xoiva, is clear from the
Ar.
example given infra: "Take equals from equals and equals remain". This rule
can only be applied "in the genus which constitutes the province of the science
in question"; e.g. geometrical magnitudes cannot be subtracted from numbers,
nor numbers from geometrical magnitudes. But "the geometer may apply it to
magnitudes and the arithmetician to numbers"; i.e. magnitudes can be subtracted
from magnitudes, and numbers from numbers.
3
vpa^V elvat roiavSl x. T& euOu - the definitions of line and straight.
4
& XafzpaveTcu elvat - sc. by the special sciences.
58 LOGIC [460]
'
l
xa aura j
ofov [xovaSaq Y) apiOfnrjTiXY), Y)
Si:
yecofxerpia ay)(Jieia xal 5
1
^. raura yap Xafjipavoucri TO slvat xal ToSi elvai. TOC 8e Toircov TraO"/)
Trepl Tpta ecmv, 6aa TL elvat TiOsTai (Taika S* eaTl TO y^voc;, o3 TCOV xaO*
7ra0Y](JiaTcov eaTl OecopyjTixY]), xal Ta xoiva Xey6(Aeva a^cofjLaTa, e^ cLv
3
aTcoSeixvuat, xal TptTOv Ta 7ua6y), &v Tt crTjfjtaivet SxaaTov Xa(j$avei. 15
In the next paragraph Ar. qualifies these three elements shortly as Trepl 6
vuat xal a 8sxvu<Ji xal 1^ <> v i- e the subject of the demonstration (jrepl
-
6), its
Thesis, 451 Not all things which are assumed without demonstration are
and axioma called by Ar. He
speaks of 6ecrst<;, i>7coO(ji<; and aio>(jiaTa.
axiomata.
Thesis is what is accepted without proof as basis of a demonstration.
Theseis are of two kinds: (i) those which posit the meaning of a term
(TI avjfjiaivei). These are definitions (opicfjioi). (2) Those which posit also
the existence of the matter. These are hypotheseis.
Axioms are truths which intrude upon the mind. They include existence,
but differ from hypotheses by being known from themselves and by
being absolutely necessary for whomsoever wishes to learn anything.
14 17
An. post. I 2, 72 a - :
From this definition of axiom appears clearly that Ar. does not only think of
mathematical axioms, such as "Take equals from equals" etc., but also of the
universal laws of logic: the principium contmdictionis and exclusi tertii. We found
supra (nr. 444b, c) that they are mentioned in Ar. post. In.
See on Ar.'s doctrine of first principles: Ross, Aristotle, p. 43 if.
1 - well as the
Trepl & ti ImorrjQfztj Oecopet the subjects, the existence a^s meaning
of which the science in question assumes, and the essential attributes (TOC uTrdtpxovTa
xa6' auTdt) of which it investigates. T& forapxovTa are called later in the same
passage T<X Tudc07).
2
T& xexXdcaOai yj veuetv - "deflection or verging of lines". "xXaaOat is used of
a straight line deflected at a line or surface veuetv is used of a straight line tending ;
to pass through a given point when produced" (W. D. Ross, Comm. in An. post.,
P- 539).
3
1% &v 7rpcx)T<ov aTCoSekcvuai - "which are the primary premisses of its demon-
stration".
[462] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 59
462 According to Ar. strict science knows not only the fact, but A hierarchy
also the cause. Now practically a science often does not know the causes.
In this case the science which and the causes is knows both the facts
"more precise and prior" to that which only knows the facts. And
generally the more abstract science is to be ranked higher than that
which studies a more concrete object.
31 - 37
An. post. I 27, 87 a :
auTY], aXXa |JIY) X 00 ?^ T0 ^ OTI T7K T0 ^ SIOTL, xal Y] [JLY] xa6' uTroxeifJLevou TYJ<;
xa0' i)7uoxei|Jivoi> *, olov apiOfjiYjTiXY] apfJiovixyjc;, xal Y) 1^ eXaTTovov TYJ<;
ex
2
,
olov yeco(jieTpa<; apiOjmjTwcf]. Xlya) ex 7Upoa0aeco<; 8* ?
olov
ouaia <5t6eTo<;, cm? 8^ ouaia OBTO^ 3 TatiTYv ex
We shall find the same ideas again in the opening chapters of Metaph. A.
463 In ch. 31 of the same book Ar. deals with the question whether Science and
science can be reached by sense-perception. As we might expect from perception
his treatment of induction in An. pr. II 23, he answers this question in
the negative. Strictly speaking the syllogism is in his opinion the only
means by which knowledge can be acquired by man. This chapter,
however, must be compared with An. post. I 18, if we want to understand
rightly the author's view of the function of sense-perception with regard
to knowledge.
perception
38 <avep6v Si xal STL, et TK; ata&yjai^ exX^Xoixev, avayxY) xal e7uaTY)[JiY)v Tiva a necessary
40 gem 8* Y) fiev a7r68ei5^ ZK ^cov xa66Xou, YJ 8' eTraywYY] ex TGJV xara piepo^ knowledge
81 b dSiivarov 8e ra xaOoXou OeeopYJarat [JLYJ
Si' eTraycoyYi^, e?rel xal ra e
1
A science is (JLYJ
xa6* ^TroxetjjLlvoi) when it studies vorjTa and <5foXa (e.g. arithmetic) ;
i.e. which studies simpler entities. Such a science is, Ar. says, more exact and there-
fore prior to those sciences which study more complex entities and therefore have
to assume more "theses" or "hypotheses". E.g. arithmetic is prior to geometry,
which adds the principles of extension to those of number.
8
The unit is o&crfoc (JcOero^: "substance without position", while the point is
Si'
3
Svia ,
xal
(JLYJ ^wpicrTa IcrTtv, 73 TotovSl exaaTov. eTuaxOrjvai 8e (JLYJ l^ovra^ 5
et
ata07]<nv aSuvaTov. T&V Y<*p xaO' exacrrov YJ afaOyjatc; ou Y<xp evSexeTat Xa(3eiv
TYJV eTUCTTTjfjnrjv ofire Y^P ^x TCOV xaOoXou <5cveu e7uaYtoY?j<; ofi^e Si* 7
8, 9
' '
It is also clear that the loss of any of the senses entails the loss of a corresponding
No 28 8
b. An. post.
'
I o > / b -88 a
31, 87 .
knowledge
through In the preceding chapter the author has stated that no science can
^e aC(l u i re d by chance conjunctions. He now continues:
perception
OtiSe 81 ataOyjaeo)^ eariv eTtttfraaOai. et Y^p xal e<mv Y] ataSrjaic; TOO rotoOSe 28
xal (JLY]
TouSe Ttvo^, aXX' alcr6avea6at Y avaYxalov ToSe TL xal TUOU xal vuv.
TO 8k xaOoXou xal errl Traariv aSiivaTOv ataOavsaOai ou Y^P ^o^ e ^Ss vuv 30
ou Y^ ^v ^3
V xaOoXou TO Y^P ^
KV& TtavTaxou xaOoXou ^afjLgv elvai. eruel
s
oov at (lev aTuoSet^et^ xa66Xou, TauTa S oux ecrTtv aiaOavscrOai, 9avsp6v OTI
s
ouS*
>
Y)a6av6[JL6a Y^p av OTI vuv exXetTrei, xal ou 8ioTi, oXcoc; ou Y^p ^v Toii xaGoXou 88 a
ataOYjdK;. ou [JLTJV
aXX* ex TOU 6ewpetv TOUTO TioXXaxK; <Ti)(jLpatvov TO xa66Xou
av OirjpeuaavTe^ aTroSei^iv et/ofjiev ex Y^p TCOV xaO' SxaaTa TcXeiovcov TO xaOoXou
SvjXov. TO 8e xa66Xou TIJJLIOV, OTI, 873X01 TO atTiov <&CTTe rcepl TCOV TOLOUTCOV YJ 5
1
Ta I? a9atpaeco(; Xeyo^eva -
By these "products of abstraction" the objects
of mathematics are meant. In opposition to Plato and the Pythagoreans Ar. con-
siders them not as existing xocG* oonra (separate entities), but as properties of sensible
objects. They can be isolated only by abstraction and thus constitute the subjects
of mathematical demonstration. Cp. De anima III 7, 431 b 12 - 19 .
2
E.g. line or solid.
3
gvia - certain properties which can be treated as separate though they are not
[463] THE ANALYTICA POSTERIORA 6l
2
xa06Xou TijJUcoTepa T&V aiaGrjaecov xal TYJS voyjasax; *, Sacov eTepov TO afruov
in this sense that induction in itself is no demonstration and therefore does not
lead in itself to science. It would be wrong, however, if it were taken in the sense
that induction has nothing to do with science. The above-cited passage clearly
shows that such was not the opinion of Ar., and so does the final chapter of the
An. post. (II 19), with which we have to deal in our nr. 465.
464 The second book of the An. post, is concerned with definition.
As we found before, of the four questions man can ask himself that
of the OTI is preliminary to that of the SIOTI. In the same way that of
the ei e<m leads on to that of the TI e<m.
Answering the last question is defining a thing. But true definition
is not only nominal (e.g. eclipse is aTepvjau; 9<oToc;); it has to mention
also the cause (aTepvjaic; 9toTo<; OCTTO aeXYjviqs UTTO yvjc; avTi9pai;eto) In this .
sense then A. can say that the TI ecru and the Sia TI are one and the same
15
(An. post. II 2, 90 a ).
As we have seen Definitions
a. supra, definitions belong, according to Ar.,
to the first principles, which are assumed in the sciences without proof, principles
24 - 25 30 - 33
An. post. II 3, 90 b , :
'Opiafxoc; (jLev yap TOU T SCTTI, xal ouatac; al S' aTcoSet^eic; 9<xivovTai
29 'Opta(jLo^ 8* eTceiSy] X^yerat elvat Xoyo<; TOU Tt IdTt, 9avepov OTC 6 (JLSV Tt^
4
IcTTat, Xoyoc; TOU TL orYjfjLatvei TO ovo(jLa TQ Xoyoc; CTepoc; ovofiaTcoSyjc; ,
olov TI
What is called here voyjai*; anticipates the exposition of II 19, where grasping
1
8* ecrriv 8po^ X6yo^ 6 STQX&V Sia T SGTIV. &crre 6 [iev 7rp6Tepo^ cnrjpiat- 38
f
vet piv, 8eixvuat 8* ou, 6 8 uaTepo^ 9avep6v STL Scrrat olov a7i68et5^ T
*
e<m, TV) 6aei Sia9p<ov TYJ<; a7toSeiea><;. 8ia9e*pei yap etaeiv Sia T[ (3povTCJt
2
xal T ecru ppovnq epei yap OUTCO [lev 8161*1 a7rocrpvvuTai T& mip ev TO&<;
s
T 8 larl ppovrvj ; ^090? aTToapevvufjievou 7rupo<; ev v^eaiv. &(rre 6 5
3
X6yo(; SXAov Tp6?rov X^yeTai, xal cbSl [jtev a7r6Set^i<; auvexiQ? ,
w8l 8e
Part the c. The formula that definition proceeds per genus et differentiam
f t ^
465 The final chapter of the An. post, deals with the question of
how we come to the apprehension of first principles.
the 17 17
An. post.
r II 19, go b -ioo b :
apprehension
of first Ilepl 8e TCOV ap^tov, TTCOC; TE ytvovTai yvcopifjioi xal TI<; TJ yvcop^oixra tU^ic^
pr ncip es | VT QQ^ V ^ aTl 4
S^Xov TTpoaTropyjcracrt, TTpcaTOv .
f/
Difficulties OTt (jLev
ouv oux evSe^eTat eTriaTaaOat 81* aTioSet^ecoc; (JLTJ ytvcoaxovTi Ta? 99 b
10
TTpcoTac; dcp^ac; TOK; a[AcroU(;, etpyjTai TcpoTepov. TCOV 8* dfjLeacov TYJV yvcoatv,
xal TTOTepov 73 auTY) eariv ^ oux 71 aurv), 8ia7ropY)aeisv av xal 7u6Tepov ETUI-
TI^,
5
(TTYjiJiY) ^ ou, >j TOU (Jiev e7riorT7)[jiY] TOU 8'
exarlpou erep6v TI y6vo<;, xal TTOTepov
oux evoucrat at S^eis eyyivovTat y] evoucrat XeXyjOaatv. et (xev Srj l^o{i,ev auTa^, 25
&TOTCOV 6 aufxpatvet yap axpipecruipac; 2x VTa ^ yvcoaetc; aTroSe^eco^ Xav0avetv.
ei 8e Xa^pavofJLev {JLTJ e/ovTe^ TrpoTepov, xcoi; av yv(opt^oi[JLev xal [JLav6avoi(JLev
eXeyojxev. 9avepov Tofvuv ort, OUT' e^ew olov TO, OUT* ayvooucri, xal (jL7]8e(Jiiav
Solution exouatv eyytveo'Bat. avayxy) &pa e^eiv fiev -uva 8uva(JLtv, (JLTJ TOtauTYjv 8*
e^iv
First stage: e^etv 7] Sarai TOUTWV TifJLiWTepa xaT* axptpetav. 9atverat Se TOUTO ye Traatv
u ^ ^p^ ov TO ^
^cooi<;. ^et yap SuvafJLtv (JU{JL9UTOV xptTixyjv, YJV xaXouatv atdOvjcTLV. 35
(
1
Tyj Oiaet - in the arrangement of its terms.
2
OUTCO piv - in the first case.
3
"Demonstration, like a line, is continuous, because its premisses are parts
which are conterminous (as linked by middle terms), and there is a movement
from premisses to conclusion. Definition resembles rather the indivisible simplicity
of a point" (G. R. G. Mure).
4
TrpoaTTopYJaaai TrpcoTov
-
by raising some preliminary problems.
5
7t6Tspov whether there is scientific knowledge of both,
^Tri(jTT)(i7] ixaiipou
-
6 'Ex 8* [i7csip(a TQ
ex Tiavroc; rjpejjLYjdavToc; TOU xaOoXou ev T^ ^ux^, TOU
Ta Four* hsta ^ e:
evog Tcapa TroXXa, o av ev iTcaatv ev evyj exetvoi<; TO auTO, T^V); ap^*/] xal
*;,
eav [xev Trepi yevecrtv, T^ v<y
3^j
eav 8e Tuepl TO 8v, eTcio'TifjiJLTjc;. an(j
x
10 OuTe SY] evuTuap^ouciv a9a)pia(JL^vai at eei^, OUT* OCTC' SXXcov S^etav yivovTai
[jiev
TO xa6 exaciTov, 7]
8* ataOrjc'ig TOU xaOoXou eciTtv, olov avOpcoTtoo, aXX* ou
100 b KaXXfou avOpcoTTOi) ) TraXiv ev ToiiToig I'crTaTat, e'cog av Ta a^epv] CTT^ xal Ta
4 5 Knowledge
xaOoXou ,
olov TOtovSl ^oiov, ecog J^coov xal ev TOUTO) (baauTOc; .
SyjXov 8v]
STL TjfJLLv
Ta TrpcoTa eTraycoyyj yvcopi^etv avayxatov xal yap xal atdOyjatg OUTO) premisses
T6 xa06Xou e(JL7roiet.
by induction
5 'Ejrel Se TWV Tcepl TYJV Stavotav S^eov, al<; aXyjOeuo^ev, at (lev ael aXy]6ei<;
eiaiv, at 8e eTctSe^ovTai TO ipeGSog, olov S6^a xal Xoytafjioi;, aXyjOrj 8* del eTCLaTyj-
[JL7)
xal vou<;, xal ouSev eTrio'TYjfjLT)^ axpLplcTepov aXXo yevoc; ^ voiig, at 8* dp^al
6
i T(ov dbroSet^ecov yvcaptfjicoTepat, e7rtCTTy)(ji7]
8' avraaa [ieTa Xoyou eaTt ,
TCOV
e7riaTY)[JL7] (Jiev
oux av e&q, eTcel 8* ouSev aX7]6eaTepov evSe^eTai elvat
a7co8ei^eeo<; apx*/] oux aTroSet^ig, a>oV ouS* e7TtCTT7)(JLY)<; eTtiar/jfAir]. et ouv fjiYjSev
av In* u ition
apxr). xal
I 5 <5cXXo
reap* eTCLaryjfjLYjv yevog e^ofJiev aX7]6e<;, vou<; eiY] eTrtaTyjfjLYjg
2
2co<;
- until the original formation has been restored.
-?jX0ev:
3
TCOV dc8iacp6pcov ev6q - one of a number of logically indiscriminable particulars.
4
TOC dc[zepYJ - xal T xa06Xou: "the indivisible concepts, the true universals",
i.e. the categories, which are par excellence universal and are indivisible because
not constituted of genus and differentia. Cp. Metaph. M 8, 1084 b
14
;
A 25, 1023 b
24
(Note of G. R. G. Mure).
6
xal Iv TOUT<I) wdauTax; - "which by the same process is a step towards a further
generalization" (Mure).
X6you IGT!: "and all scientific knowledge is discursive" .
64 LOGIC [465]
tv) <v, 73
8 rcaaa
From this passage it is clear, (i) that indeed in Ar.'s opinion sense-perception
is at the basis of all human knowledge (the scholastic adagium Nihil est in intel-:
quod non prius fuerit in sensu. Cp. Kant, the opening sentence of the Kr. d. r. V.
lectu :
"Dass alle unsere Erkenntnis mit der Erfahrung anfange, daran ist gar kein
Zweifel";
(2) that knowledge reached only by the function of a higher intellectual
is
faculty, which he nous (the intellectus agens of the scholastics). This faculty
calls
grasps directly the intelligible, which is one, out of the multiplicity of sense data.
Two remarks must be made in this place.
I. When we ask the question how the nous can do this, Ar. answers: The
soul is so constituted as to be capable of this process. Which means: he traces this
function back to the organization of the human mind. Now by this acknowledgement
what is called an apriori-clemcnt is introduced in Ar.'s theory of knowledge.
II. It is not sufficiently clear from the above passage that, according to Ar.'s
doctrine, the intelligible appears only at the fourth stage of the process of knowledge.
Between JJLVYJJJLY) and {jareipta he speaks of a logos which arises out of the persistence
of sense-impressions. By no means could this term be translated here by "notion",
a notion being reached, according to Ar.'s account, only after experience, "when
the universal has come to rest within the soul", being "one beside the many",
and "residing as an identity in all the particular subjects".
Instead of the word logos, which is used by Ar. somewhat vaguely in 100 a 2 ,
he uses later (in the De anima) the term phantasma, which indicates the sensible
image resulting from sense-perception by memory. In this way Thomas Aquinas
says: "Phantasma est intelligibile in potentia", and: "Abstrahit intellectus agens
2
species intelligibiles a phantasmatibus" .
III. A third remark must be added. In 100 b - 3 Ar. speaks very shortly of 1
Analytics. On the general character of the work see our nr. 435a, b.
De soph. el.
467 The fl. IX. deals with fallacies.
(709.
riepl 8k TCOV aocpKTTix&v eXy^<ov xal T&V cpaivofjievcav (jiev sXey^aw OVTCOV
Se TrapaXoyiafJLwv aXX' oux eXyyo>v Xeyaifjiev, ap^ajjievoi xotTa cpiiaiv OCTTO
T&V
1
Y) 8& Tcaaa - 7rp6<; T& irav Trpay^a: "while science as a whole is similarly related
as originative source to the whole body of fact" (Mure).
2
S. Th. I 85, i, ad 4.
[467] PERI SOPH. ELENCHON 65
<xvayxY)<; T&V xeifxevoov SLOC TCOV xeifjievcov, eXey^oc; Se auXXoyiajjioc; JJLET' OCVTL-
*
cpaaeax; TOO au(Ji7repaa[jiaTO<;. ol 8e TOUTO rcoiouai (xev ou, Soxouca Se Sia 7coXXa<;
468 Ar. divides them into two main groups: (i) the sophismata in
2
dictione Xeiv), where the deceitfulness appears in the form;
(Tcocpdc TTJV
(2) sophismata extra lectionem ('<o TYJS Xe^eox;), where the fallacy can be
seen only when the contents is regarded.
a. De el. I ^
23 24
165 b -
TWO main
^
soph. 4, :
groups
TpoTcoi 8' eicrl TOU JJLSV eXey^etv 8iio ol (lev yap ewri Trapa TT]V X^iv, ol
8' S^c
24 - 27 Sophismata
b. Ib., b :
in dictione
2
''Ecru Se Ta piev Tiapa TYJV Xe^iv e|jL7roi,ouvTa TY]V 9<xvTa<yiav e^ TOV apiOfJiov
TOCUTOC 8* ecrTiv 6(JLCovu(jiLa, a(jL9ipoXia, aiivOeau;, Staipeai^, TUpoawSia,
Tjxoi;, Seiirepov Se TO a7rXco<; r\ [U] a7uXa><; aXXa 7173 ^ TTOU ^ TUOTC ^ Trpo^
XeyecOat, TPLTOV Se TO T^apa TYJV TOU eXey^ou ayvotav, TeTapTov Se TO Trapa
TO eTrofJievov, TcejXTiTov Se TO Tiapa TO ev apxyj Xajx^aveLV, exTov Se TO jr
ax; aLTtov TiOevat, S^SofJiov Se TO Ta TtXetco epa>T7)[JiaTa ev Tcotetv.
1
sc. the sophists.
2
An with the expression might be found in
M etaph. Eanalogy
1027 b 4,
19
: T& Si cbt; aXyjO&<;
CT09(a(jLara Trapa TY;V XJ;tv
6v xal JJIT)
6v ax; vj;eu8o<;, ITUEISYJ icapa
OTI xal StaCpeatv, ("since they depend upon" ).
in a particular sense is taken as though it were used absolutely. E.g.: "If what is
not is the object of an opinion, then what is not is".
(3) Ignoratio elenchi to give a merely apparent refutation, e.g. by contradicting
:
not really the same attribute but merely the name, or by proving that the attribute
cannot be predicated of the subject, but not in the same respect and in the same
way in which was asserted.
it
as though the refutation depended on it. I.e. people try to refute a thesis by re-
:
20 22 5 - 10
Meteor. I i, 338 a -b 339 a , .
20 Hepl (JLEV
OUV T&V TTpCOTOV OCITICOV T7J<; CpUCTEOX; XOCL TCepl 7Ca<7Y)<; XlVY)(ieCO
9U(7ixY]<;, ETI 8e Tuepl TCOV xara TTJV avco 9opav 8iaxexoafry)[Jiva>v Sarpcov xal
Tiepl TCOV aToixeicov TCOV aa)(jiaTixcov, Trocra TC xal Troia, xal TYJ<; et<; (5cXXv]Xa
[JL^VTOl T7]^ TOU 7Up(OTOU CTTOlXefou T6)V (TCOfJiaTCOV, TTEpl TOV yeiTVLCOVTa
TOTTOV 17) 90pa TCOV fiaTpcov. (Follows an enumeration of this kind of pheno-
mena: the Milky Way, comets and shooting stars, dcpo<; xoiva TraOr) xai 6aTo^,
19 a5 winds and earthquakes etc.). AteX06vT<; 8e Trepl TOIJTCOV, 6ecopY)aa)(jLev et TI
8uva(jie0a xara T^V u97)Y>)[Ji^vov TpoTcov dbroSouvai Trepl ^cptov xal 9UTWV,
68 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [469]
xaOoXoo re xal X W P^' axeSov yap TOIJTCOV prjOevTcav TeXoc; av efaq yeyovoc;
&8' oOv apa[Jievoi Xyco[Jiev Tcepl
10
Division of The opening sentence of this passage (TTepl (xv ouv TWV Trporrcov ai-dew T% <puaea>c;
the Physics xa
^gpl Trdcovjc; xivqaeax; 9uaixrj<;
|,
etpTjTai 7rp6Tepov) points to a division of the Phys.
into two parts: (i) on the causes (bb. I and II), (2) on motion (bb. III-VIII). The
distinction is not so clearly made by the ancient commentators. It has been re-
established by A. Mansion.
c ap er
'ETreiSyj TO eiSevai xal TO eTuiaTaorOai au(ji(3aivei Tuepl Traaa^ T<X<; (Jie668oi><;,
10
&v eicrlv ap^al ^ acTia ^ GTOLX^, ex TOU TauTa yvtopi^eiv (TOTS yap
7up(OTa(; xal [xexP 1 T & v aToi^eiwv), S9]Xov OTI xal TYJS Tcepl 9\iaeco(; 7ri<TT7)(JL7)<;
x
SiopiaaaOai TipaiTOv Ta Trepi Tac; ap^ac; . 15
xal aa9eaTep(ov errl Ta aa9^c7-
8e ex T<OV yvcopijJLWTepcov Y][JLLV 73 6S6<;
Ai67rep avayxTj TOV TpOTrov TOUTOV Trpoayeiv ex TO>V aara9eaTepcov (jiev Tyj 9\i(rei
JIIV 8e
(ja9eaTepcov em Ta aa9e7Tepa T^ 9uaei xal yvcopL[ic[>Tepa. *'Eo-Ti 8* 20
rcpcoTOv S^Xa xal aa97J Ta cruyxe^u(jteva (zaXXov ucrrepov S' ex TO^Tcav
3
ytveTai yv<opi(za Ta (TTOix^a xal at ap^al Siaipouori TauTa . Aio ex TWV xaO-
6Xou ini Ta xaO* exaarTa Sel Trpoievai. To yap 8Xov xaTa TTJV aiaOyjaiv yvwpi-
[xcoTepov, TO Se xa66Xou 6Xov TI eaTiv TcoXXa yap TrepiXapipavei coc; [xepY]TO 25
4
xaOoXou .
n^TcovOe Se TauTo TOUTO TpoTrov Tiva xal TOC ovofiaTa 7rpo<; TOV Xoyovi84b
8Xov yap TI xal aSioptdTOx; avjfjLatvei, olov 6 x\ixXoq 6 8e 6pia(x6<; auTOu Siaipet
J
or many 8' T^TOI (Jiiav eivai T7)v xal ei [xiav, YJTOI axivv]Tov,
'AvayxT) ap^yjv TI TuXeioix;, 15
1
The principle that we can only be said to have knowledge if we know the
causes of a phenomenon, is more than once repeated by Ar. Cp. Metaph. A i,
where the difference between Ifirceipta and T^VYJ or emor^T) is marked in this
way, that the first knows only the OTI, the latter also the SIOTL.
2 -
<x7cX&<; absolutely.
8
TauTa - "if we analyse them".
Stocipouai
4
"For the universal comprehends many things within it, like parts".
[471] PHYS. i
69
b. 25 5
a 12- 14 The Eieatic
Ib., i84b -i85a ; ib., :
To (JLev
ouv eL ev xal OCXLVTJTOV TO ov axoTreiv ou Tcepi cpiiaeax; eera axoTueiv excluded
yap xal T<j> yecofxeTpT) OUXCTL Xoyo? e<m Tupoc; TOV aveXovra Ta
aXX* Y)TOt eTepac; em<jTY)[Ji7)<; TQ
Tuacroiv xoiv%, OUTCO<; ouSe T<O Tiepl ap/cov ou
yap ETI ap^T) eaTtv, ei ev [JLOVOV xal OOTCO^; ev earTtv. 'H yap ap^Y) Tiv6<; Y^
TLVWV l .
:o, 21
472
>A\CSX>
oe
Ap/v)
a. Ib., i85a
/
^^^^, >,/*-
7roXXa^co<; Xeyerai TO loetv ov,
~
TCCO<;
Refutation
of the Eieatic
thesis ex
TGJV TOLOUTCOV. TauTa yap TravTa Sia^epei Te TroXu xal aSuvaTa Xeyetv. EL jxev
yap larai xal outrta xal TUOCTOV xal TTOLOV, xal TauTa e?T* a7roXeXu(jtva OCTU*
^wpLCTTOv ICTTL Tuapa T7]v oucrfav TcavTa yap xa6' 6?roxeL[JLevoi) TTJC; ouaia^
XeyeTat. M^XLCTCTOC; Se TO ov avreipov elva[ 97](7Lv. Ilocrov Spa TL TO ov TO yap
eL (JIT]
xaTa au(j.pep7)x6<;, eL ajjia xal ruoda aTTa elev 6 yap TOU aTceLpou
TCO TcocTO) Trpoor^pTJTaL, aXX* oux ouaLa ouSe TO) TCOLCO. El (Jiev TOLVUV xal ouafa
5 eari xal rcoaov, Siio xal ou^ ev TO ov eL 8* oucria (JLOVOV, oux aTreLpov,
5 - 25 Refutation
b. Ib., 185 b :
5, 6 "ETL eTcel xal auTO TO ev TroXXaxw^ XeyeTaL cooTcep xal TO ov, axeTTTeov TLva unius
Tp67uov XeyouffLv elvaL ev TO Tiav. AeyeTaL S* ev y) TO (juvexe<; T)
TO aSLaLpeTOV 7)
3
oiv 6 X6yo<; 6 auTcx; xal el? 6 TOU TL )]v elvaL, &cnrep (xe6u xal olvo?. EL (JLev
1
I.e. : an inquiry into principles or into the first principle always presupposes
a multiplicity.
2
Which means : Ar. starts from the concrete reality of movement. A hypothesis
which destroys this elementary fact has no sense.
3 -
X6yoq definition, essence.
4
:rp6<; T&V X6yov - relevant to the present argument.
70 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [472]
iv >) TrXstto,
xalTT&S TrXeta, xal rep! T&V (xepcov TCOV [JLTJ crovexeov
si TrXeico,
xal ei T(p 8Xco Sv exaTSpov ax; aSiaipSTOv, OTI xal auT<x airrou;. 15
'AXXa (Jiyjv el co<; aSiaipeTov, ouOev Scnrai TTOCJOV ouSe TTOIOV, ouSs v) aTceipov
T6 8v, ciaTrep MlXiacioc; 9Y)aiv, ouSe 7re7rspaa[JLvov, cocrTrep Ilapfjiev^Y]*; T6
473 Having refuted the Eleatic hypothesis, Ar. examines the opinions
Anaxagoras o f older physicists about the principles of physical bodies. Anaxagoras
is discussed rather amply (ch. 4). He too admits, as Democritus did,
474 Another correct view of the ancient physicist is, that opposites
should be assumed as by apxoci. This
explained is done e.g. those who
the genesis of the elements and condensation (we know
by rarefaction
this of Anaximenes, and it is said of Heraclitus too), even by Farm.,
who assumed two principles relative to the world of doxa, and by Democr.
in his doctrine of the 7rXY)pe<; xal xsvov.
26- 30
opposite PhySt i 5 i88a :
principles
should be "OTI (Jiev
ouv TavavTta TUOX; TravTec; Ttoiouat Ta^ ap^a<;, SyjXov. Kal TOUTO
assume
e \jX6yco<; Sei yap T<X<; apx<i<; [JiYjTe i aXXvjXcov elvai {JLYJTE iE, aXXcov, xal ex
'
TOIJTCOV TuavTa evavTio^ TOL<;
TOCC; 7rpa>Toi<; uTuap^e^ TauTa, Sta (JLSV T6 7up6>Ta
elvai [Jiv] e^ SXXcov, Sia 8e T& evavTia (JLT) e^ aXXrjXcov.
How many 475 A pair of opposites, however, is not sufficient. A third principle
should be added, namely a subject, somewhat as the substratum of the
contraries.
- raiment.
"There will be no difference between quality and quantity".
[475] PHYS.
21
a. Phys. I 6, i89a -b 3 :
ETepav UTTOTt6Y]ai TOI<; evavTtoi^ 9\iatv ou6ev6<; yap 6pco(JLev TCOV SVTOW oucrtav
x
30 TavavTta TYJV . 8* apxv)v ou xa0*
UTTOXSI^VOU Sei Xlyea8ai Ttvo^.
yap TO yap uTcoxelfievov apx*/), xal TcpoTspov Soxet TOU
apx*/) TT)<; apx>)<;'
2
yopoi)(Jtvou elvai. "ETi oux elvai 9a(Jiev ouartav evavT^av ouaia TTCO^ o5v ex
(jiY)
ouafwv ouata av ELY) >J TTCO^;
av TrpoTepov (JLYJ
;
ouata ouaia<; ELY) ;
35 Ai67rep et TI<; T6v TE Tcp6Tpov aXYjOv] vojAiCTEiEv slvai X6yov xal TOUTOV, avay-
iSgbxaiov, el (jtEXXsi SiacrcoaELv a|Ji90Tpoi)<; auTouc;, uTCOTtGsvai TI TPLTOV,
9aalv 01 (itav Tiva 9uaiv elvai XeyovTEc; TO Trav, olov SScop TQ Trup ^ TO
TOUTCOV.
Ar. seems here to come near to the conception of the older physicists
not Emped. who admitted some primary element and then differ-
25 TCO irp6Tpov xal ficTEpov SioicTouaiv aXXvjXcov aL ap^al (JLOVOV, aXX' ou TCO ysvEi
ael yap ev svl ysvei (Jiia evavTtcoatg ICTTIV, Ttaffafc TS a[ IvavTicocretc; avayedOai
Soxouatv st^ (Jttav.
476 Ar. now begins to expound his own theory of the principles of
"becoming" in the broadest sense. He introduces three principles: The three
the form (sTSo?), privation of the form (aTspTjan;), and a subject (uTroxeifxevov)
or matter (uXy)). These three principles occur in every form of production.
"
First the distinction is made between becoming'' in the absolute
sense (a7cXco<;) and "becoming this or that". The first is the coming-
into-being of substances, e.g. fivOptorcos yiyvsTai or TO p) [JLOIKIIXOV (what is
ing subject.
31
a. Phys. I 7, igoa -b 10 :
IloXXaxcos 8e Xeyo|ievoi> TOU yiyvea0at, xal TCOV [Jiev ou ytyvsaOai aXXa 768531
TI yiyveaOai, a:rXeo^ 8k yiyvo~6ai TCOV outricov (JLOVCOV, xaTa (Jiev
TaXXa 9avpov
STC avayxr) UTCOxelcrOat Tt TO yLyv6(JLevov xal yap TTOCTOV xal TUOIOV xal Tupo^
Xal 7TOT Xal TCOU ytVETai U7TOXL[JLVOU Tt,VO<; SlOC TO [JIOVYJV T7]V OUCTiaV 35
xaT* SXXou XeyeaOai uTroxeijievou, Ta 8' aXXa rcavTa xaTa T^<; ouata<;
OTL 8e xal al ouatat, xal oaa aXXa a7rX(o<; ovTa e^ i)Tcoxt[JLevou TLVCX; yiveTai, 190 b
eTciaxoTTouvTt yevoiT* av 9avepov. 'Asi yap etTTi TI o uTuoxetTai, s o5 ytveTai
TO yiyv6(Jievov, olov Ta 9UTa xal Ta wa ex a7rep[JLaTO(;. FiyveTai 8e Ta yiyvo-
avaXoyiav.
7 - 12
Ib., 191 a :
J s f
'H 8 uTioxeifAevY) 9uai<; eTcidTTjTY) xaT avaXoytav. Q^ yap 7cp6<; avSpiavTa
^aXxo<; TQ rcpcx; xXivvjv ^\iXov ^ TTpo^ aXXo TL TCOV S/OVTCOV piop97)v Y) uXv) xal
TO a[JLOp9ov ex et TC P^ V ^apstv TYJV (Jiop97)v, OUTGX; auTT) 7rpo<; ouatav e"/ l xa ^ T0
ToSe Tt xal TO 8v. .
The term c< xhe term not used in this passage. Ar. here speaks of the
uXr) is
used. E.g.:
[476] PHYS. i
73
20 - 21
Metaph. Z 3, 1029 a :
Ay<o 8* uX7)v 73
xa6* auTTjv {ATJTS rl (JLYJTE TTOCTOV (JLTJTS SXXo [ATjSfiv XeyeTai ol^
TO OV.
A
d.
y co
The
yap
classical definition of
x,,.
u X 73
v TO
%
TI
p to
~< (JXT)
T o v
occurs in Phys.
uTroxeifievov
,
I 9, 192 a
,
31 - 32
x a a T cp,
:
its classical
definition
s ?; o 5 y i v T a t T i
vu7uapx ovTO x a T a ai>{jLpe(3Y)x6^.
H* ?)
10 - 23
477. Ar. continues, Phys. I 7, 190 b :
15 xetffOai TOV 3cv0pco7uov, xal TTJV p,v a<7^Y](Jioc7uv7]v xal TTJV apLOp9tav xal TTJV
8^;
aTa^tav TO avTixeifJievov, TOV Ss ^aXxov Y) TOV Xi6ov 73 TOV xpucrov TOV U7coxt[jivov.
talv aiTtat, xal ap^al TWV 9\jo"t OVTCOV, &v TrpwTWv 2. the form:
Oavpov oijv ax;, etTcep ^
xal yyovacrt (JLY] xaTa o'UfJLpEpyjxoc; aXX* Sxaarov 5 XlyTai xaTa TYJV oucitav,
2o8Ti yiyvTai rcav EX T TOU i)7roxt(jivou xal TYJS (JLop^YJ^; auyxLTat yap 6 (JLOU-
aixo<; Sv6po)7ro(; ^ av6pa>7rou xal {JLOUCTIXOU TpoTrov Ttva- 8iaXuo~i^ yap [TOU;;
l
Xoyoix;] i^ TOU<; Xoyou^ TOU^ EXELVCOV .
A9jXov ouv ax; ytvoiT* av Ta yiyv6[jLva
X TOUTG)V.
For a definition of the different meanings of eI8o<; Ar. refers at the end of this
book (Phys. I 9, 192 a^-b 1 to the Metaph. Cp. our nr. 497.
)
"EaTi $ TO (JLv u7ioxt(jLvov api6[A(o (jtv 2v, i8i 8k, Suo. '0 [Jtv yap avOpco-
25 TCOC; xal 6 xpucrcx; xal oXcog 73 iiX7) apLOpLTjTTj TO yap TL [xaXXov, xal ou xaTa aspect of the
TO yi,yv6(JLvov 73 subject:
aTEpTjaic; xal 73 vavTLa>o-i<;
OUTCO xaT7)yopoi>(jLva>v.
The third principle is introduced here in very concise terms. The meaning of
the passage might be paraphrased as follows.
Things come to be, as it seems, by two principles: form and matter. The subject,
however, has two succeeding states, which might be called the terms of the process
of becoming: (i) the original state, from which it comes to be, e.g. ^.73
1
"You can analyze it into the definitions of its elements" (Hardie). About
the omission of the first TOIX; X6you<; see the commentary of W. D. Ross on this
place (p. 493).
74 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [478]
(2) the opposite state, that which is to become, namely VLQUGIK&S. The first or
negative state is called orpT)oi (privatio), the privation of the form. The subject
is in this state; it is identical with it, but accidentally (xarot au[ipep7)x6<;), for it
makes way for the form and thus it does not enter as a constituent element into
the being which comes to be. So, in a certain sense, the tTTipyjan; is no real principle
of the generated being. E.g. a man is generated. Before there is "something un-
qualified",which is not-man.
In metaphysics the aTepyjoic; means hardly anything; but in physics, for the ex-
planation of coming to be, it takes a very important place, as important as that of
the two other principles.
29 3
b. Ar. continues, ib. 190 b -igi a :
Ai6 <m (JLEV dx; 8uo XXTOV ecm 8' a><; Tpi<; xal e<m (Jtev 30
elvai Ta^ ap^a*;,
yap Tracrxeiv TavavTia aSuvaTov. AiieTai 8e xal TOUTO Sia TO <5tXXo elvai TO
UTioxeifxevov TOUTO yap oux IvavTiov. "QaT OUTC TrXsiou^ T&V evavTtcov at 35
ap/al TPOTCOV TLVOC, dcXXa Suo ax; SLTCSLV TO> aptOfjiw, OUT' ai5 TiavTeXco^ 8\io Sia
TO STepov uTrap^etv TO elvai auToIc;, aXXa Tpsts eTepov yap TO avOpcaTia) xal 191 a
TO dcfJiouCTO) elvat, xal TO a(j;(7)(jiaTLO"T(o xal
479 In the next chapter Ar. states that his theory is the true solution
of the difficulties, which his predecessors were unable to solve.
23 - 34
Difficulties a. Phys. I 8, 191 a :
ofpredeces- , ,
sors solved UTI oe (zova^wc; OUTCO XueTai xai y] TCOV ap^aiwv aTropia, Xeycojiev
by this Ta tj Ta ZrjTOUvTec; yap ol xaTa 9tXoo~09tav rcpcoTOt TT]V aXvjOetav xal TYJV 960^^ 25
.
TYJV TWV 8vT(ov c^STpaTTYjaav olov 686v Tiva <5fXXY]v aTTwaOevTec; UTTO
xal 9aalv OUTS ytveoOai TOW OVTOV ouSev OUTC 90etp(jOai Sta TO avayxaiov
a[JL90Tep(ov aSuvaTov slvai OUTS yap TO ov ytveaOai (slvai yap ^Sv] ) sx TE [JLT] 30
OVTO<; ouSev av yeveaOai,* uTroxeicrOai yap TI Set. Kal OUTCO SYJ TO iysZjfic, aupi-
]
auovT<; ouS* elvai TioXXa 9acriv aXXa [xovov auTo TO ov. 'Exetvoi
oiliv TaoTiQv sXa^ov TY]v So^av Sta Ta tp7j(jLva.
Ar. replies: it is possible, namely if both are admitted at the same time and in
a special sense. If it is taken in the absolute sense, then, surely, nothing springs
from non-being; but accidentally it does. For a being springs from aTpr]<ji<;, which
in itself is non-being. It springs from privation accidentally, because the pre-
existing non-being is not admitted into the being that becomes.
And in the same way being springs from being, not essentially, but accidentally.
For it is not the pre-existing being which is generated in that which comes to be.
-
lq>eY)<; aufipaivov auovTe<; they exaggerated the consequence of this.
[479] PHYS - l
75
But the new being springs from the pre-existing, as far as the latter contained a
non-being in itself, which is now filled with a new determination.
This is expressed by Ar. in the following text.
13 - 23 solution of
b. Ib., 191 b :
The above solution borrows its terms from logic: the distinction between using
a term essentially and accidentally is referred to in this chapter and illustrated by
the instance "The doctor builds a house, not qua doctor, but qua housebuilder,
and turns grey, not qua doctor, but qua dark-haired" (191 b4 - 6 ).
c. Beside this solution Ar. gives a metaphysical one: in his theory Metaphysical
of potency and act, which is explained at length in Metaph. 0. The
theory is referred to here, perhaps with reference to some older treatise.
27 - 29
Ib., 191 b :
ET<; (Jiev SYJ Tpo7ro<; OUTO<;, <xXXo<; S OTI evSe^eTai, TauTa Xeyetv xaTa TTJV
xal TTJV evepyetav TOUTO 8* ev &XXou; SicoptdTai Si axptpeia<; [JiaXXov.
480In his last chapter of this book Ar. compares his own theory This th eory
of becoming with that of Plato in the Timaeus and shows the superiority W i t h piato's
of his own theory. He reproaches Plato for not having acknowledged the
principle of orTeprjortc; : relative non-being, which is accidentally identical
with matter, but essentially different. Because Plato neglected this
distinction, he could not solve the difficulties of Eleatic philosophy:
he formally attributed to matter a kind of non-being which does not
belong to it and seems to reduce it to absolute non-being.
3 - 12
Phys. I 9, 192 a :
'Hjjieft; yap uXYjv xal orTepYjaiv eTepov 9a[iev elvat, xal TOUTGW TO
(lev [lev
5 oux ov elvai xaTa au(JL(3epY]x6<;, TTJV uXyjv, T>]V Se CTTepTjcriv xaO' auTYjv, xal TYJV
1 -
oux IvuTrdcpxovroc; "this not surviving as a constituent of the result".
2
About the insertion of the words x xuv6<; ^ I'TTTUO? see the comment of Ross
on these lines (p. 495 f.).
76 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [ 4 80]
[zev eyyu^ xal ouaiav TUOX;, r/]v uXvjv, TT]V 8s (jTepyjcriv ouSajzco*;. Oi 8k TO
Sv TO [Jteya xal TO [juxpov ojjioiax;, ^ T& aovapi^oTepov yj
TO
"QaTe TravTeXcoc; Tepo<; 6 Tpo7ro<; OUTO<; TYJC; Tpia8o<; xaxetvo^.
Seupo TcpovjXOov, &TI Set Tiva UTroxeurOat 9uatv, Taur/jv (JLEVTOL (juav Troiouffiv 10
xal yap ei TL<; SuaSa TUOIEI, Xeycov [xeya xal (jiixpov auTYjv, ouOev TJTTOV
Tim. 48 6-50 d, Plato did assume a substratum, but he did not make any distinction
between the substratum as a real principle in things (see Ar.'s definition of uXyj
sub 476 d), a potential being, which can be in the full sense and only per accidens
does not do so now, and, on the other hand, a second principle, which is in itself
a non-being, namely the privation of the form which is still to be realized.
To this we might reply, that by Plato x (^P a i n t introduced at all as "matter"
in the sense of a substratum, which is an immanent principle; but only as space,
wherein coming to be happens to take place. Consequently, Ar. docs not introduce
a second principle next to Plato's principle of the Great-and-small. He introduces
two totally different principles.
It should be granted, certainly, that Plato's description of becoming is difficult
to understand and far from clear. On the other hand, Ar.'s hypothesis of a totally
unqualified substratum contains certain difficulties. It is, finally, a purely logically
construed hypothesis: a theory, which can serve as a basis for the explanation
of becoming. But what corresponds with it in the order of reality, remains
problematical.
What is
Tcov yap OVTCOV Ta ecra cpuaeL, Ta 8e Si' Ta TE
(Jiev &XXa<; aiTia^, 9\ia>ei, [lev
&a xal Ta auT<ov xal Ta 9i>T<x xal Ta dbuXa T&V 10
and what [xepT] aoi(jiaT(ov, olov yvj xal
is not :al avjp xal uSa>p TauTa yap elvai, xal TOC TOiauTa IlavTa
^liaei, ^ajjiev.
Se Ta p7]6evTa ^atvsTai StacpspovTa 7rp6(; Ta [XT] 9ucret cruveoT&Ta. Ta ptev yap
9
Ta piev xaTa TOTTOV, Ta Se xaT au^vjaiv xal 90Lcri,v, TCX Se xaT* aXXoicoaiv xXtVT) 15
8e xal IfiaTLov, xal et TI TOLOUTOV aXXo yvo<; e<mv, fj (Jtev TeTii^Y)xe T^C;
yopiac; exaaTYjc; xal xaO* oaov ecmv axo TexvYjc;, ouSefxiav opfjiYjv e^s
poXv)^ S(JL9UTov, Y)
8e aufipep^xev auTol^ stvai XiOivot^ y] yy]tvoi^ ^ (JLIXTOL^ ex
Definition of
TOUTCOV, 2^et, xal xaTa TOCJOUTOV, &$ OU<TYJ<; T'^<; 9UCTeco^ apx>] TIVO^ xal atTta^
'
cpuau;
TOU xiveLCT0at xal yjpefJLSLV ev & urcap^ei TrpwTox; xa0 auTO xal JJLY] xaTa CTU[JL-
s
"Nature is a principle of motion and rest for the thing in which it is immediately
present, in virtue of itself (i.e. essentially) and not in virtue of a concomitant
attribute" (i.e. per accidens).
[481] PHYS. ii 77
The latter restriction excludes certain cases where nature comes very near
to art. With art namely the cause works from without, with nature from within.
But there are some cases where art works from within, e.g. the physician who
treats himself. Yet these cases do not come within the definition of nature, Ar.
says, for here art does not belong to the subject essentially, but per accidens.
482 32 - 34 Natural
a. Ib., 192 b :
,, called
to nature .
35 - 37
Ib. 192 b :
s
Kara cpu<ri,v SE TOcuTa TE xal oaa TOUTOU; uTrapxet xa() auTa, olov T>
(pepsaOai avco TOUTO y^P 9^cri^ (zev oux Scmv, ouS' ex st 9^^^v, (priest 8e xal
xaTa 9ilcrtv ICTTIV.
a. 10 - 21 28 - 30 Matter
Ib., IQ3a ;
;
xXiv7]v xal Xa^oi Suvafiiv 7] aY)7isSo>v coaTe avetvai pXaaTOv, oux av ysvecrOai
15 xXtvyjv aXXa uXov, ca<; TO [JLEV xaTa aujJLpspvjxo^ UTcapxov, TTJV xaTa vofxov
SiaOeaiv xal TTJV TEXVTJV, TT]V ouatav oucav SXSLVYJV 8* YJ
xal 8ia(jievei TauTa
juvex^?- EL Se xal TOUTCOV exaaTov 7cpo<; Tp6v TL TauTO TOUTO
v, olov 6 {lev x^Xxoc; xal 6 xpu<K> Tipo^ u8a>p, Ta 8* OCTTOC xal ^uXa 7rpo<;
1
Introd., p. TOO.
2
T& TrpcoTov evuTuapxov exaaTw appuOfziaTov <6v> xaO' aur6 - "that immediate con-
stituent of it which taken by itself is without arrangement" (Hardie Gaye). &
3
Diels, VSa 87, B 15. Cf. Zeller I 2 6 ,
pp. 1324-28.
78 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [483]
2
yyjv *, ojjLotco^ 8c xal TCOV SXXcov OTIOUV, exeiva T^JV cpucrtv elvat xal TYJV ouatav 20
"Eva (lev o5v Tporcov OUTGX; r) (puau; XeyeTai, Y) TTptoTT) exaaTto u7toxei|JilvY) 28
Form b 30 - 31
Ib., igaa :
not yet /r
^]
v T ^Xv>y 3
v ^8^ v i
e ^ Suvajxet, (JLGVOV ECTTI xXivyj, (jiv)
TTCO 8* e^ei TO elSoc; TTJ<;
9uaet xXivy)<;, ouS* elvai TE^V^V, OUT* ev TOLC; 9\iaei auv terra [j(ivoi<; TO yap Suvajxei 35
oapl; ^ OGTOUV OUT' ex et ^^ T^l v eauTou 9u<riv, Tuplv av Xa^yj TO elSo? TO xaTa 193 b
TOV Xoyov, o 6pt^6(jievot Xeyofzev TI ICTTI ffap!; ^ OGTOUV, OUTE 9uasi SGTTIV.
"iiffTe aXXov Tporrov 73 ybaic; av el'yj TCOV I^OVTCOV ev auTOtc; xtvyjaefo^ ap^Yjv
73 fAOp97)
xal TO elSo<; ou ^copiaTov ov aXX* 7) xaTa TOV Xoyov.
7 5
another sense, nature is the form or type of things which have in them-
"So, in
selves a principle of motion, a form not separable from them except in thought".
484 Real things, then, are the composites of these two constituents.
5- 8
Ib. 193 b :
T^C uXvj^' exaaTOV yap TOTC XeyeTai OTav evTeXexeta 73, [jiaXXov
Relation to 485 A. Mansion, Jntrod. pp. 82-92, explained excellently how this Aristotelian
Plato's doc-
conception of nature is related to that of Plato, especially in his later works, the
trine of jim> an(j Laws. Plato* was deeply convinced that coming to be and passing away
nature
an(j ^e existence of things cannot be caused by matter. He sought a reasonable
ground for them: "that it is best for things to be as they are" (Ph. 96 a fl), and,
seeking this, assumed his "hypothesis" of Ideas. In Laws again PI. delivers a X
severe verdict on materialistic philosophy of nature the regularity of the celestial :
3
Plato in the Tim. derived gold and bronze from water (59 b) and bones
(64 c, 73 e) from earth.
2
xe!voc - the stable element.
[485] PHYS. ii 79
"nature" what is original and wants no further explanation, we should say that
soul is "natural" (9uoei), not the material elements (981 0-892 c; our nr. 388).
In Tim. 52 d-53 b PI. describes the x^P a before the creation of the kosmos as
being filled with formless elements, in which irregular forces work and shocks
occur. So there exists, according to Plato, some irrational element, next to soul and
independent of it. But PI. does not call this physis. As to Aristotle, he starts from
such a physis and calls it by this name. But he does not adopt Plato's doctrine
of soul. Instead of this he gives another explanation above the irrational nature, :
called hyle, he superposed not soul, but a superior nature, form. This form is
not an intelligent principle, not a thinking and deliberating being, but it is intelligible :
(3) Since nature has two senses, form and matter, with which is the
physicist concerned?
22 - 25
a. Phys. II 2, 193 b :
^JKLf
9uau; XeyeTai, pieTa TOUTO OscopyjT^ov TLVI u n e between
SitopidToci 7coaocx&<; Y)
6 fjiaOYjjjiaTLXcx; TOU 9i>crtxou. Kal yap emTucSa xal aTepea lyzi TCX P h y s and -
\ / \ r r \ i
9001x01 crcofjiaTa xat fiYjXYj xai emyfjia^, Trepi cov axoTtsi o [jiaUY)(iaTixo<;.
math. ? \ ~<n /
26- 26 The
193 b
2. place
b. Ib., :
These questions are answered here by Ar. very shortly. They have been broadly
treated by Mansion in his fifth chapter (Introd., pp. 1 22-205).
gave the texts of A 6 and M 4 in our nr. 204a and b. In A 6 Ar. continues
14- 18
(987 b )
:
Se Ttocpa Ta aic67]Ta xal TOC eiS?) TOC [jiaOYjfjiaTixa T&V TcpayfjiaTCov elval
jLSTa^ii, Stacpepovra TCOV (jlv atcrOyjTcov atSia xal dxtvyjTa elvat,
TGJ
TCOV S* slS&v TW ra (JLSV TcoXX' <3cTT<x S^jLoia elvai T& 8s eZSo<; aur6 Sv Ixaorov
JJLOVOV.
We know from PL, Rep. VI, 509-511 l and VII 533-534: dialectic
this doctrine
is placed at the top; reaches up to true Reality and the Good. Next follows ma-
it
thematical knowledge, which does not extend to contemplation of the highest
Reality, because it cannot render an account of its first principles ("hypotheses").
Finally there is doxa, which is no knowledge in the strictest sense and cannot be
so, because its object is the ever-changing nature of the sensible things. Plato has
come very near to a science of nature. The essential purpose of his theory of Ideas
was to explain how rational knowledge of sensible things is possible. But in the
strictest sense PL denied it up to the end 2 .
Metaph. E i, 1026 a 13 - 16 :
The tripartition itself is Platonic, but Ar. connects it with a different theorv
of knowledge, namely, his doctrine of abstraction. The objects of mathematics
are the result of a further degree of abstraction than are those of physics. Physical
objects, which are essentially joined to matter, cannot be separated from it, even
in thought; mathematical objects, which are according to Ar. not "separate"
1
Our nr. 294.
2
Phil. 59 a-b. In Examcn critique de I' interpretation traditionnelle du plato-
my
nisme (Revue de Mdtaph. 1951, pp. 249-268) I argued that in later platonism the op-
position of an unchanging and immovable ideal World to that of ever-changing
sensible things has been essentially broken down. If it is true that in Farm, and
Soph, motion was introduced by Plato in the ideal World as I think it was
this statement should be accepted. It does not take away the fact that, on the point
in question, sc. the establishing of the possibility of natural science, Ar. has com-
pleted what Plato had begun.
[487] PHYS. II 8l
(as Plato tho ught they are) but "somehow connected with matter", can be separated
,
from it in abstracto.
This is what Ar. explains in the next passage of Phys. II, ch. 2.
1- 7 Difference
C. Phys. II 2, 194 a :
xal TO euOu xal TO xafimiXov, STL 8e api6[zo<; xal ypa(jL(ji7) xal ax^f* 01 * veu
CTECO^, aap5 Se xal OCTTOUV xal <5cv0pc*>7ro<; OUX^TI, aXXa TauTa <&<T7tep pl<;
aXX'
The latter are defined like "snub nose", not like "curved". ot^6v is with Ar.
a classical instance of an accidens, and at the same time of a form which is realized
in matter. E.g. the next passage.
d. Metaph. E i, 1025 b
30 - 34
:
"Ecru 8e TCOV 6pio[jLevcov xal TCOV TI ecfTi Ta (Jiev <I>c; TO ai^ov Ta 8* a><; TO
xoiXov. Stacp^pet 8e TauTa STL TO JJLEV CTLJJLOV auveiXy][jifjLevov
7 12 The method
Phys. II 2, 194 a -
a. :
A-yjXoL 8e xal Ta 9i)aixcoTepa T&V {jLaOyjfJLaTOV, olov OTTTIXTJ xal apjjiovtxy] mathematics
xal acTTpoXoyia avaTuaXtv yap TpoTiov TLV' E^OIKTL 173 yecofieTpta. 'H [lev yap
1 -
OCUT&V the subjects.
2
goTai - to be linked with dtveu
do directly with concrete things, are by this very reason less accurate,
because the object is more complicated. E.g.
Metaph. 2, 982 a A
26 - 28
:
'AxpipaTaTai Se T&V STriaTTjfJi&v at (juxXiara T&V TtptoTCOv eiaiv (at yap e!;
1 2
eXaTTovcov axpipeaTepai TCOV ex upoaOeaecoc; Xsyojjiivcov ,
olov api0[ry)TixY)
yecofjieTpiac;).
and form
are the 'ETisl 8* 7} 9uai<; 8i)(co<;, TO TS elSoc; xal Y) uX*/), ax; av ei Tuepl ai|Ji6TY)TO<; CTXO-
hsics rcotfJLev T^ eo~Tiv, ouTG) OecopvjTeov. "QaT* OVT* aveu uXvjc; Ta ToiaijTa OUTS XOCTOC
Matter and Ar. also asks the question whether the two aspects of nature
499
form are TT .
they object belong to one and the same science or to a different one. He answers
of the same that both
science?
belong to the same, and illustrates this by the analogy of art ;
uyteia, 6(JLotca^ Se xal olxo86(Jiou TO TC sISoc; T*?^ olxia^ xal TTJV (iXvjv, OTI TcX
xal ^uXa tbaauTax; Se xal evrl T&V fiXXcov), xal TV]<; ^uaixyjc; av SLT) TO
T<X<;
Second 27 - 36 7- 8
5. Ib., 194 a. ; 194 b :
teleology in "ETi T6 ou evexa xal TO TeXog T*^ auT^^ xal oara TOUTCOV evexa 3 .
e
H 8i
nature
cpuaL<; TeXoc; xal ou Svexa oiv yap auve^ou^ TYJ^ xtvYjaew^ ouav)^ eaTi TI
4
xtvYjaeco^, TOUTO ^axaTov xal TO ou Svexa. Aio xal 6 TUOLTJTT]^
1
ai ^^ XaTT6vcov - those which involve fewer principles.
2 at x 7Tpoa0cfeco<; Xey6[ievaL - those which involve additional principles (Ross).
3 - eiusdem
T% auTvfc (sc. ^Tutarry)^^) xal ac.
4
6 7ToiY)nf)<;
- sc. Euripides, in a play unknown to us.
[490] PHYS. II
8
eiTreiv e'xei TeXeinr/jv, ^dTuep ouvex eyveTO. BoiiXeTai yap ou ?cav
elvai TO Ic^aTov TXO<;, aXXa TO piXTiaTOv e?uel xal Troiouaiv at T^^vat ^) v
uXirjv at (JLEV a7cXa><; al 8e euepy6v \ xal xP^^^a ax; Y)(i&v evexa TCCXVTCOV uicap-
'EafJLev yap TTGX; xal 7)fAeu; TXO<; Si^eo? yap T& ou sfvexa 2 . 'Ev
oov TOC<; xaTa T^VYJV ^H- 6^ Tcoioufiev T/)V uXyjv TOU Ipyou evexa, ev Se
8-9 Third
c.Ib., 194 b :
metaph '
Phys. II 2, 194 b- 15
:
&7j TTOCJOU TOV 9DCJIXOV Sei etSevai TO eZ8o<; xal TO TI COTTIV ; TJ ciaTcep
veupov 7\ ^aXxea x aXxov, (i^xpi TOU. Tivo^ yap evexa exaaTOv, xal ?repl
a eaTL ^copiCTTa [Jiev etSei, ev uXy] Se. ''AvOpoTro^ yap avOpamov yevva
xal T^Xioc;. 11 ox; 8' e/et TO ^copiaTOv xal TL ICTTL, 9iXoao9ia^ TY;<; TrpwTTjc; Siopicrat
epyov.
The meaning of this passage is physics have to do with the eidos up to a certain
:
point, namely, until the physicist understands the purpose of each thing. He has
not to do with the eidos as far as this can exist in itself, not joined to matter. For
in that sense the eidos is the object of a different science: metaphysics. Physical
objects, however, are always form joined to matter. "Man is begotten by man, and
by the sun as well".- The author means to say physical generation can be explain- :
492 The next chapter (3)deals with the four causes, a subject which Chapters
iscontinued in ch. 7 and 8, where the author argues that form is properly
the cause of things. Having treated the questions of ^li^'y) and auTOfjiaTov,
which are also considered as causes of things, in chapters 4-6, he applies
in his last chapter (9) the principle of the final cause to the problem of
1
Some make the matter (from something different), others make it more
arts
serviceable when iron is melted).
(e.g.
2
From De anima 415 b 2 we know what Ar. means by this distinction: T& 8* oS
vexa SiTT6v T& ^v oft, T& 8 &. E.g. in one sense health is the oft Svexoc of the medical
art; in another sense the patient is.
84 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [492]
causa "Eva o5v Tporcov atTtov XeyeTai, TO e oJi yiveTai TI evuTtapxovTog, olov 6
fjiev
TOO avSpiavTog xal 6 <5cpyupog TYjg 9iaXY)g xal T<X TOUTCOV yeVy). 25
c. formalis "AXXov Se TO eZSog xal TO 7capa8eiyp.a TOUTO 8* IGTIV 6 Xoyog 6 TOU TI 9)v
elvat xai TOC TOUTOU yevY), olov TOU Sia rcaorcov TOC 8\io Trpog ev, xal SXcog 6
l
api6(i6g xal TOC [JiipY]
TOC ev TCO Xoyco .
c. efficiens
"g Tl gQ ev ^ ^p^ ^^ jAe^apoX^g Y) TCpcoTY] Y^ TYJC; TjpefJLYjaecac;, olov 6 (iiouXeuaa*; 30
g, xal 6 TcaTYjp TOU Texvou, xal 8Xco<; TO TUOIOUV TOO Trotoufjievou xal TO
TOIJ (jteTapaXXofisvou.
c. finalis "ETL TOUTO 8* eaTi TO o5 Svexa, olov TOU TteptTraTetv Y) uyieia
TO TeXoc;
o><;
Sia T( yap TiepiTcaTsc; ^ajjLsv ova uyiaivY], xal etTu6vTe<; OUTCOC; ot6(jLs0a arco-
SeScaxevai TO atTiov. Kal oaa SYJ xivYjaavTog aXXou [jteTa^u ytyveTat TOU TeXou^, 35
*
olov TYJ<; uyieia^ Y] Lcr/vaaia r\ Y] xaOapCTi<; Y^ TOC 9ap[iaxa Y^ Ta opyava TravTa
yap TauTa TOU TeXouc; Svexa eaTi, Sta^epei 8* aXXYjXcov <o<; ovTa TOC (JLEV epya
TOC 8* opyava.
"Ckav SYJ TIC; ^YJTT) TO aiTiov, Irel 7rXeovaxo><; Ta atTLa XeysTat, Tiaaac; Set
Xlyetv TOCC; evSex o ^va ^ occTtag. olov avOpcoTtou TIC; atTta ax; uXYj ; apa TOC xaTa-
(XYjvia ;
TI 8' cog xtvouv ; Spa TO aTiepjjia ;
TI 8* cog TO elSog ;
TO TL Y)V elvau TI
8* cog ou evexa; TO
b. Metaph. B 2, 996 b
5- 8
:
'EvS^s T^P 1-
T^> OCUTCO TravTag Toug TpoTcoug Toug TWV aiTicov
2
olov otxiag 86ev jxev YJ xivYjaig Y] Texvy )
x *l 6 oixo86(jLog, oi5 8* evexa TO Spyov ,
3
uXY] Se yYl xal Xi0oi, TO 8' elSog 6 Xoyog.
In the last example it is clear that the formal cause is identical with
the final, only seen, from a different point of view. In a sense the form is
the efficient cause, too. For the notion of "house" works as an idea which
is present in the mind of the architect and directs his activity. The
TOC Iv TCO -
the parts in the definition.
X6y<|)
Final cause the ipyov, i.e. the function of the house: "giving shelter to
is
with natural beings. For the form, which within them, is the cause of
is
N ~ ~
TOO <puaixou eioevai, xai
,*, x ,
etc;
,
non-material
Tiaaac; causes often
coincide
ocvaycov T& Sia TL dbroScoaei 9i><7ixco<;, TYJV uXvjv, TO eZ8o<;, TO xivTjcrav, TO oo
25 Svexa. "Ep^ETat Se Ta Tpia eic; ev TioXXdbac; TO [lev yap TI ecm xal TO o5 evexa
J
2v ecm, TO 8 88ev 73 xiv/jatc; TrpcoTov TW el'Set TauTo TOUTOI^; av6pco?ro<; yap
dcvOpcoTrov yevva. Kal 8Xco<; ocra xtvorifzeva xtvet' oo~a OUXSTL ^uatx^c;'
Ss (JLYJ,
5 5
ou yap ev auToic; S/ovTa xtvyjaiv ouS ap^V xtvyjascoc; xtvet, aXX (XXLVTJTOC ovTa.
tuating principle.
In other places Ar. makes a distinction between matter in the absolute Relative
sense, which is called by the scholastics materia prima, and matter matter
on a higher level, called SsuTepa uXv) by the commentators. The first
is perfectly undetermined and potential; the second, though it received
12 - 24
a. De part. anim. II i, 646 a :
15 Xou[xvcav wro Ttvcav OTOixetwv, olov y9j<; aepo<; uSaToc; 7iupo<;. STI 8s peXTiov
LCTWC; sx T&V 8uva[JLea)v Xeysiv, xal TO\JTCOV oux e^ aTraacov, aXX' ciaTrsp ev ETepoi?
etpyjTat xal TrpoTepov. uypov yap xal ^vjpov xal Ospfjiov xal ^uxP ov ^^ T ^ v
auv6T6>v cjG)fjLaT6)v ecrTtv at 8* SXXai 8ta90pal TauTau; axoXouOouatv,
olov
zopapo<;xal xou90TY](; xal TTUXVOTY]*; xal (JUXVOTT^ xal TpaxuT7]<; xal Xei6TY)<;
xal TSXXa Ta TOiauTa 7ra6Y) TCOV awfjiaTCov. SeuT^pa 8e aucrTaai*; ex
7rp(OT(ov y]
TCOV 6(jLoio[Aepoiv yvGic, ev Tote; <poi<; ecTTiv, olov OCTTOU
xal TWV iXXwv TCOV TOIO^TCOV. Tpta?) 8e xal TeXeuTaia xaT* api6[iov ^ TCOV
Therefore, matter is called by Ar. something relative (490 c: T&V 7rp6q Tt i\ (SXrj).
beings according to a natural process. Yet they deviate from the normal
type. Why? Ar. replies: Because matter offers resistance to form and
prevents it from realizing itself perfectly.
9 - 17
De gen. anim. IV 4, 770 b :
s
"Eon yap TO Tspac; TCOV ?capa cpucriv TI, Tcapa cpiiaiv 8 ou Traaav aXXa TTJV 10
a><; ITTI TO TroXu Tcepl yap TYJV ael xal TY]V e avayxY]<; ouOev yivsTat rcapa
aXX' Iv TOI<; co<; STU TO 710X0 [isv OUTCO yLvofjtlvoic;, evSs^ojjtevoi^ Ss xal
eTrel xal TOUTCOV Iv oaoLc; au[ipatvei Tiapa TTJV TOC^IV [Jtev TauTTjv, ael [jievToi
(jLY) TUXOVTCO^;, YJTTOV eZvai Soxsl Tepac; Sia TO xal TO Trapa cpuaiv clvai TpOTrov 15
Ttva xaTa 9uaiv, Tav [Jtv] xpanfjcrfl TYJV xaTa TTJV uXy)v Y)
xaTa TO sISoc; 9\iai^.
Matter
*
Generally speaking, matter sets bounds to the possibility of
c
element production of nature for not every matter can adopt every determination.
;
in nature
Metaph R ^ IO44a
i7
;
T& TI 9)v elvai, ouaia and Xoyoc; (notion, definition). Cp. the passage about
the four causes (493).
To sISoc; xal TO TuapaSeiyjjia, TOUTO &' ecmv 6 Xoyo<; TOU TL ^v elvat xal Ta
TOUTOU ysvT) etc.
498 a. Nature acts for the sake of an end, and it is itself an end. teleology
b. Not every thing can claim to be an end, but only that which The end is
is best. We saw this in 490b (194 a32 BouXsrai yap ou Tuav elvai TO :
aXXa TO
Tex 8' ox; TO TeXo<; xal TayaOov T&V #XXoav (sc. aiTia ECTTLV)- TO yap o5
evexa peXTKJTOv xal TeXo<; T&V aXXcov eOeXei elvau
The same in Afetaph. A 2,
25 27
1013 b - .
finds fault with Platonism, which would lead up to the impossible conse-
quence that "the contrary would strive after its own extinction".
19 - 20
Phys. I 9, 192 a :
Positive
e. Passing-away of individuals should be positively valued, as
i xu i j value of
keeping up the universal order. passing-
De b 10 away
gen. et corr. II 10, 336 :
499
a. The
00
equal periods of time" (Joachim).
organisms. Ar. argues natural facts happen regularly but what happens
:
;
35 8
Phys. II 8, ig8b -i99a :
XeyovTS<;. "EaTiv apa TO Svexa TOU ev TOL<; 96051 ytvojjievoi,^ xal ouciiv.
Second 8 - 15
b. Ib., 199 a :
argument
TL ev OCTOK; TeXoc; eaTt TL, TOUTOU evexa TupaTTeTai TO TcpoTepov xal TO
Ouxouv I0
vj^. ca^ TrpaTTeTat, OUTCO TT^uxe, xal w<; rce^uxev, OUTCO TcpaTTeTai
exaaTov, av (JLVJ
TL IjjiTcoSi^T]. UpaTTeTai 8' evexa TOU* xal 7re9uxev apa TOUTOU
2vexa. Olov ei oixia TWV 9uorei yivo[Aev(ov ?]v, OUTCOC; av eyiveTO a><; vuv
T^<; Texv7)<; et Se Ta 9uaei (JLYJ JJLOVOV 9uaei aXXa xal Te^vv] yiyvoiTO,
av yivoiTO I5
yj Tr^uxev. "Elvsxa apa OaTepou OaTepov.
Mansion paraphrases lines 8-12 as follows.
Third 15 - 20
c. Ib., 199 a :
argument r/
(jtifjieiTat.
EL ouv Ta xaTa T/)V Te^v7]v evexa TOU, SvjXov OTI, xal Ta xaTa TT]V
9U(jiv ofJLOiax; yap e^ei, Tupoc; aXXvjXa ev TOLC; xaTa Texvvjv xal ev TOIC; xaTa
9ricriv Ta uaTepa rrpoc; Ta TrpoTepa.
Fourth 20 - 30
d. Ib., 199 a :
argument
MaXidTa Se 9avep6v em TCOV J^cocov TWV <5cXXcov, a ouTe TC^VY) OUTC y)TY)<7avTa
ouTe pouXeuaafJteva TUOiet 86ev StaTropoucrL Ttve<; TroTepov vco YJ
TIVL SXXcp epya-
S
^ovTat oi T dcpa/vai xal ol (jLup(ry]xe<; xal TOC TOiauTa. KaTa [xtxpov 8* OUTCO
1
T(i ToiauTa Ttavra - e.g. teeth (mentioned in the
preceding passage) and other
parts of the body, which seem manifestly to have been made for some special use.
[499] PHYS. ii
89
gvexa TCOV xapTr&v xal T<X<; pia<; otix <5tvo> aXXa XOCTCO Svexa TTJ^ TpO9YJ<;, cpavspov
OTI ICTTIV 7) aMa YJ ToiauTT) ev TOI<; 9\icret yivo[Avoi<; xal
Fin aiity is
Mansion remarks might seem from the third argument, that Ar.
: It
conceives of nature, on the analogy of art, as a deliberating and consciously according to
Ar
acting being. If this were true, Ar.'s teleology would be anthropomorphist,
-
Nature often
500 Nevertheless, a great number of passages might be cited in which
A ^ i r x 11- x j i-
Ar. speaks of nature as of an intelligent and consciously acting being
-
i
1
represented
by Ar. as an
-i .
2
Tol<; (Jiev ouv SXXot<; ecm xa(X7rTo<; xal a9ov&uXou<; e/cov ,
ol Se Xiixoi
xal XCOVTE^ fiovoaTOUv TOV au/eva e'^oumv e^Xe^e yap Y] cpucns OTUCO^ rcpcx;
33 9
c. Ib., Ill 8, 67ob -67ia :
UCTSWI;, Y)v e'x oucriv ev TO> (Jioptcp TOUTCO, SI^IQTLXOC TS TaijT* earl
TCOV ^coo)v, xal SetTai Tpocp^ ou (JLOVOV T^<; ^Y)pa<; aXXa xal TTJ<; uypac;
,
WCTT' e^ avayx7)(; xal TrepiTTOifxa ytvedOai TuXetov xal (xy)
TOCTOUTOV
[JLOVOV 8o~ov 6^6 TYJC; xotXiac; Tr^TTeaOai xal exxpiveaOai [XSTOC TOU Taunr)^ TTE-
d. Ib., IV 5, 682 a 6 - 8 .
Ar. is speaking here about insects which continue to live after they have been
1
Mansion, p. 261, notes 31-36, cites 20 passages, and in addition the whole
treatise on The Parts of Animals.
2
Sc.
90 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [5]
cut into pieces. The reason of this is, he says, that in such insects as have long bodies
the central organ, which is the seat ot perception, consists of several parts.
BouXsTOU [Jiev yap T) cpiidic; ev Tram [JLOVOV ev 7rot,elv TO TO&OUTOV *, ou Suva-
(jLevv)
8' evepyeia TTOISL (JLOVOV ev, SuvajjLet, 8e rcXeico SvjXov 8' ev eTpoi<; erepcov
[xaXXov.
e. D0 g. anim. Ill 2,
7 11
753 a - :
2
Eoixe Se xal y] 9u<7tc; poiiXecrGat, TTJV TCOV TSXVCOV aEaOijartv eTUfjLeXYjTtxvjv
aaxeua^eiv aXXa TOI^ [Jiev xeipoat, TOUT' e[jL7coieZ f^exP 1 TO ^ fs^etv (JLOVOV,
L<; Se xal Tcepl TT]V TeXecoaiv, 6<roc Se 9povL(jia>Tpa, xal Tcepl T'^v sxTpocpYjv.
4- 9
f. Ib., IV 10, 778 a .
In the preceding lines the author has spoken about the influence of the so-called
natural periods (day and night, month and year) on the generation of living
beings. He continues:
3
BouXeTai (Jiev
ouv
TOU; TOUTCOV api0(JLou;
7) apiO(JLtv Ta^ ysveaeLc;
<pu<7L<;
4
xal TOC^ TeXeuTac;, oux axpipol Se Sia Te TYJV T*^ uXvj^ aopio~Tiav xal Sia TO
ytveaOai TcoXXac; ap^a<;, at Tag yeveaeig Tag XOCT& ^uatv xal Tag 90opag e(JL7uo-
Si^ouaat TroXXaxig aiTiat. TCOV Tiapa ^UGLV CTU^TTITCTOVTCOV eiatv.
4
Cp. Phys. II 8, 994 b : xa ^ TC^ TEpara a[JiapT7)(jLaTa exetvoo TOU 2vex TOD.
Many instances of the same metaphorical use might be adduced from modern
writers, and this not in popular works only.
Cp. in Bergson's Evolution crdatrice the frequent use of terms like "nature has
to triumph over resistances"; she "finds" or "tries different solutions for the same
problem"
1
she "operates not in this, but in that way" 2 etc.
; ;
which is of an early date, still adhered to, or at least was not far away from, Plato's
religious conviction that a god or a divine Mind must have created the order of
the sensible world. We can imagine that, only a few years later, the same author
detached himself from this conviction.
503 Chapters 4-6 deal with chance and spontaneity (TU^ and <XUTO-
(JLOCTOV), which are generally considered as causes of many things in nature.
First, they are said to be neither the cause of things which always come to pass
in the same way, nor of those which mostly do so.
The next distinction made by Ar. is that between things which happen TIVO<;
Ivexa and others which do not. Chance and spontaneity occur in the first group.
We cite the text.
17 - 32
a. Phys. II 5, 196 b :
Twv 8k yivo^Jilvcov TOC p.ev evsxa TOD yiyveTai, T(* ^' ^ "
TOOTCOV 8k T<X JJLSV
20 STjXov OTI xai ev TO<; Trapa TO avayxatov xat TO &$ ITU TroXu SCTTW evta Trepl
a evSe^eTai i>7uapxsw TO evexa TOD. "EorTi 8* Svexa TOD 8aa TC OCTUO Siavoia^
av TrpaxQe^ xat oVa arco 9ti(T6)<;.
Ta Sr) TOtauTa OTav xaTa (TUfJipepTjxo^ yevyjTai, OCTTO TU^^ 9afJLev slvai.
f
25 'Qa7rep yap xal- 8v IGTI TO [lev xaO* auTO TO 8k XOCTOC au(JLpepY]x6<;, OUTCO xal
aiTiov evS^eTai, elvai, olov oixtac; xa6* auTO [JLEV aiTtov TO otxoSojJiixov, xaTa
s
1
Reason (in man) and instinct (in animals) are, according to Bergson, "different
solutions for the same problem".
2
Not by composition or construction, like a human artisan, but by division.
The "method" of nature is put in opposition to the method of man. Yet, nature
"operates" after some intelligible method!
8
Our nr. 427.
Q2 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [503]
KaOdbrep o5v eXe^O^ foav ev TOI<; evexa TOU yiyvofjievoic; TOUTO yeV/jTai, 3
TOTS X^yeTai daro TauTOjiaTou xal OCTTO TUX*/]?. AUT&V 8e 7tp6<; #XXY)Xa TYJV
instance 33 3
fo ft f 196 b -ig7 a : an instance of chance.
Olov gvexa TOU aruoXapelv TO apyupiov YjX6ev av, xo(juopie~vou TOV epavov,
*
el f)8ei ?]X6e 8* ou TOUTOU evexa, aXXa (juve^Y) auTco eXOelv, xal TtoiYJcrai TOUTO
TOU xo[AiaaaOai evexa 2
TOUTO 8e ou8* co<; em TO TioXu cpotTcov ei^ TO ^capiov
OUT* e^ dvayxY)<; e'cm Se TO TeXo<;, r\ xo^iSr), ou TCJV ev auTto atTtcov, aXXa TWV
TrpoaipeTcov xai, aruo Siavoia^ xal XyeTai ye TOTe OCTIO TUX^C; eXOeiv-
Definition ft 5-6
c> 157 a :
AvjXov apa OTL y) TU^T) aWa xaTa au(jLpepr)xo<; ev TOIC; xaTa rcpoaipeaiv
evexa TOU.
Automaton 504 36
~b 8
b 13- 18
a. Phys. II 6, I97a ;
:
notion than Aia^pepei 8 OTI TO auTOfiaTOv eTil TrXeiov ecm* TO (Jtev yap OCTTO TUX"/)?
tyche ^Q J
TauTOfJicxTou, TOUTO S ou Trav OCTTO TUy)^. *H (Jiev yap TU^IQ xal TO (XTTO 19?
b
TUX*/)^ ea-Ttv oaoi^ xal TO euTu^^ai av uTuap^etev xal oXco<; 7rpa^t(;. Ai6 xal
avayxY) Tuepl Ta TrpaxTa elvai TYJV TU^V S' OTI Soxet ^TOI, TauTov *
c77](jLel'ov
1
elvat TYJ euSaifjiovia Y] euTU/ia Y] eyyuc, Y)
S euSaifjiovta 7upat<; Tig euirpa^ia yap. 5
f/
liaO' oTTocroig (JLY) evSexeTai rcpa^ai, ouSe TO a;c6 TU^^ TI Troi^aaL. Kal Sta
TOUTO ouTe a^u^ov ouSev OUTC OYjpfov ouTe Trat-Stov ouSev Tioiet a7ro TU/Y^,
OTI oux e/ei Trpoaipeortv
s
To 8 auTO(jtaTov xal TO^ aXXoig ^cooig xal TroXXotg TO>V a^6x wv ?
^ ov
LTTTUOC; auT6(jLaTog, 9a(jiev, Y^XOev, STL eaa>0Y) [xev eX6a>v, ou TOU aco0YJvai 8e 15
evexa 9)XOev. Kal 6 TpiTiouc; auT6(iaTog xaTeTteaev eaTY) [xev yap TOU xaOYJcrOai
J
1
the reading xo^o^evou is right, we must render: "A man gets back his
If
money from his debtor who (at the very moment the other enters the market)
is receiving contributions for a feast. He could have gone to the spot for the purpose
of getting back his money, but" etc.
2
If the words TOO must be kept here, it is necessary to put a
xojjLtaaaOai 2vexa
comma after iXOetv: "But he went
some other reason, and now, (in fact), he
for
has done it for the sake of receiving his money". The expression of this idea
might seem to us rather strange. Bonitz simply ejected TOU xopUaadOat vexoc, and
this might appear to the modern reader a highly attractive solution. Yet, I do
think it possible that Ar. wrote these words. Cf. 197 b 17 (our next nr.), where he
says of the tripod that it "came to stand there so as to serve for a seat", though it
did not fall for that use.
[504] PHYS. ii
93
18 - 22 Definition
b. Ib., 197 b :
f/
l<7T <pavsp6v 8n ev TOI^ aTrXw^ evexa TOU yivo^vot^, 8rav JJI
Ar. answers: the material cause is tbv oux aveu, but the final cause is
34 10
a. Phys. II 9, 199 b -2OO a :
Traaiv, ev OCTOK; TO evexa TOU eaTtv, oux Sveu (xev TCOV avayxaiav I/OVTCOV TYJV
10 9uatv, ou [xevTOi ye Sta TauTa aXX' ^ coc; uXyjv, aXX' evexa TOU.
Oavepov STJ 8Tt TO avayxal'ov ev TOC^ ^uatxolc; TO co<; uXrj Xey6(xevov xal at
at TauTTjc;. Kal ajji^w [Jtev
TCO 9uaix(o XexTeai at aluaL, jxaXXov Se y]
Svexa amov yap TOOTO TTJ<; uXv]c;, dXX' ou^ auTT] TOU TeXou<;.
Mansion l concludes Finality, then, is according to Ar. the normal rule of nature,
:
TcoXXaxu; TCO X6y<o TCO TOU dbcetpou, co^ TO etc; oareLpov SiaipeTOv auve^<; 8v.
8k TOUTOK; Sveu TOTTOU xal xevou xal ^povou XLVY]aiv aSiivaTov elvat.
Introd., p. 327.
94 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [506]
b. Ib., b 26- 28 :
[Zv ToSe TI, TO 8e TocrovSe, TO Se TOtovSe, xal ETU TCOV SXXcov T&V TOU 6vTO<;
xar/jyopicov ojiotox;.
Definition c J^ ^ 2 OI a 10 - 11 1
73
TOU SuvafJiei o v T o <; IvTfiX^xeia, f) TOLOUTOV, x -
v Y)
a i <; aT i v.
OIov TOU [lev aXXoicoTou, fj aXXoicoTov, <xXXoicoCTi<;, TOU Se au^vjTou xal TOU
avTixeijjlvou 90iTou (ouSev yap ovofxa xotvov ITT' a^^otv) au^Y]ai^ xal 90t
TOU 8e Y ev7 T0 ^ xa ^ ^QapTou yeveatc; xal ^Oopa, TOU Se ^opyjTou 9opa.
)
Now motion is: actualizing the y-ness (the building of the house).
Space is
212 a 14- 20
motionless
b. Ib.,
o
f,
coaTcep TO
x ,
:
M ,
6 Tra^.
not= motion 'Eirel Se SOXSL (jiaXiaTa elvai xal TL<; 6 /povo<;, TOUT*
xivY)ai<; (JLeTapoXv)
av ELY) <JX7UTOV. 'H (JLV OtJV Xa<TTOU [XCTapoXY] Xal XtVYjat^ V aUTW TCO (JLTa- 10
1
TL is bracketed by Ross; Spengel, Bonitz and Prantl inserted T& B
after (jL6vov, a correction which has been adopted by Hardie in his translation.
[508] MOTION, SPACE AND TIME 95
'AXXa (JLYJV
ouS' <5tveu ye OTav yap
{JLeTa(3oX9j<; (jiYjSev auTol [jieTa(3aXX<0{Jiev change
TY)V Siavoiav ?) XaOa)(jiev fieTapaXXovTCc;, ou Soxei 7](juiv yeyovvai,
509 Time an
a. Time, then, appears to be a certain aspect of motion. aS P CCt f
TU d
2- 4
Ib., 219 a !
motion
Ss, sTcel y)Tou[jiev TI ecmv 6 xpw<^evTeuOev ap^o(jilvoi<;, TI
10 - 14 Motion
b. Ib., 219 a :
xivY)at(; eaTi auve^v)^, 8ta Se TTJV xivyjaiv 6 /povo<; OCTYJ yap YJ xivyjaK;, TOCTOUTOC;
xal 6 XP^ V S && SOXSL yeyovevat.
T^ Oeaei eicel 8' ev TO) fjieyeOsi, saTl TO TTpoTepov xal uarepov, avayxv) xal ev
xivyjaei elvat TO TcpoTepov xal uaTSpov, avaXoyov TOL<; exei. 'AXXa (JLT]V
xal ev
^povco IcrTl TO TcpoTepov xal ucjTepov Sta TO axoXouOstv asl OaTepco OaTepov
20 auTcov. "EaTi Se TO TrpOTepov xal uaTepov ev not identical
TYJ xtvyicei. o ptev TIOTE ov xtvyjaic;
i ,r ~ / , / ,
with motion x
1
SGTIV TO (jtVTOi eivai auTco Tpov xat ou xtvYjai^.
-
1 -2 Definition
510 a. Ib., 219 b :
1
As to its substratum it is identical with motion yet
; it differs from it in essence.
96 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [5ll]
Existence 4- 9
511 a. Phys. IV 12, 221 a :
xal TO elvai auTTJS' a[ia yap TYJV xlVqaLV xal T& elvai Tyj xivyjaei
xal TOUT' e<m aoTfl TO ev XP^ V< ) elvai, TO [xeTpeLaOaL aoT>j<; TO elvaL.
!
AyjXov 8* STL xal TOL<; aXXoL<; TOUT* e<m TO ev XP^ VC elvaL, TO [jieTpet<T0aL
auTcov T& elvai UTTO TOO
Eternal b. 221 b 3- 7
Ib., :
Se TOUTOU STL ouSe Tuaaxst ouSev OTTO TOO XP^ VOU ^^ ^ K ov^a ev
Rest, too, is
^ Jj-)j 221 b 7 - 12 :
'
8* earlv 6 xp^ v ^ pteTpov xLVYjaeco^, ecTaL xal Y]pe(jLLac; jxeTpov xaTa
Tcaaa yap y]pe[JLLa ev xpovco. Ou yap co<J7rep TO ev xLvyjaeL ov avayxY)
,
OUTCO xal TO ev xpovco ou yap XLVTJCLC; 6 xp6 v ?5 4^' apL6{ji6c; XLVY)-
ev aL0Jia> 8e
Would there 5J2 At the end of this book Ar. raises the important question
there were whether there would be time if there were no soul, i.e. if there were no
no soul?
knowing subject which could "count" or measure. He replies by saying
that, in this case, there would still be movement, which is the "sub-
stratum" of time (TOUTO 6 TIOTC ov eaTiv 6 xpovo<0, but not its measurable
aspect, which is "time".
21 29
Phys. IV 14, 223 a - :
in a finite magnitude resides a finite force, and this could not be the
cause of eternal motion. The firstMovent, then, is incorporeal.
Ar. finally argues that the first Movent must be at the circumference
of the world, because here the movement is quickest and therefore
nearest to the Source.
We cite the end of Ar.'s exposition, where he resumes his main
argument.
Phys. VIII 10, 267a
21
-b 9 :
the theory of
~ the Primc
>
8' ev TOU; oScriv avdcyxY) XIVYJCTIV elvat auve^vj, OCUTY) 8e (xta eaTiv, dvayxYj Mover in
ys *
8e TYJV [Jiiav fJieyeOouc; T TLVOC; elvat (ou yap xivetTai TO ajjtiyeOec;), xal ev6<;
s
xal 69' evos (ou yap SCFTOCI <iuvexY)<;, aXX exofJiivY) erlpa eTepa<; xal 8iY)pYj{jivY)),
25 TO SY] xivouv et 2v, YJ xivotifjievov xivet, YJ OCXIVYJTOV 8v. El [i^v SY] xivoufxevov,
cuvaxoAouOeLv SSYJOTEI, x xal (XETapaXXstv auTo, ajia 8e xiveicrOat UTTO Tivoq.
2
6yb ^CTTE GT/jareTai et^ T6 xtvLCT0ai UTUO axivvjTou
xal yj^ei TOUTO yap oox
3
avayxY] au[X{jLeTapaXXsi,v, aXX* aei TS SuvYjaeTai xtveov (STTOVOV yap TO OUTW
xiveiv ) xal 6fJLaXv)<; auTT) Y) xtvy]cri<;, ?) (JLOVYJ 7^ [xaXiaTa ou yap 2^ei
'AvayxY) SYJ YJ
ev (xecrco Y)
ev xiixXco elvai 4<
auTat yap al apxai 5 'AXXa Ta- .
XtarTa xivetTat TOC eyyuTaTa TOU XIVOUVTO?, ToiauTYj 8* Y) TOU oXou xivY)ai<;'
exei &a TO xivouv.
epcofxevov.
1
subject to the same conditions as
auvaxoXouGetv Se^aei- "it will have to be
if more unmoved movers are admitted (as Ar. teaches in A 8), so for each heavenly
sphere.
Now the first point is against logic, the second against the view of modern science.
the Prime 515 What Ar. says further in Metaph. A, must be seen in connection
Metaph. A with his doctrine of matter and form and of potency and act, which
is expounded in the books Z- (see our next chapter). We met with
these principles in Phys. I-II.
(1) the indefinite, form the determining. In the physical world form
Matter is
and matter are united in the physical objects. But form can exist by itself, not in
physical, but in metaphysical reality. The highest being, which as prime cause is
at the beginning of all motion, must be pure form without matter.
(2) In order to explain the fact of physical change, Ar. assumes a potential
being. This is something real (e.g. an acorn can become an oak, never a beech),
but it must be brought to full reality (vpyeia or IvTeX^xeta) by an efficient cause.
Therefore the definition of motion, given sub 506c. God, then, as supreme being,
must be full reality or completion, and therefore absolutely necessary.
God as the a A 4 11
Metaph.' 7, 1072 b - :
absolutely _,, , T ., , , rf ._ .
,
necessary &* ouv TI xiveiTai, evoex^at xai aXXox; X eiv O)(JT ei L*)J <pop<* rcpomq
f*ev > 4,
being v pyeia ecmv, fj xiveLTat, TOCUTY) ye evSex Tai &&<**$ e'xsw, xara TOTCOV, xal
.fj
el [!>)
XOCT* ouaiav eTcel 8e 2<m TI XLVOUV auTo axivYjTov ov, evepyeia 8v, TOUTO
oux evS^x e ^ ai aXXco^ e'xstv ouSa(jL6>^. ^opa yap Y] TrpcoTY] TCOV (JieTapoXcov, rauTT)^
Sfe T] x\ixXo> Toctrnqv 8e TOUTO xivcL e^ dcvayx7)<; <5cpa SGTIV ov xal fj avayxy), 10
xaXcoc;, xal OUTCO<;
On this x
]
ToiauTY]<; apa ap/% ^pT7)Tai 6 oupavo^ xal YJ 9\icri^.
the universe One might justifiably call this a monotheistic principle. We find it expressed
depends again at the end of the same book:
c. Metaph. A 10,
3 4
1076 a - .
In the preceding lines Ar. rejects the theory of Speusippus, who assumed mathe-
matical number as first principle, instead of the Platonic Ideas and ideal Numbers.
He rejects it on the ground, that by this theory a multiplicity of dtp/at would be
introduced.
516 Ar. now undertakes to describe the life and character of his
Prime Mover.
[516] THE PRIME MOVER 99
1 ^ 80
a. Metaph. A 7, 1072 b :
ThtUtoo*
the Prime
, 15 AtaY<>Y^ 8* laTlv ota ^ ip(<rn) (juxpov xpovov :?)(uv. ofiTco yofcp Ael ixeivo Mover
(J)fjuv fi4v Y<fcp AStivaTov), fcrcel xal ^SovJ) ?) ivlpyeta Tofoou (xal 8ti TOUTO
J)
84 v6r]ai^ ?)
xa6* aurJjv TOU xaO* a^To iptcrrou, xal ^ (xdcXiaTa TOU fzdcXterra.
'IpYsia 84 Y)
xa6* auryjv Ixetvou ^oi-Jj Aptcnry) xal dltSioc;. q>a|JL4v
our answer must be Certainly not that of Creator to creation. First, Ar. assumes
;
eternal matter; so he does not know creation in the biblical sense of the word.
Secondly, his God does not know the world. He only knows Himself, and to Ar.
this knowledge does not include any knowledge of the world 6 on the contrary, ;
it excludes it.
1
the value of knowledge and perception in itself cp. Metaph. A i.
On
coming into contact with its objects. Cp. nr. 559b (Metaph.
1 - in
Oifydcvwv
10, 1051 b 24 1).
8
TOUTO - the actual possession of its object is rather the Setov which thought
seems to contain in itself, than "that" (xe(vou), sc. than the mere SCXTIXOV elvat
TOO VOTQTOU.
4
These words have been chosen by Werner Jaeger as a motto for his Aristotle.
Thomas Aquinas, who explained Ar. with great benevolence, found the
8
S.
way to a larger interpretation: directly the divine Mind knows only itself, but in
Himself God knows all things. ("Nee sequitur quod omnia alia a se ei sunt ignota;
nam intelligendo se intellegit omnia alia. 11 ) So also in Brentano, who christianizes*
Ar. even far more than S. Thomas did.
100 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE [5*7]
a. Metaph. A 8,
14 16
1073 a - a^-b 1
; :
IIoTepov 8k fjuav OETOV TTJV TOtaiinqv ouatav T) 7rXe[ou^, xal Tc6<ra<;, SSL
JJL7)
XavOavetv x .
15
'H [Jiev yap ap^T) xa ^ T0 rcpcoTov TCOV SVTCOV OCXIVTJTOV xal xa6' auTo xat xaTa
dUfjipepYjxoi;, xivouv 8e TTJV TUpcoTTjv atSiov xal p,iav xtvTjmv ?cel Se T& xivoii- 25
(jievov avayxT) UTCO TIVOC; xivetaOai, xal TO TrpcoTov xivouv axtvvjTOv slvat xaO*
auTo, xal TTJV atSiov XIVYJCILV OTTO al'Stoo xivetaGaL xal TTJV fjLiav 69* ev6<;, 6poJ(JLev
S^ Tuapa TTjv TOU rcavTog TYJV a7rX9jv ^opav, *^v xtveiv ^a^xev TTJV TrpcoTTjv ouaiav
xal axCvyjTov, SXXac; ^opac; ouaac; TCX^ TCOV TcXavyjTcov aiStou<; (atSiov yap xal 30
aaraTov TO xuxXci acajjia SeSeixTai 8* ev TOL<; 9uaLxot<; x Tiepl ToiiTwv), avayxTj
xal TOUTCOV exaaTYjv TCOV cpopcov UTU* axtvyjTou Te xtvetaOat xa6* auTYjv xal
al'Stou ouatac;. 73 Te yap TCOV <5caTpo>v 9\i(TLc; atSto<; ouata TI<; o5aa, xal TO xtvoov 35
atStov xal 7rp6Tpov TOU xtvoufji^vou, xal T& 7Tp6Tepov oua(a<; ouatav avayxatov
slvai. <pavep6v TOLVOV STI ToaauTa^ TE ouata<; avayxatov elvat TYJV TC cpiicriv at'Stou^
xal dxivY]Tou<; xa0* auTac;, xal aveo (jLeyeOou<; Sta TYJV etpYj^vyjv aLTtav TcpoTCpov. b
fjLev o5v etalv outrtai, xal TOUTCOV Ti TrpcoTT] xal SeuTepa xaTa TTJV ao
Ta<; 9opat<; TCOV &<TTpcov, ^avepov T& Se TrXYjOo^ i^Sy] TCOV ^opcov ex
aaTpoXoyta<; auTT} yap ruepl ouatac; aia6y]T7j<; fjiev ai'Stoo Se TcotecTai TTJV Oecopiav,
at S* &XXat Tiepl ouSe(JLia<; ouaiac; 2 , olov T^ Te Trepl TOIX; apiOfJioix; xal TTJV yeco-
TrevTTjxovTa Te xal rcevTe. et Se TTJ aeXTjVT) Te xal Tcp TjXtco [JLTJ TcpoarTiOeiT) TLC;
a; eiTiofjLev xLVT]crei<;, at Tcacrat ^atpat eaovTat eTUTa Te xal TecraapdxovTa.
TO jiev o5v 7rX^6o<; TCOV <79ai,pcov CCTTCO TOCFOUTOV, ciaTe xal T<X<; ouatac; xal T<X<; 15
dpxa<; Tac; (XXLVTJTOOC; [xal Ta<; aLa0T)T<x<;] ToaaiiTa<; eoXoyov
1
Cf. Phys. VIII 8, 9; De caelo I 2, II 3-8.
2
Ar. states here without mathematics have no ouaCai as
any hesitation, that
their object. In E
sub 487b) the formula is by no means so categorical.
i (cited
Our passage, then, seems to have been written rather late, at any rate at some
posterior date than E i.
3
dbraacov - sc. TCOV a9aiptov, both those which move the planets and those which
"roll them back", counteracting the motion of certain spheres admitted by Eudoxus
and Callippus, so that the first motion is restored. Vid. Heath, Aristarchus of Santos,
p. 217 ff.
[518] THE PRIME MOVER IOI
than the rest of book A. Jaeger, who devotes a whole chapter to this
2
question estimates the interval at some twenty years at least Mansion
, ;
Metaph. A 8,
14 23
1073 a - :
IIoTepov 8e [juav BETOV TYJV TOIOCUTTJV ouaiav vj TrXsiouq, xal Troaou;, Set [JLYJ
4 aXXa
15 XavOaveiv [JLS{jLV7J<rOat xal TQC<; TCOV <3tXXcov a7co9a<7ei<;, OTI Trspl 7rXy)0ou<;
ou0ev sipvjxaa-iv 6 TI xal <ra9e<; etTretv. 7) JJLSV yap Tiepl TOCC; t&ea<; u7u6Xyj^i,<; ou&e-
(juav xei <ixe^iv iStav (apiOfjioOc; yap Xeyoucri TCX<; tS^ac; ol Xeyovrec;
20 Tcepl Se TCOV apt,0(jicov OTE (Jtev cog Tcepl aTCSLpcov Xyoucn,v OTE e co^
5
copio'fJL^vcov Si* Y)V 8* aiTtav TOCTOUTOV TO TrXyjOoc; TCOV apt,0(JLcov,
31 88
Except the passage 1074 b - ("Ort 8i etc; oopavo<;, 9<xvepov E.q.s.), which
1
seems to be an early fragment, embedded in a chapter written rather late in Ar.'s life.
2
Aristotle, p. 342-367.
3
The reference is
to 279a 19 - 24 where Ar. speaks of -rdcxet, i.e. that which is outside
,
the heaven, as being above place and time, immutable and immovable.
4
This part of the opening sentence has been cited above, sub 517a.
5
We
dealt with this text in 366.
FOURTEENTH CHAPTER
THE METAPHYSICS
i THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS
519 What is the object of metaphysics (in Metaph. A indicated by
the term ac^ia) ? Ar. answers in the opening chapters of this book:
Wisdom is knowledge of the first causes.
21 23
Metaph. A, i and 2, 980 a -g83 a :
Value of
knowledge ,
IIavTe<; avOpcoTroi
,
r
xai yap
TOU eiSevai opeyovTai
N
x^P 1 ^ Ty)^ XP
, ,
cpiiaei.
ia ^ ayaTrcovTai dt
*,%/*
crYiuetov 8' YJ
#XXcov 7)
Sia TCOV 6(jL(jiaTCov. ou yap {jiovov tva TupaTTCofjiev aXXa xal [Ji7)8ev [
TtpaTTeiv TO opav atpou(jLe6a OCVTL TTOCVTCOV co<; SITCSLV TCOV #XXcov. atTiov S* STI 25
(jiaXicTTa Tuoiel yvcopi^ecv Y](Jiac; ai>TY) TCOV alaOvjcrecov xal 7roXXa(; SyjXo
*
Its genesis
O\iaei (JLSV
o5v aLa07](Tiv lx ovTOC ytyveTai TOC ^coa, ex Se TaiJT7)(; TO<;
auTcov oux eyytyvsTai (JLVYjfr/), Tot<; S* eyyiyvsTai,. xal Sia TOUTO TauTa
[icoTepa xal fjLa07)TixcoTpa TCOV [JIT] SuvafJtevcov [xvYjfxovetisiv CIT, ^povifia JJLEV
TI TOIOUTOV SXXo yevo<; ^cocov SCTTI), [JiavOavei S* 8aa ?rp6<; T|j (^VY](JL7]
xal Tarinqv 525
TlcoXoc;, Y)
8* aTretpta TUXY]^- 5
Difference 3
FtyveTai 8e T^X^ ^<*v ex TcoXXcov TYJ<; efiTreiptac; evvoYjfJtaTCOv [ila. xaOoXou
experience yvY)Tai Trepl TCOV ofjtotcov UTCoXyj^K;. TO [Aev yap exeiv UTroXyj^tv OTI KaXXfa
and science voaov ToSl auv/jveyxe xal ScoxpaTet xal xa0* SxadTov OUTCO
xajjivovTi TYjvSl TYJV
1
The following passage should be compared with Anal. post. II 19 (our nr. 465) .
xajivouat TYjvSl TYJV v6<iov, auvyjveyxev, olov TOI^ 9Xey(jiaTa>8eaiv ?) x^^ e<Jt
Ilpo<; {JL^V o3v T& TcpaTTSiv ejjuueipia Txvy3? ouSev Soxel 8ia9peiv, aXXa
* 2
xal (laXXov eTUTuyxavoixnv ol 2(jL7ceipot T&V Sveu TYJ<; s|ji7retpta<; X6yov
15 IXOVTCOV (aiTiov 8* 6ri y) fjiev IjjiTueipla T&V xa9' exaar6v SCTTI yv&aris 7)
8e
TexvTj T(ov xa06Xou, ai 8k Tupa^ei? xal at yev^aetc; Traaai Tuepl T6 xa6* 2xacrT6v
etdiv ou Y^P SvOpcoTrov uyta^et 6 taTpeuwv aXX* ^ xara au(jipepY)x6(;, aXXa
3
20 KaXXiav ScaxpaTTjv Y) TWV SXXcov TLVCX TO>V OUTO> Xeyop^vtov 4> (TUfjipepTjxev )
7^
av0pa)7cco elvai eav o5v &veu TYJ<; ejiTuetpta^ S^lf] TI? TOV Xoyov, xal TO xaOoXou
J
taaatv (TOIX; 8', axiTrcp xal T&V a^ux^v evta TCOLS! (Jiev, oux el86Ta 8e
(
Troiet, olov xatet, TO
Tcijp (Jiev
ouv a^uxoc 9uo~ei Ttvl Tuotelv TOUTWV exaaTov
T<X
cjyjfjLelov TOU etSoToe; xal (JLTJ etSoTO^ TO SiivaaOat, StSaaxeiv eciTtv, xal 8ia TOUTO teach
15 avOptoTicov {!}) (JLOVOV Sia TO xp^^ v stvai TL TWV eupe0evT(ov aXX' cae; ao9ov
xal 8ia9epovTa TCOV SXXtav TcXeiovcov 8' eupicrxofjisvcov Texveov xal TCOV (iev
x
rcpog Tavayxata TCOV e Ttpog Siaycoy/jv ouacov, ael ao9coTpoug Toug TOioircoug
exetvcov u7coXa(jipavea0ai Sia TO (173 Tcpog XP^ atv e ^vat - T(*<? e7ut<7TYj[jiag auTcov. 20
Purely "OOev YjSYj TravTCOv TCOV TOIOIJTCOV xaTeaxeuaaruevcov at LIT) Trpog YiSovYjv tnnSe
theoretical , , ~ , , A , , ,. , ,
science was rcpog Tavayxata TCOV eTuaTYjjicov eupevbjaav, xat rcpcoTov ev TOUTOig TOig TOTCOig
invented Sio Tuepl AiyuTtTov at {jLaOvjfiaTtxal rcpokov
ofoep ecr^oXacrav
aav, exet yap a^eiOv) crxoXa^eiv TO TCOV tspecov
2
EtpYjTai, [jiev o5v ev TOI<; Y)Oi,xoL(; T^ Sia9opa T^xv<y)? xa ^ ewiaTYJpiY]^ xal TCOV 25
<5cXXcov TCOV ofjioyevcov ou 8' evsxa vuv TcoiotifieOa TOV Xoyov TOUT* SCTTIV, OTL
3
LevY]v ao9tav Tuepl TOC TrpcoTa a?Tia xal T<X<; ap^a<; UTcoXapLpavouat
xaOaTrsp etpyjTat TupoTepov, 6 JASV l[X7rsipoc; TCOV oTTOiavouv
COSTS,
wisdom is TCOLa<; atTia<; xal rcepl 7ioia<; apx^ e7cicrTY)pLYj ao9ta eciTtv. et SYJ Xapoi TI<; Tat; 5
concerned TOU 00901!, Tax' av ex TOUTOU 9avep6v yvoiTO (JiaX-
67coXYj<J;eig ag e'xofjiev Trepl
5
Xov. u7coXa[xpavo[JLev SYJ rcpcoTOv (xev em(7Ta<70ai TravTa TOV <ro9ov cog evSexsTai ,
[XYj
xaO' SxaaTOv e'xovTa eTriaTYjfJLYjv auTcov efaa TOV TOC x^XeTra yvcovai Suva- 10
[zevov xal HYJ paSia av0pco7rco yiyvcoaxeiv, TOUTOV ao9ov (TO yap aicr0avecT0ai
TravTCOv xoivov, Sto paStov xal ouSev ao9ov ) eTi TOV axptp^CTepov xal TOV
SiSaaxaXtxcoTepov TCOV aiTicov (T09coTepov elvai Trepl Ttaaav eTriaTYjjjiYjv xal
TCOV e7TicTTYj(jLcov 8e TYJV auTY^g evexev xal TOU eiSevat X^P tv atpeTYjv oucjav [xaXXov 15
elvai O09^av TQ TYJV TCOV a7ro(3aLvovTcov evexev, xal TYJV apxixcoT^pav TYjg
axs86v 8e xal x a^ 7i: ^ TaTa ^a^^a yvcopi^eiv TOtg avOpcoTroig, T<X (jiaXicTTa
xa06Xou (TUOppcoTaTCo yap TCOV atc0Yjaecov eaTiv), axpip<JTaTai 8e TCOV 711-25
ciTYjfjLcov at [JicxXiciTa TCOV TrpcoTcov etaiv (at yap e eXaTT6vcov axptpldTepaL
7
TCOV ex 7ipoaOaecog XeyojJievcov ,
olov api,0(jLYjTixYj yecojjieTptag ) aXXa [JLYJV
xal SiSaaxaXixYj ye YJ
TCOV aiTicov 0ecopYjTixYj (jtaXXov (O^TOI yap SiSaaxouariv,
1 -
7up6<; Staycoyvjv Tupog TO eu ^TJV.
3
Eth. Nic. VI
Ii3 9 b *-ii 4 i b.
1
3,
8 - elsewhere called first
T. 6vo(jLa^o(jLV7]v oo9^av philosophy.
4
T. TuoirjTixtov - those which produce concrete results.
6 ~ as ^ar as
cog ^V^XSTOCI possible.
6 TuAvTa Ta wroxetiieva - all the instances that fall under the universal.
7
We explained this sentence sub 488b.
[519] THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS IO5
*E^ aTcavTCOv o5v T&V slpTjfievwv em TYJV auT7]v e7ci(JT7)(jiY)v TciTTTet TO J^TJTOU-
(jtevov ovofxa Set yap TauTTjv TOW 7rpa>Ta>v ap^wv xal aiTLtov elvai 6ecapy]Tix7)v
10 xal yap Taya66v xal TO ou evexa ev TCOV aiTtcov earTtv.
OTt 8 ou TCoiYiTixv]. SviXov xal ex TCOV TTOCOTCOV oiXoaocpyiCTavTCov Sta yap phil no
s
f/
-
dcTiopcov xal Oaufxa^cov oi'eTai ayvoelv (816 xal 6 cpiX6[jiu6o<; 91X0^096^ TTCOC;
U7uapx6vTCov TCOV avayxatwv xal 7cp6<; pa^TCovyjv xal Siaycoyyjv y) TotauTY] 9po-
s
5
vvjcTtc; ^p^aTO ^7)Teia6ai .
SvjXov oOv cbs; 8i ouSefjuav auTTjv ^YjTOujxev xpeiav
25 eT^pav, aXX' coaTuep av6pco7ro^, 9aaev, eXeuOepo<; 6 auTou evexa xal [JLYJ
aXXou
OUTCO xal auT7]v coc aovinv oucrav eXeuOepav TCOV Thereforethe
cov. e7ri<7TY]u.cov LLOVTI '
vapr
l
c t, , , only free
aoTY) auTY)c; evexev ecmv. science
Ato xal Sixaico^ av oux av6pco7rivY) VO(JLI^OITO auT7]<; r) XTTJ^K; TroXXaxf) yap
30 Y) 9ucn^ SouXyj TCOV avOpcoTccov ecrav, COCTTC xaTa SifxcoviS^v 0eo^ av (JLOVO<; TOUT*
6
yepac;u, avSpa 8* oux aEt-ov (JLT)
ou ^yjTelv TTJV xa6* auTOV eTucFTTjfjnqv .
(T^vat) at (JL^V Trpcx; Tavayxata, al 8k 7rp6<; Siaycoyyjv oSaai, the last being partly for the
material, partly for the spiritual or mental s& 9jv (xal 7rpo<; paaTcovYjv x. Siaytoyviv).
quotation, known to us by Plato's Protagoras
8 - The
(5tvSpa 8* oux <5cl;iov e.q.s.
341 e, continues: <5tv$pa 8* oux m
(r/) ou xax6v ^(levat (Edmonds, Lyrici II, p. 284).
oux a'Siov - "it is unfitting". Ar. again refers to this question in Eth. Nic. X, at
io6 METAPHYSICS [519]
90ovp6v EvS^XETai elvai, aXXa xaTcx TYJV 7rapoi[A(av TroXXa ^suSovTai aoi8o,
the most *
OU T T 9j<- TO iauTY)<; iXXYjv ^pY) vofxtt^Eiv TifxicoT^pav. Y) yap OEIOTOCTYJ xal Ti[xicoTa- 5
divine and
honourable f7 ) TOiauTY)
; ^\^~^\>/
av oix^^ ELY) JJIOVY)
/ f? \ ^
TE yap (JLaXiarT av o UEO*; EXO^, oEia TCOV
YJV
>-AA\/ /\/ ~
TCIOTY)(JLCOV EGTl, XOCV Et TL<; TCOV 0tCOV EtYj. (JLOVY] 8* aUTY) TOUTCOV (X{JL90T^pCOV
2
TETUX^XEV 8 TE yap 0o<; SOXEC TCOV atTtcov Tcaaiv filvai xal apx*/) TI^, xal
TYJV TOiauTYjv YJ (jLovo<; Y) {jLaXiaT* av ^ot o OEO^. avayxaioTspai (JLEV o3v Tracrai 10
I > / <N
TauTYjc;, ajxsivcov 6
Its final 3
Aet [xevTOL TTCO<; xaTacTTYJvai TYJV eic, TouvavTtov YjfjLtv
TCOV
result
^rjTY)<Tcav. apxovTai (Jiev yap, coarcep ,
OCTTO TOU Oaujia^siv
4
ec OOTCOJ; g^e ^ xa0a7rep <7cepl> TWV uTOfjtaTa [TOIC; (jnfjTueo
TE-
0eopY)x6<Tt TYJV aiTiav] Y) Trepl Ta^ TOU Y]Xiou Y) TYJV TY]<; Stafx^Tpou aaujji- 15
5
[jteTptav (0au(JLa(TTOv yap slvai Soxei Tca fjLY)7ra> TeOecopYjxoai TYJV
atTfav> ei TI TW eXaxtaTW [JLYJ
Sei Se
sic; TouvavTiov xal T& 4[xeivov
Metaph. B i,
24
995 a -9g6 a
17
:
x
List of ETcsXOsEv
'AvayxYj 7rp6<; TYJV ETU^YJTOUJJIEVYJV ETTLCTTYJIJLYJV Y)[Jia<; TtpcoTOv TUEJ
dbtopiai
cLv aTropYJaai SSL rcpcoTov TauTa 8* Ecrrlv oaa TE ruspl auTcov <XXco<; U7riXY)9aai 25
the end of ch. 7 (ii'77b 26 ): *O 8& TOIOUTCK; av etrj PIO? xpeiTTtov y) xaT* <5tv6po)7rov,
where he answers to this objection: Ou xpyj 8i xara TOU<; TrapaivoOvrac; av6p<omva
9povetv <5tv0p<o7rov 6vra ouSe OvrjTa T^V 6vY)T6v, aXX* 9* oaov IvSe^eTai aOavaT^eiv xal
TravTa TCOIEIV 7cp6<; T^ ^rjv xara T& xpaTiarov TWV ^v auToi (nr. 606b).
1 - "all those who
Travra^ TOIX; 7reptTTou(; occupy themselves with things which
do not concern them".
2 -
rraoiv of all things.
3
Set xaTaaTTJvat - must end in.
4 -
Taur6jjiaTa marionettes.
6
The incommensurability of the diagonal of a square with the side.
[520] THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS 107
Oetv ei<; TO 7up6cr6ev. 816 Sei TOC; Suaxepeiac, TeOecopYjxevai Ttaciac, TcpoTepov,
Totacov TS x<*P lv xal Sia TO TOU<; y)ToovTac. a*vi> TOO SiaTcopYJcrai TtpcoTOv 6(Jio(ouc
35eZvai TOIC, Trot SSL pa8t^iv ayvooucri, xal Tcpoc, TOUTOIC, ouS' e? TCOT TO frrjTOii-
)5b (jLvov stfpYjxsv Y) (JLYJ yiyvcoaxEiv
TO yap TfiXoc, TOUTCO (JLSV ou 89jXov TCO 8e rcpo-
YjTuopYjxoTi 89jXov. STL 8e p>.Tiov avayxY) ey etv Tupoc. TO xpivai TCV coaTisp avTiSCxcov
xal TCOV aiA-mcr^YjTO'JVTCov ) OYO>V axrjxooTa TcavTOjv. EOTL 8* aTuopia rcpcinr)
5 {x^v Tiepl 5iv ev TOL<; Trerppoi^tad^voic; 8iY)7Uop7)(ja[jLev, 7r6Tepov (jtia^ Y)
TcoXXcov
olov TtoTspov evSex2 ^* TauTO xal v a(j,a ^avai xal aTrooavai vj ou, xal 7C*pl
1-
10 TCOV iXXcov TCOV TotouTCov et T' cm Trspl TY)V ouaiav, TOTepov (jia TUSOI :ryaa(;
Y) TrXeiove^ eicn, xav el 7u?\eiovs(; TCOTS^OV ajuaaai auyyevcLc YJ TOC^ aev cooia;
Ta; 8e &X>o TI XexTSov auTtov xal TOUTO 8* auTO TCOV avayxaCcov eoTl CYjr^aai,
15 7u6Tspov Ta? aicr0Y]Ta^ oiaria^ slvai ptovov ^aTeov YJ
xal Tuapa TauTaj; aXXa;, xal
TOTEpov [jiovaxco^ Y) TtXeiova ycvY] TCOV ouaricov, olov 01 TCOIOUVTS^ Ta TS SL^Y] xal
Ta (jLaOYjfjiaTtxa (JieTa^u TOUTCOV TS xal TCOV ai<j9Y)Tcov. Tcepi TS TOUTCOV o5v,
xaOajcep 9a[xev 7 eTridxeTCTeov, xal TcoTspov Tiepl Tac; oucrtac; Y] Oecopia (JLOVOV
20 eaTtv Y) xal Tcepl Ta G\j[Lfi$r xoTa xa6* auTa Talc ouaiai^, 7>;p6<; Ss TOUTOL; Tcepl
TaoToij xal STepou xal ofjiotou xal avojioiou xal svavTLOTYjTOc., xal icepl TupoTSpou
xal ucTTepou xal TCOV aXXcov aTuavTcov TCOV TOLOUTCOV Tcepl ocrcov ol 8taXexTixol
TUStpCOVTat aXOTTSLV SX TCOV IvSo^COV (JLOVCOV 7UOlO\i(jLVOL TY]V CTX^IV, TIVOC, EGFTl
25 OccopY^crat Tcepl TOXVTCOV STI 8s TOUTOL^ auTotc. 8cra xa0* auTa <ri){jij3e[3Y]xev,
xal
fZY] fzovov TI <TTI TOUTCOV sxadTov aXXa xal apa sv svl svavTiov xal TUOTepov al
30 olov TuoTEpov J^coov Y] av9pco7Toc, ap^Y) ^ xal (xaXXov <TTI Tuapa TO xaO' xac7Tov.
the chief
xal TupayaaTSOTEOv TUOTpov (TTt Tt Tuapa TYIV uXYW atTtov
problem
xa6* auTO Y^
TOUTO x^p^^ov '0 oii, xal 7uoTpov v Y] TcXsico TOV dcptOfiov,
ou, xal
96aap^al TcoTepov apt,6(Jicp Y] L8i coptcr[JLvai, xal at v TOIC; Xoyoi; xal at v UTCO-
xi[xvco; xal TCOTEPOV TCOV cpOapTcov xal a90apTcov at auTal Y) eTepai, xal
th most
TcoTepov (fopOapTOi Tcacrai, Y) TCOV ^OapTcov cpOapTai; STL 8 TO TcavTcov x aX7cco- f
5 TaTov xal TcXeicrTYjv dcTcopiav E^OV, 7roTpov TO Sv xal TO ov, xaOaTCEp ol OuOayd-
pioi xal nXaTCOv SXyv, ou^ Tpov Tt ECTTIV aXX* oucrta TCOV SVTCOV, Y) ou,
aXX* Tpov TI TO u7coxL(Jievov, codTuep 'EfjLTcsSoxXYJc; ^Yjcn cpiXtav &XXo(; 8i TIC;
'
xal T<X [iY)XY] xal ax QlJLaTa xaVl a 1 ffTiyfial ouaiai Tive"<; etcriv Y) oO\ xav el
T<X i
yap TOUTCOV arcavTtov ou (Ji6vov /vXenov TO euTropYJaai TYJ<; aXY)0eia<; aXX* ouSe
T& SiaTtopYjaai T& Xoyto pciSiov xaX&<;.
These questions are dealt with throughout the following work.
7Tsl Ss Tac ap^a^ xal T<X<; axpOTdcTac; atTiac; ^7)Tou[JLv, 89jXov roc; ^uaecix; TIVO?
auTac; cxvayxaiov elvat, xa6* auT*/jv. SL ouv xal ot T<X aTo^s^a ^ v OVTCOV ^YJTOUV-
Tec; TauTa<; Ta^ ap^a<; I^YJTOUV, avayxv] xal Ta aToixe^<* T0 ^> OVTO<; elvai {JLYJ 30
5
xaTa aufjipepYjxoc; aXX /] 6V 8to xal 7)[JLtv TOU OVTO<; f) ov Tac; TipeoTa^ aiTia<;
522 Ar. continues speaking about the manifold senses of the term
"to be". As, then, science everywhere deals chiefly with that which is
primary, the philosopher has first to do with substances.
16 - 19
Ib. 2, 1003 b :
523 a. The philosopher must also consider the things that are in
mathematics called axioms, for these are true of all existing things, and
therefore no special science inquires into their truth.
19 -b 2
Metaph. T 3, ioo5a :
Phil, must AexT^ov Se TOTCpov ^ cTepa^ e7:i<TTY)(jLY)^ Trspt TS T&V ev TOL? (jLaOYjfjLacri
|ua<;
the axioms xaXou(Jievcov a^icofjiaTtov xal Trepl TYJ<; ouaiac;. ^avepov SYJ OTI |jua<; TC xal TYJC; 20
TOU cpiXoa6<pou xal Y) Trepl TOUTGW eaTl oxe^i^;* aTcaat yap UTcap^ei TOLC;
aXX' ou yevei Tivl x^pk ^ta TCOV <5cXXtov. xal xpto^^aL (lev TuavTec;, OTL TOU OVTO<;
eaTlv TI 6v, exaciTov Se TO yevo<; ov em TOCTOUTOV Se xp&VTai 9* oaov auTot^ 25
ixavov, TOUTO 8' ICTTIV oaov iniysi TO yevo<; Trepl o5 9^pouat Tat; ocTuoSet^eig*
COCTT' eTtel 89jXov STI YJ 8vTa urcapxet Ttacri (TOUTO yap auTOi<; TO xoiv6v), TOU
[523] THE OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS IOQ
Tcepl TO Sv yvcopt^ovToc; xal Trepi TOUTCOV ecnrlv 7) Oecopla. Siorcep ouOelc; TCOV xara
30|Jiepo<; emaxoTcouvTcov eyxeipet Xeyeiv TI Trepl auTcov, el 4X7)09] 7) [lyj,
OUTS yeto-
fjilTpTjs OUT* api6[ji7)TLx6<;, aXXa TCOV 9uaixcov e'vioi, elxoTcoc; TOUTO SpcovTe^-
fji6voi yap $OVTO Trepi Te TTJ<; 8X7)<; <puaeco<; crxoTtetv xal Trepl TOU OVTO^. ercel
8* ecmv STL TOU 91x11x01) TL^ avcoTepco (ev yap TI yevo^ TOU SVTOC; 7] 9iiart^),
35 TOU xaOoXou xal TOO Trepl TTJV Tcpa>T7]v oucnav OewpTjTixou xal 7) Trepl TOUTCOV
av etTj axl^K; eVci Se ao9ta TLC; xal 7) 9uaix7) aXX* ou T
o5v TOU 91X0(1690^ xal TOU Tcepl Tracnrj^ TYJS oucrtac; OetopouvTO^ and the law
f/
6 OTi fzev
^ TT^uxev, xal Tcepl TCOV auXXoyLCFTixtov ap^cov eaTlv eTuiaxe^aa0aL, STjXov diction
I0 pepaioT<xTa<; ap^a^ TOU Trpay[xaTo<;, coaTe xal TOV Trepl TCOV OVTCOV TJ
ovTa
TcavTCov pepaioTaTac;. ecm 8' OUTO^ 6 9iXoao9oc;. pepatoTaTT) 8* apx
Sia^euaO^vai aSuvaTov yvcopifjicoTaTTjv Te yap avayxaiov elvai TTJV
Ttepl T)V
15 V Y^P avayxatov ^xeiv TOV OTLOUV ^uvievTa TCOV SVTCOV, TOUTO oux UTCoOeaic;'
8 8e yvcop^eiv avayxatov TCO OTIOUV yvcopt^ovTi, xal TJxeiv ^x VTa avayxatov.
s
OTI [lev oijv pepatOTaTT) 7] ToiauTT) rcaacov apx^, 89]Xov vl$ 8 Scrav auTTj,
[JieTa TauTa TO yap auTo a[xa uTcapxetv Te xal (JLTJ uTtapxetv aSuvaTov
X^ycofjiev.
524 In E i Ar., having first divided all intellectual work into three
main groups theoretical, practical and productive x
,
next divides the
theoretical sciences into three other provinces: physics, mathematics
and first philosophy or theology 2 the last having the axivT)To<; ouaia ,
as its object.
1
Our nr. 432a. a
432b.
110 METAPHYSICS [514]
TL^ i:6Tep6v 7:06*?) Ttpcanr) cptXoao9(a xa66Xou ecruv ^ Ttepi TI y^vo^ xai, 9\i<nv
Ttva {Atav (ou yap o airi^ rp67co^ ouS* ev Tat<; |jLa6y](jiaTixaZ, aXX* T) (jiiv yeco- 25
[jieTpia xai aoTpoXoyla rapt Tiva cpiiaiv etaiv, Y) Se xa06Xou icaatov XOIVYJ )
el (JL^V o5v (JL7)
'CJTI TLS erlpa ouaia ruapa ra^ ^lioei auveaT)Qxu[a(;, ^ cpucrixTj
av e'tY] TrptoTY] 7CLaT7)|jL7) et 8* <TTI TI^ ouaia axtv7}To<;, aiinr] TcpoT^pa xai 91X0-
ao9ia Tupcory],xai xaOoXou OUTOX; ort 7vpci)T7] a xai Tcepl TOU 8vToc; f;
6v rauTY)^ 30
av etyj Oecopyjaai, xai TL EGTTI xai ra uTrap^ovTa fj 8v,
who had the interpretations of Avicenna and >Averroes before him, re-
garded them as a dilemma: Avicenna, who follows F i, says that being
as such is the object of metaphysics, Averrocs, according to E i, teaches
that this object is God and the intelligences. Duns Scotus, after a long
hesitation, takes the part of Avicenna. Aristotle himself, however, seems
not to have considered the two views as contradictory in F 2 (cited sub :
522) he gives, if not a synthesis, yet a transition from the first to the
second.
matical objects as existing between Forms and scnsibles 4 and the theory ,
of first principles, the One and the great-and-small, from which the
Numbers were deduced 5
. He compares this doctrine with that of the
Pythagoreans, from which distinguished by a few features, and
it is
concludes that Plato knew only the material and the formal cause 6 .
Metaph. A 9, 9goa -b
First 33 8
526 :
1
"and it will be universal in this sense, because it is first".
2
Quaeshones in Metaphysicam Aristotelis 1, qu. i (Ed. Wadding, t. IV, p.
510-518).
3
Our nr. 204a; cp. 204b and 268a.
4 5
Nr. 362b, with n. i. Nr. 365a. 365b.
[526] PLATO'S THEORY OF IDEAS CRITICIZED in
8 - 17
527 Ib., 990 b :
3
8e xaO* ou<; Tp67iou<; 8eixvu(jLev STI IdTL Ta e'tSv], xaT* ooOeva 9a(veTai examined
ev[cov JJLSV yap oux avayxY] yiyveorOat auXXoyi<T(i6v, ei; evicav Se xal
&v 4
oi6fjte0a TOUTCOV etST) yiyverai . xara TS yap TOUC; Xoyou<; TOUC; ex TCOV
6
icov etSY) ScTai TUOCVTCOV oacov 7ri<7T7J[iai eiat, xal xara TO Iv em
6 7
TcoXXciv xal TCOV a7ro9aaecov, xaTa 8e TO voetv TI 96apevTO^ TCOV <p6apT&v
8
15 9avTaa[Jia yap TI TO\!)TCOV ecjTtv. STI Se ol axpip^aTepoi TCOV X6ycov ol p.ev
9
TCOV ?rp6c; TI TTOIOUCTIV iS^a^ cLv ou cpa[j(.ev slvai xaO' auTo y^vo^, ol Se TOV
,
10
Xeyouatv.
xaTa [lev TYJV UTcoXyj^Lv xa6' YJV elvat 9afJiev Tac; tSeac; ou (Ji6vov TCOV ideas of
ouaicov ^GTat etSy) aXXa rcoXXcov xal eT^pcov (xal yap TO voy)(JLa Sv ou (Jt6vov substances
1
TCOV TE aXXov - "so also in the case of all other groups", i.e. even for those
things other than substances.
2
TOU; &lSioi$ - i.e. the heavenly bodies.
3 -
8exvu(/.ev "we", disciples of Plato.
4
"others would prove the existence of Ideas of tilings of which we Platonists
think there are none" (Ross).
5 The argument "from the sciences" would imply the existence of Ideas of
artefacta, which were probably not recognized by the Platonists of Aristotle's time.
The arguments here referred to are given in a very concise form. We need the
comments of Alexander of Aphrodisias to understand their sense fully.
6 T& v ini TroXXwv is the argument for the existence of Ideas from the existence
of groups of particulars.
xal TWV a7T09dtaecov - On the positive sense of negations according to Plato, see
Soph. 257 d-258 b (our nr. 342). W. D. Ross comments: "There was no need to
suppose bare negative Ideas; anything that could be explained by participation
in a negative Idea could be explained more simply by non-participation in the
positive Idea".
argument from the fact that it is possible to think
7 - the
T& voetv TI 90apvTo<;
an object even when the thing has perished. Ar. argues that according to this
argument there must be an Idea of each perishable thing.
8
ol dxpip&rrepoi TCOV X6ywv - Ross, citing Jackson, explains: Ar. has previously
pointed out certain consequences of Platonic arguments he now points out certain ;
Trepl TOCC; ouaiac; aXXa xal xaTa TCOV SXXcov eaTi, xal eTTicrojjjiai ou [/,6vov T% 25
ouaia<; elalv aXXa xal eT^pwv, xal iXXa 8e (jiupia aufjipaivei TotauTa) xaTa Si;
TO avayxaiov xal Tac; 86a<; Tac; Trepl auTcov, ei ecm (ie6exTa Ta e?S-yj, TCOV
olov, el TL auToSiTrXaaiou (JLETS^SI, TOOTO xal atStou (jieTexei, aXXa xaTa au(jt-
TCO SiTrXaatcp ai'Sto) eivai), &CTT' IdTai ou<j(a T
529 Ar. now presents his main objection: Forms do not contribute
anything to sensible things, nor to our knowledge of them.
TCOV aiaOvjTcov 3
73 TOLC; yiyvo^evoti;
xal 96eLpo(jLevoic; otae yap XLVYJ- I0
OUTS [ieTapoX9j<; ouSe(jLia^ laTiv alria auToic;. aXXa (JIYJV OUTS 7rp6<; TYJV
ouOev poy)OeL TYjv Ta>v aXXcov (ouSe yap ouata exetva TOUTCOV ev
TOUTOK; yap av ^v), OUTE ei^; TO elvai, [JLYJ evuKap^ovTa ye Tot(; (jieTx oU(ytv
*
OUTCO fjtev yap av taco^; aiTia So^etev elvat toe; TO Xeuxov [jie[jLiy[ievov TCO Xeuxco,
j^
aXX* OUTOC; (Jiev 6 X6yo<; Xiav euxivv)Toc; 4 6v 'Ava^ayopac; ^ev 7rpcoTO(; EiJSo^o^ 6
,
S* (io~Tepov xal aXXot TIV^<; eXeyov (paSiov yap auvayayetv TroXXa xal aSuvaTa
Tcpo^ T7)v ToiauTYjv So^av).
b. Ib., a 19 -!) 1 :
5
'AXXa (JLTJV
TaXXa xaT ouOeva Tp6?rov TCOV eico00Tcov 2 o
ou8' ex TCOV et8cov eaTt
X^yeaOai. TO 8e Xeyetv TcapaSeiyjiaTa auTa elvai xal pieTe^eiv auTcov TdcXXa xevo-
Xoyetv ecm
xal [zeTa9opa<; X^yetv TroivjTtxa^. TI yap edTt TO epya^6(jievov 7Cpo<;
'
6
Tac; i8a^ aTropXercov evSx Ta ^ T xa L elvat xal ytyveaOai OJJLOIOV OTIOUV
;
7
xal etxa^6(Jtevov Tcpoc; exetvo coaTe xal OVTO<; ScoxpaTOU^ xal (JLYJ OVTOC;
(JIT) ,
25
yevoiT* av oloc; ScoxpaTT]^ 6{AOtco(; 8e SvjXov OTL xav ei 9jv 6 ScoxpaTYjc; atSioc;.
eaTai Te TtXeico 7rapa8ety(JiaTa TOU auToO, cocrTe xal el'&yj, olov TOU avOpcoTrou
1
"for participation per accidens does not exist".
2
"but a thing must share in its Form as in something not predicated of a sub-
ject".
3
T. di8fcot<; TWV at<j073To>v
- as in 526: the heavenly bodies.
4
Xav ux(vY)Toc;
-
easily refutable. On the doctrine of Anaxagoras referred to,
see our nr. 124.
5
Eudoxus of Cnidus, the famous astronomer, who spent long years in Plato's
Academy ( 365), seems to have taught that the Ideas are immanent in things,
though he held that they are substances. On the last point he did not agree with
the (later) theory of Ar.
6
These words refer to the Demiurgus in Plato's Timaeus.
7
"without being copied from it".
[529] PLATO'S THEORY OF IDEAS CRITICIZED 113
coov xal TO Steouv, &[Lo. 8k. xal TO auToav0payrco^. STI ou p.6vov T<OV aiCT07)Tcov
x
T<X e87j aXXa xal auT&v, olov TO yevo<;, <b<; yvoc; elS&v
T& auTo eaTai TrapaSeiyfza xal eixaw.
STepa, olov oixia xal SaxTuXio^, 6v ou 9a[xev etSy] elvai COCTS S^Xov
l T$XXa xal elvat xal ytyveaOai Sia TOtauTa^ aiTtaq ota^ xal
Ta pY)6lvTa vuv.
9- 21 If Ideas are
531 Ib., 991 b :
eforep eialv aptOfJiol T<X etSv), TTCO<; aiTioi SaovTai TcoTepov STI ^Tepoi how can they ;
2
Se fjiy],
ouSev Siotaei. el 8* OTL Xoyoi dtptOfjicov TavTa\50a, olov 7]
S^Xov STL eaTlv ev ye TI 5>v eial Xoyoi. et SY] TOUTO 73 6X73, 9avepov OTI xal
I5 ol api0(jLol Xoyot Ttvec; ecovTat eTepou Trpo^ eTepov. Xeyco 8* olov, et SGTLV 6
KaXXiac; Xoyo<; ev apiOfjLotc; Tuupoc; xal xal (JSaToc; xal aepo<;, xal &XXcov y%
TLVCOV uTcoxeifievcov e'aTat xal 73
ISea cxpiOfio^ xal auToavOpcoTro^, etT* api0(Ji6(;
SaTat Xoyo^ ev api0{JLOL<; TIVCOV xal oux apL0jxoc;,
[JIT), 8{JLO><;
ouS*
8ta TauTa api0[i.6c;.
532 Ar. repeats his main objection to the theory of Ideas, and
a.
reproaches the Academy for having abandoned the chief task of philoso-
phy to seek
: the cause of sensible phenomena.
Ib "' QQ2 a24- 29 '
'
Ideas do not
^-^
3 explain
"OXeo<; Se y)TOUCT7]<; TTJ<; (TO9La^ Tcepl T&V 9avepcov TO atTtov, TOUTO (lev phenomena
eiaxajjiev (ou0ev yap Xeyofiev rapl TTJ? aiTtac; oOev 73 apx'/j
TTJV 8* ouatav oiofjievot Xeyetv auTwv eTepa^ (lev ouaiac; elvai ^ajjiev, OTCOX; 8'
4
exetvai TOIJTCOV ouaiai, Sta xev7]<; Xyo(Jiev T^ yap (jLeTe^eiv, waTrep xal TupoTepov
eLTcojxev, ou06v eaTiv.
-- Ou8e
2
b. Ib.,
873
a 89-!) 1
:
8 -
T. 9<xveptov sensible things.
4
8i& xevTfc Xyo[*ev = xevoXoyoG(jtev (is empty talk).
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II
114 METAPHYSICS [532]
9uai<; TTOICI, ouSe TaiiTY)<; TYJC; aiTia^, Y]V <pa[jiev elvai, [jtiav TCOV
1
ouOev aTCTETai TOC el'Sv), aXXa yeyove T<* |Jia0Y)[iaTa TOI^ vuv Y) 91X0009^,
9aax6vTtov &XXcov x^P LV aura Seiv
3 SUBSTANCE
aXXa SvOpaiTtov vj Oeov), TCX 8' aXXa XeyeTat ovTa TCO TOU OUTCD<; OVTOC; Ta
4
[jL^v Troo-OTTjTec; elvat ,
Ta Se TcoLOTTjTe^, Ta Se TcaOyj, Ta 8e aXXo TI. A^Xov 20
5
oSv STL Sia TauTTjv xaxeivcav exaaTov ECTTIV, ciaTe TO TTpcoTox; ov xai ou TI
8v aXX* ov a7cXco<; TJ outrta av SLY].
Substance is
Jj. IO28 a 31 -b 2
Ib., :
definition, IloXXax&c; ptev ouv XeyeTai, TO TupcoTOv O(JLCO<; Se TTOCVTW^ YJ ouaia TrpcoTOV,
in knowledge xa Xoyco xal yvcoaei xal ypov6>. TCOV (JLSV yap aXXcov xaTYjyopTj^aTCov ou0ev
and in time \\ / ~ VN\/ / >/ ~ > / \
v, auTY] oe (JLOVYJ xat TCO Xoyco oe TOUTO jcpcoTov (avayxY) yap ev TCO
exaaTOU Xoyw TOV TYJC; ouatac; evuTcap^ei-v) xal siSevai Se TOT' ol6[jLeOa SxaaTOv 35
'What is Kal SYJ xal TO TcaXai TS xal vuv xal asl ^YJTOUJJLSVOV xal asl aTropoujJievov,
being" T [ T ^ g v TO ^ T Q aTl T [^ oucria.
----
-Jj
means
"What is
substance" i
T0 ^
v ^v _ yjlc Deference is certainly to Speusippus, head of the Academy
since the death of Plato.
2
Sc. in A 7.
3
T[ <m xai T/>8e TL - It should be noticed that the author, before coming to his
definitive conception of ouaia, in the beginning of this very book uses the term in
exactly the same way as it is used in Categ. 5 (our nr. 438a), namely, not only
in the sense of essence or quiddity (TI ICTTI), but also in the sense of the individual
being.
4
TOO - clvai: "by the fact that they are, some of them, quantities of that which
is in this primary sense, others qualities of it", etc.
5 -
8ta TatjTYjv sc. T. Tuptonqv xarrjyopCav.
[534] SUBSTANCE H5
v- bodies and
Aoxsi o Y] ouaia uTcapxeiv cpavepcoTara (lev TOU; aoo^aaiv (oio Ta TE (,coa their parts
/ / \ /
10 xal TOC 9UT<x xal Ta (Jt6pia auT&v oudia<; slvai 9a(xev, xal Ta 9i>aixa crcofjiaTa, substances?
olov mip xal uScop xal yyjv xal T&V TOLOUTCOV sxaciTov, xal oaa y) {Ji6pta y)
TOUTCOV yj
ex TOUTCOV eaTiv y) fioptcov y) TUOCVTCOV, olov 8 Te oupavoc; xal Ta [Jt6pia
auTou, (SccTTpa xal aeXyjvy] xal 7]Xio<; ) TcoTepov Se aJ)Tai (/,6vaL oudtai eialv y)
xal
15 SXXai, y)
TOIJTCOV TIVE<; y)
xal &XXai, yj
TOUTCOV [lev ou0ev eTepai Se TIVE^, axsTUTeov.
TO Tt yjv elvai xal TO xaOoXoo xal TO jivo^ ouata Soxet elvai exaaTOU, xal "substance"
TOIJTCOV TO UTTOXetflEVOV.
26 - 33
Ib., 1029 a :
*Ex o5v TOUT<OV 0o>pouai cuixBaivEi ouaiav slvai TYW uXinv aSiivaTOv 8' In fact tnis
M-SV
xat,
x xi
yap TO ^wpicrrov xai TO TOOE
x x x /5, e , *
TI uTrap^stv ooxsi (jiaXtdTa T/J
~ /. ~ , , ^x consequence
x
yap xal SyjXyj 9avspa 8 TCCO^ xal y) uXyj vrspl 8s T^^; TpiTyj<; CTXETCTEOV,
yap
now He Substance
536 Ar. proceeds
r to study
J essence. begins with some logical as essence
remarks.
1
Note the expressions 9avepwTaT<x JJL^V and 9<x(iev.
Il6 METAPHYSICS [536]
Metaph. Z 4, 1029 b
13 - 16
:
*
Meaning of aT t T0 T [ fy etvoci sxaaTOU S XeysTat xa6' auT6. ou yap ecm TO aot
elvat TO [Aouatxcp elvat ou yap xaTa crauTov el (Jiouatx6<;. 6 (Spa xara <raur6v.
Species only 7 14
c Ifo., 1030 a - :
C s
definition 0ptc7(jt6 8 scmv oux av ovo(xa Xoyw TOCUTO ayj^aivy) (TravTS^ yap av elev OL
Xoyot opof SaTai yap 8vofjia OTCOOUV Xoyw, ciaTe xal 7) 'IXiac; 6pia(ji6<;
XeyeaOai. oux eaTai, &pa ouSevl TWV JXTJ yevouc; siS&v UTcapxov TO TI 9)v etvai,
aXXa TOUTOLC; [JLOVOV (TauTa yap Soxec ou xaTa {jLeTO^V XlyeaOai xal 7ca0o^
ouS* d)
Other things 14 32
d. Ib., 1030 a - :
xal yap TO TL ECTTLV eva piev TpOTrov avjfjiatvei TTJV ouaiav xal TO T68e TI, fiXXov
8e SxaaTOv T&V xaT7)yopou(Jivcov, TCOOOV TTOIOV xal 8ca aXXa TOtauTa. &<TTCEP 2 o
yap xal TO saTtv UTcap^eL TiraaLv, aXX* ou^ 6[jiotcoq aXXcx TW JJLSV TrpcoTOi^ TOI^
8* ETCO(JLVO)^, OUTCO xal TO TL scmv aTuXa)^ (JLEV Tyj ouaia TTOX; 8e TOIC; aXXotc;*
xal yap TO TCOLOV lpoi(jLe6' xal TO TTOIOV TCOV TI eaTiv, aXX*
av TL ECTTLV, O><TTE
TtXtos, aXX* coaicep eTil TOU (JIT) OVTO^; Xoytxcoc; 9aai TIVS<; elvai TO (JLT) ov, 25
arcXto<; aXXa piY] ov, OUTCO xal TO TTOLOV. SEC JJLEV ouv CTXOTUELV xal TO TUCO<;
Set Xsysiv TOpl sxacjTov, ou (JLTJV (jtaXXov ys Y)
TO TICOC; EXEI 816 xal vuv ETTEL T6
Xsy6[Xvov 9avEpov, xal TO TI 9)v elvat o^otco^ uTrap^et TrpcoTcoq [isv xal aTuXco^
TYJ ouata, elTa xal TOI? <5XXoi(; coaTcsp xal TO TI saTtv, oux aTrXco^ Tt ^v elvat ^
7
*Exetvo 8e 9avspov oTt 6 TipcoTCoc; xal aTrXco^ optcyfio^ xal TO Tt Tjv elvat TCOV
oucrtcov eaTtv. ou fjtrjv aXXa xal TCOV &XXcov 6(jto[to<; eaTt, TrXvjv ou TcpcoTco?.
[537] SUBSTANCE ii7
537
In the next chapter (5) Ar. deals with some difficulties concern-
ing the definition of ra ou^ arcXa, aXXa duvSeSuao-p^va, such as (iifi6TY)<;,
where the definition of "snub" always implies a reference to the sub-
stance to which it belongs ("nose"). Ultimately all terms in categories
other than substance are shown to be in principle of this type, the de-
finition of them being ex TrpoaGeaetoc;, i.e.
involving a reference to the
substance to which they belong.
The
Metaph. Z
1 5 defi-
5, 1031 a - :
nition of
A ~^ / r/ / > / > f < / x x ~ ,/.
AyjXov TOIVUV OTI [JLOVTjc; T7)<; oucyias eonriv o opui[jio<;. ei yap xai TCOV aXXcov compounds
*
xar/jyopicov, avayxyj ex 7upoa0e<ieco<; eZvai, olov TOU t^oioijt * a & TrepiTTou- always^
ou yap #veu apiO^ou, ouSe TO 09jXu aveu coou (TO 8e ex TrpoaOeaeco^; Xeyo) ev aeco;
i^ TO auTO Xeyetv cidTuep ev TOUTOK;).
538 Ar. now raises the question whether a thing is identical with
its essence. He answers: Not always. E.g. not in terms formed by a sub-
stance coupled with an accidental predicate, such as "white man". But
in terms xaO' OCUTO they are the same. E.g. "the Good" itself cannot
differ from its essence, nor can "living being".
15 - 18
a. Metaph. Z 6, 1031 a :
19 - 24 Not in the
b. Ib., 1031 a :
av0pa>7uc> eZvat xal TO Xeuxco avOpcoTrco TO auTO TO auTO yap av0pa>7ro<; xal
Xruxoc; dcvOpcoTuoc;, ca<; cpaaiv, cidTe xal TO Xeuxw avOpcoTcw xal TO avOpcojucp.
30 'Em
c. Ib.,
28 4 11 16
1031 a -b b -
8e TCOV xaO' auTa Xeyojjievtov
,
:
b Ta<; t8ea<; eZvat Tive<; ; ei yap e'crrai eTepov auTO TO ayaOov xal T6 ayaOco eZvai,
xal ^wov xal TO ^cl>cp, xal TO OVTL xal TO ov, ecrovTat (SXXai, Te oudiai xal cpuaei<;
xal iSai Trapa T<X Xeyojievac;, xal TupoTepat oucriat execvai, et TO Tt 9jv eZvat
2
ouata eaTtv. xal el [Jiev a7coXeXu(jivat aXXifjXcov, TCOV (jtev
oux eaTai e7tiaT7)[iY)
1
TTOIOU codd. Bonitz conjectured
2 - the ouaiai.
TCOV (JL^V
Il8 METAPHYSICS [538]
l
T<X 8* oux gcTTai 8vTa. 'AvayxY) <5cpa ev elvat T& <xya66v
xal xaXov xal xaXco elvat, <xal> 8aa (JLTJ xar* #XXo XyeTai, aXXa xaO* aura
xal TcptoTa' xal yap TOUTO Ixaviv av forapxif), xav fry) f) eiS?), (jtaXXov 8* lcrco<;
xav
other 18 22
d. Ib., 1031 b - :
for the "Ex TS 873 TOUTCOV TCOV Xoycov Sv xal TauTO ou xara (TU(jLpep7)x6<; auiri Sxaarov
x
identity xa ^ T ^ T ( )j
xa t g Tli y T ^ eTCidTacjOai exaarTov TOUTO sari, T& rt ?)v elvai
v e |;vai9
2
xal xaTa TYJV ex0eatv avayxy] Sv TI elvat <
The case of e Jb
accidental
terms (
T& 8J: xara (TUfjLpepTjxi^ Xeyojxevov, olov TO [JLOUCTLXOV 73 Xeuxov, Sia TO
cnrjfjLaiveLv oux aXvjOec; elTtetv co<; TauTO TO TL Y)V elvat xal auTO xal
3
yap & au[x(iep7)xe Xeux6v xal T6 cru(ipepY]x6<; ciaT* ECTTI [lev a>c; TaiVnSv, ,
^ ou TauTO TO TI TJV elvai xal auTO TW [jiev yap avOpcoTuco xal TW Xeuxq>
4
oo TauTO, TCO 7ua0L Se TauTO ).
Conclusion 4 6
f 15^ 1032 a - :
"OTL (lev ouv inl TCOV TupcoTcov xal xaO' auTa Xeyo[Aevcov TO exaaTco elvai
xal SxaaTOv TO auTO xal ev ECTTI, 89]Xov.
Essence and 539 After a digression on the various kinds of becoming (ch. 7-9),
Ar. now raises the question as to what belongs to the essence, and there-
fore to the definition. Should the definition of a whole contain the de-
finitions of the parts?
whole and 20 28
a> Metaph. Z io, 1034 b - :
'
5
e 6 6pi<T(jLo<; X6yo<; eorTt, 7ta<; Se Xoyos (Jtepv) e^et, cb<; Si 6 Xoyo^ 20
7rp6<; TO 7rpay[jLa, xal TO jxepoc; TOU Xoyou 7rpo<; TO {Jtepoc; TOU 7rpay(jLaTo<; 6(jiotco<;
elc; T<X
\ 7 / f ^ < prior?
,
SE el TrpOTEpa Ta [JLEpY]
TOU oXou, TY)<;
8s 6pOYJ<; Y] o^sta [Jtepo^ xal 6 Sax-
TOU coou, TupoTSpov ocv SLY] Y) o^ela TYJ<; 6p(JY)^ xal 6 SaxTuXo^ TOU avOpto-
s
TTOU. Exsiva sivai TupOTEpa TCO Xoyco yap XsyovTai E
Soxet 8 sxstvwv a xal ,
2
Toi elvai 8s &VEU aXXifjXcov TrpoTepa .
1 - 12 Material
a. Ib., 1035 a :
i s i \ y ,/ parts not
El o5v s<m TO (JLEV uXY] TO Ss slSo^ TO 8 EX TOUTWV, xal ouaia Y)
TE uXY] xal prior
TO ElSo? Xal TO EX TOUTCOV, ECTTt [JLEV &C, Xal Y) liXY) [JLEpO^ TLVOi?XyETai, SaTl 8*
3
<o<; ou, aXX' s!; ^>v 6 TOU stSou^ Xoyo<; olov .
T% (Jisv xoiXoTY)TO<; oux EGTI (Jispo^
.5Y] aap^ (auTY) yap Y) uXY) 9* fa yiyvETat), TYJ^ 8s CJIIJLOTYJTOC; [Jtspoc;- xal TOU
5
b. So parts of the definition are prior. E.g. the acute angle is not
a preceding part of the right angle, but the right angle is logically prior.
For the acute angle is defined as being smaller than the right angle.
4- 8 E g the
1035 b
' '
Ib., :
acute angle
"Oaa [JLEV yap TOU Xoyou [JLEpY] xal el<; a SiaipeiTai 6 Xoyo<;, TauTa TrpoTepa
6
Y)
evta* 6 Se T% 6pO% Xoyo^ ou SiaipetTai, st<; 6^eta<; Xoyov ,
dcXX* <6>
1
The parts
are explained by reference to the whole (e^ exeivcov Xeyovrat).
2
"in respect also of the power of existing apart from each other the wholes
are prior to the parts" (Ross).
3
aXX' IE, <ov etc. - but only the elements of which the formula of the form exists.
4
T& el&oq xal /] elSoc s^ei - "the form, or the thing as having form, should be
said to be the thing".
6
T& 8' uXixov ouS^TTOTE - "but the material element by itself must never be said
to be so".
8 The formula of the right angle does not include the formula of the acute angle.
120 METAPHYSICS [540]
9 14
c. Other examples and conclusion. Ib. 1035 b - :
p * r* 8 p*
the 8e xal 6 xuxXo<; xal TO Y){JUxuxXiov 'xou<nv TO yap YjfjLixiixXiov TCO
'OfjLoioc;
prior xuxXco 6pieTai xal 6 8axTuXo<; T& oXco TO yap TOi6vSe [zpo<; av0pco7rou
SaxTuXos. waO* 8aa piev [JtlpY] ax; uXv) xal ei^ a SiaipetTai a> uXYjv, uarepa
8cra 8e (oc; TOU X6you xal TYJ<; ouaia*; TYJ<; xara TOV Xoyov, TtpoTepa YJ Ttavra
^ Svta.
beings "ETtel Se ^cocov ^DX*/) (TOUTO yap oucrta TOU IJJL^UXOU) Y) xara TOV
T]
T&V
Xoyov oudta xal TO eZSoc; xal TO TL Y^V elvat TCO TOiaiSe acofjiaTi (IxaarTov youv 15
Ti [iepO(; eav 6pty)Tai xaXco^, oux aveu TOU epyou opietTai, o ou^ UTuap^SL <5cvsu
matter the Q 8' <5cv0pa>7ro<; xal 6 xal Ta OUTCO<; em TO>V xaO' exaaTa, xa06Xou 8e
ITUTCCX;
individuating, ^ ,
\ , 7 , ^., , J - , c
principle otj >^ EGTLV ouaia aXXa aruvoXov TL ex TOUOI TOU Xoyou xai TY]arot, TY]<; uXY]<; c
s
xaOoXou- xa0 exaaTov 8' ex TY^<; eaxaTYji; uX7)<; 6 SwxpaTY)*; Y)8y) eaTiv, xal
erel TCOV aXXcav
parts of the Mpo<; fiev ouv earl xal TOU eiSouq (elSoc; 8e Xyco TO Tt T^V elvat ) xal TOU
definition CTUV 6Xou TO (j x TO [> eJSou^ xal TY^ uXY)^ <xal TYJC; uXY)<;> auTY)<;. aXXa TOU Xo-
you [JLepY] Ta TOU et8ou<; (Jiovov e^Ttv, 68e X6yo^ earl TOU
xa06Xou TO yap xuxXc) elvai xal xuxXoc; xal ^u/Y) elvai xal
Concrete 2 8
Ct Jb ^ 1036 a - :
definable Tou 8e auv6Xou i^SY], olov xiixXou TOuSl xal TWV xa0* SxadTa TIVO<; Y^ ata0Y)Tou
ITC! TWV xaO' exaoTa etc. - terms which are thus applied to individuals,
but universally.
[541] SUBSTANCE 121
VOYJTOU Xey<o 8k VOTJTOIK; [Aev olov TOIK; (jia07][iaTixou<;, aia07)Tou 8& olov
Yj
'
a 1 TOU uXlVOU - TOUTCOV 8s OUX SffTlV OptCTfJLO^, <xXX(X (JLT(X
*
ai(70Y)aeoa<; yvcopi^ovTat, dcTieXOovTec; Si ex T% svTsXexeta; ou
'H 8' ($XY) (icyvworTOc; xa0' auTTjv. uXr) Ss YJ {jiev ai<T0Y]TY) SCTTLV YJ Se VOTJTY), {Jx
ata97]TY) (JLEV
olov ^aXxoc; xal uXov xal ocry] xivyjTY] uXy), VOYJTY) Ss Y] ev
542 Ar. now proceeds to discuss the question why that, the account
of which is a definition, is one.
E.g. : "two-footed animal" one and not two ? "Man" and "white" are two
why is
when the one does not belong to the other, one when it does. But in "two-footed
animal" one element does not share in the other; the genus does not share in the
differentiae (else it would share in contraries at the same time). And even if it
were to share in its differentiae, the same difficulty would arise, for the differentiae
of man are more than one: possessed of feet, two-footed, wingless. Why, then,
are these one ?
Ar. answers: o>ov is the genus, SITTOUV the differentia. But this difference is to be
divided again, and again, until the indivisible species is reached. The last difference
will be the substance and definition of the thing.
16 20
Metaph. Z 12, 1038 a - :
OUTOX; dcel poiiXeTai (3a8ieiv sax; av e'X0fl ei$ TOC a&id^opa TOTS 8'
543 The author now comes to his conclusions from the preceding
points (ch. 13-17).
"Eoixe y^P aSiivarov elvai ouaiav elvat OTIOUV TCOV xaOoXou Xeyo^vcov.
10 First
IlpcoTov [Jtev yap ouaia exaaTOU r\ io\o<; exaaTq), Y) oux uTrapxet a"XXcp, r6
Sk xa06Xou xoivov TOUTO yap XeysTat xaOoXou 8 TuXeioatv uTrapxetv 7re9uxev.
TIVO^ o5v ouata TOUT' saTai ; ?) yap TTOCVTCOV rj ou8evo<;, TTCXVTCOV S* oux olov TS
x TTJ<; ^vTeXexeta^
- as soon as they are no more actuated by
or by ata0Yjai<;.
122 METAPHYSICS [543]
No substance >
ASuvaTov yap ouaiav e oucncov elvat evuTiap^oucrcov TOC
co<; evTeXe/eia yap
substances Suo OUTCO<; evTeXe^eia ouSeTTOTe ev svTeXe/eta, aXX' lav Suvafjiei Siio ^, eaTai 5
sv (olov Y)
SiTcXadta ex Suo Yjfjuastov Suvaaei, ye- /] yap
COCTT* el oux eaTai e^ ouai&v evuTrap/ouacov xal xaTa TOUTOV TOV
7]
ouaia ev,
sequences as , , , / (
to the Ideas Et o5v ecm TL<; avOpcoTro^; auTO<; xaO* ai>Tov ToSe TI xal xe^wpKraevov, avayxv)
xal iE, <&v, olov TO J^coov xal TO Sfeouv, ToSe TL xal elvat ^
(TY)[JiaiveLV
xal ouaiac; coaTe xal TO J^coov. el [Jiev ouv TO auTo xal ev TO ev TCO LTTTTCO xal TCO
xal TOU 7roXu7ToSo<;, aSuvaTov TI au(jL^aivei, TavavTta yap aaa UTrap^ei auTco
evl xal TtoSs TLVI OVTI ei 8s (JLT), TL^ 6 Tpo7ro<; OTav eiTTY] TI^ TO o)ov elvat SITCOUV 5
y)
7ie6v ;
aXX* LGTG)^ auyxetTat xal aTTTeTai y) (jiefJiiXTai aXXa rcavTa &T07ca.
Therefore, ][ ^ aSuvaTov OUTCO^ e^eiv, SyjXov OTI oux ecTTtv ei'Sy) auTCov OUTCO(; &<;
545
Another consequence concrete individual beings are not definable :
;
beings not f / /
definable ouata eTepa, TO Te auvoXov xal 6 Xoyo<; (Xeya) 8' OTI y) (Jiev OUTCOC; 20
'Ercel 8' yj
s
e<mv ouata, auv T^ GXyj (ruvetXy](jL[JLevo<; 6 Xoyoc;, y] 8 6 Xoyo^ oXco<;), 6aai [Aev
oSv ouTG) XeyovTai, TOUTCOV [xev eaTi 96opa (xal yap yevecri*;), TOU 8e Xoyou
oux ecmv (ouSe yap yeveai<;, ou yap yiyveTai TO oixia
OUTCOC; coaTe 96etpec6ai,
elvat aXXa T^ TyjSe T^ olxta), aXX* aveu yeveaeax; xal 90opa^ etcrl xal oux 25
etoiv Se8eixTai yap (m ouSelc; TauTa yevva ouSe Ttoiet. Sta TOUTO Se xal TCOV
ouaiwv TCOV aia6y]Tcov TCOV xaO' exacJTa ouTe op 1(7(0.6^ ouTe dbroSeii;^ SCTTIV,
OTI S^ouaiv uXyjv fa yj 9uaic; Toiaury) COGT' evSe/eaBai, xal elvai xal [JLTQ
816
8 9 Therefore,
b. Ib., 1040 a - :
Ou& XT) tSav ouSe[Juav Icmv optaaaOat. TCOV yap xaO* exacrTov 7) iSea, O f ideas
cog cpaafc, xal
A very strange conclusion, which, really, does not redound to the credit of its
author.
so-called
5 OavEpov SE OTL xal TCOV Soxouacov Etvat ouatcov at TcXeZarai 8uva(JLt<; siai, substances
TOC TS [lopta TCOV cocov (ou0v yap xs^coptafjtEvov auTtov <mv oTav 8k )
xal TOTS ovTa co<; uXv) TcavTa ) xal y9j xal rcup xal ayjp ouSsv yap auTcov 2v
s
,
aXX olov acopoc;, Trplv ^ 71296^ xal yevvjTaL TI e^ auTcov sv.
b. Ib b 16 - 27 '
Unity and
257) ai)T^ T Xal TCO E/OVTt aUTTjV, OU (TTtV OUGta. Tt TO Iv TtoXXa^ OUX OCV tY]
a(Jia, TO SE xotvov afia 7uoXXa*/9j U7rapxf COCJTE SyjXov 6Tt ou5v TCOV xaOoXou
i)7uap^t Tcapa Ta xaO* IxaaTa
To the question why a thing is, and why it is one, Plato answered: because it
participates of being and of unity. Ar. rejects this answer, for the "one" and
"being" are no substances. They are xotva, being predicated of all things.
a. Ar. now again asks the question: Why is a thing what it is?
Ata Tt TaSt, olov TuXtv6ot xal Xt0ot, otxta <7Ttv; cpavpov TOtvuv OTt /)Tt TO what it is?
TOUTO 8' CTTl TO Tt 9JV EtVat, tb<; t7CtV XoytXCO^, in EVtCOV [JLV CTTt
VXa, olov t(TCO<; 71* OtXta<; ^ xXtVY)<;, ETC* EVtCOV 8k Tt XtV7)(T TIpCOTOV
3atTtov yap xal TOUTO. aXXa TO [Jiv TotouTov atTtov inl TOU ytyvd0at
xal 90tp(j6at, 0aTpov 8k xal em TOU lvat.
numerically one,
2
TOUTCOV - partitive ly: of these concepts.
124 METAPHYSICS [547]
Because the 4 9
Ifr 1041 b - 1
belongs to it 'ETrel &e Set e^ew TS xal UTcap^etv TO elvat, SvjXov 873 8rt TYJV uXYjv y)Tet
Sta Tt <Tt> eoTiv olov otxta TaSl Sta Tt; OTI uTrapxei 6 9jv olxta elvat. xal &V
OpcoTroc; To8, Yj
TO aco(ia TOUTO ToSl S^ov. OXTTE TO a'mov y)TstTai TYJ^ uXY)<;
J J
This, then, is Ar.'s final answer to the question: what substance is.
, ^ , ,, ,,
i<a source of change in another thing, or in the thing itself qua other".
b. From this primary sense the author derives (a) the potency of
being acted on by another or by the thing itself qua other; and (b) in-
susceptibility to change for the worse by the agency of another thing, etc.
11 - 16
Deriyated Jb., 1046 a :
f
H fjtev yap TOU TuaOetv eaTt &uva(ju<;, Y)
ev atJTa> TCO Traa^ovTi ap^*?)
UTT' SXXou r\ vj dcXXo Y)
S* KJL$ aTraOetac; TYJ^ ejul TO x e ^P ov x
TYJC; UTT* &XXou TI ^ aXXo UTC' ap^v]^ (JiSTapX7]TLx9j(;. ev yap TOUTOK; eveaTi Tcaai
[LI<;
from the notion of "potentiality". This sense of the term is explained
in ch. 6 of the same book,
Potentiality 32 - 36
1048 a :
A^yo(jtev 8e 8uv<i(Jiei (sc. uTrap^eiv TO Tcpayfia) olov ev TOJ !;oXcp *Ep[jiY]v xai
ev T^ oXy] TTJV 7](jL((reiav,
STI a^aipeOetv] av, xal e7rto"T7](jLova xal TOV (Jtv) OecopouvTa,
av SuvaTO^ fj Oecopvjaau
, , , , , , ,
Suvajjiecov at (lev eaovTai iXoyoi at 8e (jteTa Xoyou Sio Traaai at T^vat xal at
fl
4XXo. xal al (lev (AeTa X6you Tracrai TCOV evavTtcov at auTai, at Se aXoyot (Jtta
[5491 POTENCY AND ACTUALITY 125
2
Eial 8 Tive<; 01 9aatv, olov ol MeyaptxoC, 8Tav evepy^ (JLOVOV 8\ivaa0ai , r i a n school
6Tav 8e 1
b. 33 17 Absurd
Ib., I046b -i047a :
A9]Xov yap OTI OUT' olxoS6(jLoc; eaTai eav (JLTJ oixoSofiyj (TO yap olxo&opuo O f this theory
35 elvai TO SuvaTW elvai eaTiv otxoSofJieLv), 6(Jtotcoc; Se xal eTrl TOW &XXo)v Te/vcov.
ei oSv aSuvaTOv TOC^ ToiauTac; xeiv T^Xva<^ ^ (^aOovTa TTOTC xal Xa^ovTa, xal
^XVY V 3 >
TC *^tv 8* euOuc;TTW^ Xapcov
otxoSofjLrjaet ;
au{JLpY)ceTai Xyetv auTotc;. aXXa JJLYJV ou8' al'crOTjaiv e^et, ouSev av (JLY) aiaOav/jTai
(JLY]8' evepy^. ei o5v TucpXov TO {JLYJ ^x ov o^v ? 7re<puxo<; 8e xal OTe 7re9uxe xal ITL
15 ( TO Y*P aSuvaTov TOUTO eCT7)(JLaivev), ciaTe oijTOi ol Xoyoi, e^aipouai xal XLVYJCTLV
xal yevecrtv. ael yap TO Te eaTTjxcx; eaTYj^eTai xal TO xa0y)(Jievov xaOeSetTai
ou yap avaaTTjaeTai av xaOl^yjTaL aSuvaTov yap eaTat avaaTYJvat o ye fir)
8\ivaTai
1
See our nrs. 234 and 235.
2
6T<xv vepyfj (x6vov SuvaoOat
- "that there is only &uva(ju<; when there is vpyeia".
8
T&V IIpcoTay6pou X6yov - see our nr. 171.
126 METAPHYSICS [551]
"E<m 8r) evepyeia TO uTtap/etv TO 7rpay(jta [JLY) OUTOX; <&<j7cep Xyo[jt,ev 8u-
2
Ti 8e evepyeta.
A9jXov 8* ercl TCOV xaO' exacrra Tyj eTraytoyrj 8 pouX6|jLe6a Xeyeiv, xal ou 8el 35
7cavTO<; opov ^YJTSLV aXXa xal TO avaXoyov auvopav, STL ax; TO oixo8o[Jiouv
3
Tcpo^ TO otxoSo[JLtx6v xal TO eyp7)yop6<; npbc, TO xa6eu8ov, xal TO op&v Tupoc; b
,
'
TO (jiuov [jiev o^iv Ss ^x ov xa L T ^ aTroxexptfjL^vov ex T^ uXv]^ Tupoc; TY)v liXvjv, xal
>
Ib., 1048 b 18 - 36 :
'ETcel Se T&V Trpa^ecov &v S<TTI Trepa^ ou8e(jua TsXo^ aXXa TCOV ruspl TO T^Xoc;,
4
olov TO icr^vatvsiv taxvacria [auTo], auTa 8e
YI OTav Ear^vatvT] OUTCO^ IdTtv ev 2 o
6
xivvjaei, (JIT) UTrap^ovTa cov Svexa YJ XLVTJCJ^
oux ecm TauTa 7rpa^L(; ^ ou TeXeia
,
ye (ou yap TeXoc;)' aXX' IXEIVYJ <TJ> evuTrap^ei TO TeXo<; xal [YJ] Trpa^i^. olov
6pc a(Jta <xal ecopaxe>, xal 9povei <xal Tce9p6vy)xe,> xal VOEL xal VSVOYJXSV
aXX' ou [JiavOavei,xal fjie[ia0Y)xev ouS' uyta^eTai xal uyiaaTai. e3 ^yj xal s5 25
ajjLa, xal euSaipioveL xal euSaijxovYjxev. et 8e (JLYJ, e'Sei <Sv TCOTS TraueoOai
Tav laxvaivT), vuv 8* ou, aXXa ^ xal e^Yjxev. TOUTWV SYJ <Sei> T<X(; fiev
olxoSofJLYjaic; auTat STJ XIVT)<TL<; xal aTeXeZ^ ye. ou yap a(jia paSt^ei ^
?
xal pe[3aSixev, ou8' oixoSofJiet xal cpxoSo^vjxev, ouSe yiyveTai xal yeyovev r)
xivetTai xal xexiv/jTai, aXX' eTepov, xal xivec xal xextv7)xev ecopaxe 8e xal
opa afjia TO auTO, xal voei xal vevoyjxev. TYJV [jiev o5v TOiauTYjv evepyeiav Xeyco,
exeivYjv 8e XIVYJCTLV. ^^
553 When is one thing the potency of another? E.g. can we say
that earth is potentially a man, or even that sperma is ?
37 5 when does a
a. Metaph. 7, 1048 b -iO49 a :
IIoTe Se SuvajJiei eo~Tiv exaonrov xal TCOTC ou, SiopiCTeov ou yap oTTOTeouv. potentially?
olov 7) y?) ap' ecm Suvapiei a* v0p COTTON 73 ou, aXXa (jtaXXov OTav 7^873 yevTjTai
;
aTiepfJia, xal ouSe TOTC taeo^ ; ciaTrep ouv ouS' UTCO taTpLx^^ a^rav av uytaaOetTj
ouS' a7co TUX*/)?, aXX* SaTi TL 6 SuvaTov eaTi, xal TOUT' eo^Ttv uyiatvov Suvajxei.
5 "Opoc; 8e TOU (Jiev OCTTO 8iavota<; evTeXexeia yiyvo(jtevou ex TOU 8uva(Jtei 8vTO<;,
Tav pouXTjO^VTO^ ytyvTjTai (Ji7)0ev6<; xcoXuovTO<; TCOV exTO(;, exei 8* ev TCO uyta-
^o(jievcp, 8Tav (jL7j0ev xcaXuTj TO>V ev auTO) 6(jLofco<; Se Suva^et xal otxta ei
(jLTjOev xoXuei TWV ev TOUTW xal TTJ uX/3 TOU yiyveaOat oixtav, ouS' eaTtv 8 Set
10 TCpoayeveoflai aTToyeveaOai 73 (jLeTapaXetv, TOUTO SuvafJiei oixia-
7)
xal inl
Ttov SXXcov cacrauTOx; 8acov e^wOev 73 apXTJ TT)<; yeveaeax;.
13 - 18 In natural
C. 1049 a
Kal
Ib.,
8<icov STJ ev auTO) TCO
:
X ovri
* n v " "r " ' ^ beings
arai St* auTOu olov TO a7cep(jLa OUTCO) (Sei yap ev aXXw <7ueo~eZv> xal
i5paXXeiv), OTav 8* 73873 8ia TYJ^ auTou ap/73<; fj TOLOUTOV, 73873 TOUTO
l
exelvo Se eTepa^ ap/7J<; SetTat, coaTcep 73 y9j OUTCCO av8p!,a<; Suva(Jiei
yap e'crrat
4 - 12
a. Metaph. 8, 1049 b :
^or^uT
2
'ETrel Se TO TupoTepov StwptaTai Troaax&s X^yeTai , cpavspov STL TipoTepov potency
5 evlpyeia SuvafJieax; eaTiv. Xeyca Se 8uva(Jieco<; ou [JLOVOV TTJ<; capiajjievT}^ 73
X
10 apX^l T^P KWTJTIXT), aXX* oux ev aXXo) aXX' ev auTW ^ auTO. TKXOTTJC; 873 TTJ^
TOtauTTj^; vrpoTepa ecrTlv 73 evepyeia xal Xoyco xal T^ oucrfa Xpovw 8' Sari
(lev <&(;, SaTi Se coc; ou.
12 - 17
b First it is logically prior. Ib., 1049 b : i. logically
Tw X6yco (lev o5v STL TrpoT^pa, S^Xov (TW yap ev8exeo~0ai, evepyTJaai SuvaTiv
eaTi TO TcpcaTox; 8uvaT6v, olov Xeyco oixoSo[JLix6v TO Suvajievov otxoSojjieLv,
1
xetvo 8^ - in the former state.
namely, in A n.
2 -
SicopiaToci
128 METAPHYSICS [554]
xai opaTixov TO opav, xal opaTov TO SuvaTOv opaaOai' 6 8* auTO^ X6yos xal 15
ercl TCOV a*XXtov, COCTT' avayxT) TOV Xoyov Trpoihrapxetv xal TTJV yvcoaiv TTJS yvto-
aetoc).
TCO 8e XP^ VCP rcpoTepov coSe TO TCO etSei TO auTO evepyouv TrpOTepov, apiOfjico
8* ou. Xyco 8e TOUTO OTI TouSe [xev TOU dvOpcoTiou TOU 7^87) 6vTo<; XOCT' eve'pyeiav 20
'
xal TOU GITOU xal TOU 6pwvTO<; TrpOTSpov TCO XP^ VCP ^ ^^ xa 1 T ^ ^TtepM-a xal TO
6paTix6v, a Suvajiei (JLCV EGTIV avOpcoTioc; xal <JITO<; xal opcov, evepyeia 8* OUTCG)
aXXa TOUTcav TrpoTSpa TW XP^ VCP ^ T P a ovTa evepyeia e 5iv TauTa eyeveTO
ael yap ex TOU Suvajjiei OVTO<; ytyveTai TO evepyeta 6v UTTO evepyeia 8vTO<;, 25
olov a*vOpa>7ro<; e^ avOpcojcou, (Jiouaixoc; urco (jLouaixou, ael XIVOUVTO<;
f/
0acov
(jiev
ouv eTepov TI eaTi Trapa TTJV xp'^ tv TO yiyv6|Jievov, TOUTCOV [jiev 30
:
y] evepyeia ev TCO Troioufjievco eariv (olov r\
Te oixoS6fJiY]ai^ ev TCO o 1x080 (Jioufji^vco
xal y) U9avaic; ev TCO U9aivopievcp, 6(jioico<; Se xal eTul TCOV aXXcov, xal 6Xco<; r\
actuality KaTa Te 07) TOUTOV TOV Xoyov 9avepov OTI TrpoTepov TTJ oucria evepyeia ouva-
1
&<ntep efaofjiev ,
TOO xp6vou ael 7rpoXa{i|3avet vpyeta frrlpa rcpi
actuality
"(Hi Si xal xal TijxicoT^pa TYJ<; a?couSata^ Suva(jiea)^
(3sXT(cov iv^pyeia, *?) more
valuable
5 Ix TwvSe S^Xov. 8aa yap xaTa TO S\ivaa0ai X^yeTai, Tafa6v IGTI SuvaTiv Tdcvav- than the
Tta 2 , olov TO SiivaaOai Xey6(ievov 6yia(vetv TauT6v eaTi xal Ti voaetv, xal good
8 potency
4(Jia Y] aur?) yap Stivajxt^ TOU uyiatveiv xal
xal Tjpe^etv xal xivewrOai, XOCJJLVSIV,
yeta^ Si 4(xa ASivaTov iTcdcp^eiv (olov uytatveiv xal xdtfjtvetv), <&OT' avdlyx>)
TO^TCOV OdlTepov elvat Taya06v, T6 8i StivaaOat 6(xotco<; ajj^Tepov 73 oOS^Tepov
b. Ib.,
16 19
1051 a - :
A bad
actuality
'AvAyxiQ Si xal Ircl T<OV xaxcov TO T^Xo<; xal T-Jjv Iv^pyetav elvat xe^P v worse than
TO yap Suvafievov Tafai TdcvavTCa. SvjXov ofix bad
8uva{JLe<o$ fificpa) &pa 6*Tt
Oux pa ouS* v TOL^ i% apX^ xal TOt^ dftStou; ouOiv aTtv ofiTe xax6v ofiTS eternal
4
a(jLapTY)[xa oOTe 8te90ap(jiivov (xal yap *J) 8ta90opa TCOV xax&v
1
Vid. supra (554b, the end).
*
"Ooa ydtp etc. - "Everything of which we say that it can do something, is alike
capable of contraries" (Ross).
8
xal &(ia - "and it has both potencies at one and the same time".
4 - -
&i98ap{j^vov perverted; 8ta90op<i perversion.
De VogeJ, Greek Philosophy II 9
130 METAPHYSICS [557]
'ETTCI Se TO 6v XlyeTai xal TO JATJ 6v TO [Jtev xaTa TOC a^^aTa TCOV xaTYjyopi&v,
a a xal
i TO auyxeijjievov auyxscia8ai,<j;suaTai Se 6
e u o (A
e v .
Metaphysics, because truth and falsity are not ''in things", but merely
a TraOos TY]<; Si
E 4 '
I02 7 b25 - I028al:
eluded
from met a- Ou yap eo"Tt TO ^euSoc; xal T6 aXTjGe^ ev TOL<; TrpayfAaaiv, olov TO(Jiev aya06v
physics in E 4 T 6 8e xaxov euOu^ ^euSoc;, aXX' ev Stavota, Trepl Se Ta aTiXa xal T<X Tt
dcX7)Oe<;
ov, uaTepov erctaxeTUTeov ercel 8k. 73 aufiTcXoxif] eaTtv xal r) Scatpeo*t^ Iv Siavoia 30
aXX* oux ev TOCC; 7cpdy(Jiaai, TO 8' OUTWC; ov eTepov Sv T&V xupico^ l (73 yap TO
T( eaTtv Y] o*Tt TTOIOV TI oTt Tioaov 7] Tt <5fXXo auvaTUTet v) SiaipeZ YJ Stavoia), T6 (Aev
<5><; aufjLpepY)xo<; xal T6 6)^ aXY)6e<; ov a9eTeov TO yap afaiov TOU (Jiev aopiaTOv
TOU Se r/i$ Siavoia(; TI
To this new element, namely that, with the
view our passage in 10 adds a
aufjiTrXoxY) in thought, a must correspond.
OUJJLTUAOXT) in reality
The same view has been expressed with some emphasis by Plato, at the end
of his Sophist, as a solution of the difficulty concerning <peu8$)<; 86Ea. See our nr. 343.
1
T& oi>T<o<; 5v repov TCOV xup(co<; - since which is in this sense is a different sort
of "being" from the things that are in the full sense.
[558] BEING AND TRUTH 131
559 In
10 Ar. develops the consequences of this view.
s
Et SY) Ta (Jiev ael auyxei/rai, xal aSiivocTa 8iaipe69jvai, TCX 8 act Si*/)p7)Tat, case of
10 xal aStivara duvreO^vat, TCX 8* evSex^^at rcxvavTia, TO JJLSV elvod ICTTI TO auyxetorOat composites
xal ev elvat, TO 8e [JLYJ
elvat TO (JLTJ auyxsLaOai aXXa TrXeico elvai Tuepl (Jiev
o3v
2
TCX IvSexoH-sva Y) auTY] ytyveTai ^e^Syj^ xal aX7]0v)<; 86?a xal 6 Xoyoc; 6 auTO<;,
1 5 xal evS^x^at OTE [Jiev aXyjOeueiv OTE 8e ^e\i8eaOai- irepl Se TCX cxSiivaTa c2XXto<;
ou yiyveTai OT^ (Jti:v cxXyjOe^ OTS 8k. ^e^So^;, aXX* ael TauTcx cxXy)6y) xal
Bonitz (Metaph. 409) remarked that the meaning of "composites" in this passage
is not "quae ex pluribus elementis coalucrunt" and in this he was right but
"in quibus cum substantia coniungitur accidens aliquod, veluti homo albus, homo
sedens, diagonalis irrationalis et similia". Now, if this last point were true, the
whole class of composites would consist of IvSexVeva, and those things which
"are always composed" or "cannot be divided" could not belong to them. By
ouvGeToc then is rather meant: judgments, in which a subject is copulated with a
predicate, be it accidental or not; so that the "truth" intended here is what is called
the veritas logica by the schoolmen (adaequatio rei et intellectus) .
Ilepl Se T<X aa\iv6eTa Tt TO elvai, elvai xal TO aXY)6e<; xal TO <J;ei>8o<;; Ca8e O f i n _
Y) (JLYJ
ou yap ecm auv0STOV, Tav auyxe7]TaL, (JLTJ elvai, 8e eav Si^pyj- composites
WGTE elvai fjiev
(Jievov f], axjTrep T& Xeuxiv <TO> ^\iXov 5) TO aa\i(JL[JieTpov TTJV SiafJLSTpov
20 T& aXvjOec; xal Ti ^eu8o<; ofioiax; STI UTrap^et xal ETT* exetvaiv. >j &a7csp
1
For the meaning of this term see our explanation under the text. It has been
suggested to the author by Mr. L. M. de Rijk, who deals with it in the first chapter
of his thesis, The Categories of being, Assen 1952.
2
consisting of a
-
T<3t
v8ex6jieva "contingent things", i.e. composed things,
substance and an accidental attribute, e.g. "white man".
132 METAPHYSICS [559]
TO X7]0&s inl TOUTCOV TO afrro, OUTGX; ou8e TO elvat, aXX' SCTI TO jxev
*
^ ^euSoc;, T6 [xev OtyeZv xal 9<xvai aXy]6e<; (ou yap Tatai xaT&paai^ xai
TO 8* ayvoeiv (JLYJ Otyyaveiv (aTraryjOYJvai yap Ttepl T& T eaTiv oux 'aTiv aXX' vj 25
xaTa <ju(Jipep7jx6 ou yap SCTTLV
ofzotax; Se xal Trepl T<X<; {JLYJ <7uv9eTa<; ouoia<; 7
a7caT7)0YJvai xal Ttaaai elalv evepyeta, ou SuvajJLei, eyiyvovTO yap av xal e^Oet-
question of falsehood in this case: things do not lie (i.e.: they do not cause an
untrue image of themselves in our mind). "Truth" may then be spoken of here as
far as things are the causes of images in our mind. This is what is called by scholas-
tics veritas ontologica.
c. The author concludes: About all things that are essences and
"actualities" (i.e. actually existing beings) we cannot err. Either we know
them or we do not.
In this case J^ 105 1 b 30- 33 !
excluded "Oaa Sr) ecmv Srcep elvai TI xal evlpyeiai, Trepl TauTa oux '<mv aTtaTYjOyjvai
aXX* YI
voetv 75 (JLYJ
aXXa TO TI e<m y)TLTai Ttepl auToiv, EL ToiaoTa EGTIV YJ (JLY).
560 As
to eternal being, something has been said of it in the books
on Substance (Z H) and in that on Potency and Actuality. The existence
and nature of the unmoved Movers is dealt with in A 6-10. We have
treated this part of Ar.'s first philosophy in connexion with Phys. VIII
(nrs. 515-518).
1
Otyetv
- Ar. means by this: an apprehension which is infallible and direct.
2
2v piv - is one group.
3 -
TO Sfc v the other .
4 -
ofrrcoc <rctv it exists in the sense as indicated supra.
FIFTEENTH CHAPTER
THE PRACTICAL SCIENCES
i THE THREE ETHICS AND THEIR INTERRELATION
561 The three Ethics of the Corpus Aristotelicum are first mentioned Threc w ? rks
as works of Ar. by Atticus, a Platonist in the days of Marcus Aurelius, attributed
cited by Eusebius, Praep. Ev. XV 4, 9, p. 795 d :
to Ar -
By these five books the Eudemian Ethics must have been meant.
b. A work on ethics in ten books is mentioned in the list of Hesy- the Eth. NIC.
563 That the Eth. Nic. were in earlier Antiquity generally con- who is the
a.
sidered as a work of Ar., may be inferred from Cic., De fin. V 5, 12. these works?
(One should not concede too much space to Fortune, the author says; for in
doing so you encroach upon the force and dignity of virtue).
Quare teneamus Aristotelem et eius filium Nicomachum, cuius accurate
scripti de moribus libri dicuntur illi quidem esse Aristoteli, sed non video
cur non potuerit patri similis esse films.
b.In later Antiquity traces may be found here and there of the
opinion that Eudemus and Nicomachus were the authors of the works
named after them. E.g. Diog. Laert. VIII 88:
97]<rl S' auTov sc. E88oov Nix6(/,axo<; 6 'ApiaToreXou^ TTJV y)Sovy)v
Difference 554 Th e reason why these works have been attributed to different
in character
authors, may have lain in the fact that they show a remarkably different
conception of life. we find a platonic view of life, of a
In the Eud. Eth.
clearly religious character. Philosophy is directed to the contemplation
of the highest Being, the Good. And it is this contemplation which endows
man with the force and the power of acting virtuously. On the other
hand, in the Nic. Eth. the bond with religion is severed: moral life
depends on itself.
See for this difference Jaeger, Ar.> p. 238 ff. Of great importance is the meaning
of the term 9p6vy)ai<; in both works. In the Eud. Eth. it means philosophical insight
into the highest Being, while in the Nic. Eth. it indicates practical wisdom, which is
not even limited to man, but may be attributed to animals too. Cp. our nr. 42 Oa,
remark II.
School, the years of Theophrastus and before the influence of the Stoa.
The question has been hotly debated by W. Jaeger and H. von Arnim, during
the years 1924 - 1929. This discussion has been amply reported by A. Mansion,
AutouY des Ethiques attributes a Aristote, in the Revue Ndoscolastique de Louvain,
1931, p. 80-107, 216-236 and 360-380.
E. J. Schacher, in the first of his above-cited Studies, begins with Schleiermacher
and deals too with the studies of Brink (an analysis of the style of the MM, Berlin
thesis, 1933) and Theiler (1934).
If any doubts were still possible as to the date of the MM, they have been
1
Studien zur Geschichte u. Kultur des Altertums, herausgeg. von der Gorres-
gesellschaft, XXII. Band, i. u. 2. Heft.
[566] ETH. NIC. I-III 135
566 Ar. qualifies all human action as being directed towards a purpose,
and defines the final purpose as well-being (eudaemonia), which consists
of an activity of the soul in accordance with reason, i.e. in accordance
with virtue.
20 AH human
Eth. Nic. I, 1-7, 1094 a^iogS a .
Ilaaa Te/vY) xal Tcaaa ^OoSo^, OJJLOIGX; 8k 7rpa!;i<; TC xal Tipoaipeau;, ayaOou ai m at
l some od
TIVO<; e9iecrOai Soxei 816 xaXcoc; dbrecpYjvavTO TayaOov, ou TUOCVT' e9ieTai.
Ata^opa 8e TI<; cpaiverai TCOV TeXcov T<X [xev yap eiaiv evepyeiai, Ta 8e Trap*
r J
5 auTa^ epya Tiva. Qv 8 eial TeXY) Tiva Tiapa TOC<; Trpa^eu;, ev TOUTOK; peXTico
6aai aXXai TWV ITTTCIXWV Spyavcov eiatv, auTT) Se xal Traaa TroXefiixT]
6716 TYJV crTpaTTjyixYjv, Tov auTOv 8e TpOTuov aXXai 69* eTepa^, ev
15 SY] Ta TCOV ap^iTexTOVLxciv T^Xr) TravTcav ecrTlv atpeTcoTepa TCOV UTU* auTa. TOUTCOV
yap x^P lv ^axeZva SicoxeTai. Aia9epei, 8* ouSev Ta<; evepyeia? aoTa^; elvat Ta
TCOV Tcpa^ecov ^ Trapa TaiJTa^ SXXo TI, xaOaTrep inl TCOV XexOeiacov im-
Ei SY) TI TeXo(; lari TCOV TupaxTcov o Si' auTO pouX6[JLe0a, Ta SXXa Ss Sia TOUTO, The sPme
20 xal (JIT)
TravTa Si* eTepov aipoii[Jie0a (Ttpoeicri yap OUTCO y' eic; aTteipov, COGT'
elvai xevY]v xal [JiaTaiav TTJV ope^iv), SyjXov co<; TOUT' av eiTj TO ayaOov xal TO
25 Ei S' OUTCO, TreipaTeov TUTICO ye TrepiXa^eiv auTO TI TIOT' eaTl xal TIVO^ TCOV
8' av TYJC; xupicoTaTY)<; xal (jtaXicTTa apx^TexTOvi-
Jt is th
Y) Suvajjiecov. Ao^eie
ToiauTY] S' -/] TioXiTixY] 9aiveTai. Tivac; yap elvai XP COV TC^ V e7TiaTY)(jLcov politics
2
Tai<; TioXecri, xal Tcoiac; exao~Tou<; fiavOaveiv xal (xe^pi TIVOC;, auTY] SiaTaarcrei
1
W. D. Ross rightly remarked that, according to the division of Traaoc Siavota
in Metaph. E i, we might have expected that Ar. would have distinguished between
productive and moral activity, the first being TrotrjTLXY], the second TcpaxTixr) and ;
that, if this distinction had been made, a very different system of ethics would
have resulted.
2
of the sciences should be studied in a state, and up to what point they
Which
should be learned, is a question which has been dealt with at length in the Republic
of Plato. To a disciple of the Academy it was indeed a major point of politics.
I3& PRACTICAL SCIENCES [566]
aya06v. El yap xal TauT6v ecmv evl xal TuoXei, (Jiei6v ye xal TeXei6Tepov T&
TYJS 7c6Xeco<; 9a[veTai xal Xa^eiv xal aco^eiv ayaTTTjTOv [lev yap xal evl (jtovcp,
xaXXiov 8e xal OeiOTepov eOvei xal TioXeaiv. 10
Different <jj ^ v O jv ^QoSo^ TQUTCOV e9feTat, TuoXiTixY] TIC; o5aa- XlyoiTO 8* av txavco<;,
precision in et xaTa TYJV u7Uoxei[jLV7)v uXTjv Siaara^YjOetT). T6 yap axpi(3e<; oux OJJLOICOC; ev
different ( J Tca(y l T0 ^ Xoyoic; eTT^TjTYjTeov, &(T7rep ev tol<; SYjfjLioupyoufJtlvot^. Ta Se xaXa
xal Ta Sixaia, ?uepl &v yj TroXiTtxv) axoTueiTai, ToaauTTjv e'xet Sia90pav xal 15
TuXavyjv codTe Soxeiv vofjico (JLOVOV elvat, 9uaei Se (JLYJ. ToiauTTjv S Ttva TcXavyjv
e^ei xal TayaOa SL<X TO rcoXXoi^ aujjipaivetv pXa^ac; arc* auTtov ^Sv) yap Tivec;
aTTcoXovTO Sia TrXouTov, eTepot Se Si* avSpetav. 'AyaTrvjTov o5v ?repl TOIOIJTCOV
2 3
xal ex TOIOUTCOV XeyovTa^ Tiax^Xcoc; xal TUTCCO TaXY)Oe^ IvSeixvuciOaL, xal ?repl 20
TCOV cb<; e?rl TO rcoXu xal ex TOIOUTCOV X^yovTag ToiauTa xal (TU|jL7repatve(r0ai 4 .
Seufjievou yap eaTiv inl TOCTOUTOV Taxpipec; eTTi^TjTeLv xa6 exaaTOv yevo<;, e^'
8aov Y)
TOU TcpayfjtaTO^ 9\ia^ eTriSexeTai* TcapaTrXrjaiov yap 9aiveTai ^873-25
reached ^7]^ TCoXiTixY)^ oux ecjTtv otxeLOi; axpoaTYjc; o veo<; aTretpo^ yap TCOV xaTa TOV
riper years ex TOUTCOV xal "ETI 8k TOL^
p[ ov ^pa^ecov, ol Xoyoi 8* Trepl TOUTCOV. TcaOecrtv
yap Tcapa TOV XP^vov Y) ^'XXet^K;, aXXa Sia TO xaTa 7ua0o^ ^TJV xal Stcoxetv IxaaTa.
Tot<; yap TOLOUTOIC; av6vr]TO(; YJ yvcoatc; yiveTai, xa0a7rep TOL^ axpaT^at TOI^
Se xaTa Xoyov Ta^ 6pe^et(; Trotoufjievot^ xal TupaTTOuat 7coXuco9eXe<; av etr) TO 10
1
''What we are to do and what we are to abstain from" has been minutely
prescribed in the Laws of Plato. Ar. again shows himself a true disciple of the
Academy in regarding this point as the normal task of legislation.
2
x TOIOUTCOV - with such premisses.
3 -
Troc/uXtof; roughly.
4
It is a basic law of the syllogism that the conclusion cannot contain more
than the premisses.
[566] ETH. NIC. Mil 137
Xlyouaiv, T& 8* e3 9jv xal T& eu rcpaTTeiv rauTOv u7roXa(j,pavoi)cri TCO euSaifJiovetv
20 Tcepl 8e TTJS eu8ai[Jiovia<;, TI ecmv, a^LdpyjTOiiaiv xal city 6[iouo<; ol rcoXXol TOU;
ao90i ajcoStSoacriv. 01 [Jiev yap TCOV evapycov TI xal cpavepcov, olov 7)8ov7)v
7]
TrXoijTOv 73 Ti|nf)v, (SXXoi 8* aXXo, TToXXdcxi^ 8e xal 6 airroc; erspov (vocryjcra^
25 p,ev yap uytetav, n;ev6[Jivo<; Se TuXouTOv), oruveiSoTSc; 8' eai)Toi<; ayvoiav TOU?
{iya TI xal UTtep auTou^ XeyovTac; Oaufjia^ouatv qiovTo vrapa Ta IVIOL 8*
TToXXa TauTa ayaOa aXXo TI xaO* aura elvai, o xal ToTaSs Traatv atrtov eari
TOU elvai ayaOa. 'ATracrac; (xi:v
ouv e^eTa^eiv Ta<; S6^a<; (JiaTaioTepov LCTW^ ecrrfv,
3olxav6v Se
A methodical
Tac; (JtaXtdTa eTTiTroXa^ouGra^ >] Soxoiiaac; /eiv Tiva Xoyov. MYJ XavOa-
2 2
VSTCO 8* 7)[Jia<;
STI 8La9epoucrtv ol ATCO TCOV ap^wv Xoyoi xal ol ercl Ta<; ap/a<; .
E5 yap xal DXaTcov YjTropet TOUTO, xal e^rei TOTCpov dbro TCOV ap^cov
3
io95bT<x<; ap^a(; IdTtv T) oSoc; coaTrep ev TW aTaSico dbuo TCOV aOXoOeTcov STUI TO
,
^ avaTuaXiv. 'ApXT^ov (lev yap arco TCOV yvcopi(Jicov, TauTa Se SLTTCO^ Ta (Jiev
4
yap TjfJLiv Ta 8* a?rXco(; .
"lacoc; o3v Y][JLCV ye apxTeov OCTTO TCOV Y](JLLV yvcoptfjicov.
5
5 Aio Set Toii<; IBeaiv ?jx ai xaXcot; TOV Tuepl xaXcov xal Stxatcov xal oXcog TCOV
TroXtTtxcov axoua6(jievov lxavco<;. 'Ap/yj yap TO OTL- xal ei TOUTO 9aivoiTO
1 -
ol x a P^ 8VTe ?
people of superior refinement.
2
"Arguments from the first principles" are deductive or apodeictic arguments;
those to the first principles are inductive. See our nrs. 447-455.
3
Ross points to Rep. VI 511 b, the passage about the avuTrdOerov (our nr. 294,
p. 203). But in fact, neither Plato's ascent from the hypotheseis, used as dpx<xt,
upward to the anhypotheton is anything like Aristotle's deductive argument,
nor is his descent from the anhypotheton back to the inferior etSyj of the same kind
as a X6yo<; ini Ta? ap/a? with Ar. Mark also the use of the imperfect: 7)7r6pet and
IftrJTei. Evidently there are frequent X6yoi inl T<X<; apxa? in the Socratic dialogues.
And whenever things are explained by participation in Ideas, what else is this
than a X6yo<; dc7r6 TCOV &p/cov ?
4
On the distinction between yvtopijjLcoTepa Y)(itv and yvtopifxcoTepa a7rXco<; see our
nr. 406, n. 5.
5
"must have been brought up in good habits".
8
The man who is trained by good habits possesses moral principles implicitly.
7
Erga 293, 295-297 Rzach.
138 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [566]
Three main xcoTOCTOi 816 xal TOV (3(ov ayaTC&ai TOV a7roXau<mx6v.
Tvjv YjSovYjv Tpei? yap
elai [xaXiaToc ol 7tpox VT ^ 8 TS vuv eipY)[Jievo<; xal 6 7roXmx6<; xal Tptao<; 6
1
. 01 (Jiev o5v TroXXol TravTeX&c; av8pa7ro8e!>8ei<; 9aivovTai POCTXT)- 20
[JLOCTCOV (3iov Tipoaipoufjievoi, Tuy^avouCTi Se Xoyou Sta TO 7uoXXoi!)<; TCOV ev
2 3
eoua[ai SapSavaTraXXco
6(j.oio7ra6ev 01 8k ^apfevTe*; xa>
TtfjtYJv.
Tou yap TtoXmxoij fiiov a^eSov TOUTO TXO. Oatverai 8* e7U7uoXai6Tepov
elvai TOU y)TOU[Avou Soxet yap ev TOI<; TLJA&CTI [JLaXXov elvai Y^ ev TO> Ti(JL(0(JLevc), 25
s
Ti(jL7)v
Siwxeiv tva TciaTeuataaLv eauTOix; ayaOoix; elvai* ^Y)Touai youv UTO TOW
9povi(jio)v TifjiaaOai, xal Trap* ol<; yivcoaxovrai, xat CTC' apeTy) 89jXov ouv 8ri
xaTa ye TO\iTou<; 7] apeTV) xpsiTTWv. Ta^a Se xal jxaXXov Sv TI<; TeXo<; TOU TcoXiTi- 30
xou PIOU TauTTjv uTToXapot. OaiveTat 8k aTsXeaTlpa xal auTT) Soxet yap evSI-
^saOai xal xaOeuSetv e^ovTa TY]V apeTYjv ^ onrpaxTeLv Sta PIOU, xal Tipic; TOUTOK;
xaxoTcaGeiv xal aTi)x^v ^a jxeyiaTa' TOV 8' OUTO)<; J^covTa ou8el<; av euSaifjio- iog6a
vicetev, et (JiY) Geatv 8ia9i)XaTT6)v. Kal Tcepl [xev TOUTCOV aXt<; (ixavto<; yap xal
*
Ketv' x<> ^ aa
9<xyov xai ecpuppiaa xal {JLET*
groxOov Ta 8i rcoXXa xal tfxpia Tuavra
T^pTcv*
Cic. translates it in Tusc. Disp. 35, 101 V :
"Quid aliud, inquit Ar., in bovis, non in regis sepulchro inscriberes ? Haec habere
se mortuum dicit, quae ne vivus quidem diutius habebat quam fruebatur".
He refers again to it in De finibus II 32, 106.
3
See p. 137, note i.
4
The text as we read it contains some difficulties. Modern interpreters mostly
supply pto? with xpYj^aTicmfe and translate: "The life of money-making is a life
of compulsion" or "constraint"; by which they mean either that this life is under-
taken only under compulsion (Ross), or that in this life a man cannot follow his
natural inclinations, or perhaps both. Yet there remains some doubt as to the
question whether the text is sound. We have no other instances of xp^aTicrnfe used
adjectively. And even if this is right, I think it would be better to supply the
word <pto<;> after xp^aTioTY);, because in copying it could be easily dropped be-
fore ptaio?.
A
former generation made some conjectures. G. Ramsauer in his edition of the
Eth. Nic. of 1878 proposed to write pdcvai>(j6<; TI? instead of fUai6$TK;. James Watt,
[566] ETH. NIC. I-III 139
~ , / , ~ / ,
Plato
i TWO?
XeyeTai, xairap TrpoaavTOix; TYJC; ToiauTYjc; c,y)TY]aeeo^ yiyvo(Aev7)<; criticized
Sta TO 91X01)^ #vSpa<; eiaayayeiv T<X eESrj. A6eie 8' av I'aax; (^XTLOV elvat xal
2
15 Seiv ercl aamjpia ye TYJ<; aXY]0eta<; xal Ta otxeta avaipeZv (SXXox; TS xal 91X0- ,
3
Ot 8e lm Ar ^ u "
yap OVTOLV 9^Xoiv fiaiov TcpoTtjjiav TYJV aXvjOeiav
[jL9oiv .
JV So^av TauTTjv oix STTOIOUV iSeac; ev ol<; TO vrpoTepov xal fidTSpov the doctrine
4 of the
gXeyov (SiOTrep ouSe TWV aptOpicov ESeav xaTeaxeuaJ^ov ) TO Se aya06v XeyeTai
20 xal ev TW TL xal ev TW TUOIW xal ev TO> Tupoc; Tt, TO Se xaO* auTO xal V)
ouaia
5
7cp6Tepov T^ 9uaei TOU Tcp6(; Tt (7rapa9uaSt yap TOUT* Ifotxe xal
>;
TOU OVTOC; ) OXTT' oux av etT) xoivv] TIC; em TOUTCOV tSla. ETI 8* ercel TayaGov
iGOLySx; X^yeTai TO) OVTI (xal yap ev TCO TI X^yeTai, olov 6 6eo<; xal 6 vou<;, xal
25 ev TCO TTOio) al apeTai, xal ev TCO TTOCTCO TO [jieTptov, xal ev TW 7rp6<; Tt TO XPV
ai{JLOv, xal ev XP ^
xaip6^, xal ev TOTTW StaiTa
6
xal eTepa TOiaijTa), 89jXov
ax; oux av eiT) xotvov TL xaOoXou xal ev ou yap av IX^yeTO ev TcaCTai? Tat<;
30 xaTTjyoptatc;, aXX' ev [jua {Jtovyj. "ETI 8' e?rel TCOV xaTa fxtav iSeav (jtta xal ITU-
followed by Burnet, read the text as it stands in this way: PLOC OCTI? Icrav ("the
business-man is by compulsion whatsoever he is"). C. M. Mulvany (in Class. Quart.
XV 1921, p. 85-98) suggests that pfouoc; should be explained as pai6<;: little, trifling.
He translates: "The business-man is a little person" sc. of minor importance
towards happiness.
1
T6 Si xaOoXou - sc. aya06v. In the conception of Ar. the Platonic Ideas are
"univcrsals", which are abstracted from the concrete things or phenomena. In
this case "the good" as a universal should be abstracted from many concrete dyaOa.
But this is impossible, Ar. says since these good things fall under different categ-
;
the vegetative soul over the sensitive, the sensitive over the rational. And that is
why there does not exist a "soul" in general, which is a reality in itself (De anima
A i, 402 b 6 - 8 B 3, 414 a 29 -b 19 ). So it is with substance and the other categories:
;
v eu Sidtyo^ev.
140 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [566]
crr/jp) *, xal TCOV ayaOcov dbravTcov ?jv av [jifoc TI<; emery) fry) vuv 8 del TioXXal
xal TCOV UTTO [jdav xaryjyopLav, olov xaipoo, ev TuoXejjicp [xev yap orpaTYjywa)
s
ev voaco 8 focTpixy), xal TOO (jLerpiou ev Tp09fj [/iv laTpixv) ev TTOVOI^ Se yufiva-
2- "Man" <v TI TTOTC xal poiiXovTai Xeyeiv
crnxy). 'ATcopTjcreie 8* Tt<; auToexaaTOV, efaep 35
himself" Sv re auToavGpcoTcco xal av6pco7ccp xal 6 auTO<; Xoyo<; ecniv 6 TOU avOpcoTrou. iog6b
sic;
J
ou8 TW
atSiov elvat [JiaXXov ayaOov Icrrai, etTrep [X7)8^ Xeuxorepov TO TcoXu-
y 9i)XaxTtxa TTWC; r^
TCOV evavTicov xcoXuTixa Sia TauTa Xyea0ai xal TpoTuov
dfXXov. A9jXov ouv OTI SLTTCO^ XeyoiT* avTayaOa, xal Ta [lev xa6' auTa, OaTepa
8e 8ia TauTa. XcopiaavTe^ o3v aruo TCOV cb^eXificov Ta xaO' auTa c7xe^ci(jLe0a ei 15
XyeTat xaTa (iiav iSeav. Ka6' auTa 8e Troia OeiY] TL^ av *H oaa xal (jLovoiifjieva ;
SicoxeTat, olov TO ^povetv xal opav xal yjSovai Tive^ xal TLjjiat TauTa yap ei ;
xal <ppovy]oreco xal TjSov^ eTepoi xal 8ia<pepovTe<; ol Xoyoi TauTT] fj ayaOa.
Oux SCTTIV apa TO ayaOov xoivov TI <xal> xaTa [Jitav iSeav. 25
Whence '
AXXa TCCO^ 8v) XeyeTai Ou yap Soixe TOL^ ye dbro TU^V]^ 6{icovii(xo^. 'AXX* Apa
;
6
homonymy ? y e t& &<?' &*<>> elvai ^ Tupoc; ev aTiavTa auvTeXetv, y [jiaXXov xaTa avaXoytav 'flc; ;
1
a Platonic principle. Cp. Laches igSd-igga; Parm. 134 a.
This is
2 - See our nr.
v T^ TCOV dcyaOcov auaToixta42, the Pythagorean table of opposites.
Ar. means it is more acceptable to range the one in a series of good things than to
:
are called by the same name because they are related to the same object or the
same idea; e.g. we speak of a healthy person (who possesses health), a healthy sleep
(which is a symptom of health), a healthy climate (which preserves health), etc.
[566] ETH. NIC. Mil 141
30 <peTlov TO vuv, laxpi|3ouv yap uTtlp auT&v &XXY)<; Sv etiQ <pt,Xocro<pta$ otxetfoepov
6[iota> SI xal Ttepl T% ISea^. Et yip xat UCFTIV v TI xat xotvyj xanqyopoufAevov
aya6ov $ x w P lorT ^ v Tt auTO *6' auTO S 89jXov ox; oux Sv stv) TtpaxT
35 XTYJTOV dvOpcoTccp vuv 8k TOIOUTOV TI CqTeiTai. Ta^a 81 Tcp 86eiev Sv
yvwpl^stv auri Ti
xal TCpaxTa T<OV ayaOcov olov ydcp 7rapx-
7rp6(; XTTJTOC
8siyfjia TOUT' ^OVTSS {AaXXov elaofxeOa xal T& ^[Jilv aya6a, xav elStofiev, STCI-
Teu6(Ae6a auTcov. IIiOavoTYjTa (JL^V o5v Tiva S^ei 6 X6yoc;, Soixsv 8 Tatc;
2
jiat(; 8ia<povetv :raarai yap ayaOou TIVO<; s^ilfisvat xal T6
3
TrapaXeiTcouat TYJV yvtoatv auTOu Ka^Toi po^Oyjiia T
.
a7r<4o~jf)
8k,
Ttpdc^si xal rcpoatpso'ei TO T!XO<; TOUTOU yap Ivsxa TOC Xotira TcpaTTOuo't
7cdcvTS<;. "QaTe et TI TCOV TupaxTcav a?ravTtov larTl TlXo^, TOUT* Sv styj TO TrpaxTov
In the same way the word "medical" indicates that which is relative to the medical
art, the doctor because he possesses it, a treatment because it is a function of it, etc.
u Z 4, 1030 a aa -b 3 ). In scholasticism this is called analogia
(Metaph. T i, 1003 a -b
38
;
of D." E.g. old age is to life as evening is to day. Now evening may be called old
age of the day, or old age the evening of life. It seems to be the author's intention
to qualify the good as homonymous in the second sense.
1
"Even if the good is universally predicable, or if there is a Good existing
separately and absolute",
Souilh6 rightly remarks that the first and the second part of the sentence are
not the same a thing might be a common predicate but not an Idea. The ^ then
:
The8U P reme
dya06v, el 8k TuXetco, TauTa. MeTapatvcov Sir) 6 X6yo; ei; TauTov
supreme end TOUTO 8k STL [laXXov 8iaaa97Jaai TieipaT^ov. 25
'Ercel 8e TrXetco ^aiveTai TOC TlXv), TOUTCOV Si aipoupie0a Tiva Si' Srepa, olov
auXou; xai 8Xco; Ta Spyava, 89jXov co; oux e'cmv TravTa liXeiof T& 8'
TOUTCOV X^P LV > OU S' 8Xco^ 8i &XXo. OaiveTai Se xai ex T% auTapxeia^ TO auTO
[jiev
oux auTco (jL6vco TCO ^COVTI piov [JLOVCOTTJV, dcXXa xai yoveuci xai Texvoic; xai 10
yuvaixl xai 8Xco<; Toig 91X01; xai TcoXiTai^, eTueiSv] 9uaei TroXiTixov 6 avOpcoTio?.
TOUTCOV 8e XvjTUTeo^ 8po; TI<; eirexTeivovTi yap CTCI TOU; yovet; xai TOU; a7ioy6-
vou; xai TCOV 9iXcov TOU; 9iXou; ei; arueipov TTpoeiaiv. 'AXXa TOUTO (Aev elaau-
61; eTciaxeTTT^ov, TO 8' auTapxe; TiOe(jiev o [xovoufxevov alpeTov Tioiec TOV PIOV 15
xai [T/jSevo; evSea- TOIOUTOV Se TTJV eu8ai(jioviav oiofieOa elvai, eTi Se TCOCVTCOV
2
aipeTCOTaTTjv auvapi6[jiou[jievyjv
(JLYJ SuvapiOfzoufjLevyjv yap S^Xov co; aipeTco-
.
3
T^pav TOU eXa/tcrrou TCOV ayaOcov uTrepo^v) yap ayaOcov yiveTai TO
[jieTa
1
"So the argument has by a different way reached the same point" i.e. the
same as in ch. namely, that the supreme good is identical with the supreme end.
i,
"By a different way" in ch. i the argument was: "Every art and every inquiry
etc. aims at some good; therefore, the supreme good is the supreme end, which is
aimed at by every human activity". Here the argument runs: "The good and the
end are identical in all individual cases; therefore, the supreme good and the
supreme end will be also identical" (the stress being laid on Tl oSv i x 6. a T TJ ; Tdlya v ^
and TWV TrpaxTcov aTuavTwv).
2
(XY) auvapiO^oujjL^vrjv
- "without being counted as one good thing among
others" (Ross) i.e. not as a number of a series.
;
8 -
jxera by the addition of .
[566] ETH. NIC. Mil 143
o5v TXTOVO<; fxlv xal crxuT^c^ lartv Ipya TIVOC xal Trpdc^eis, avOpcircou
5
30 8 oiSlv t<mv, dcXX' apyiv rc^uxsv ; ^ xaOdcirep 6<p0aX|Jio5 xal xe &P& *al ttoS6<;
xal 8Xa> IxaaTOU T<OV (zoptwv 9atvsTaC TI Spyov, OUTCO xal av0pc(>7Tou rcapa
TtavTa TauTa 0eh) TL$ av Ipyov TI Tt o5v Si] TOUT' av etv) TOT T6 [xlv yap ^v
; ;
xotviv elvat <pavgTai xal T<H<; <puTOt^, ^Tetrai S^ t6 tSiov. A9opiatlov Spa
zogSa nfjv TS OpsTTTix^v xal T)JV ai^iQTtx^v J^coifjv *. *E7tO(Ji^v>) SI aJaOTjTtxif] TI? Av eliq, defined l>y
SI xal auTYj xoivJ) xal farcy xal ^ot xal -nravrl 4>(j>. AetTCSTat Si) the special
T i $ TOU X6yov SXOVTOI; (TOtiTOO SI T& (zlv ax; e:n7rsi6lc of man
2
S* d>^ lx ov xa ^ Siavoo6[Jtevov ) SITTC!)^ SI xal
rJjv xar* evlpyetav 0eT^ov xupicorepov yap a5ry) Soxet X^ysaGat. El S* Icrrlv
STL ouSefuoc TCOV r)0ixtov apeTtov 9\Jcrei 7)(uv eyytyvETai* ou0v yip TCOV 9\iaei
8vTcov fiXXcoc; eOt^erai, olov 6 X[0o^ cpuaei XOCTCO 9p6(jivo<; oux av s0ia0eb} 20
&vco 9^pea6at, ouS* av [U)piaxt<; 01^7) TI<; &vco ptaTcov, ouSe TO Tcup XOCTCO,
ouSe $XXo ouSsv TCOV aXXax; TW^UXOTCOV aXXco^ av eOiffOety). OUT' Spa 9\Jo~ei
OUTS Trapa 9uaiv syyiyvovTai ai apETai, aXXa n:e9ux6at [jt^v yjfjitv 8l5ad0ai25
S/
auTas, TsXetoufJisvoK; Se Sia TOU eOouc;. ETI 8aa fiev 9\iaei Y)[JLLV TrapaytveTat,
Tac; SuvafjLCK; TOUTOV TipOTepov xop.i^6{jLe0a, (iaTepov Se T<X<; evepyetac; aTroSi-
SofJiev, OTusp em TWV alo0Y)ae(ov SyjXov (ou yap ex TOU TroXXaxL^ ISetv ?j 7uoXXaxi<;
axouaat Ta<; ata0y)aei(; eXa(3o[zev, aXX* avaTuaXiv S^ovTec; exP Y ]
a<^(JL ^a) ^ 3
piGTaL OUTW Se xal Ta (JLEV Sixaia TipdcTTOvTec; Sixaioi yiv6{Jie0a, Ta Se aco9pova 11035
consequence
Aio Set TOU; evepyeta^ 7roia<; aTuoSiSovai xaTa yap Ta<; TOUTCOV
axoXouOouaiv at E^SK;. Ou [jttxpov ouv Sta9ept TO OUTGX; T] OUTCO^ euOix; ex
ve*6)v I0i^eo"0at, aXXa 7ra{jL7uoXu, fxaXXov 8k TO ?rav.
568 How, then, are we to act rightly? Ar. answers this question
by developing his theory that virtue is the mean between two extremes.
destroyed HpoJTov [xev o5v TOUTO OewpvjTeov, OTI T<i TOiauTa 7ce9uxev UTT* evSeta^ xalno4a
by excess and u7re 90Lpea0aL (Set yap uTrep
l
TCOV a9avcov TOU;
ppoX9j<;
xal TTOIEL xal aust xal CTCO^EL OUTCOC; ouv xal 7ul aco9poauvy3(; xal avSpsta^
E^si xal TCOV SXXcov apETcov. "0 TE yap vravTa 9tiycov xal 9opou(jivo^ xal 20
- in illustration of.
[568] ETH. NIC. I-III 145
excised in
'AXX* ou jx6vov at yev^areu; xal au^yjaeu; xal al 96opal ex TCOV auTcov xal the actions
30
,..
em
TCOV auTcov vtvovTai, aXXa xal at evlpyeiai ev TOLC auToic ScovTai xal yap by which Jt
_ , T
TCOV aXXcov TCOV 9avepcoTepcov OUTCOC; e^ei, olov
>
em % ~ /
LCT^O^- ytveTat
TTJC;
/
yap ex TOU TroXXvjv Tpo^vjv Xa(Jipaveiv xal TcoXXoi^ TTOVOU<; uTiofjisveiv, xal [JiaXtdTa
SivaTai TauTa Tcoietv 6 laxopo^. OUTCO S* e^ei xal evrl TCOV apeTcov ex Te yap
TOU aTrexeaOai TWV yjSovcov yiv6{xe0a aw^pove^, xal yev6(Jievoi [xaXicrTa Suva-
35 [JLe0a a?rxe<y0at auTtov. *0{JioLCo<; 8e xal em TTJ^ avSpeta^ eOi^ofjievoi yap
[ i O4b xaTa9povetv TCOV 9o(3epcov xal uTcofJieveiv auTa yivofJteOa avSpeiot, xal yev6-
8uv7)<y6(JLe6a uTcofjtevetv Ta
8e Set TroietaOat TCOV eecov TTJV eTutyivofxevyjv YjSovy]v ^ XUTCTJV TOI<; the test of
virtue
5 Ipyoi^ 6 fxev yap aTce^o^evoc; TCOV acofiaTixcov yjSovcov xal auTCp TOUTCO x^Lpcov
aa>9pcov, 6 8* ax66(JLevoc; ax6XaciTO<;, xal 6 [xev uvrofjievcov TOC Setva xal ^atpcov
$ (JLY) XuTcoilfievoc; ye avSpetoc, 6 8e XuTcoufJtevoc; 8eiX6<;. Ilepl ^Sovac; yap xal
loXiiTca^ eaTlv 73 y)0ixy] apeTY). Aia (xev yap TYJV TjSovyjv TOC 9auXa TupaTTOfxev, Sia
Se T/]v X\i7c>)v TCOV xaXcov
Ai6 Set ^X^ a ^ Ktos eu6u<; ex ve*cov, co<; 6 IIXaTcov 973crtv, tocrre x a ^P lv T xa>L education
olc; Set* r) yap opOv) TraiSeta ai>TY] IGTLV.
man do just
ATTopiQcreie o av TU; rcco^ Xeyofjiev OTI oei Ta [xev oixaia TrpaTTOvTa^ oixaiou? actions when
/ ^/
Ta 8e aci)9pova crco9pova^. EE yap TrpaTTouaiv Ta Sfxata xal TOC crco- heisnot i ust?
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 10
146 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [570]
9pova, 7^873 eial SCxaioi xal aco9pove^, coanep el TOC ypa|i[jiaTixa xal TOC [Jiou- 20
9 - 18
Conclusion b. Ib., II05b !
E3 ouv X^yeTat STI ex TOU TOC Sixata TtpdcTTeiv 6 Sfxaioc; ytveTat xal ex TOU bio
TOC aco9pova 6 aco9pcov ex Se TOU |xv) TcpaTTeiv TauTa ouSel^ av ouSe fjteXXvjaete
yevlaOai dya06^. 'AXX' ot TcoXXol TauTa [xev ou TcpaTTOuaiv, eTil Se TOV Xoyov
xaTa9euyovTe<; otovTai 9iXocro9ecv xal OUTOX; SaeaOai ciTrouSacoi SJJLOIOV TI
TcoiouvTe^ Tot^ xdcfjivouatv, ot TCOV laTpcav axououai (Jtev e7ci(jieXco<;, TTOLOUCTI 8* 15
defined
Eth ' Nic ' H 5 '
II0 5 bl9- IIo6al2:
Its genus T s
8 eaTiv YJ apeTY) e^? axeTCTeov. 'ETrel oSv TOC ev Tyj ^^Yl yivojjieva Tpfa 20
ICTT!, 7ca0Y] 8uva(Jiei<; eei, TOUTCOV <5cv TI etY) 7] apery). Aeyco S^ TraOy] {xev
(xiav opyyjv 96pov Oapao? 906vov x a pav 9iXiav [iiao(; TioOov ^vjXov SXeov, SXax;
olc; SrceTai YjSovv] TJ XUTTY) 8uva(iei<; 8i xaO* a<; Tca07)Tixol TOUTCOV Xey6(Jie0a,
olov xa0' a^ SuvaTol 6pyiCT09jvat ^ Xu7ry)09jvai ^ eXevjaai Ifyzic, Se xaO* a<; ?rp6^ 25
Ta 7rd07) e^ofjiev e5 75 xaxco<;, olov 7rp6<; TO opyiaOyjvai, et (iev a9o8pco<; 73
avei-
[JLVCO<;, xaxco<; Sxo[iev, ei Se (ji^acoc;, eij, ofjtotco^ Se xal ?up6<; TaXXa. FlaO?) (Jtev
o5v oux eialv ou0' at apeTal o80* at xaxiat, STI ou Xey6(Jte0a xaTa TOC 7ca07)
GTcouSaiot y 9auXoi, xaTa Se Ta<; apeTa^ 7) T<X<; xaxta<; XeyojieOa, xal STL xaTa 30
JJLCV
Ta
TraOY) ouTe e7Tatvou(jLe0a ofiTe ^ey6(xe0a (ou yap eTiatvetTai 6 9opou[xevo<;
ouSe 6 6pyi6[jievo<;, ouSe ^lyeTat 6 obrXco*; 6pyi^6[jLevo(; aXX' 6 TCCO^), xaTa Seiio6
Ta^ apeTa^ xal Ta^ xaxla^ e7raivou(jie0a ^ ^ey6(Jie0a. "ETI 6pyi^6(Jie0a {xev xal
eiortv ofiTS yap dyaOol Xey6(xe0a TCJ) SiivacrOat Traaxetv dbrX&s OU*TE xaxof,
ouY ercatvoiifxeOa ofire ^ey6[Ae0a. Kal STI SuvaTol fxev ea^ev 9uo~et, ayaOoi Si
10 Y}
xaxol ou yivofjteOa 9\iaet efaoiiev Se Trepl TOUTOU TrpoTepov. Ei o5v
15 STL S^K;, aXXa xat TTOIOC TL<;. 'PrjTsov o5v OTI Tiacra dpSTT), o5 av % apery], auT6
TS eS S^ov arcoTeXeL xal TO epyov auTou e5 aTcoSiSwciv, olov Y] TOU 6(p6aX(jLou
TOV TE 6<p6aX(ji6v (TTrouSatov Tiotet xal TO epyov auTou T^ yap TOU o98aX(jLou virtue *
TJ
eu 6p<o(jiev. 'OjJioLcoc; 7]
TOU LTCTCOU dpeTY) ITTTTOV Te crTiouSatov rcotei xal
2odya06v SpajJiEtv xal eveyxelv TOV ETrtpdcTYjv xal [Jieivat Tout; 7toXe[Atouc;. Et SYJ
2 t <;
(X9* 9j c;
dya o <; <5cv0po)7i;oc; y v s T a xal a 9' t t
?) t; s5
TO eauTou spyov a ?r o S o> a s t .
Ilcac; SE TOUTO SaTat, Y^SYJ [JLEV
25 etpY)xa(jiv, fru SE xal &S* laTat 9avspov, sdv 0o>pY)ao)[jisv Trota Ttc; saTtv Y)
9\latg auTYJ*;. 'Ev rcavTl SYJ auvexEt xal StatpSTto IGTI Xa^scv T& [IEV TrXEtov
s
TO 8* SXaTTOv TO 8 taov, xal TauTa Y)
xaT* auTO TO Trpayjjia YJ 7up6<; Y)(jia<;
TO SE
taov [JL^CTOV Tt u7CppoXY)<; xal EXXst^sox;. A^yco Se TOU [Jiev 7rpdy(JiaTO<; [ilaov
30 ^o foov aTTe^ov a9' exaT^pou TCOV fixpcov, oTrep ecrTlv ev xal TO auTO Tcaatv, 7rp6<;
Y)[Aac;
Se o [AY)Te TrXeovd^et [jtY)Te eXXetTief TOUTO 8* ou/ ev, ouSe TauTOv Traatv.
Olov et Ta Slxa TroXXa Ta Se Suo oXtya, Ta 1% [Jilca Xa{i(3avouat xaTa TO
yap taa> TS xal U7repxe/r<*t TOUTO 8e [xeaov eaTl xaTa TYJV
U7tepxet
*
3^ TCpayjxa
apt0[jLY]TtxY]v avaXoytocv. T6 8e ?rp6<; YJJJLOCC; ou^ OUTO) XYjTCTeov ou yap ei TCO
j e?rtaTY][jto)v TYJV uTieppoXYjv [lev xal TYJV iXXet^tv 9eiiyet, TO Se [I^CTOV t^YjTet xal
Tou0* atpetTat, (JL^CTOV
Se ou TO TOU TrpayfjtaToc; aXXa T^ Tupo^ Yjfjtac.
Et SY] Tcaaa
|TCICTTY](JLYJ OUTO)(; TO epyov e3 eTctTeXet, rrpoc; TO (Jteaov pXeTiouca xal etc; TOUTO
Ta Spya (80ev etcoOaotv e?ttXyetv TOL^ eu e^ouatv Spyot^; 8Tt ouTe
SaTtv ouTe 7rpoa0etvat, we; TYJC; [Jtev urceppoXYJc; xal TY^C; eXXet^eo)c; 90et-
pouaYjc; T6 e5, TYJC; 8e (xea6TY)TO<; acp^ouoYjc;), et SYJ ot ayaOol Te/viTat, we; Xeyofiev,
xal ipytaOYJvai xat IXeyjaai xal 8X(0 YjaOyjvai xal XurtYjGYJvat, &m xal fxaXXov 20
xal -JJTTOV, xal dfjt^Tepa oux e5, TO 8& free Set xal 69* ol$ xal rcp6<; ou$ xal oS
Ivexa xal a>$ Set, (ji<rov Te xal fipioTov, feep earl T% apeTYjs * 6[io[<o<; Se xal
rcepl TOC<; 7rpaei O*TIV 67cep(3oX:J) xal {XXci<ju xal TO (jilaov. *H 8* apeTY)
7ca0Yj
Definition of
moral virtue r
"EaTiv Spa
^
Y)
. . ~ ^
2^K
TCpoaipeTtxV). ev aea6TY)Ti
dpeTY]
ouaa Tyj ?rpo<; yj (A a coptajAevy] X6yct> xal co<; av o 9po-no7a
,
/ / \ c e /
rableofmor-
fjepl ^v o5v ^6pou? xal OdtppYj avSpela [Jieo6TY)<; TCOV S* o7teppaXX6vTcov 6no7b
means V>kv rft d<po(3[a dvcivufjio^(TroXXd laTiv avcovufxa), 6 S* ev T(p 6appeiv u?tep-
S'
between two
p^^v Qpacru?, 6 8k tq> (iev epopetcrOai uTrepjJdXXwv T(p 8^ 6appetv
8etX6<;. Ilepl Y)8ova<; 8^ xal XuTtas ou Tcdaa^, Y^TTOV 8k xal Tcepl Ta<; XuTra^, 5
Yj
8 dxoXaafa. *EXXe(7tovTe<; 8k
5
1
See our nr. 42, the table of Pythagorean opposites.
1 A quotation of unknown origin.
[572] ETH. NIC. I-III 149
(xeyaXo^uxiav, Trepl TifjLTjv oSaav fjLeyaXyjv, aoTT) Tiepl (jitxpav oScra- SCTTL yap
ax; Set 6pyea0aL TipL9j<; xal (jtaXXov
Set xal 3JTTOV, XeyeTai S' 6 [jiev UTceppaXXcov
YJ
xaXou[xev SCTTL S' ore a9iX6Ti{JLov, xal Scruv ore [xev ercaivou^ev TOV 9iXoTi[jLOv
8* ore TOV <X9iXoTi[JU>v. Aia Ttva S* atTtav TOUTO 7iotou[Jiev, ev TOLC; e^Tj^
(jiev
ev TcatSta TO S' ev Tuaai TOt^ xaTa TOV PIOV. 'PyjTeov ouv xal Trepl TOUTCOV,
1 5 Eva (JiaXXov xaTiSco^ev STL ev Tra<riv YJ jjieaoTYji; eTtaiveTov, TOC S* axpa OUT'
6p6a OUT* eTcaiveTa aXXa 4>exTa. "EaTi [jiev o5v xal TOUTOOV TOC TrXeia> ava>vu(Jia,
TreipaTeov 8*, cocrTtep xal em TOiv fiXXcov, auToix; 6vo[JiaTOTuoieiv
Svexa xal TOU euTrapaxoXouOvjTou 3 Ilepl fjiev oi5v TO aXYjQed; 6 (Jiev.
aypotxd^ TI? xal 73 e^tc; aypoixta- Tcepl Se TO XOLTCOV 7)Su TO ev TCO (3ico 6 (lev
4
to<; Set TjSix; cov 9(Xo; xal 7) [jiea6T7j^ 9tXta, 6 S* uTreppiXXtov, et (Jiev ouSevcx;
1 - tastelessness.
dc7reipoxaXa
a
7tt8i,xaovTai etc. - the extreme characters lay claim to the middle place.
3
TOO euTrapaxoXouOifjTou (Svexa) - so that we may be easily followed.
4 - amiable.
9^X0?
PRACTICAL SCIENCES [572]
(jLwv. Kal yap ev TOUTOIC; 6 (Ji4v Xeyerai [xao<;, 6 8 u7rep(JaXX<ov, &$ 6 xaTi
6 TiavTa ai8oiS[jLevo^, 6 8* eXXetTccov 73
6 [jL7)S4v 8Xcoc; avaiaxuvTo^, 6 84 (JL(JO? 35
2
aiSyjiAcov. Nefieo-u; 84 [JiecroTT]^ ^Oovou xal e7rixaipexaxta<;, e[al 84 Trepl XUTCTJVIK
xal Y]8ovy]v TOC^ ercl TOL<; <Ti)(jLJ3aLvoi)(TL TOI^ TceXa^ yivojjt^va^ 6 [Aev yap ve[Jie-
x.
d7reip6xaXo<;,
x. dtTi(Jt(a ((leyaXat ) Xauv6TY)
Xauvo?
id. ((uxpa) < normal attitude -
towards honour >
dtopyrjafoc
aXa^oveia elpcovsCa
x.7tpaeo>v xoLvcavia etpcov
T6 ^)8i> T& aypoixta
aypotxos
8u T& 4v TCO pica <dcpaxeia TJ xoXa- SuaxoXia
xe(a>
(Jcpecixo? $i 9^X0? , SuaxoXo?
a Trepl T&
1 -
(Jcpeoxo? obsequious.
1
righteous indignation. In this instance the application of the theory
-
vi^eau;
of the mean is very unfortunate.
[573] ETH. NIC. I-III 151
quence, namely, that the opposition between the extremes (being two
vices) is sharper than that between virtue and vice.
no8b Tpuov SYJ 8iaO<recov ouatov, Siio (JLSV xaxt&v, TYJ<; [Jilv xa0*
s
T* eXXei<|>iv, [jua<; S apeT% TYJ<; [ASCTOTYJTOC;, Traaa
at [xev yap Sxpat xal Tyj [xeoY] xal dXXY)Xai<; evavTiai siaiv, YJ
Ss
The
15, 26Tai<; a*xpai<;.
.
e<m
- -
OUTCO<; 8e avTtxeiaevcov aXXinXoK; TOUTOV, TrXeidTT] evavTiOTinc
.;,..*,,, I , ,
TOL<; axpoic; Trpoj; aXXYjXa >J Trpo^ TO fieorov TcoppcoTepco yap Taura a9eaT7)-
ix opposition
between the
xev aXXyjXcav ^ TOU [JLSCTOU, cicnrep TO TOU xal TO (itxpov TOO (isyaXou extr emes is
(ji^ya (JLixpou
30 >] fifjicpco
TOU taou.
noga IIp6<; 8e TO (xecrov avTixctTat (jiaXXov 69* 2>v (lev r] lXXsn|;i?, 9* civ Se
5 axoXaaia uTreppoXr) oi5aa. Aia Siio 8* aiTta<; TOUTO <ru(jij3aivei, [xiav (lev TYJV s?
auTOu TOU 7ipay(jwcTo<; TW yap eyy\STepov elvai xal 6[JLOtoTspov TO eTspov fixpov
TW (JLeaco, ou TOUTO aXXa ToivavT^ov avTiTiOefiev [xaXXov, olov eTcei 6(JLOtoTpov
Soxet Tyj dvSpeta YJ 6paa\iTYj<; xal eyyuTCpov, avofJioiOTepov 8* Y) SetXia,
Y][jLwv auTtov a yap auTol fzaXXov 7re9uxa[tev TTCO^, TauTa (jiaXXov evavTta
Trpo^;
I5TW {jLECTCji ^atveTai. Olov auTol jxaXXov 7re9uxa[JLev :rp6(; T<X YjSovac;, 816
{JiaXXov IvavT^a Xeyojiev, 7up6^ a Y) sTriSoo-K; (JiaXXov yivsTai' xal 8ia TOUTO
Y]
dxoXaata uTieppoXY] ou<ra evavTtwT^pa e<m TYJ <ra)9po(iuvY).
574 In the next chapter Ar. gives some practical rules for attaining
the mean.
30 Aei TOV CTTOxa6(Jievov TOU (Jilaoo rcp&TOv fiev aTro^copeLV TOU fiaXXov evavTiou, attaining
the mean
xaOdcTrep xal YJ KaXu^d) Trapaivet
vYJa.
1-7
b. Ib., b :
SxoTretv 84 Set Tupoc; a xal auTol euxaT<x9opo ecr(Jiev SXXoi yap rcpo
Trecpiixafjiev. TOUTO 8* edTai yvcipijjiov ex TYJC; Yj8ovYJ<; xal TYJ<; X\iTCY)<; TYJ? yivo-
[JIVYJ<; Trepl Y)(Jias. Eu; ToivavTiov 8' eauToix; acplXxeiv Set TcoXu yap dbcayovTes 5
TOU ajjiapTavsLv ei^ T& (Jiiaov ^ofjiev, Srcep ot TOC Siecrrpamjieva TCOV i;tiXa>v 6p-
TTOIOUCTLV.
c. Ib., b 7 - 12 :
J
Ev TtavTL 84 (xaXiCTTa 9i>XaxTeov TO YJOU xal TYJV YjSovyjv ou yap a8xaaTOi
xpivofJLev auTY)v. "OTiep o5v ol 8v)[jLoyepovTe(; STcaOov ?rpo^ TYJV 'EX^vyjv, TOUTO
8ei TuaOeiv xal r)(jiai; Tcpcx; TYJV yjSovyjv, xal ev Tcaai TTJV exeivtov ETCiXlyetv ^COVYJV 10
Conditions of 575 jn ^QQ^ jjj^ ^ j.^ j^e conditions of responsibility for action
sibiiity
are defined. First, the action must be voluntary (exouaiov), i.e. done (i)
for action
no t un der compulsion, and (2) with knowledge of the circumstances.
Ul *' IIO 9
involuntary Tyj^ apsTYJc; Sv] Tcepl 7ua0Y) Te xal Tupa^e^ ou<n)(;, xal iid TO!<; exoufftoi^ 30
ETraivcov xal ^oyov yivoptevcov, evil 8e TOLC; axouatoi^ di>yyvco[jLY)(;, EVICTS 84
xal sXou, TO exoiiatov xal T& axoriatov avayxalov tacac; Siopiaai TOL<; Tcepl
i,
vuv 8e xal avTl TcovSe exoiiaia. El 81 TL<; Ta Y)8a xal Ta xaXa ^atY) 5 9
elvat (avayxaJ^eiv yap S^co 8vTa), TravTa av eiY) OUTCO ^laia' TOUTCOV
involuntary .. ; \
exwv
% , ',
ou TreTcpaxev, o ye
? y\ i
ouo au axcov,
t y /
only when Tfl Trpa^et, fxev [JLYJ jjoei, (JLYJ
regretted
yg ToO SYJ Si' iyvotav 6 fiev ev |jieTa(JieXeia Sxcov Soxel, 6 84 |ZY)
e:rel STepo^;, IGTW ou^ exa>v eTiel yap 8ia9pei, P^XTIOV 8vo(za Sxeiv t8iov.
[575] ETH. NIC. I-III 153
yap 7) ev Tyj 7cpoatpaet <yvota aMa TOU axouatou aXXa TYJS {jiox0Y]pta^, ouS' Y] re Q uired
TTpa^ti; ev TOUTOt? yap xal 6Xeo<; xal auyyvco(jiY) 6 yap TOUTCOV TI ayvocov
axouatco? TrpaTTet. "Iaco<; oSv ou x lp v Stoptaat auTa, Ttva xal Tioaa eaTt,
T[<; Te SYJ xal Tt xal Tuepl T Y) ev Ttvt TtpaTTet, evtOTe 8 xal Ttvt, olov opyavcp,
TCOV iXXcov cpcov exouatco<; Trpa^et, ouS* ot 7ratSe<; elTa TioTepov ouSev exouatco<;
TCOV St* e7TtOu(jLtav ^ OUJJLOV, YJ
Ta xaXa [iev exouatco^ Ta S*
axouatco<; ;
"*H yeXotov evoc; ye atTtou SVTO^ ;
Soxet Se ou^ YJTTOV
iiiibav0pcomxa elvat Ta <5cXoya, coaTe xal at Trpa^etc; TOU dv0pco7rou a7r6 OUJJLOU
xal e7it0ufjtta<; &TOTTOV SYJ TO TtOevat axouata TauTa.
576 Moral virtue further implies that the action is done by choice.
TrXeov TO exouatov TOU (zev yap exouatou xal ;rat8e<; xal Ta SXXa coa xotvcovet,
10 7rpoatplaeco<; 8* ou, xal Ta e^a^vY)^ exouata (Jiev Xyo(xev, xaTa Trpoatpeatv 8* ou.
158* avaTiaXtv Tcpoatpoufxevoc; [ilv, e7ut0u(jLcov 8* ou. Kal rcpoatp^aet (jiev eTrtOujxta
evavTtouTat, eTrtOuptta 8* eTrtOufjtta ou. Kal YJ (lev e?itOu(jLta Y]8o^ xal eTitXuTuou,
Y) Trpoatpeat^ 8* ouTe Xu7TY)pou o56' Y)8eoc;. U(JLO; 8* ^Tt Y^TTOV Y^xtaTa yap
TOC 8ta 0u|jLOv xaTa rcpoafcpeaiv elvat Soxet.
20 'AXXa [JtYjv
ouSe ^ouXYjaC^ ye, xabtep auveyyu<; 9atv6(jtevov. IIpoatpeat<; piev
yap oux SaTt TCOV aSuvdcTCOv, xal et Tt<; 9atY] TtpoaipetaOat, SoxotY) av
i,
ou T<O xaxw
xal ayaOw, Y) Tcpoaipeaic; Ss TOUTOK; (xaXXov. OXo)(;
ouv 86y) TauTov iaco(; ouSe Xeyei ouSeu;' aXX* ooSs TIV[. Tw yap 7rpoat- III2a
rayaOcx y) TOC xaxa Tuoiot Ttveq eafjiev, TW S^ So^a^etv 08. Kal Tupoatpoii-
fjte0a [Jtev Xapetv y) 9uyetv yj
TI TCOV TOIOUTCOV, 8oao[Jisv Si: TL SCTTIV yj
TVI
7rco<;Xapetv Ss y) 9uyciv 06 ?uavu So^a^ofjiev. Kal y) (Jiev 7rpoa[pecrt<;
5
TCO elvai o3 Sel [xaXXov y^ TCO 6p6&<;, y] Si S6?a TCO co<; aXyjOto^. Kal
Tcpoatpoii[JLe0a (JL^V ayaOa ovTa, Soao{jLev Si: S ou Tuavu icrfiev.
a (xaXia-Ta tcrfxev
AOXOUCTL TE oux oi auTol TTpoatpeLcrOai TS &piCTTa xal 8oaeiv, aXX' eviot So^a^etv
I0
[xsv a(jLLvov, Sta xaxiav S* alpetaOai ou^ a Ssi.
defined
T ouv y)
TCOIOV TI eaTiv, sTreiSy] TCOV eipy](jivcov ooSlv ;
*E x o u CT i o v (xev
J5
& SE EXOUCJIOV ou ?rav 7rpoaipTOv. 'AXX' apa yTO 7rpoppou-
XUfXvov; *H yap 7rpoafpcri? fjtTa Xoyou xal Siavoiac;. 'YTTooyjfJtaivEiv
8* SOIXEV xal Touvofjia coc; ov rcpi ET^pcov alpETOv.
object of BouXuovTai S ?r6Tpa TUOCVTCOV, xal Trav pouXEUTOv Icmv, y) ?upl v(cov oux
deliberation g CTTl ou 20
p x^ ; AEXTEOV & foco<; pouXUTiv ou^ u7Tp o5 (iouXEuaatT' Sv TI? yjXiOioc;
y) (jLaiv6(jivo^, dXX' UTCp &v 6 vouv Sxov.
ou8l<; pou- Ilfipl 8k. TCOV al'Stcov
[XTpoi. 'AXX' ouS 7Upl TCOV Iv xtvy)di, afil 8k xaTa TauTa ytvoj/ivcov, tT*
^ avayxY]<; ^T xal 9\l(ji y) Sta Tiva ataiav SXXyjv, olov TpoTrcov xal avaToXcov. 25
<;,
olov 0y]aaupou up<ico<;. 'AXX* ouSfi 7Cpl TCOV avOpcomxcov TKXVTCOV,
olov 7cco(; av SxiiOai fipiaTa 7ioXiTioivTO ouSfilc; Aax8ai(xovcov pouX\jTai.
Ou yap y^voiT* av TOUTCOV ouSfiv Si* y](jicov. BouXu6[i0a 8k ?cpl TCOV 9* 30
[577] ETH NIC- - i-ni 155
Y)|juv
xal TrpaxTcov TauTa Si xal SCTTL XoiTra. AErCat yap Soxoucnv elvai 96(1^
xal avayxY) xal To^fy ^TI 8 vou<; xal Tuav TO Si* av9pco7roo. Tcov 8* av6pco7rcov
b. Ib., III2b n - 21 :
We deliberate
ni2b BouXeu6[jie6a 8* ou Trepl TCOV TeXcov aXXa rcepl TCOV Tcpo? T<X TXYJ. OSrs yap ends, but
about means
laTp6<; (SouXeiieTai el uytaasi, OUTS ^YjTtop el Tcetaet, ofire TroXmxcx; el eivofjitav
i57COL7](Tei, ouSi: TCOV XOITTWV ou8el<; Tcepl TOU TlXou^- aXXa 6[jLevoi T^Xoc; Tt,
Titos xal Sta TLVCOV IdTat axoTrouoriv, xal 8ia TuXetovcov [xev <paivo|xvoi>
579 a. Since, then, good and bad actions depend on choice, virtue
and vice are in our power.
Eth. NlC. Ill 5, III3 b 3 - 16 :
re^ons'ible
ni3b "OvTOc; ST) POUXYJTOU (Jiev TOU TeXouc;, ^ouXeuTCOv 8e xal TipoaipeTCOv TCOV 7rp6<; for good and
5 TO T!XO<;, at Tuepl TauTa 7rpa!;ei<; xaTa Tcpoatpeaiv av elev xal exouaioi. Al 8e 'or bad
TCOV apeTcov evepyetat Trepl TauTa. '9* TJJJUV 8y) xal r\ apery), ofioicoc; 8e xal
Y)
xaxia. 'Ev olc; yap 69' y)[uv r6 TipaTTeiv, xal TO (JLYJ TTpaTTetv, xal ev olc; TO
jx^, xal TO vat TO TrpaTTeiv xaXov ov 69* -/jfJiZv eo-Ti, xal T& piY) TTpaTTeiv
cotiTe el
10 So-Tai alcrxpov 8v, xal el T& JJLY) TupaTTeiv xaXov 6v
9* Y](JLLV 9' ^(JLLV, xal TO
TrpaTTetv ala/pov Sv 69* El 8e 69* Y)(JLOV TOC xaXa TupaTTetv xal Ta alcr/pa,
Y)(julv.
6(JLOLCO<; 8^ xal T& (JLY) TcpaTTetv, TOUTO 8^ ))v TO ayaOoi? xal xaxoi<; elvai, 9'
x
ouSel? excov 7rovY]p6<; ouS* &xcov fiaxap
exoticnov.
1
With this ancient Greek wisdom (the verse may be of Solon) the Socratic
maxim that "nobody does wrong willingly" is implicitly condemned. Cp. our nr.
204c, d.
I5& PRACTICAL SCIENCES [579]
[AY] pta Y)
81 iyvotav ^ p] auTol afaioi, TOUC 8e ra xaXa 7rp<xTTOVTa<; Tt(iG>atv,
co<; TOUS fjiev 7rpoTp^ovTes TOIK; 8e xeoXucovTe^;. KatTot 8aa (jtyjTe 69* Y][Jttv
sari (jiY]Te exoiata, ou8el<; TipoTp^TreTat rcpaTTetv, &$ ouS^v 7cp6 Spyou 6v Ti
(JLYJ 6sp[jia[vea6ai dXystv
?] 73 TreivTJv TQ
oTtouv a*XXo T<OV TOIOUTCOV
TTOV TretaofJieOa aura. 29, 30
9 - 31
Ib., 1114 a :
avaicOyjTou STL 8e SXoyov TOV aSixouvTa (r/) (ioiiXeaOat iSixov elvai ?) TOV
873
axoXaaraivovTa axoXadTov ei 8& {JLYJ ayvowv TI^ TupaTTei e^ &v gaTat &8ixo<;,
Vice cannot j x ^ v 4S
IXO<; J v e ^. Q6 LLYIV lav ye Bo\iXy)Tai, <$8ixo<; &v Tcauaerat xal
'
be thrown ^ - ^
, , , , , ,
off at will, oixatcx;. Ouoe yap o voarcav uytTj^, xat ei OUTCO^; eTU^ev, excov voaet, axpaTW(; 15
/]
ev auToi. OUTCO 8e xal TW a8ixco xal TOJ
axoXaaTw e^ 20
apx^t; (xev e^vjv TOIOIJTOI; [JLYJ ytvea0ai, 8t6 exovTe? eiaiv yevofifvoic;
8' ouxeTi e^ecrTiv [JLYJ
elvat.
5
Ou (JLOVOV 8e at TT)^ ^i>x% xaxtai exoiioioi eiaiv, aXX evioi<; xal at roi5 (jw-
ol^ xal e7itTL(Jicl){Jiev TOI^ fjtev yap 8ta 9ucrtv atcrxpotc; ouSels erctTtfjia,
8e St* ayujjLvaatav xal a^Xetav. 'OfJLotax; 8e xal rcepl aaOvetav xal TTYjpcocrtv 25
SYJ Tcepl TO aeofjia xaxtcav at 69* YJJUV eTctTtfjicovTat, at 8^ (JLYJ 9* Y]|Jtiiv oi>. Et 8
OUTOX;, xal eTtl TWV aXXcov at e7rtTt[xa)(JLevat TCOV xaxtcav 69* YJJUV av elev. 3
character auTq) et [zev o5v SxaaTO^ auT(5 TYJ^ S^eax; eaTt TTW? atTto^, xal TYJ<;
s
)
ol6v Te Xa(Jeiv [iy)S& (jiaOeiv, aXX* olov 90 TOIOOTOV Sei, xal TO e5
xal TO xaXtoc; TOUTO ra9uxvai y)
TeXeta xat aXyjOivyj Sv eEyj ewputa), ei Sy) Talk'
ecmv aXyjOyj, TI (/.aXXov yj aperf) TYJC; xaxta<; SaTat exouaiov ; 'Aficpoiv yap 6(Ao(co<;,
TCJJ ayaOco xal TCO xaxco, TO TXO<; 960^1 y) oTccoorSyjTcoTe 9atveTai xai xefaai,
XoiTra 7rp& ava9povTe^ TrpaTTOuatv oTccjcrSyjTroTe. BITS SY] T6 T^Xo^
TOUT'
(AY] 9tiaei exaaTco 9a[veTat otovS7]7COTe aXXa TI xal Trap* auTov saTtv, el/re TO
?
[X^v T^Xo^ 9\jaix6v, T<> Se Ta XoiTra TcpaTTeiv exooaiax; TOV aTtouSaiov y) apery)
'
exouaiov saTtv, ouOev ^TTOV xal y) xaxfa exoiiatov av etrj. 'Ofzoiax; y^P xa 1
20 TCO xaxcp UTrap/ei TO Si* auTov ev Tat<; Tcpa^ecrtv xal el (JLVJ ev TO> TeXet. El o5v,
wcrTuep X^yeTai, exoiiatoi elcriv at apeTat (xal yap TWV e^ewv auvaiTtoi TCCO<;
auToi ea(JLev, xal TCO Troiot Ttvec; elvai TO T^Xoc; Tot6v8e TiO^jieOa), xal at xaxiai
30 3 Actionsand
C. Ib., III4b -IH5a :
states of cha-
\ / 9 i f \ /
6(Jio[ci)^
Se at Tcpa^ei^ exouaioi elai xal al eJ;i<; TCOV fxev yap TrpaEecov racter not in
;
xupioi ea|iev, eiSoTe<; TOC xa6* Sxacrra, TCOV e^ecov 8k tne 8amc
ni5a Tyj? apx>)<;, xaO' exacrra 8k yj 7cp6a0eai; ou yvcopi(jLO, tocnrep im TCOV appcocmcov voluntary
aXX' STL 9' y)|juv ?)v OUTCOC; y) fju) O^TCOC; xP Q aaa ^ ai ^ L(* ^O^TO exouaioi.
1
7
8(jiotov TCJ) avSpefcp ^90^0^ yap TI$ xal 6 av8peto<;. Ilevtav 8k tacos ou Set
158 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [581]
yap Iv TOC<; TcoXefiixois xivSiivoic; SeiXol fivTec; eXeuOpiot eiai xal Trpo<; xp^H-aTCOv 20
aTco(JoXY]v e66ap<rco<; lx ouaiv OuS^ SYJ ei TIC fipptv Trepl TuaiSac; xal yuvaZxa
6vov Y]
TI TCOV TOIOUTCOV, SeiX6<; ecmv ouS* el Gappet (jilXXcov
M
dvSpeio<;. Ilepl Trota o5v TCOV ^ojJepcov 6 avSpetoc;; H Trepl
>] v6aoi^.
'Ev Tiaiv o5v; "H ev TOL^ xaXXiaTOic; TOIOUTOL 8k ol ev ;
oux 8Te, YJ
TI TCOV TOIOUTCOV 6(JLoio)^ 8e xal Trepl Ta OappaXea. (JLev
o5v a Set bl 5
xal o5 Ivexa xal ^opoufjievo^, xal coc; Set xal 8Te, 6[jLoico<; 8e xal
uTrojjievcov
Oappcov, avSpeto? (xaT* a^tav yap, xal co^ av 6 X6yo<;, Traci^et xal TcpaTTei 6
its motive
(JvSpeio^ TeXo<; Se Tracnjc; evepyeiac; eaTl TO xaT<i TYJV eiv, xal TCO dvSpeicp 8e2o
nobility T) dvSpeta xaX6v TOIOUTOV SYJ xal TO TeXo<; opi^eTai yap exaaTOv TCO TeXei.
KaXou SYJ Svexa 6 dv8peio<; uTcofJilvet xal TcpaTTet TOC
xaTa TYJV avSpeiav.
Again, W. D. Ross l
has made an interesting remark here : in his actual treatment
of the virtues, he says, Ar. somewhat forgets his formal view; (namely, that all
human action aims at an end other than itself) he nowhere attempts to deduce
;
the necessity of any single virtue from the supreme end to be attained. He
treats the agent as being moved to action by the con-
templation of the "fineness" of the good act itself,
and thus becomes in his detailed treatment an intui-
tion s t. i
Ilepl [Jtev o3v avSpeta^ em TOCTOUTOV eipifjaOco (T( 8* ecnrtv, ou ^aXeTrov T\jTrco J* 1 ?
1
Aristotle, p. 204/5.
[582] ETH. NIC. III-X 159
Tac; TOtauTa<; YjSovac; otfTe aa^povec; ofiTe dx6XaorToi XeyovTai- 6(jioa><; S^ ouS'
ol Tuepl TOC<; (SXXac; 8aai (JLY) acojAaTixat etatv. Touc; yap 9iXofJiu0ou(; xal 8iY)yY)Tixoij<;
inSaou Xlyofxev, ouSe TOU^ XuTcouf/ivoix; ini xp^^aiv 75 91X01^. Ilepl 8 TOCC; ao>-
(xaTLxa^ etT)
av YJ (Tco9poauvy],
ou rcaaa^ 8e ouSe TauTa<; ol yap ^oupovTe^ TOI(;
Sia TYJS o^/eax;, olov xpw^acrt xal ax^aaL xal ypa9yj, OUTB ad>9pove(; ofrre
5<xx6XaaTOi XyovTai xatTOt So^etev av elvat xal ax; Set xa ^
xal xa6* u7cep(3oX7)v xal SXXei^iv. 'OfJiofco^ 8e xal ev TOLC; Trepl T/JV axovjv
TYJ<; yap yeiiareci^ ecrTtv TJ xptatc; TO>V x^^wv, oTcep Trotouatv ol TOU<; otvou<; 80-
uiga 'H
[Jiev
o5v Ttepl Tac; Y)8ova<; uTreppoXv) BTI dxoXaata xal ^SXTOV, SyjXov.
5 'EXXetTcovTe^ Se Ta Trepl Ta^ YjSovac; xaC Y^TTOV Y) Set xatpovTe^ ou Ttdvu ytvovTat.
TOC ppco|JiaTa, xal TOI<; [liv xafpet TOI<; 8' oS el 8i TCO fry)0v ECTTIV v^Si fiy)8e
W. D. Ross 1
this passage: "Apart from the excessive
remarks on
narrowness of the conception of temperance, the main point to be noted
here is the breakdown of the doctrine of the mean".
583 The crown of virtues is, according to Ar., that particular virtue
which he calls "greatness of soul". It is described as follows.
and Kal aveu Se Xoyou 9atvovTat ol [JteyaXo^uxot Trepl TL|JLY]V elvat TIJJLTJC; yap [la-
disgrace XiaTa ol (xeyaXoL d^iouaiv eai)Tou<;- xaT* diav 8e. '0 8e (jLixpoipuxo^ eXXehrei
xal 7rp6<; eaDTov xal 7rpo<; TO TOU [jLeyaXo^uxou a^icafia. '0 Se x a ^ vo ^ ^rpic 2 5
eauTov (jtev uTceppaXXei, ou (JLYJV TOV ye jJieyaXo^uxov.
'0 Se [jieyaX6^uxo<;, etTiep TCOV {JteyiaTOiv &^io<;, &puiTO<; av etv)' (Jie^ovoc; yap
ael 6 peXTiov S^LO^, xal (jteytaTcov 6 <5pionro<;. Tov ax; aX7)0a><; Spa (ieyaX6^i>xov
Set ayaOov elvai. Kal 86eiev 8* <av> elvai [xeyaXotj^xou ^ & exaaTyj apeir^ 30
1
Aristotle, p. 207.
8
TCOV xaT* dcper/jv - sc. dcStoOvTcov
[583] ETH. NIC. III-X 161
35 Oux av ouSe Tipjc <5;io<; 9auXo<; cov TYJ<; apeTYJs yap 0Xov YJ TifiY), xal
eiY) 8*
24aa7cov|JLeTai TO 15 dya0oi<;. "Eoixe [lev o5v Y) (xeyaXo^uxia olov xoo~[io<; TI<; elvai
A crown of
the virtues
TWV apercov [xel^ou^ yap aura^ Tcoiei, xal 06 ytveTai Sveu exetvov. Aia TOUTO
XaXeTiiv T^ aXvjOeia [jieyaX6^uxov elvat ou yap ol6v TE a"vsu xaXoxaya6(a<;.
MaXiaTa [xev o5v rrepl Ti[/,a^ xal aTtfxta^ 6 (xeyaXi^uxoc; SCTTIV, xal eTrl [lev Attitude
5
towards
(xeyaXai<; xal u?c6 TCOV aTrouSaicov fjieTpico^ YjaOTjaeTai, cat; T&V oixetcov honour
' '
cov ^ xal eXaTTOV<ov apeT^<; yap TcavTeXoo^ oux av yevoiTo a^ta TIJAY)
ou aXX* a7ioS6^eTat ye TG> (JLY) 2xeLV *^oi? [xei^to auToi aTiovefjieiv TYJ^ 8e
TCOV TI>XOVTCOV xal em (Jtixpotc; TcajiTcav oXiytoprjaei, ou yap TOUTCOV &^io^
*
i, STTOX; av ytvY]Tai, xal oure euTUXcov Ttepixapyjc; Sarat ov>Te OCTUXCOV Tcept- goods
C;. OuSe yap Tuepl Tiptyjv OUTCO<; exet co^ {iyicrTOv ov (at yap Suvacrreiai xal 6
X^ yap, TO 8* ayaOco UTiepexov Tcav evTi(Ji6Tepov. Ato xal TOC ToiauTa [xeyaXo-
25 ^uxoTepoix; Tcoiei Ti^covTai yap UTTO TIVCOV. KaT* aXY)6eiav Se 6 dya66<; [ji6vo<;
TtjiYjTeoc; & 8* 4fji9to uTcapxei, (JiaXXov a^touTai, TL(JLY]^. 01 8* <5cveu apeTY^c; TCX
1
"swinging his arms by his side".
-
TcapocoetoavTi
e3, <U9*> &v 8' av TuaOcocnv 08 IXaTTcav yap 6 TiaOcbv eS TOU 7coiY|aavTO<;,
8* u7TpXtv. Kal T<X JJLEV YjSlax; axouEi, Ta 8* dajSw^' 816 xal rJ)v 15
s
ou XyLv Ta<; suEpyEaia^ TG> ALL ou8 01 Aaxoavsc; 7rp6<; TOU<;
TQ
ou TrpcoTeuoocriv aXXot xal apyov elvat xal (jLeXXY]TY]v dcXX' >J
STTOU TtfjiY] aeyaXv)
7] epyov, xal 6Xiy(ov {Jiev rcpaxTixov, {leyaXwv 8e xal ovojjLacTtov. 25
in speaking TO yap Xav6avtv
'Avayxalov Se xal 9avp6(jucrov elvat xal cpavpocpiXov
openly 9opoufjilvou. Kal (XXiv TYJ^ aXYjOfiia^ [AaXXov ^ TTJ^ So^v)^, xal Xyiv xal
spt OUTE Trepl ET^pou OUTS yap tva ETraivYjTai [JL^XEL auT(p ouO* OTCGX; ol SXXot
^lycovTai, ouS* aO 7raivTLx6<; EGTIV StoTtsp ouSg; xaxoXoyoc;, ouSs TCOV ^6pcov,
EI [AY]
81' fippiv. Kal 7ipl avayxaicov 73 (iixpcov Tjxio'Ta oXo^upTtxo^ xal 87]Ttx6<;
a7cou8aovTO<; yap OUTCOC; /eiv TTcpl TauTa. Kal oloc; xEXT^aOai (jiaXXov Ta xaXa 10
xal <5cxap7ra TWV xapTTifjtcov xal cI)9Xt|JLa)v aoTapxouc; yap [jtaXXov.
Outward Ka X ivY]<Ti^ SE ppaSsca TOU
[JLyaXo<];uxou SOXEL elvai, xal 9covy) Papia,
xal X^ 1 ? o'TaatiJLO^ ou yap aTcsuaTixo^ 6 Tcepi oXiya arrouSa^cov, ou8s GUVTOVO<;
6 (JLTjSEv [XEya oi6[jLvo(; YJ 8' 6u9covta xal rj Ta^uTYjc; 8ca TOUTCOV. 15
We share the impression of Ross, who states that "as a whole the picture is an
unpleasing one".
to Plato, Ar. follows the common use of language. Doing so, he distin-
'just" and AOXEC 8s 8 TE 7rapavo(zo<; a"Sixo<; Elvai xal 6 7uXovlxT7)<; xal O'VLOTOC;,
"unjust" ---------
1
etc Ta SvTLjia (JIT)
Uvat - he does not strive after the things commonly held in
honour.
2
living at the will of another.
(ScXXov -
TJV 7up6<;
3
AvOpcoTToX^yo?
- a gossip.
[584] ETH. NIC. III-X 163
873X0 v STI xal 6 Sbcaioc; Satai 8 TS v6[U(jio<; xal 6 iao<;. T6 |iev Stxatov Spa TO
v6(xi(JLOv xal TO Eaov, TO 8' a*8ixov T& 7iapdvo|Jiov xal T& a*vi<iov.
585 In the first sense "justice" is perfect virtue, containing all other
virtues and displayed in society.
8* 6 7rapavo(JLOc; &8ixo<; YJV 6 8e VOJJLI(JLO<; Sixaioc;, STjXov STI TravTa TOC sense
v6(JLi|xa eaTt TUO? Sixaia- Ta TS yap copiajzeva UTC& T% vo[AoGeTixYJ<; v6[Ai[jid
laTt, xal Ixaarov TOIJTCOV Sixaiov elvai cpa(jiv. 01 Se vo^xoi ayopeuouai ?cepl
i5a7uavT(ov, crToxa^Ofxevoi TQ
TOU XOIVYJ ai>[i<ppovTO Traatv TQ TOLC; xuptoi^, Y)
xaT*
apeTTjv y)
xaT* <5cXXov Ttva Tporcov TOIOUTOV COCTTE eva (JLSV Tp6?rov SUaia Xeyo^ev
Ta TcotTjTixa xal ^uXaxTtxa eu&ai,|jLOVLa<; xal TWV (jiopuov auTYJc;
xaxvjyopeiv, 6(jLOico^ 8^; xal TOC xaTa Ta^ aXXag apSTac; xal (jiox9Y)pta<; Ta
25xeXsia>v Ta 8* aTrayopeiicov, opOwc; [JLEV
6 XEI[JIEVO<; 6pOco<;, xe^P ov ^'
x
8iaa(Jtevo(; .
AUTY) (Jiev
oOv Y] StxaiocriivY) apeTTj (JLV eaTtv TsXeia, aXX*
aXXa 7rp6<; ^Tepov. Kal Sia TOUTO TroXXdxtc; xpaTtaTY] TCOV apeTwv elvai Soxet
Y] SixaiooruvYj, xal ouO* ecrTrepoc; OUTS ecoo<; OUT<O OaufJiaciTo^ xal Tcapoifxia-
2
30 ev 8e StxaiocruvYj (juXXYjpSYjv Tuacr' apeTY] evt .
Kal TeXeia jidXiaTa dpeTY), OTL TYJ<; TeXeta^ dpT^ xP^ a ^ SCTTIV, TsXeta 8* e
ii3oa eTepov dSuvaTouaiv. Kal Sia TOUTO eu Soxet e^eiv TO TOU BiavTO<;, STI, wap^a avSpa
8e^ei(( 7rp6<; eTepov yap xal ev xotvcovta YjSY] 6 ap^cov. Aia Se T^ auTO TOUTO xal
o5v 6 xal :rp6<; auTOv xal TTpo^; TOUC; 9tXou<; %p&[Levo<; rf\ (jLO/OYipta,
8* ou/ 6 Trpoc; auTov Tyj dpeTf] dXX* 6 Tupoc; eTepov TOUTO yap epyov
S ye TYJV ev (Jilpet dpeTYjc; SixaioauvYjv. "EaTi yap TU;, ax; 9a^v. *""sense
1
dt7ceoxe8taa(jtvo<;
- if it has been made at random.
8
Theognis, 147.
164 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [586]
ra<; &XXa<; ftox&qpta^ 6 ivepyGv aStxet |/iv, rcXeovexTei 8* o&8v, olov &
V icntlSa Side SeiXiav ^ xax& efoc&v 8i& xa^STC 6TiQTa ^ ^ po^OiQaa^
{i"rjv
,
ou84 xairi wdtaa^, xaTA rcov7)p(av Si y e TIV(^ (^^Y0(xev yip ) 2
aXXci
xal xaT* AStxCav. "Eariv 4pa ye 4XXiQ Tt? iStxia <o$ (xipo^ T^C 6X73^, xal SStx6v
TI iv (Jtpei TOU 6X00 aSixou TOU rcapa TOV v6(jiov. ^Eri el & (i^v TOU xepSaCveiv
Ivexa (jioixeuet xal 7cpo<rXa(JL(3avcav, 6 Si TtpoaTtOelc; xal iQ(zioO(4Svo St,' ^iOu- 25
JTI' ixoXacrtav, el ^
YxaT lTCV T^ v TcapaffTaryjv, 4?ul Se&Xiav, 130
9
,
inl ipyifjv, el S& Ix^pSavev, in ou8ejjL(av (zoxffyptav 4XX* ^ err*
i. diatribu- b justice in this sense is divided into two kinds: (i) distributive,
*.corrtive{2) corrective.
Ib., H3ob30-ii3i a1 :
Si xari (zipo^ 8txato<r\iv7]<; xal TOO xar* aur))v Sixabu Iv (i^v ICTIV
,
exotSata jjtiv Ta ToiaSe olov rcpaffis, cl>vy), 8avei<r(i,6<;, lyyivj, XP^^^*
(Jxoiata Si Xiyerat, STI YJ Apx^) T&V auvaXXayfxaTcov 5
), |jt(a6<i)0i<;
Eth. Nic. V 3,
8
1131 a*- *:
'Ercel 8* 8 T* 48ixo<; 4viao^ xal T6 48txov 4viaov, SvjXov STI xal |iaov Tt IOTI 10
TOU Avtaou. TOUTO 8* icrrl Ti tcrov 4v 67ro(? yip Tcpdl^ei 4<rrl Ti 7tX4ov xal T&
iXarrov, ICTT! xal Ti laov. El o5v T& $8ixov fiviaov, T& Stxaiov Eaov 87iep xal
1
Prostitution.
[587] ETH. NIC. III-X 165
4veu X6you Soxei Ttaoiv. 'Excel 8e TO foov (jiaov, TO 8xaiov (JL<TOV TI Sv etrj.
i5"EaTi 8e TO taov ev eXaxffToi 8ua(v. 'Avayxr) TO(VUV T& Sixatov {/iaov TE xal
taov elvat xal 7rp6<; TI xal TKT(V, xal ^ ^iv [liaov, TIVOW (rauTa 8* earl TtXetiov
xal IXarrov), fj
8' tcrov e<rrl, Suoiv, fj 8& 8xaiov, Tiaiv. 'Avayxrj <5cpa r6 8(xaiov
v XaxtaToi<; elvat TeYrapaiv ol<; re yap Stxaiov Tuyxavei 8v, 8\io <JT[, xal
20 Iv [TawpayiJtaTa],
olc; r]
8\io. Kal a&TYj Sarai E<j6T7)q, xal ev ol^- ax; yap
oT<;
ofJioXoyouai 7cavTe<; xar' a^iav Tiva Setv elvat, TYJV [JL^VTOI aEiav ou TTJV auTYjv
7ravTe<; uTtapxeiv, aXX* ol [xev SyjiioxpaTixol eXeuOeptav, ol 8* oXiyapxtxol
8 ytyveTat ev TOI^ auvaXXaynaaiv xal T0t(; exouatot(; xal T0t axouatot^. TOUTO arithmetical
8e T& Stxatov 4XXo eZSoc; S^ei TOU TrpOT^pou. To {xev yap 8iave|iY)Tix&v Stxatov
TWV xoivcov ael XOCTOC TTJV dvaXoytav eaTi TYJV eipyjjxevTjv (xal yap a^i XP YllJLaT(OV
30 xoiv&v eav ytyvYjTai YJ 8iavo|iY), laTai xaTa TOV Xoyov TOV auTOv ovTrep Sx ouai
7cp6<; SXX7j>a T<X etaevexOevTa xal TO <58ixov T& avTixeifxevov TW Sixatto TOUTCO
ii32aTi, xal T& fiSixov dcvtaov, aXX* ou xaTa TTJV avaXoyiav exeivrjv aXXa xaTa TYJV
api0(jLyjTixy)v. OuSev yap Sia^epei, et eTTietxr^ 9auXov aTrecrTlprjciev y) 9auXo^
ercieixY), 008* ei ejjioixeuaev eTcteLXTjc; y) 9auXo<; aXXa 7cpi<; TOU [3Xapouc; TYJV
IOT7J ^Yjfiia laa^etv, d^aip&v TOU xp8ou<;. (A^yeTat yap J><; aTcXwc; etTtetv ercl
T0t<; TOIOUTOK;, xav el fiY]
TICTIV olxetov Svojia etiQ,
T6 xIpSo^;,
xal 7] ^yj(x(a TCJ) 7ca86vTi aXX* Tav ye (jieTpyjOy) T& 7ta6o<;, xaXetTai
icov, o Xsyofjisv elvai Sixaiov <&OTS TO ETravopOomxov 8focaiov av SIT) T& jxlaov
xal xp8ou<;.
Equity Ilepl 8k ETTLELXELac; xal TOU ETTLELXOU*;, 7rc5<; E^EL 7) [/Iv eiueixeia Trpoc; Sixaio-
(7uv7)v TO 8 ITTISIXC^ 7ip6<; TO Sixatov, ^6[jiv6v ECTTIV etTcetv o()Te yap <o^
aTrXcoc; OUTS eTepov TCO yvet 9aiveTat axoTcoufjtlvot^, xal OTS; (JLSV T^
ox;
xal oux coc; aXXo TI ylvoc; ov ^IXTtov ECTTL TOU Stxatou. TauT^v Spa Sixatov xal
aTTOptav OTL TO 7citx(; Sixaiov (jiEv ECTTtv, ou TO xaTa vojxov SE, ocXX' 7rav6p-
Oco(jta vo(jii[jLoi) SLxatoi). ALTIOV 8* OTL 6 [JLEV vofjio? xaOoXou Tca^, Tcspl EVIWV 8s
ou/ olov TE opOcoc; EITTELV xaOoXou. 'EvxaOoXou, ol<; ouv avayxT) (JLEV
EITTEIV
(JIT)
olov TE SE opOojc;, TO Xa^pivEi 6 VOJJLOC;, oux ayvocov T6 15
<o<; STCI TO TiXfiov
d(jiapTav6(jLvov. Kal EOTTLV ouSsv ^TTOV 6p8c5^ TO yap afJLapTYjjjia oux Iv TO)
v6(jLw ouS' EV TO) vopLoOETYj aXX' EV Tyj 9UCTt TOU 7rpay(jLaTO<; ECTTIV suOu^ yap
TOiauTT) 7)
TCOV TrpaxTcov uXTj EdTiv. "OTav o3v
v6[JLO(; xaOoXou, XsyT] fJLEV
6 20
8* TOUTOU Trapa TO xaOoXou, TOTE opOco^ l/st, ft TcapaXstTCEi 6
ETil
The intellec- 590 According to the definition of virtue given sub 57 Ib, the 9po-
treated in vL[xo<; has the arbitrium in determining the (JLECTOTT^. Therefore, the in-
book vi tellectual virtues, ao9ia and have to be dealt with, too.
9p6v7)dL(;, They
are treated in Eth. Nic. VI.
The author two faculties in the rational part of the soul, namely
distinguishes
the (which has to do with that which is of necessity, and therefore
l7rtoT7)(jLovtx6v
eternal and invariable), and the Xoyumx^v (a deliberating faculty, which has to
do with the contingent). The latter has a task towards practical action, since
choice must be preceded by deliberation.
[590] ETH. NIC. III-X I67
VI 24 - 33
b 20 - 21 What is
a. Eth. Nic. 5, 1140 a ,
:
an art.
'AXXa fJLYjv T^VY]<; [lev ICJTIV apeTY), 9povY)<reco<; 8* oux Kal ev
xa
Tcepl T<X<; apeTa<;. AYJXOV o3v OTI apETY) TIC SGTL xal ou
25 AuOLV 8* SvTOLV (JLEpOCV TY]^ ^X"'] ? T ^ V ^-Oy ov
1
X^ VTCl)V (3CV
ELY]
TOU So^acmxou Y^
TS yap S6S;a Tcepl TO ev8ex6[JLvov SXXwc; xal YJ 9povY)CTic. quality
*
AXXa fjLYjv
ouS* s^^ {jLSTa Xoyou [lovov <TY][jLeiov
8' STL XY)0Y) J^ [Jtev
s
1
Book X, where the contemplative life is treated, makes clear what the
author means by the above formula: "to be able to deliberate well about what is
good and advantageous for himself, not in some one department, e.g. what is good
for his health or strength, but what is expedient as a means to the good life in gene-
ral", this is the mark of a man who possesses practical wisdom. For this man acknow-
ledges that the contemplative life is the supreme good for man, because it makes
him most happy (by "contemplative life" being meant a life of scientific research).
2
In Plato's Hippias Minor Socrates came to the strange conclusion that the
man who does wrong willingly is better than the one who does it unwillingly (our
nr. 212). To this famous theory Ar. replies In art, indeed, the man who errs willingly :
less. And so it is in the case of the other virtues. See our explanation of the text.
l68 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [591]
591 Again, vous having been defined in the next chapter (6) as
1
Tyjv 8e ao9iav 'v TS TOCU; rebate; TOL<; axpt(i5eaTaT<H<; Ta<; Te^vac; aTroSiSoptev, H4ia
olov OeiSfacv XiOoupyov aocpov xal IIoXuxXeiTOv avSpiavT07rot6v, evTauOa (lev 10
o3v ouOev <5tXXo ao^tav y) 8ri apery] Txv<y]<? eariv elvat 8
<ry)|xaivovTe<; r/]v
f/
Tiva<; ao^oix; oiofxeOa 0X0; ou xaT<x [lipo; ouS' SXXo TI 3090^, axiTrep 0|X73p6^
ev TW MapyiTY]
TOV 8* OUT* ap axaTTTY^pa 6eol Oecrav OUT* aporrjpa 15
OUT' SXXax; TI (T09ov.
S^Xov oTt y] axpipeaTaTY) av TCOV 7riciTy)|jLcov etrj y^ ao9ta. Aei Spa T&V ao
a combina-
^^ vov T ^ ^ x T ^ v ^p^^v eESevai, dXXa xal Tcepl Ta<; apxa? aXrjOeiew. ") a T e
3- 8
Speculative 5 JV^ b :
wisdom Aio 'Ava^ayopav xal 0aX9jv xal TOU<; ToiotiTOi)^ (10901)^ [lev, 9pov([jiou^ 8 >II 4 lb
ou 9aaiv elvai, orav tScocriv ayvoouvra^ Ta (TO[jL9epovTa eauTOcc;, xal Tcepnra 5
(i^v xal 0au(JLa<TTa xal ^aXeTca xal Saifjiovia etSevat auTO\i^ 9aaiv,
8rt ou Ta av0pco7ctva aya0a
auTcov. "ETreiTa xal TCOIOU<TI (Aev, oo^ clx; EaTpixy) Se uyteiav, aXX*
2
y) uyteia, OUTCOC; yj d09ia euSai[xoviav (xepoc; yap oSda TTJS 8Xy)^
To\3 pioptou
- he means: of each of the two faculties of the rational
soul, sc. the 7rioT)Q{jiovix6v and the Xoyicmxdv.
2
"In the sense in which healthiness is the cause of health", i.e. wisdom is the
formal cause of happiness.
[592] ETH. NIC. III-X 169
YJ
8e 9povYjai? Ta 7up6<; TOUTOV.
593 Since, then, man becomes good by doing good actions if, at
least, he does them by choice and for the sake of the good practical ,
wisdom, which has the leading part in choice, plays a prominent r61e
in the genesis of virtue. But this is not all. Whenever a man is virtuous,
he possesses practical wisdom; for there is no true virtue without phr6-
nesis.
In the following passage Ar. explains the relation of practical wisdom (phr6nesis)
to virtue (in the proper sense) by comparing it to that of a certain intellectual
ability(8eiv6r/j<;), which is the capacity for doing the things that conduce to the
aim we propose, to natural virtue. "Cleverness" is not identical with practical
wisdom, but practical wisdom implies it. Now natural virtue is related in the same
way to Virtue in the proper sense.
nfirAnoaiv tn
ii44b Sxe7CTe*ov SYJ rcdXiv xal Trepl apeTYj?. Kal yap YJ apery) racpaTiXYjaico? xet > moral virtue
d) YJ 9p6vYjai? Tupi? TYJV SeivoTYjTa (ou rauro [iev, Sptoiov 8), OUTCO xal YJ 9i)<nxY)
*
Siafipei, Y)
8* 2^i^ 6(jioia o5aa TOT* SaTai xupitoc apeTY). "flaTe xaOaincep ITCI
TOU So^aaTixoo Siio earlv ei^Yj^ SCIVOTYJ^ xal 9povY)ai^, OUTCO^ xal em TOU
15 YjOixou 8\io eaTi, T& (liv cxpeTY) 9uaixY] TO 8* YJ xupia, xal TOUTWV YJ xupia ou
Not aU the
AioTrep TIV^ 9aaiv :raaa<; Ta^ apeTa^ 9povYjaei<; elvai, xal ScoxpaTY]^ Tfj
[lev opOcoc; e^YjTei Tyj 8' Y](jiapTavev OTI [Jiev yap 9povY]aeic; <5>eTO elvai Traaac; phrdnesis,
but none
apeTas, Y)(xapTavev, STI 8* oux #veu 9povY]aeco?, xaXco^ iXeyev. DY][jieiov 8
TOC?
20 xal yap vuv TcavTe?, 8Tav opi^covTai TYJV apeTYjv, TrpoaTiOeaai TYJV $[iv, eiTrovTe? without it
xal Trpo? a eaTi, TYJV xaTa TOV 6p66v Xoyov 6p66? 8' 6 xaTa TYJV 9p6vYjaiv.
'Eofocaai SYJ (xavTeieoOat TTCO? aTcavTe? STI YJ TOiauTYj 2^i? apeTYj eaTiv YJ
xaTa
25 TYJV 9p6vYjaiv. Aei 8e [zixpiv [xeTapYjvai ou yap (Ji6vov f)
xaTa TOV 6p6ov X6yov,
aXX* YJ|ieTa TOU 6p8ou X6you 2^i<; apeTYj eaTiv. Op66<;
8e X6yo? Tcepl TCOV TOIOUTCOV 9p6vYjaf? eaTiv. YJ
a)xpaTY]<; (xiv o5v Xiyou^ Ta? apeTa? &STO slvai (c7riaTYj|jLa? yap slvai
170 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [593]
i<; 8k {JLSTOC X6you. A9jXov o5v in TCOV e[p7jf/ivcov STI ou^ oT6v Te dcyaOiv elvat 30
xuptax; <5cveu (ppov/jaecoc;, ou8 9povi[xov fiveu TYJ^
to wisdom 'AXXa pjv ouSe xupia y* ecrrl TYJS a<>9ia<; ou8e TOU peXTtovos [xoptau, &a7rep
ou8e TTJC uyieia<; Y
in the Philebus. The third appears at the end of this dialogue. It is represented by
Ar. in book X, infra.
b. For the first thesis it is argued that pleasure is not a good because
it is a process (namely the filling of a void).
An argument 12 14
11^2 b -
'
Jfo
f/
thesis OXco<; pdv o5v oux ayaflov, 8rt Tuaaa YjSovy] ylvea^ e<mv ei<; 9i5atv atcr0y]T)Q \
ouSejita 8e ylveai<; auyyevyji; TOL<; TeXeatv, olov ou8e[jLta olxoS6(JiY](Jt(; oixfa.
595 To
argument Ar. opposes that pleasure is neither a process
this
nor always linked up with a process; it is an activity and an end.
This Eth. NIC. VII 12, 1153 a 7 - 16 :
refuted Oux avayxY) frepiv TI elvat (JsXTiov TTJS yjSovvjc;, axraep Tive<; 9aai r6 TXO<; H53 a
Ou yap yev^aet? elaiv ou8& jieTa yeveaeox; Tuaerai, aXX* evlpyeiat
.
(Rackham).
[595] ETH NIC- -
STp6v TI, aXXa T&V eu; TTJV TsXloaiv ayo(Jilvcov TTJ <piicreo>^.
Ai6 xai oi
SXEI TO ataOy)T7)v yeveoriv 9avat elvai TYJV yjoWjv, aXXa (jiaXXov XSXTOV e v p
-
y e i a v T YJ xaTa 9u a iv <;
! e co *, dvTl 84 TOO ataOyjryjv ave(X7r6- Definition
f
SldTOV.
596 a. To
the view of Speusippus that no pleasure is a good, Ar.
opposes the thesis that pleasure as such is a good.
1- 7
Eth. NIC. VII 13, 1153 b :
b. But not only pleasure as such is a good; against the third view
mentioned in ch. n Ar. nowargues (i) that some pleasure may be the
supreme Good, and (2) that in fact the supreme Good will be a certain
kind of pleasure.
Ib 11^ b 7 - 13 '
The supreme
T* ouSev xcaXuet 7]Sov7)v Tiva elvai, e5 viai cpauXat Y]Sova^ &a7cep tain kind of
xal Ttva evicov cpaiiXcov ouccov. "Iaco(; 8k xal avayxaiov, etTcep exdaT7)<; pleasure
e7riaTY](jLy)v
c. This theory is confirmed by the fact that all animals and all
1
"an activity of our natural state".
2
The argument of Speusippus is more fully exhibited in X 2, 5: "They say,
if pain is an evil, it does not follow that pleasure is a good; for evil can also be
opposed to evil and to a thing which is neither good nor evil" (if we follow the
reading of Hackforth, who bracketed the word #[190). According to the traditional
text the meaning of the last words is: "and both are opposed to the neutral state"
which is, of course, true, but not exactly ad rem).
172 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [596]
and irrational alike, seek to obtain it". To this account Ar. adds the
remark that the argument was believed more because of the excellence
of Eudoxus' character than for its own sake. "For he (E.) had the reputa-
tion of being a man of exceptional temperance, and hence he was not
597 Pleasure is treated again by Ar. in book X, ch. 1-5. The later
exhibition goes further than that of book VII. find the author's We
final view of pleasure in the following passage.
^Pleasure
is
a Etht N f Cm X 4,
11
1174 a -", b
5- 6
,
b 10- 13 :
2
Ta uev o5v Xeyopieva Tuepl TYJ<; Y)SovYJ<; xal X\i7UYj<; txavco^ elpYjaOto* TI 8'ii74a
Y)
7roi6v TI, xaTa9<xve<7Tspov yevoiT* av arc' apx^ avaXafioiSaiv. Aoxei
*
yap Y) [ilv 6pa<ri xa6* OVTIVOUV xp^vov ^eXeia slvai ou yap CGTIV evSeY^ ouSevo^ 15
o ei^ uaTepov yevofjicvov TeXeitlxrsi OL\)T^^ TO slSoq TOIOUTCO S* lotxev xal YJ
TjSovr]. eera, xal xaT* ouSeva XP^ VOV ^ajioi TK; av Y)SovY)v ^<;
"OXov yap TI
TOU xp^vou Tcaerat aTeXets, xal iTepai TW etSei TYJS oXv](; xal aXXYjXcov.
neither the
7^ ^OVYJC; S' sv OTO>oi)V XP^ T^Xetov TO e!8o<;. 'Ex TOUTWV 8e 89]Xovb5, 6
3
process xal STI ou xaXco^ Xlyoucri xtvyjdtv TQ ylveaiv elvai TY]<; YjSovyji;
. Ou yap TTOCVTCOV 10
XyeTai, aXXa TG>V [xepio-Tcov xal p) 5Xtov ouSe yap opao-edx; !<m
ouSe aTiyfiY)^ ouSe f^ovaSo^ ouSe TOUTCOV ou6ev XIVYJCTK; ouSe
Definition
th. Nic. X 4, 1174 b
14- 34
:
TCO), xaO* SxaaTOv SY) peXTtaTY] eaTlv YJ evlpyeia TOU SpiaTa Siaxeifjivou ?rp6^
TO xpaTioTov TWV uTt* auTYjv auTYj 8* av TeXetoTaTY) etY) xal Y)8(aTYj. KaTa 20
1
Translation of Rackham.
8
T& (xiv o5v Xey6|xeva - the current opinions.
TTJS YjSovTji; is a necessary correction, first made by Ramsauer and adopted by
3
yap ata0Y)<rfv ECTTIV fjSovif), 6|Jiol(i><; Si xal Stavotav xal Oecoptav, :?)8(<m)
8* 7) TsXEtoTaTY), TsXEiOTaTY) 8' Y)
TOO s5 IXOVTO*; ^P^S T ^ cnrou8at6TaTov TCOV
UTT* auTYjv. T E X E t o i Si T YJ v svlpystav 7] YJ 8 o v YJ Oi TOV .
25 auTOv Si Tp6?rov YJ
TE YjSovYj TsXfitot xal TO aia0Y)T6v TE xal 73 ata0Y)ats, cnuouSata
oVra, toaTCEp 008' rj irfteia xal 6 laTp6<; ofjtotax; atria eaTt TOO uyiatvetv. Ka0*
exacTYjv 8* ato0Y)<rtv 8Tt y'veTai vjSovT), SyjXov 9afxiv yap opajiaTa xal axou<T[JLaTa
elvat yjSla. AyjXov Si xal STI (xaXtaTa, CTuetSav i^
Te ataOY)(Ti<; ^ xpaTicmq xal
30 7cp6^ TOIOUTOV evepyfj TOIOUTCOV 8* SVTCOV TOU Te alaOTjTou xal TOO ala6avo|Ae*vou,
ael 2aTai yjSovY) uTcapxovTO^ ye TOU TCOtrjaovTO^ xal TOU Tceiaoji^vou. TeXe t o I
II75a
Eth. Nic. 5, 1175 X a 20- 28 :
20 "Aveu TS yap evepyetac; ou ytveTat YjSovTj, Tcacrav TE evlpyeiav TEXsiot 73 7]8ov7). definition
"00EV Soxouai xal TG> stSsi 8La9ptv. Ta yap ?Tpa TW stSet ucp* ET^peov oiofieOa
TsXsioiia0ai. OUTO) yap ^atveTai xal Ta ^uatxa xal TCX UTC& tiyvri^ olov ^a xal
25 SvSpa xal ypa9>3 xal ayaX{jiaTa xal oixta xal axeuo^. 'OfiOLOx; Si xal Ta<;
evspyeta^ T<X<; Sia^epouo-a^ T<O eiSet UTTO Sia9p6vTwv EiSfii TXiouo-Oai.
8* at TYJC; 8iavoia<; TCOV xaTa T<X<; aia0r)aic; xal aoTai aXXifjXcov
ElSoc;- xal at TeXeioCaai SYJ YjSovaL
Si xal ol 91X6(100001 xal 91X01x086(101 xal TCOV a*XXcov gxacrroi 7ri8iS6acnv EIC
oExsta. Tote; iTEpot^ Si TCO stSst xal TA otxsta ?Tpa TCO EtSst.
Friendship
a 8* av yevoiTO rcepl auT&v 9<xvep6v yva>pi(70evTO<; TOU 9iXy]Tou' 8oxecii55b
1
yap ou Tcav 9iXeZcr0ai aXXa T& 9iX7)T6v, TOUTO 8 elvai aya0ov Y) 7381*
ayaOov Aia9tovec yap CVIOTE Taura. 'Ofxottoc; Se xal ?repl TO 7]8ii. Aoxet 8e
;
T6 auTco aya66v 9iXeiv IxaoTog, xal elvai dbrXco*; (Jiev T^ aya66v 9tXy;Tov,
exaoTCo Se TO exaaTCo. OtXet Se exaaTO<; ou TO ov auTw ayaOov aXXa TO 9atvo- 25
Tpto>v 8* OVTCOV 81* a 9iXoi>(jiv, eTrl (JLEV rfi TCOV a^iix^v 9tXy)crei ou XeysTai
9iX[a. Ou yap eaTiv avTi9tX73oi^, ouSe BouX7)ai<; exeivcov aya0ou (yeXotov yap
T<O otvco SouXeaOai TayaOcx, aXX* eiTiep aco^eaOat pouXeTai auTOv, Eva 30
TCO 8e 9^X0) 9ao i
TOUTO Se Ti auT^ xav exetvcov TL^ TuaOoi Tupoc; TOUTOV. EJivoi (xev o5v
XXyjXoi^* 9tXou<; Se TTWC; iv TL<; etTioi Xav0avovTa(;
Aet fipa euvoeiv aXXinXoi^ xal ^ouXeaOai TayaOa fr/] XavOavovTac;
Si* 2v TI TCOV eipY)[Jivoi>v. 5
The point is discussed by Schacher in his work cited sub 565a, where he compares
the passages on cpiXta in the three Aristotelian treatises on ethics.
Three species
Eth. Nic. VIII 3, H56a6 ^ 24 :
ii56a Aia9pei 8k Taika dXXY)X<ov eiSef xal at 9iXy)aei<; #pa xal al 9iXCai. Tpla
Si) TOC T?J<; 9iX(a etSy], EadpiOfza TOU; 9iXYjToi' xa8* Sxaanrov yap IOTIV
ou XavOdvouaa. 01 8k 9iXouvTe^ aXXif)Xou<; (JouXovTai TayaOa aXXif)Xot^
f) 9iXou<iiv. 01 (/iv oSv Sid TO xP' Q Gri JLOV 9iXouvTe<; dXXrjXouc; ou xa6* 1
(
15 (TTlpyooot, xal ol Si* TjSovrjv Sia TO auTot<; Y]Su, xal ou^ f) 6 91X06 jJLev6<; SOTLV
20 (JIT) SiajjievovTcov auTcov ofjLoicov eav yap (jtTjxeTi 7]8s^ TI /p7)ai[jiot &aiv, TcauovTai
'
9iXouvT?. T6 Si:
^pTjaifJtov ou Sta^vei, aXX* fiXXoTe SXXo ytyveTai. A7coXu6vTO<;
o5v St* 8 91X01 ^arav, SiaXueTai xal yj 9iXia, co<; oucr/]^ TY)<; 9tXiac; Tupo^ exetva.
C
H 8k T&V vecov 9&Xta St
s
frfendshi
10 IIoXXoL 8' elvai 9^Xov xaTa T/JV TeXeiav 9tXiav oux ev8xTai, &a:rep ouSs occurs
ytveoOai, rcoXXou^ 8* <J{ia TCO aoro) apcrxeiv <7968pa ou ef8tov, Uorcos 8* ouS*
4 '
friendship Ta 9tXtxa 8k Ta :rpo<; TOIX; 9(Xou<;, xal ol<; at 91X^1 opl^ovrai, Soixsv ex u66a
TCOV Trpoc; eauTiv eXy]Xu0vat. TtOeaat yap 9tXov T^V pouXofxevov xal TrparrovTa
TayaOa 73 Ta ^aivofxeva exeivou Svexa, 73 TOV [3ouX6(jtevov elvai xal tj^v riv
^tXov auToG X*P LV ^ TCe P a ^ H-7 7 ^? 6 ^ KP^C, Ta Tsxva 7ce7i6v0aat, xal T&V ^iXcov 5
J )
l
ot 7cpoaxsxpoi)x6Te^ ot 8s TOV <Ti>v8iayovTa xal TauTa aipou(jievov, ^ TOV
auvaXyouvTa xal duyxatpovTa TCO cpiXco, (jiaXtaTa 8e xal TOUTO Trepl TOC^ (JLY)T^pa<;
oofipatveu TOUTWV Se* TIVI xal TYJV 9iXtav opKJovTai. Ilpoc; eauTOv 8e TOUTCOV
IxaaTov TW eTTieixet oTrapxet, TOI<; 8e XOITIOI^, fj
TOIOUTOI UTroXafipavouaiv 10
elvai. "Eotxev 81, xaOarrep etp7)Tai, (i^Tpov sxaaTcov 7) dpeTY] xal 6 <T7rou8alos
elvat. OUTOC; yap 6[ioyv(0(JLOvet sauTO), xal TCOV auTcov 6pyeTat xaTa Tcaaav
TTjv ^xV' ^ a ^
po^^eTai ST] eauTco TayaOa xal Ta 9aiv6[jLeva xal TupaTTei (TOO 15
yap ayaOou TayaGov SiaTiovetv) xal eauTOu svexa- TOU yap 8iavo7)Tixou x*P lv
firuep 2xa(7TO<; slvai 8oxst. Kal ^yjv Ss poiXsTai sauTov xal aw^eaOai, xal
TravTOTe yap eaTt TO auTO Xu7C7]pov Te xal 7]8ii, xal oix SXXoTe SXXo
yap co^ e'Tretv. Tco 87) ?rp6^ auTov [fiev] 2xao~Ta TOUTCOV
upo^ 8e TOV 9^Xov exetv cocTTrep 7tpo<; eai)T6v (SaTi yap 6 9tXo^ 30
<SXXo<; auT6<;), xal TJ 9iXta TOUTCOV elvat TI Soxei, xal 9^X01 ol<; TauO'
1
Those who have quarrelled.
2
Seel. Vermehren, followed by Rackham.
[603] ETH. NIC. III-X 177
3oxaXou<n' Soxet TS 6 fiev <pauXo<; eauTOu x<*P tv rcavTa TupaTTetv, xal 8cr<o av
{AOx6?)p6Tepo<; fj,
TOOOUTO) [jiaXXov (eyxaXouat, 8?) auT<o olov STI ouSev 9*
eauTOu TupaTTei), 6 Si e7rieixY]<; Sia T& xaX6v, xal ocrco av peXTicov fj, fjiaXXov
35 Sia T& xaX6v, xal 91X00 Svexa, TO 8* auTou Tcapbjaiv.
n68b Tou; Xoyou; Si TOUTOK; TOC epya 8ia9cove, oux aXoyco^. Oaci yap Seiv
TOV [jiaXiaTa 9tXov, 91X0:; Si jxaXiaTa 6 pouX6[xevoc; & pouXerai T<xya0a
EXSLVOU Svexa, xal et [ry]8el<; eicieTai. Taura S* uTuapxct fiaXiarT* aura)
5 auTOv, xal TOC XoiTra SYJ TravTa ol<; 6 9tXo<; opt^eTai eEpTjTat yap OTI OCTT*
ax; aptaTa ovTa, Sio xal Trepifxax^Ta eaTtv. 01 SYJ Trepl TauTa TrXeovexTai
Tai<; imQ^iaLic, xal 6Xco^ TOL^ TraOecrt xal TCO aXoyco T^^ ^ U X^)^-
TotouToi 8' eialv ol TroXXot 816 xal YJ 7rpocr7]yopta yeyevvjTat daro TOU TroXXou
C/
9auXou OVTO<;. Aixatw^ SYJ ToZ(; OUTG) 9tXauTOL^ ovLS[eTaL. OTL 8s TOIX; TOC
ToiauO' auTOt*; aTrovcfjiovTac; etcoOaai Xeyetv ol TroXXol 9iXauTou<;, oux &SY)Xov
[jiaXXov elvat 9iXai)To^ aTcov^et, youv eauTto Ta xaXXi<TTa xal fAaXiarT* ayaOa,
30 xal x^p^Tai eauTOu TCO xupicoTaTO), xal TtavTa TOUTCO TreiOeTai coaTrep 8e xal
7r6Xi^ TO xupta>TaTOv [jLaXicT* elvai Soxet xal ?uav &XXo auCTT7](JLa, OUTCO xal
Sv0pco7uo<; xal 9tXauTOi; Sr] (jtaXiaTa 6 TOUTO ayaTicov xal TOUTCO /apt^ofjievo^.
35 Kal eyxpaT7]<; 8e xal axpaTYjc; XeyeTai TW xpaTetv TOV vouv ^ {JLYJ, a><; TOUTOU
SVTOC; xal TteTrpay^vai Soxouaiv auTol xal exouatax; TOC [jLeTa Xoyou
r/
. OTi (lev o5v TOGO* SxaaTO^ ICTTIV y) (jtaXidTa, oux (StSyjXov, xal OTI 6
(jLaXtaTa TOUT' ayaTia. Aio 9iXauTo^ (jLaXiaT* av SIT), xaO* ^Tepov elSoc;
5Toi3 6vei8io[ievou 7 xal 8ta9pcov TOCTOUTOV oaov TO xaTa Xoyov ^v TOU xaTa
1
"Friends have one soul between them". Euripides, Orestes, 1046.
"Charity begins at home" (Ross).
2
7cpaTTiv XOIVYJ T* av TcavT ELY] Ta 8ovTa xal i8(a exaara) uiyiaTa TCOV ayaOcov, 10
f *
i7ip Y) apTY) TOIOUTOV eariv. '12aTe T&V JJL^V dcyaOiv Set ^tXauTov elvat,
xal yap auTcx; ovyjaerai TOC xaXa 7rpaTT6>v xal TOU<; &XXou<; <J)9eX73aei, TOV 8e
ou Set* pXa^si yap xal eauTov xal TOIX; Ti^Xai;, <paiiXou; TraOeaiv
15
yap 9aai Seiv 9[Xa>v TOIC; piaxaptotc; xal auTapxeaiv uTrap^etv yap
TayaOa auTapxei<; ouv 8vTa^ ouSevo; 7cpoo>8eia6at, TOV 8^ 9iXov, eTspov auTOv
8vTa, Tiopi^eiv a Si* auTOu aSuvaTel- 80ev
SiSovat, o Soxei TCOV IXTO^ ayaOwv [jdyiaTOv elvat. Et TS 91X01) (jiaXX6v eaTi 10
TO EU Trotecv Y) Traa^eiv, xal e'cra TOU ayaOoi3 xal TYJ^ apT% TO euepyeTSiv,
xaXXtov 8' eo Tuoteiv 9tXou<; oGvetcov, TCOV eu Tieiao^vcav SeYjaeTai 6 aTrouSaloc;.
"ATOTTOV 8' taco<; xal TO (JLOVCOTYJV TTOLELV TOV (Jiaxdpiov ouSelq yap SXOLT' av 16
J
xaO auTov Ta TTOCVT' e'/eiv ayaOa TuoXiTixov yap 6 a*v6pco7ro<; xal au^YJv 7re9ux6(;.
TY^^ ex TOU au^v TOL<; aya6ol<;, xaOaTuep xal Qeoyvt^ 9YJCLV. 12, 13
605 Having dealt with the problem of YjSovY) in the first part of Book
X, the author speaks of the happy life in the following chapters (6-8).
Happiness a Recapitulation
r of preceding
r statements on the character of
an activity .
xal TCO SUGTU^OUVTI Ta (jtyiaTa. El SYJ TauTa jr/) aplcrxei, aXXa (jiaXXov el^ 35
[605] ETH. NIC. III-X 179
[AE'V avayxatai xal 8C fe'repa atpcTal at 8s xa0' ai>T<x<;, STjXov STL TYJV EuSai-
elcrtv
[xovfav TCOV xaO* ai>Ta<; atpETcov Tiva OETEOV xal oo TCOV Si' aXXo ouSsvo<; yap
b. not play an activity chosen for its own sake ? To this Is not
Is
A i_ i ^ ^1,1 chosen for
question Ar. answers that play can never be an absolute end, only a its own sake?
i 11
means for further activity.
10- 11
Ib., 1176 b b 32-ii77a 1 ,
:
10 Kal TWV TiaiSttov Se at YjSeZai ou yap Si' eTCpa auTa<; atpouvTai. STCouSa-
32 ELV 8e xal ruovstv TiaiStac; x^P LV ^^Otov ^atveTat xal X(av rcaiSixov Tuai^etv
8* STTCOC; <77rouSafl, xaT* 'Avaxapcriv, 6p6co<; ex LV SOXEL. 'AvaTraiiasi yap
35 Soixsv Y] TratSta, aSuvaToijvT<; 8s auvE^wc; rcovslv avaTrauascoc; SsovTat. Ou SYJ
life is
1- 6 serious
1177 a
Ib,, :
Aoxst 8* 6 Eu8at(jio)v pto^ xaT* apT7]v Elvai- OUTO^; 8e [JLETOC (rruouS^, aXX*
oux EV TraiSia. BEXTICO TE Xyo(Jiv Ta (TTcbuSaZa TCOV yEXotcov xal TCOV fjiETa
7rat8ia<;, xal TOU PEXTIOVOC; asl xal fiopiou xal avGpcoTcou crTrouSaLOTSpav TTJV
5 svEpysiav y)
SE TOU PEXTIOVOC; xpELTTCov xal EuSatfjiovixcoTEpa
J
Et 8 scnrlv r\ EuSaifJiovfa
xaT* apTY]v EVEpyaa, suXoyov xaTa TT]V xpaTtaTYjv contempla-
av ELY) TOU aptaTou. ELTE SYJ vou<; TOUTO EITE aXXo TI, 8 SY] xaTa ^lidtv tion
aGTY] 8*
15 SOXEI <Sp^tv xal Y]yZcrOai xal ^vvoiav E^etv TCEpl xaXcov xal Ostcov, ELTE OELOV
Sv xal auTO ELTE TCOV EV TO OstoTaTov, YJ TOUTOU Evspysia xaTa TYJV otXEtav
Yjpuiv
apTY]v ELY) av YJ
TEXfita Eu8ai[JLovta. "OTI 8* EGTl OECOPYJTIXYJ, ELpYjTat.
b. The reasons for this statement are given in the next passage. Reasons
20
Ib., H77a -b 6 b 26 -ii78a 8
,
:
20 J) is the
KpaTtoTY) TE yap aoTY) IvEpyEta- xal yap 6 vou<; TCOV EV Y)[uv, xal
(
ECTT'IV Y] ^.
TCOV yvaxjTcov, Tcspl a 6 vou<;. *'ETi SE auvE^EaTaTYj (kcopslv TE yap Suva|JLE6a the nofls
Trapcx TYJV TTpa^iv. AoxeZ TS YJ euSaifjiovta ev Ty) c^oX^ elvai aaxoXoujJieOa yap
iva (ixoXaCwfjLev, xal 7roXe(jiou(jLev tva eipY)VY]v (Scyofxev. 5
a divine <Q g^ ou yap $ av6pco7uo<; 26
(4)
TOiouTO<; av ELY] (3to^ xpeiTTCov YJ
xaT* SvOpcoTrov
ecTiv OUTCOC; (3ia>(ieTaL, aXX' fj
OSLOV TI Iv aoTO) uTrap^si 8aco Se 8ia9pt TOUTO
TOU auvOeTOU, TOCTOUTO) xal Y] svepyeta TYJ^ xaTa TYJV <5cXXYjv apTY]v. Ei SY] 0etov
6 vou^ Tcpoc; TOV avOpcoTrov, xal 6 xaTa TOUTOV PIOC; Oetoc; TTpoc; T^V avOpcoTiivov 30
7rpo<;TO ^YJV xaTa TO xpaTidTov TCOV ev auTco et yap xal Tc7> oyxco (jiixpov IcTt,
SuvafJLei xal TIJJLIOTYJTL TroXu (jiaXXov TUOCVTCOV uTcepXi. AO^EIE 8* av xal slvat
5
ExaaToc; TOUTO, ELTCEP TO xupiov xal OCJJIEIVOV STOTTOV o5v ytvoiT av, EL |JLY]
TOV
ai>TOu PLOV alpotTo aXXa TLVO^ &XXoi>. To Xs/Osv TE TcpoTEpov apfjiocrsi xal vuv
TO yap OIXELOV ExaaTCo T^ 9uat xpcmcrTov xal YjSiaTov EGTIV sxaaTco. Kal 5
TCO avOpcoTuo) SYJ 6 xaTa TOV vouv pioc;, strap TOUTO (^aXiara avOpcoTio^. 05TO^
&pa xal EuSaipLovEaTaTO^.
Cp. Metaph. A 2,
28 32
982 b - (our nr. 519).
secondary AsuTEpcoc; 8 6 xaTa TY]V aXXYjv apETYjv at yap xaTa TauTY]v EVspyEtai avOpco-
Tiixat Sixata yap xal avSpEta xal Ta SXXa Ta xaTa Ta? apETa^ :rp6<; aXXifjXous 10
Iv (TUvaXXayfiacn xal xp a ^ xa ^ ^pa^e^t 7ravToiat,<; l:v TE TOIC;
^
:rp6c; 8e Tac; IvEpyEtac; TcoXu Siotaei. Tcp jzev yap eXeuOepico Se-yjtrei
Trpoc; TO TcpaTTEiv T<x eXeuOlpia, xal TCO Sixatco STJ etc; Tac; avTaTro Soars ic; (al
TrpayEiv), T& avSpeta) 8s SuvajJiecoc;, eirrep ETILTEXEI TI T&V xaTa TTJV apETTjv,
xai TO) atocppovt, c;ouaiac;. IIooc; yap S9jXoc; &JTOCL 73 oSToc; ^ TWV (ScXXcav TIC;;
b. Ib. H78b 7 - 23
:
The sole
activity
ii78b *H Se TsXeLoc suSai(jiov[a OTI OewpTjTixT) Tt^ edTiv evepyeta, xal evTu6ev av conceivabl
xal in God
9avet7j. Touc; Oeoix; yap [JLaXiCTTa UTretX^afJLev fiaxaptouc; eoSaifjiovac;
loslvai' Tcpa^ei? Se Troiac; aTcovsLfjiai XP (^ V auTOL<;; HoTepa Tac; Stxatac;; "H
yeXoioi 9avouvTai cuvaXXaTTOVTe*; xal 7uapaxaTa6-/)xa<; aTtoSiSovTec; xal oaa
TOiaijTa; 'AXXa Tac; avSpetouc;, urcofjievovTac; Ta 9opepa xal xtvSuveuovTac; OTL
xaXov; "H Tac; eXeuOepiouc; ;
TLVI Se SOXJOUCTIV; ''ATOTUOV S' zl xal SdTat
J
15 vofitafjia TI
TI TOIOUTOV. At 8e aaxppovec; TL av elev; 'H (popTixoc; 6
OTI oux ex oumv 9auXac; e7iL0u[iLa<; ; Ais^toijai Se Travra 9atvoiT' av T<X icepl TCXC;
TCpa^sic; (Jitxpci xal avaia Oewv. 'AXXci JJLYJV ^YJV TS rcavTec; urcetXr^aaiv
20 xal evepyetv dcpa- ou yap SY] xaOeuSetv ciaTrep TOV 'EvSu(jitcova. Tco S
TOU TcpaTTStv a9aipou[xevou, STL Se (jtaXXov TOO TTOLELV, TI XeiTreTai TiXvjv Oecopia ;
r/
Q<TT Y] TOU Oeoij evepyeia, (JiaxapiOTYjTi Sia9epouoa, OewpYjTLXY) av si'yj. Kal
TWV avOpCOTTLVOiV 7) 7] TaUTT) CTUyySV(TTaT7] EuSaL[JlOVtX6)TaT7).
c. Ib., H78b 24 - 32
:
it distin-
~ ~
Ta Xot?:a x
* x i x , ,5.
> , ,
5^x
oe xat TO (JLTJ (jLeTexetv Q<oa euoatfiovtac;, r/jc; TOiauTTjc; f r0 m
the
anirnals
25 evepyetac; eaTep7](Jieva TeXetax;. TOLC; [xev yap 6eoic; arcac; 6 (3ioc; [laxapLoc;, TOLC;
J
S avOpcoTcotc;, 29* oaov 6(ju>ta)[jux
TL TTJC; TOiauT7]c; evepyeiac; uTuap/si' TCOV S'
p6)v ouSev euSatfJtovsi, 712187) ouSafxy] xoivcovet Oecopiac;. '9' oaov ST)
30 cuSaifJLOvelv, ou xaTa aufjipepTjxoc; aXXa xaTa TTJV Oetopiav auTT) yap xaO*
5
ii79a *0 8 xaTa voiiv Vpy&v xal TOUTOV 0pa7Tii6>v xal Siaxi(ivoc; SL^IGTOL xal
609iXe<TTaToc; SOIXEV i
yap TLC; ETci[jLeXeia T&V avOpcoTitvcov 6^6 Oswv ytvsTat,
25
cocrTTEp 8oxt, xal 17]
av EiiXoyov x a ^P e ^ T auTOUc; TW apttTTCo xal TCO ai)yy-
(TOUTO 8* cxv EITJ 6 vouc;) xal TOUC; ayaTrcovTac; (jiaXicrTa TOUTO xal
avTU7roitv cac; TWV 9tX(ov auTotc; 7rt|jLXou(JLvouc; xal opOcoc; T xal
30 xaX&c; TTpaTTovTac;. "OTI SE TravTa Taika Tq> 0*096) [zaXicrT* u7rapXL, oux <5c87]Xov.
J
4 THE POLITICS
608In Aristotle's opinion the supreme science in the province of
practical reason is not ethics, but politics, since its object is to secure
the well-being, not of the individual, but of a whole community or state
(Eth. Nic. I 2, our nr. 566).
The first Book of the Politics inquires into the structure and the aims
of the state.
'
* 2 '
I2 5 2 a 26 - 34 b9 - 1; '
of the state 'AvayxTj SYJ Trp&TOv duvSua^eaOai TOU<; #vu aXX-yjXcov [JLYJ Suva[Avou<; elvat,
olov 09)Xu (jlv xal appv TTJ<; yV<70)<; evsxev (xal TOUTO oux ex Trpoatplaeox;,
aXX' coarcep xal ev TOIC; XXoL cooi<; xal 9UToc<; 9U<nxov TO 9iaOai olov 7
auTO, TOIOUTOV xotTaXiTcsiv Tpov), ap^ov Se 9u<TL xal ap/ofievov Sia TTJV 30
acoTYjptav. TO
yap Suva(jLvov TYJ Siavota Trpoopav ap^ov 9ii<Ti, xal SECTCO^OV
(JLsv
9\iai, TO SE Suva[jLvov TauTa TO) acofjiaTi TTOIECV ap^6(jivov xal 9i)0i SouXov
SLO SECTTTOTYJ xal SouXq) TauTo (jujz^epei. 'Ex [iv oOv TOUTOJV TWV 8\io xoivca- 34
vtwv oixia TupcoTT), xal opOcoi; 'H(7LoSo<; ELTTE 7rotY)(ja<; olxov (jiV TrpcaTtaTa b 10
*
yuvalxa T POUV T* dpoT7]pa(( 6 yap (3ou<; avT* OIX^TOU TOL<; 7TVY]atv (TTIV.
15 - 16 27 - 30
b. Ib., 1252 b ,
:
Structure Of *}J
J
| x TCXELOVCOV OIXLGJV XOLVCOVta TCpCOTY) XP^ * 20^? VXV (JIY) 97](JLpOU
J
x , , , , . ~ / ^ x
nature ^^ Tiatra 7roXi<; 9u<Tt ECTTLV, i7Tp xai ai rcpwTai xoivwviai. TXo<; yap aimq 3
XIVO)V, 7)
S 9\i(7L? TXO(; (JTLV OLOV yap Xa<7TOV <TTl,
T^ yVGCO<; TX(T0ei-
lvai
PXTLCTTOV 7)
8' auTapxeia xal TXo<; xal
X TOUTCOV o5v 9aVpOV OTl TOJV 9U(Tl 7] 7r6Xl(; C7Tt, Xal OTl
TtoXtTixov ^wov, xal 6 <5auoXi<; Sta 9UCTiv xal ou Sia TUX>]V ^TOI 9auXo^ <ITLV
XptTT6)V
animal AIOTI Sg: TroXiTixov 6 SvOpco^o<; ^oiov Tradrjc; (jLXtTT7](; xal TravTO^ ayXaiou
Z^coou [jiaXXov, STJXOV. ouOv yap, w^ 9a(Jtv, {JKXTYJV 7] 9\jcjt<;
TroiEt- Xoyov Si;
(JLOVOV 5vOpO)7TO<; /t TO)V ^6)0)V Yj (jlV OUV 9COVY] TOU XUTTYJpOU Xal YjS^O^ EdTl Io
07)(jLLov, 816 xal Tol^; <5cXXoi(; UTrap/et ^w^ (^XP Y^P 1 ^O^TO^> 7)
lXy)Xu6e, TOU extv ataOyjatv XuTUTjpou xal 7)8^0? xal TauTa cry)(jLa^veiv
[609] POLITICS 183
7)
^ TOUTOW xoivcovia Troiet ofodav xal 7c6Xiv.
610 Since the slave is a part of the household, slavery must be dis-
cussed first.
12530
>r-
Jteet ouv
% T ~ ,~ 7
,
, , \
otxia<; ECTTI xat,
i t / ~ ,
a livin ft
tool
y] XTYJCTI^ [Jiepo^ T7]<; 7] XTTJTLXY] [icpoc; r/]^ oixovojJLia^
25 (a*vei) yap TCOV avayxatcov aSiivaTOv xal ^9jv xal eu ?jv), ojdTrep Se TaL(; wpta-
6pyavo)v eaTt, xal 6 SouXo<; XT^[JLa TI SfJi^u/ov. xal coaTrsp opyavov :rp6 opyavcov
u7rY]peTY]<;. Ta p.ev o5v Xeyojieva opyava TroiyjTixa opyava eaTi, TO 8^
J/ s
5 XT7](jia TrpaxTLxov. ETL 8 eTuei Sta9e*pei YJ Trotyjcri^ stSei xal YJ Tcpa^i^, xal
SeovTat afjL^OTepat opyavow, avayxv) xal TaoTa TTJV auTYjv 2x etv Sta90pav.
6 8e pio Tupa^i^, ou TrotTjdi^ ECTTIV SLO xal 6 8ooXo<; uru^peTT)^ TOW ?rp6(; TY)V
TrpaEtv.
17 - 24
b. Polit. 1 5, 1254 a b 16 - 23 ,
:
IloTepov 8* eaTt TI<; 960*61 TOLOUTOC; r\ 08, xal TTOTSpov P^XTIOV xal Stxatov by nature
TM SouXeiisiv YJ 08, aXXa Traaa SouXeia Trapa 9uatv eaTt, [IETOC TauTa dxeTiTeov.
20 ou /aXeTrov Se xal TO) Xoyq) Oeo^p^aaL xal ex TWV yivo(Jievcov xaTafiaOecv. TO
yap ap^etv xal fip^ecrOat ou (JLOVOV TO>V avayxatcov aXXa xal T&V cru[jL9ep6vTO)v
1
t. xal eu6u<; ex
yeveT^<; Svia StedTYjxe Ta fxev evrl TO ap^eaOai Ta S ITCI TO
r/
0aoi [Aev ouv TOCTOUTOV SieaTacrtv 8aov ^ U X^ crcofiaTO^ xal
SouXoc; 6 8uvafjievo<; <5XXou elvat (816 xal a*XXou eaTtv) xal 6 xoivo>vcov Xoyou
27 1
c. Ib., I254b -i255a :
BouXeTai, (lev o5v YJ 9U(Ti<; xal Ta ao>(JLaTa 8ia9^povTa Tioietv Ta TWV eXeuOepcov
xal Toiv 8ouXo)v, Ta (jtev lax^pa rcp6<; TY^V avayxatav
184 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [6lO]
SixaioTepov em TYJ^ ^X^ TOUTO Sicopio-Oai aXX* ou^ OJJLOIOX; po^Stov iSetv TO
Te T9j(; ^u^^ xaXXo? xal TO TOU
611 In the final chapter of this Book the author raises the question
whether the slave can have virtue. He treats it in a larger framework:
the same question namely must be asked concerning women and children,
since they too are <xpx6[jievot, though in another sense than slaves. Ar.
gives the answer of Gorgias, who said that the virtue of a woman is
different from that of a man, and the virtue of slaves different from that
of free-born people (Plato, Meno 72 a; our nr. 267b).
Can the p UL 21 2
a 10 - 28 33 - 36
slave have
J I3| 1259 b -I26o a , ,
:
_ \ r *
\ t >* > r / /
virtue? llpoTOv (Jtev ouv ?repi oouXwv aTropvjaeiev av TL<;, TcoTepov ecmv apeTY) Ti
SouXou Tcapa Ta<; opyavixa^; xal St-axovixac; SXXr) Tijjuarrepa TOUTCOV, olov
aco^pocruvy) xal avSpeia xal Stxatoduvv] xal Tc5v <$XXcov TCOV TOIOUTCOV e^ecov,
TQ
oux e'dTLv ouSefjLia Trapa TOK; aco[jLaTixa<; U7ry]peatac;. e^ei yap aTuoptav a^o- 25
dvOpcoTccov xal Xoyou XOLVCOVOUVTCOV OCTOTEOV. axe^ov STJ TauTov ecrTi TO ^TJTOU-
(xevov xal Trepl yuvaixo^ xal TraiSo?, TTOTepa xal TOUTCOV etalv apeTai, xal Set 30
TYJV yuvatxa elvat crco9pova xal avSpetav xal Stxatav, xal 7uat<; eaTt xal axo-
apxo[xevou 9uarei xal <5cpxovTO<;, TcoTepov Y) auTY) apeTT) Y) eTepa. d (lev yap Set
<x[i90Tepou<; (xeTexetv xaXoxaya6ia<;, Sia TL TOV [jiev ap^etv Seoi
av TOV Se <2pxecr6ai 35
aTeX^. 6[xoico(; TOIVUV avayxaico^ Sxetv xal Trepl TOC<; Y)0Lxa^ apeTa<; uTcoXYjTCTeov, 15
Selv p.ev (xeT^xe^ TuavTac;, aXX' ou TOV auTOv TpOTcov, aXX* 5aov exaaTCp 7cp6(; T6
auTOu gpyov. Sio TOV [xev SpxovTa TeXav ^xetv Set TY)V Y)8ixY)v apeTYjv (T& yap
8
2olxa(iTov, 8aov ImpaXXeL aoTol<;. ware 9avep6v 6ri ecrrlv yjOtxY) apeTY) TCOV
elpY)(ivcov TravTCov, xal oux $1 auTY) (7co9po<jiivY) yovaix&<; xal av8p6<;, ouS*
avSpeia xal SixaioauvYj, xaOaTuep <5>eTO ZcoxpaTY)*;, aXX' Y) [lev apxixY] av8pea YJ
8' uTTYjpeTixY), 6[jio[co<; 8* #xei xal rcepl TOC<; <SXXa<;. SvjXov Si: TOUTO xal xara [/ipoc;
oY]Xov OTI xai apSTYjc; oetTai [xixpac;, xat ToaauTT)^ OTrcac; (JLYJTE 61 axoXaaiav
8ta SstXiav
Polit. I 8, 1 6
1256 a - ,
10 - 21
,
b 6- 10 ,
26 - 34
I
Property and
acquisition
i256a (JX(o<; os rcepi Traav]^ xTYjcreco^ xai xp^^TiaTixr]? Uea)pY)CTa)(Jtev xara TOV
v TpoiTov, ETueiTUEp xal 6 SouXoc; T% XTYjaeax; (Jtlpoc;
TI Y^V.
SYJXOV (TY^C; (JLEV yap TO 7ropi<ra(70ai, TY)<; Se TO xP^aaOat TI<; yap eaTai Y]
<TO|JLlvY] TOL^ xaTa TYJV oixiav Tiapa TYJV OIXOVO[JLIXY)V ;TOTepov 8e (iepo^ auTYJ<;
)
j
xal 6 7rXouTO<;, COGTE TrpcoTov Y] yewpyixYj TTOTepov (Jiepo^ TI TYJC; olxovo[JLtxYJ<;
'
Y) iTepov TL yevoc; ;
xal xaOoXou YJ Trepl TYJV TpocpYjv e^ifjieXeia xal XTYJCTI^. AXXa
20 JJLTJV siSY] ye TuoXXa Tpo9Y](;, SLO xal PLOL TioXXol xal TO>V Z^oicov xal TCOV avOpcoTccov
ou yap olov Te ^v fiveu Tpo9^, cExrTe at 8ia90pal TYJ^ Tpo9YJ<;
T&V
f
A certain
8ia9epovTa<; ^cocov. dc; av Y) XP e ^ a <TUvavayxa^Y], TOUTOV
TOV TpOTCov SiayouCTiv. Y) [zev o3v TOiauTY] XTYJdtc; UTC* auTTJ^ 9aiveTai TYJC; 9uareo><; natural
9, 10 8i8o(JievY] Traatv, cicrTrep
xaTa TY)V TupwTYjv yeveatv euOu;, OUTCO xal TeXeia>0eL(7Lv.
26, 27 "Ev [jiev
o5v elSoc; XTYJTLXYJ<; xaTa 9\icrLv TYJ^ otxovofjLixYJj; [j,epo<; laTiv, xa06
8eZ Y^TOI UTcapxew Y^ Trop^eiv auTY)v OTTGX; uTrapXTJ, ^v eo-Tl 0Y)aaupia(JLO^ XP^lf1 ^'
3 TCOV rcp6<; ^COYJV avayxaitov xal xp^fftfjicov e^ xoivcoviav TcoXecoc; ^ otxia^. xal
auTapxsia Trpo^ aya0Y]v ^COY)V oux a7ceipo<; eaTiv, coa?rep 26Xcov 9Y](il 7roiY)(ra^
(Jitav xal TYJV auTYjv Tfl XexOeicrfl TcoXXol VOJJU^OUCTI 8ia TYJV yeiTvtaaiv &m 8*
auT&v, aXXa 8C efiiretpiac; TIVCK; xal yiveTai [xaXXov. Xapcojjiev Se Trepl auTYJ<; 5
TYJV ap^>)v evTeuOev. exaaTOu yap xryjfJiaTCx; SITTT) YJ XP^^ scr^tv, afjL90Tepai
J
8e xa6 auri (xev aXX* ou^ 6(/,otca<; xaO* auro, aXX' 73 piev otxeta y)
8' oux oixeta
Toii 7rpay[JiaTO<;, olov UTUoSyjiJiaToc; Y)
TE uTroSeai; xal Y) (JLSTapXyjTixy). afi^oTepai
yap u7coSy)[JiaTO<; xp^ ae ^
'
^a ^ T^P o aXXarrofzevo^ TW 8eo(JLva> iTuoSYjfjLaro^ 10
avrl vo(jLto(jLaTO(; YJ Tpo9YJ<; XP^ at T ^ 67roSY)(jiaTi fj 67r68Y][jia, aXX' ou TYJV oixeiav
XpYJaiv ou yap aXXay^ svexev yeyove. TOV aurov Se rpoTuov ex L xa>l 7re P^ T^v
aXXcov xTY](JLaT(ov. EOTTI yap Y] (iTa(3XYjTi,xY) 7ravTa>v, ap^a^vY) TO [xev TrpcoTov 15
sx TOU xaTa <pu<riv, TCO Ta fjiev
TcXsLto T<X Se eXaTTCo TWV Ixavwv
oaov yap txavov auTol^ ? avayxalov 9jv TroisiaOai TYJV aXXayYJv. ev [Jiev
o5v T^
TipcoTY] xoLvwvia (TOUTO 8* Icjlv oixia) ^avepov OTI ouSev ecjTiv epyov auTY^<;, 20
aXX' Y^SYJ 7tXeiovo<; TYJC; xoivawac OUCTYJC;. SevixcoTCpa^ yap yevofzevY)*; TY)(;3i
TroOev ^tTTat 7tX^6o<; XP^^OCTCOV TTOIYJTIXYJ yap elvai TOU TrXouTou xal xp^aTcov.
Kal fiTteipo^; SYJ O^TOC; 6 TrXouTO^; 6 daro TauTY)c; TY^C; xP'y)(jLaTlaTlx %- 23, 24
T9js 8* olxovofJLixY)? ou xp^M-aTidTtXY^c; eoTTt Trepac; ou yap TOUTO TYJ<; oixovofJuxYJc; 30, 31
epyov.
commonwealths, particularly with Plato's (see our nr. 310). In the second
part (ch. 9-12) the best existing states are discussed (Sparta, Crete and
Carthage), and a word is said about the most famous lawgivers.
614 The first part of the third Book (ch. 1-5) is devoted to the
citizen and his relations to the state.
a. The citizen is defined as the man who has political power, how-
ever acquired.
If
J
S aTrX&s ouSevl T&V aXXcov optCsTat (xaXXov Y)
TO> [ZETexeiv xpiaecac;
xal
[614] POLITICS 187
TuoXtTYjv eVepov avayxatov elvai TOV xa6' exacmqv TroXiTeiav. Storcep 6 Xex0ek
5 ev |iev S-yjjioxpaTLa fiaXicn:' eoVi TroXiryjs, ev Se Tai<; fiXXat^ evSe/eTai |j.ev, ou
fjiTjv avayxacov. <ev> evtai<; yap ^ x Sort SYJ|JLO, ouS* exxXYjaiav VO|JUOUCTIV
aXXa cruyxXYjTOiK;, xai T<X<; 8ixa<; Sixa^ouai, xara [lipo?, olov ev AaxeSaifjLovi
IOT(X<; TCOV aufji^oXatcov Stxa^ei TO>V 9opcov <5XXo<; #XXa<;, ot 8e ypovTeq TOCC;
9(wxa<;, erepa S* L<T(O^ ap^vj TI^ erepa^. TOV auTov Se TpoTuov xai Trepl KapxvjSova
7cacra<; yap ap^ai Ttve^ xpivoucri T<X<; Sixa^;. aXX' ^x ei T^P 8i6p0co<jtv 6 TOU TroXiTOU
&iopt(T(ji6<;. ev yap Tat^ aXXaic; rcoXtTetatc; ou^ 6 aopiaTO^ ap^cov exxXyjdiacmfjc; corrected
15 eaTi xai SixadTT]^, aXXa 6 xara TVJV ap^yjv 6)picr(Jtlvo^ TOUTWV yap 7} Traaiv ?j
Tialv aTcoS^SoTai TO pouXeueaOat xai Stxa^eiv >} Tcepl TCCXVTWV ^ ?uepl TIVWV.
TLS (Jiev
ouv eaTLv 6 TCoXiTT]^, ex TOUTCOV 9avepov c*>
Y*P e^ouo"ia XOL-
vcoveiv apx'OS pouXeuTLXY)^ xpLTLxyj^, TtoXiTTjv yjSr) Y)
The author remarks, that this definition is better than the usual formula, which
defines the citizen as one of whom both the parents are citizens. For this formula
cannot possibly apply to the first inhabitants or founders of a state.
a. In Polit. Ill \ the question is raised: what exactly is the identity what is the
r t on identity of
17 --
of the state, 1276 a :
the state?
. . .
rico^ TioTe xp^] Xeyeiv TT)V TroXiv elvai TTJV aur/jv 5) (JLTJ TTJV auT7)v aXX*
eTepav ; 73 (jtev o5v eTCLTroXatOTaTT) TYJ<; a7ropia<; ^YjTTjai^ Tiepl TOV TOTTOV xai
1 - 13 Ar/s reply
b. 1276 b Ib., :
ytvofievY]^ eTepa^ TCO eiSei xai Sia^epouayjc; T^<; 7roXtTeta<; avayxatov elvai
So^eiev av xai TVJV TroXtv elvai ^
TYJV aunfjv. coaTrep ye xai x^P ^ T (A^v xco(JLtx6v
5 OTe Se Tpayixov eTepov elvai 9a(xev, TCOV auTtov TroXXaxic; av6pco7rcov OVTCOV,
Se xai Ttaaav iXXyjv xoivcovtav xai aiivOeoiv eT^pav, av elSo<; eTepov fj
Srepov Y]
TauTov g^eaTi xal TCOV aoT&v xaTOixouvTcov aurqv xal TtafiTtav eTspcav
avOpcoTccov.
apery) for some particular purpose he has not, as such, the apery) which is ;
b. So in general the virtue of the good man and the good citizen
is not the same. In one particular case however they are identical,
namely in the good ruler.
The good IK 1277 a 12 - 17 !
ruler always
a good man AtoTt (xev TOIVOV (XTcXcoc; oux **] aunf), 9avep6v ex TOUTOV aXX' apa eorTat TIVOC; 127 ja,
Ta TOV crTrouSacov dcyaOov elvat xal <ppovt(jiov, TOV Se TroXtnrjv oux avayxaiov 15
elvai 9povi(iov. xal TTJV TratSeiav 8' euOix; eTepav elvat X^youai Tive? TOU SPXOVTO^.
the subject J
and the virtue A Se TOV TroXtnrjv TOV ayaOov eTuaTaaOai xal SuvaaOai xal apxeo-Oai xali277b
of the ruler
Sp^etv , xal auTT) apeTY) TroXtTOU, TO r/)v TCOV eXeoO^pov apxvjv eTriCTTaorOai eV 15
afA^oTepa. xal avSpoc; SYJ aya6ou 5(jL9co, xal el eTepov eI8o<; aa)9poauvY)<; xal
SixaioauvYjc; apxixvj<;. xal yap apxofJilvou {lev eXeuOepou 8e SrjXov 8ri ou (jLta
av eiT) TOU ayaOou apeTY), olov SixatoaiivY), aXX* eiSY) ^ouaa xa0* a ip^ei
xal dcp^eTai, &<T7rep avSpcx; xal yuvaixoc; eTepa <TCi>9po(TiJVY) xal avSpeia. 20
'H Se 9p6vY)m<; SP/OVTO^ tSio<; apeTY) (JLOVYJ. Ta<; yap aXXa<; Soixev avayxaLOV25, 26
elvat xoiva<; xal TCOV dp^o^vcov xal TCOV ap^oVrcov, apxo(xvou 81 ye oux
SCTTIV aper/) 9povY)CTi(;, aXXa So^a aXYjOY)?* coa^ep auXoTcoio^ yap 6 ap^ofjievo^,
6 S* fipxcov auXY)TY)<; 6 /pcofAevoi;. II6Tepov [xev o5v Y) auTY) apeTY) dvSpit; 30
9avep6v ex TOIJTCOV.
[617] POLITICS 189
Aristocracy and Polity. Of bad ones there are also three: Tyranny,
Oligarchy and Democracy.
25e crovTai 9avepal TOUTWV 8iopia6eio~wv. eTrel 8e TtoXiTeia (jiev xal T&
<jY)[Aaivei TauTOV, rcoXiTeujia 8* earl TO xupiov TWV TroXewv, avayxY) 8' elvai
xupiov YJ
Sva 73 6X[you$ Y) TOU^ TroXXoiic; 8Tav piev 6 el^ YJ
ol oXiyoi YJ
ot TcoXXol
?rp6^ T& xoiviv au(JL9pov (Sp^coat, Taurac; avayxaiov elvat TOCC; TtoXi-
(Jiev opGac;
30 Teta^;, Ta<; Si; TUpoc; TO iSiov Y^ TOU evoc; YJ TO>V oXtycov YJ TOU TrXifjOou^ Tuapexpaaeic;.
Y^ yap
ou TroXiTa^ cpaTeov etvai TOUC {jteT^ovTac;, Y] Set xoivcaveov TOU au(JKppovTo<;.
xaXetv 8* eico6a(Jtev TWV (Jiev [xovap^tcov TYJV Tcpoc; TO xotvov aTiopX^Trouaav
35 (Y)
Sia TO TOUC; apLCTOu; Sp^eiv, Y)
Sta TO 7rp6^ TO apioTOv T^ TcoXei xai TOLC;
40 Iva [iev yap 8iacpepetv xaT* apeTYjv Y) 6Xiyou(; evSex^ai,, 7rXeiou<; 8* YjSY) xaXevrov
7rpo<; Tracav apeTYjv (aXXa [xaXLOTa TYJV 7roXe(jiLXY)v auTY] yap ev
YJ
8* oXiyap^ia Trpoc; T& TWV euru6pcov, YJ Si: SYjfJLOXpaTia Trpoc; T& au{i-
10
^^pov TO TCOV aTiopcov 7cp6(; 8e TO TCO xotvoi XuaiTeXouv ouSefjita auTcov.
minority poor. In this case the distinction which has been made between
oligarchy and democracy would not hold good.
20
HpcoTYj 8' a7ropia 7ip& TOV Siopiajxov SCTTLV. ei yap elev 01 7cXeiou<; SVTCC; sification
euTiopoi xupioi TYJ? 7c6Xeco<;, SYjfJtoxpaTia 8' ECTTLV &Tav % xupiov TO TrX^Oo?,
6(jLoia><;
Si TtaXtv xav et TCOO aufipatvoL TOU^ a7r6pou(; eXaTTOU? (lev elvai TWV
eu7r6pcov, xpeiTTou^ S' 8vTa^ xupiou^ elvat TYJ^ TroXtTeta^, STCOU 8' oXtyov xupiov
257rXY]6o<; ? oXtyapxtav elvat 9aaiv, oux av xaXw<; S6eiev SicoptaOai :repi TWV
TcoXiTeiwv.
PRACTICAL SCIENCES [6l8]
objection
"Eoixe TOVUV 6 X6yo<; rcoietv SyjXov #Tt T& (Jtev oXtyou^ $ rcoXXou<; elvat xu-
ptau<; <TU[jLpep7)x6^ Icmv, . . . & Si Sia9^pouaiv ^ TS 8>)(AoxpaTia xat TJ 6Xiyapxa
dXXifjXtdv, 7reva xat 7rXouT6<; CFTIV, xal avayxaiov fjtlv,
STCOU av Spxcoai Stai28oa
TiXouTov <Sv T* eXaVrous #v TS 7rXetou<;, elvai
Taurqv iXiyapx^av, 6?rou 8* ot
dbcopoi, SY)|Jt,oxpaT(av, aXXa au(j$avei, xaOdarep efaofisv, To6^ [Jiiv 6Xyou<;
elvai Toic; Si rcoXXori^. suTropouai [xiv yotp 6Xlyoi, T^C Si eXeuOepta^
619 a. The next chapter deals with the principles of the distribution
of power in democratic and in oligarchic states, i.e. with the conception
of justice on both sides.
according to
democratic ATjmiov os TrpcoTOV Ttva<; opou<; Xeyooai nrj(; 6Xiyapxta(; xat oY](jioxpaTtac;,
and oligar- xa T T j 8( X aiov TO TS 6Xiyapxtx6v xal SyjfioxpaTixov. TravTS^ yap
pies Sixatau Ttv6<;, aXXa [A^XP 1 Ttv ^? Trpoep^ovTat, xat Xlyoucrtv ou Trav T& xup(o)<; 10
J
Stxaiov. olov Soxei taov TO Stxatov elvai ,
xal SaTtv, aXX' oti rcacrtv aXXa TOL^
2
taoi^ xal TO aviaov Soxst Stxatov elvai xal yap ^CTTLV, aXX' ou Traaiv aXXa ,
X^youaiv. 25
Ar.'s own fa j^e standard should be the : true aim of the state. I.e. : the citi-
view
zens have a claim to power according to their contribution to the e5 9jv.
1
"On Soxet taov r6 Sfcxaiov elvat is the democratic view of justice, Ar. says: It is,
but not for everybody only for equals.
2
Oligarchs, on the other hand, hold that inequality is justice, namely, that
political rights should be unequal and proportionate to wealth. To this view Ar.
opposes again: granting that inequality is just, it is so not for everybody, but only
for unequals. And by what standards are the qualifications of the persons concerned
to be judged? This is what Ar. calls "the main point", the xupu>TaTov, and on
this point most people are in error.
[619] POLITICS 191
elvat r?)v TtoXmx^v xoivtovCav, aXX* ou TOU CTU^TJV. Sidrap 6Vot (JU(ji{iaXXovTai
el? T>JV Toiaurqv xoivcoviav, TOUTOU; TYJ<; 7r6Xeto<; (JL&recra TtXetov 7)
xaT<x fjt^v eXeuOeptav xal yvo$ taoi<; 7^ p,etoari xaTa 8k rJjv
i288a 'AXX* ex TCOV eipyj(ivcov ye l <pavep6v ax; ev (x^v TO^ ofxoioic; xal taoi^ o^Te Only in an
exceptional
ou(ji<ppov lartv o(>Te Sixouov Sva xiiptov elvai 7cavT<ov, o8re vifxov SVTCOV, (/,-J]
(iXX* auT^v cl>? 8vTa VOJJLOV, ofrre vojicov 8vT<ov, ofire ayaOov iyaOcov oSre (AT)
5 aya6o)v [AYJ4ya66v, ouS* av xaT* dper/jv ifxetvcov fj, el [JLY] TpoTrov Ttvdc. T^ 8* 6
s, Xexrlov stpTjrai 8^ TCCO^ ^87] xal Trporepov. TrpcoTov 8 Stopiar^ov rt T&
2
xal Tt T6 dpiaToxpaTix6v xal T TO TcoXiTtx6v 3 pa<rtXeuT6v (x^v .
7coXe[JLi,x6v Suvajjievov Sp^eaOai xal <5cp^eiv xaTa v6[jtov T&V xaT* d^av 8iav(jiovTa
15 TOI<; eu7i6poi<; Ta<; dpxd<;. ^Tav o3v ^ yevo<; oXov ^ xal TCOV #XXcov 2va Tiva aojJipTJ
Sta^epovTa yevc70ai xaT* apeTYjv TOCTOUTOV aicrO' U7rep^x etv ^ v ^xetvoo TYJS TCOV
SXXcov TcdvTCov, TOTe Stxatov T^ yvo<; elvai TOUTO (iacriXixov xal xiipiov ?cav-
TCOV xal paaiXa T6v 2va TOUTOV. xaOdbuep yap etpYjTat irpoTepov, ou (x6vov
TcdvTY] yap xa6 uTrepox^jv a^ioucriv, aXXa uTrepoxV ou TYJV auTYjv, dXXa xaTa
TO 7cp6Tepov Xex^^v 6 ofiTe yap XTeivetv y) (puyaSeueiv ouS* oaTpax^sw 8^ TTOU
.
25 TOV TotouTOV Trp^Tiov eaTtv, o(5T* d^touv apxecGat xaTa fjt^po<; ou yap rcl<puxe
Ti (Jilpoc; uTcepx S!>v T0 ^ 7tavTo<;, TC!) 8^ TYJV TYjXixauTYjv "uTceppoXYjv SXOVTI TOUTO
aru{JL(3^pY]xev. <&aTe Xet?ceTai (Jt6vov TC^ 7cei6ecy6ai TC*) TOWUTCO xal xupiov elvai
*9 xaTa JL^o<; TOUTOV dXX*
621 In the first part of Book IV (ch. i-io) the main types of con-
stitutions are dealt with.
(3a<nXeuT6v
- fit for being ruled by a king.
7roXmx6v - fit for what is called by Ar. a polity (constitutional government).
r$)v TV &eu8p6>v dpx^v seel. Immisch.
Sc. according to the right of merit, expounded in ch. 9 (61 9b).
IQ2 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [62l]
IV 30 4
Democracy Polit. 4, I2QI b -I292 a :
Av)[jioxpaTla [Jiiv
o3v ecm TcptoTY) [lev YJ XeyofJiivY) fjiaXiaTa xaTa T& taov.
t
rive^, xal ICJOTYJC;, OUTCOC; av eivj [xaXtdTa, XOIVCOVOUVTCOV a7uavT<ov
T^C; TroXiTeiac; ofAoica^. euel 8e TrXeicov 6 S^JJLOC;, xuptov Se TO S6av
TrXetoariv, dvayxT) SY)[xoxpaT(av elvat TauTTjv. Sv [xev o5v eZSo<; S7][ioxpaTia^
TOUTO [<5XXo Se] TO TOC<; ap^a^ OCTTO Tt(JL7](jtaTO)v elvat ? ppa^^wv Se TOUTcav 4 o
Set 8e TCO XTO)|xevcp e5 OU(7^ av e^vai [xeTex etv xal TOV aTropaXXovTa JAY)
15 ~ 18 30 - 37
its perversion b. The fourth kind. lb., 1292 a 4 - 13 , ,
:
xal (IT)
TOV v6(jiov. TOUTO Se yfveTat, oTav Ta ^wtafiaTa xiipta f)
aXXa (JLTJ
6 v6fio<;.
au^patvei 8e TOUTO Sia TOUC; 87)[jLaycoyou^. ev (jtev yap Tatc; xaTa VOJJLOV Syjfjio-
^o^ yap 6 Syjfjioc; y[vTat, auvOeToc; e!<; ex TioXXcov oi yap ruoXXol xiipioL etaiv
(jLovap/eiv Sta TO (JLYJ (Scp^eo-Oai UTTO vopiou, xal ytveTai SeciTroTtxoc;, aidTe
ol xoXaxe^; evTi(Jiot, xai laTiv 6 TOIOUTO<; Syjfjio^ avaXoyov TCOV (Aovapxtwv T^
TupavviSi. EuXoyax; 8e av So^eiev eTUTifiav 6 ^aaxcov TYJV TOLauTTjv elvai 18, 30
SYjfioxpaTLav ou TroXiTetav. 87rou yap (iY) VO^LOL Sp^ouatv, oux eaTt TcoXtTeia.
8ei yap TOV (iev VOJAOV Sp/eiv TTOCVTCOV, TWV 8e xaO* sxaaTa TOC<; ap^ac;, xal Ta^TTjv
TroXiTEiav xptveiv. COGT* etTiep ecTl SyjfxoxpaTia jua TCOV 7roXt,Ticov, ^avepov
622 Of oligarchies, too, there are four kinds, of which the fourth
is the worst.
39 10
Oligarchy Polit. IV 5, I2Q2 a -b :
Se el'Sy]
v [xev TO arco Ti[AYj[jLaT6)v elvai Ta<; ap^ac; TY]Xixo\iT(ov
1
The expression fjLY)8&v jiaXXov yj means simply "as much as" and is in practice
often used in places where fryj$v 3jrrov % could be logically expected. Some striking
examples of this use have been adduced by L. M. de Rijk in Mnemosyne 1950,
pp. 314-318-
[622] POLITICS 193
iTeiac;, <XXo 8e, oTav arco TtfJLYjfjtaTCov [zaxp&v &o-iv at dp^al xal alpcovTai
TOUC; eXXewrovTac; (av fiev ouv ex TcavTeov TOUTOW TOUTO Troicoat, Soxet
TOUT* elvat (JiaXXov dpLo~ToxpaTixov, edv Si ex TIVCOV dcpcopu7(j(,vQ>v, oXiyap^wcov)
5&repov elSoc; oXiyapxfocc;, 8rav Tuaic; avri TraTpoc; etaiYj, TeTapTOv 8', 8rav
TO TE vuv Xe^Gev xal ^p/fl ^ 6 VOJJLOC; aXX* ol <5tp^ovTe<;. xal SCTTLV <XVT-
36 'ApiaToxpaTtav [lev ouv xaXa><; ex L xaXetv ?repl YJC; SiY)XOo[Jiev ev Tofr; TrpcoTOic;
s
X6yot<; (TTJV yap ex TCOV apidTCov aTcXoic; xaT apeTTjv TroXiTeiav xal (JLT) 7rpo<;
x
67c60eaiv TLva ayaOcov avSpcov [JLOVIQV Sixatov Trpoaayopeiieiv aptaToxpaTtav
5 ev (Jiovy) yap aTrXcoc; 6 aoTOc; avY)p xal TroXiTY]^ dyaOoc; ICTTLV, ol S' ev Talc; aXXaic;
7 - 19
b. Ib., 1293 b : Mixedforms
Ou [JiYjv
dXX* elai Ttvec; at Trpo^ Te Tac; oXiyap^oufievac; e^oucri Sia9opac; [xal
xaXouvTai apiaroxpaTtai] xal Trpoc; TYJV xaXou[JLevy)v TroXtTeiav. OTTOU yap (Jiyj
15 olov ev KapxYjSovi, auTY) dpiaTOxpaTiXY) eaTtv, xal ev ale; elc; TOC Suo [JLOVOV,
olov Y) AaxeSat(jiovicov, el'c; Te dpCTYjv xal SYJJJLOV xal eaTt [lifyc, TCOV Suo TOUTCOV,
Y]
TcoXiTeta ax;
aTcXcac; eiTreiv y& > ic> oXiyap^tac; xal SYjfjioxpaTiac;. EtcoGaat Se xaXelv Tac; (Jiev
35 aTToxXivoucrac; <oc; Tipoc; TYJV SYj(jLoxpaTtav TroXtTetac;, Tac; Se rcpoc; TYJV oXiyap^tav
(zaXXov dpiGTOxpaTiac; Sta TO [jiaXXov dxoXouOetv TraiSeLav xal euyevet-av TOIC;
94a euTTOpcoTepoic;. 'Ev (Jiev ouv Tatc; TrXetaTatc; TroXecri TO TYJC; TioXiTetac; elSoc;
1
7rp6(; 67r60e(jtv Tiva cxyaOcov -
good according to some arbitrary standard.
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 13
IQ4 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [624]
ICTOTYJTOC; T7] 7roXiTea<;, eXeuOepia 7cXouTO<; apery) (TO yap TSTapTOv, 6 xaXoucnv 20
euyeveiav, axoXouOet TOL<; Sutriv 7) yap euyeveta ICTTLV ap^atoc; TcXouTO? xal
apeTYj), ^avepov STL TYJV [iev TOLV SUOLV [ju^v, TCOV suTiopcov xal TCOV dbropcov,
TroXtTSiav XSXTSOV, TTJV Se TCOV Tptcov apicrTOXpaTiav [jtaXtcrTa TCOV SXXcov (jrapa
625 Tyranny, too, must have its place. Two moderate forms of it
have been considered before, in dealing with monarchy. A third kind,
which is the extreme, is added here.
1-4 7 - 23
Tyranny Polit. IV 10, I2Q5 a ,
I
Ilepl Se Ti>pavvL8o<; 9)v YJJUV XOITCOV SLTTCLV, ou^ coc; SVOUCTYJC; TroXuXoyiac; Tcepl
eTreaxoTroupiev, Sia TO TYJV SuvafjLtv ETcaXXaTTetv 7rco<; auTCov xal 7rp6<; TYJV Pacrt-
Xeiav, St,a TO xaTa v6[zov elvai afJL^oTepa^ TaiiTac; Tac; apx^ (Sv T yap TCOV 10
626 Books VII and VIII are devoted to a description of the best
state. The material conditions (size of the population, extent and nature
of the territory, site of the city and national character of the population)
having been determined, the author proceeds to treat the internal struc-
ture of the state. First he distinguishes its members (the citizens) from
those who are necessary as its servants, but not a part of it.
1
The text is probably not sound. Immisch reads xaXXcoTut^ETai instead of xaXeiTai.
Ross retains xaXelrat and translates: "Now in most states the form called polity
exists".
2
Ross explains rightly: "for the fusion goes no further than the attempt to
unite the freedom of the poor and the wealth of the rich".
[626] POLITICS 195
necessary
i328a 'Ercel 8* cocrrcep TCOV SXXcov TCOV xaTa cpiiaiv auveaTCOTCOv ou TauTa ecm [Jiopia
elements
25 e Y)<;
Sv TI TO yevo<; (ev yap TI xal xoivov elvai Set xal TauTo TOI<; xoivcovo^, 4v
TS tcrov av TE <5cvtaov [ASTaXafzpavcocnv )
olov etTe Tpo9Y] TOUTO eciTtv EITS x^P a<?
J
^apiv T]
TCOV otxoS6(jLcov Texv<y]' 816 xT7)<jsco(; [jiev Set Tatc; TroXeaiv, ouSev 8' ecmv
357) >tT^ai^ fJiepoc; TYJ<; TroXecoc;. TroXXa 8' e(JL^uxoc [AepY] T% xT7)aeco(; eorTiv. 73
8e
7r6Xi<; xoivcovta TL^ eaTi TCOV 6[zouov, evexev 8e ^COYJC; TYJC; evSexo(^VY)<; apiarTYjc;.
8' ecmv euSaifxovLa TO aptOTOv, auTT) 8e aper^ evepyeia xal XP^ a ^ Tl<?
40 (Aixpov Y]cbc; TOUT' ai/uov TOU yiyveaQai TioXecoc; ei'87] xal Siacpopau;
[jL7)Sev, S^Xov
aXXov yap Tporcov xal 81 aXXcov exadToi TOUTO
xal TcoXiTetac; rcXeiou^
9jv), TPLTOV Se oTrXa (TOIX; yap xotvcovouvTa^ avayxatov xal ev ai>Tot<; e^etv
6:rXa 7rpo<; Te TYJV apxV T<^ v aTreiOouvTcov X^P lv xa ^ ^po^ ^o^? e^coOev aStxeiv
)
'
^ Tl XP Y)1JLC^ TO)V Ttv(^ eiwoptav, OTTCOC; Sx 60 ^ 1 xa L ^po^ ^ac; xaO*
'
xa 1 ^po^ TcoXefJLixa^, 7re(jiTCTOv Se xal TrpcoTOv TTJV Trepl TO Oetov
e7ui(JLXetav, rjv xaXouaiv tepaTetav, exTov Se TOV api0(Ji6v xal TTOCVTCOV avayxato-
TaTOv xpiatv Tcepl TCOV aufx^epovTcov xal TCOV Sixatcov TCOV Tipoc; dXXTjXoix;.
Ta ouv epya TauT* eaTlv cliv SetTat Tiacra TcoXi^ etTretv Six
15 |Jiev co^; (r) yap 7roXi<;
ICTTIV ou TO TUXOV cxXXa npoc, ^COTJV auTapxe^, co<; 9a(Jtev, eav Se TI Tuy- j n g classes
TOUTCOV exXetTtov, aSiivaTov aTcXcoc; auTapXT) TYJV xoivcovJav etvai TauTYjv )
20 avdyxY] TOIVUV xaTa epyaaia^ TauTac; auveciTavai rcoXiv Set Spa yecopycov
Ta<;
xal TO euTuopov, xal lepet<;, xal xptTa<; TCOV Stxatcov xal du^^epovTCov.
24 39 Has
b. Ib. 9, I328b -i329a :
)
TOC [Jiev iSwc Ta 8e xoiva TOUTCOV e!; avayxY}<; earnv. oux ev Tcaayj 8
TroXiTeia. xaOdttcep yap et7ro(Jiev, evSe^eTai xal TiavTa^ xoivcoveiv TuavTCov 30
xai (AY) TravTac; TOXVTCOV aXXa Tivac; Ttvcov. TauTa yap xal TroieE Tac;
uTT) 8* ECTTL xaO YJV TJ TroXt; av stv) (laXidT* eu8ai(JL(ov, T/JV 8* euSai- 35
STL X ?^
00 P eT % a8iivocTov uTiapxetv etpYjTai Trporepov, ^avepov ex
TOUTCOV <o^ ev Tyj xaXXiffTa TcoXtreuofjievY] TroXet xal T^ xexryjpLevy) 8ixaiou<;
Mechanics, g v
Spa^ ajcXco^, aXXa [XTJ Tupo^; TTJV uTroOecriv,
outre pivauaov PLOV OUT' ayopatov
husbandmen Set 9jv TOU^ TroXiTa^ (ayevvY)^ yap 6 TOIOUTOI; pio^ xal Tcpoc; apeTYjv uTuevavTioc;), 40
excluded ^ ^ yecopyouc; elvai TOIK; [AeXXovTac; eaeaOai (Set yap a^oX?)*; xal 7ip6(; T/JV
The citizens 'Eral 8e xal TO TroXejJuxov xal TO ^ouXeuofievov Tcepl T&V <Ti>[jL9ep6vT6)v xal
will be
X pi;VO v Tcepl TWV Sixaicov evuTrapxei xal (JtepY) ^atveTai TY^C; rcoXecoi;
and rulers tfvTa, TTOTepov eTepa <eTepoi<;> xal TaijTa OeTeov YJ TOU; auTOtc; aTioSoTeov &[L<pto ;
5
9avepov 8i xal TOUTO, SIOT& Tpo:rov fiev Tiva Tot^ auTOL<; TpOTuov 8e Tiva xal
;. f) [Jiev yap eTepa^; axjjLY]^ exaTepov TCOV epywv, xal TO piev SeiTat 9pov/]-
TO Se 8uva(JLeo)(;, eTlpoL<;- fj Ss TWV aSuvaTCov eaTl TOU^ SuvafJievou^ [3ta-
xal xoXueiv, TOUTOIK; UTropteveiv dpxo(JLevou^ aet, TauT'f) Se TOLC; auToI^. 10
ol yap TCOV orcXcov xiipioi, xal {Jievetv YJ [JLY] [Jievew xiipioi TYJV TcoXiTetav. XetTreTat
TOIVUV TOCC; aoTOt<; [JLCV a^^oTepo^ arroStSovat TYJV TioXtTeiav TauTYjv, fiYj a{ia
Se, aXX* coCTTrep 7re9uxev YJ jjiev Suvafjiig ev vecoTepoi^, YJ
Se 9povY]ai<; ev Trpea- 15
TOUTCOV Ta^<;. ouTe yap yecopyov ouTe Pavaucrov lepea xaTa^TaTeov (UTCO yap
TCOV TuoXiTcov TupeTuei TijJiaoOai Toi>^ 6eoii^) e:rel Se SifjpYjTai TO TuoXiTixov eit; 3
Suo (JiepY),
TOUT* eaTl TO Te ojuXiTLxov xal TO pouXeuTixov, TrpeTiei 8e TYJV Te
OepaTretav aTroSiSovai TOLC; Oeolc; xal TYJV avaTrauatv e^etv Tiepl auToix; TOIK;
Sea T^V xpo vov ocTietpYjxoTac;, TOUTOIC; av e?Y) Ta<; tepcoaruva^ dacoSoTeov.
r
iiv (Aev Totvuv fivei) TroXt^ ou crovtcTTaTai xal ocra (zepY) TroXeoj^;, etpY]Tat35
[626] POLITICS 197
(yecopyol (jiev yap xal Te^vtTai xal ?cav TO OYJTIXOV, avayxatov UTrapxeiv
TttSXecriv, [lepYj 8e TYJC; TroXecoc;
TO TS oTrXmxiv xal pouXeimxov, xal
i334 b arc* apx% TOV vo(A00eTYjv opav Set STUCOC; peXTicrra T<X acofjuxTa
Etaep ouv and
TCOV TCOTC xal procreation
3oy[vYjTai Tpe90|xevcov 7 TtpcoTOV (lev e7ri[JieXYjTeov Tiepl TYJV au^eu^iv,
Tivac; ovTac; XP^] TroieiaOai Tcp6<; aXXifjXouc; TTJV yafJLixrjv 6(juX[av. Asi S*
vTa vo[io6eTslv TatiTYjv TYJV xoivcoviav Tcpoc; auTO\i^ TS xal TOV TOU
f
40 Xe^TreaOai Tat^ yjXtxiatc; Ta Texva TCOV TraT^pov (avovrjTO*; yap TOU; (JLCV
!2
7Cp6<; TTJV Texvo^ouav ev yap Tcaori ^COOK; aTeX^ Ta T&V veov exyova xal 07)Xi)-
Toxa (JiaXXov xal [Jiixpa TYJV (jt,op9Y)v, toaT* avayxatov TauTO TOUTO
T5 xal eTrl TO)V avOpwrccov. Tex(jL7)piov 8e ev oaai<; yap TWV TroXeov
TO vou<; du^euyvuvai xal vea(;, aTeXei<; xal [iixpol TOC (TcifiaTa eiatv. Aio
apfjiOTTei Ttepl TYJV TCOV oxTCOxatSexa ITCOV YjXixiav auJ^euyvuvai,
-2^
Tac; (/.ev
Xpovoi<; euxatpto^ STL 8e YJ SiaSo^Y] TWV TXVWV TOC<; piev ap^optevoK; eaTai TYJ^
ay.ycf]^ eav yiyvYjTai xaTa Xoyov euOu^ YJ yevea^, TOL<; Se Y^SYJ xaTaXeXufJievYj^ TY^C;
Ilepl Se a7co0aeco<; xal Tp09Y]^ TCOV yiyvojj^vcov CCTTCO VO[JLO<; (jtYjSev TceTCYjpco- abortion in
l 8 P ecial cases
(zevov Tpe9eiv Sia Se TrX^Ooi; TEXVCOV, (YJ yap T<XI<; TCOV eOcov xcoXtiet fjLYjOev
a7coT[0ea6at TCOV ytyvo(xvcov) copia6ai SYJ Sec TY^C; TexvoTOita<; TO 7rX^0o<;, eav
81 Tiai yiyvYjTai Trapa TauTa auvSuaaOevTCOv, Tuplv aicrOYjaiv eyyevecrOai xal
25 TO yap oatov xal TO {JLYJ Sicopicrfjievov T^
COYJV, l(jL7coieLaOat Set TYJV dtp,pXtoaiv
Adultery 38 2
ft 1335 b -I336 a !
punished ^ ,
Ilepl 8e TYJ<; 7rp6<; aXXyjv r) Trpog aXXov (sc. ojjiiXta^), e'<rao (/Iv aTuXcoc; (rJ)
628 On these and on the following points Ar. is not far from the ideas
of his master, Plato.
young N
children Kal Tuepl Xoycov Se xal [itiOeov, TTOLOU<; Tiva^; dxoustv Set TOIK; TTJXLXOUTOU^,
settled by la
w^^c^^ <JTCO TOL^ ap/ouaiv ouc; xaXouCTi rcaiSovofjioi)^. TiavTa yap Set TOC
TOiauTa TupooSoTuoieLv 7ipo<; Tat; uciTepov StaTptpdcc;- Sio Tac; TraiStac; elvai Set
yap Trpo^ au^vjaiv yiyvsTat yap Tp6:rov Tiva yu(jiva(7La TOL^; aa>(jia-
aiv Y) yap TOU 7rveu(JiaTO<; xaOe^K; TTOLCI TTJV ia^ v T0 ^ Trovouaiv, 8 ou(JLpaivet
xal TOL<; TratSLOi;; SiaTeivofievoK;. eTTtoxsTCTeov Se TOL<; TcaiSovofJLOLc; TYJV TOUTOV
Staycoyyjv ry]v T' aXXr]v, xal OTTOX; OTL ^xtaTa (JLETOC
SouXwv Sarai. TauTVjv yap 40
TY]v YjXtxtav, xal (JiexP L T ^ v e^^a ITWV, avayxatov OIXOL TTJV Tpo9?)v ex l
T
euXoyov oOv aTroXauetv aTio TCOV axoucy[JLaTa)v xal TCOV 6pa(jLaTG>v aveXsuOeptav
xal TTjXixouTOix; ovTac;. oXco^ [/Iv oOv aiaxpoXoyLav sx T^ TcoXeax;, etTrep aXXo
Tt, Set TOV vofJLoOeTYjv e5P^ lv (^ ^o^ Y^p eoxep&<; Xeystv oTtoijv TWV aia^p&v 5
Xeytodi [jLTjTe
axoiicoai [jLYjSev
TOIOUTOV. eav Se TL<; 9aivY)Tai TL Xeycov YJ TrpaTTtov
TCOV aTTTjyopeufjLevcov, TOV [xev eXeuOepov (JLYJTCCO
8e xaTaxXiaeco^ 7]^LCO(jievov ev
ETitjAeXec; [xev ouv ^GTCO TOL^ Sp/ouat (JLYjOev fnf)Te ayaXfxa (JLY)Te ypa9Y]v elvat 15
TotouTCov Trpa^ecov [xtfJLYjcitv. Tou<; Se vecoTepou^ OUT* tafjtpcov OUTC xcoficoSta^ 20
6eaTa<; eaTeov, irplv 7] TTJV TjXtxtav Xapcocrtv ev ^ xal xaTaxXtaeco<; UTuap^ei
xotvcovetv r)Sy] xal fJLe6y)<;
xal TYJS OCTUO TCOV TOWUTCOV ytyvofjievrjc; pXapy)<; aTcaOel^
r]
TratSeta Trotrjaet 7uavTa<;.
1
The codd. indicated by Immisch as IT 2 have aTreXauvstv.
[629] POLITICS 199
TrepiTTcx (rcavTa yap etXYjcpe TauTa xptTa<; Tivac;)- Trepi TS TWV Trpcx; dcpeTY)v
ou6sv ICJTIV 6[ioXoyoti[jLevov (xal yap TYJV apeTYjv ou TYJV aur/jv suOuc; TravTec;
C/
OTI (lev o5v Ta avayxata Sei 8i8aaxea6ai TWV ^pY]at[JLCOv, oux aSY)Xov OTI excluded
5 Se oi TuavTa, StYjpYj^svcov Toiv TS sXsuOepcov spycov xal TO>V aveXsuOepcov, 9avep6v
STL TCOV TOLOUTCOV Set [ASTe^etv 6o*a TCOV xpY]ai(Jicov TroiYjaei TOV [JisTe^ovTa (JLYJ
^avauaov. Pavouaov S* spyov slvai Set TOUTO vo(ii^etv xal TS^VYJV TauTY]v xal
TO
(jia0Y]CTiv, oaat TCpoc; Tac; ^PYJOTEK; xal Ta^ Tcpa^eic; T<X<;
xaXoujJiev, xal Ta^; (juo-0apvtxa<; spyacrta*;. aa^oXov yap Tiotouai TYJV Siavotav
xal
it, on this ground, that it is highly important that people should be able
x disciplines
"Ecm 8e T^TTapa a^sSov a TraiSsusiv sitoOaai, ypa(Z(JLaTa xal yi>(jivacmxYjv
25 xal {jLoucrixYjv xal TETapTov 2vioi ypa9iXYjv, TYJV (xev ypa[i(jLaTixYjv xal ypa9ixY)v
TOV f^ ov o^cra^ xal TroXuxpYjaTou^;, TYJV Se yi)[xvaaTixYjv
Diflficulties
co<; auvTSLvouarav Trpoc; avSpeiav TYJV Se [JLOUCTIXYJV Y^SYJ StaTiopYjastev av TLC;.
_
Nuv [lev o3v at (xaXtaTa Soxouaai TWV vroXecav eTTifxeXeiaOat, TG>V TratScov aii338b
[lev aOXvjTixYjv 2^iv IfJiTroiouai, Xcopcojievai Ta Te eUSv] xal TYJV afi^atv TCOV 10
,
ol Se Aaxcovec; TauTTjv [xev ou^ ^(JiapTOv TYJV ajiapTtav, 67)pi<oSei^ 8"
ai TOI<; 7r6voi(;, coc; TOUTO ?cp6^ avSpetav fiaXLciTa au^^epov. xatrot,
xaOaTrep etpyjTai TroXXaxic;, oi)Te 7rpo<; [xlav oure Trpo^ (JLaXiara TauTTjv pXeTcovra 15
b. Our leading principle should be, that what is noble, not what
is brutal, ought to have the first place.
The leading JK i<i<i$ b 29- 34 :
* \J*J
_____!_!_
J
"fiare TO xaXov aXX ou TO TupcoTaywviaTetv ouSe yap Xuxo^ 3
OTjpLGJSec; Set
ou8e TCOV SXXcov Ovjptcov dycovtaaiTo av ouOeva xaXov xivSovov, aXXa jxaXXov
]
dvY]p dyaOoc;, ot Se Xiav ei<; TauTa dvevTec; TOIX; TraiSat; xal TOW dvayxaicov
paedagogical Hepl 8e (JLOIXTLX^ evia [xev 8iY]7ropY)xa[JLev TOJ Xoyo) xal TcpoTepov, xaXcoc; 8* 133011
value of xa ^
|^ t v ^v dvaXapovTa^ auTa Trpoayayelv, tva ciaTrep evSoaifjiov yevrjTat
XoyoK; ou<; &v TIC; eiTreiev a^ocpatvojjievoc; Trepl auTyj(;. OUTC yap Tiva
8uva(jn,v paSiov Trepl auTY]<; SieXetv, OUTC TIVO<; Sei x^P lv M-^X6LV auTvjt;, TTOTepov 15
TcaiSiac; evexa xal dva7cauae6)^ xa6a7rep GTTVOU xal [JteOT]^ (TaijTa yap xaO*
7
jiev ouTe TCOV aTrouSaicov, aXX* TjSea, xal afjia Traiiet (jiepi(JLvav, coc;
873^ 816 xal TaTTOuaiv auT7]v xal /ptovTat ?raat TOUTOIC; ofjiotcoc;, UTCVCO xal jA^Oyj 20
xal (JLOucrixyj
Tt0ea<rt 8e xal TYJV opx^crtv ev TOUTOIC;), ^ [laXXov oivjTeov Tupo^;
apenfjv TI Tetveiv TTJV {jiouaixYjv, d)(; SuvapLevTjv, xaOaTrep YJ yi)[jLvaaTixy)
TO acofia
TUOIOV TI TcapaaxeuaCet, xal TTJV (jLouatxrjv TO 9]6o<; TUOIOV TI Tcoietv, e6ioucrav
SuvaaOat x a ^P lv 6p6w?, 73 Ttpoc; SiaycoyYjv TI au^paXXeTai xal 7cpo<; 9povY)(riv 25
- so. gymnastics.
a
iva &o7rep evS6at(jiov yevYjraL etc. - "that our remarks may serve as a prelude
to further discussions on the subject".
[632] POLITICS 201
b. Ib., I339a
26
-b 10 :
"Ort (/iv o5v Set TOOC; vou<; Svexa TratSeuetv, oux SSYjXov (ou yap taught to
{JLYJ TratStac;
1 perform
jJieTa XUTCYJC; yap Y) fiaOYjatc; ) aXXa pjv ouSe StaycoyYjv
7ta[oi)(Jt [jtavOavovTec; ye
307caialv apfjtOTTet xal Tatc; YjXtxtatc; dbroStSovat Talc; Totairratc; (ouOevl yap aTeXet themselves ?
Tcpocnjxet TeXoc;). aXX* 'tacoc; av 86etev YJ TCOV TtatScov aTrouSyj TtatStac; elvat
^apiv avSpaat yevo[ievotc; xal TeXetcoOetatv. aXX* el TOUT' ecm TOIOUTOV, Ttvoc;
av Ivexa 8ioi [xavOavetv auToiic;, aXXa [JIT] xaOaTrep ol T&V Ilepaoiv xal M7)8a>v
35 paaiXetc;, 81 SXXcov auTo TCOIOUVTCOV (ieTaXa{x(iSaveiv T% YjSovYJc; xalTyjc; [zaOrjcrewc; ;
xal yap avayxatov peXTtov dcTrepya^eaOai TOOC; auTo TOUTO ^CTCoiyjfjLevouc; e'pyov
xal Te^vTjv TCOV TOCTOUTOV XP^ VOV eTctM-sXoufx^vcov 8aov ?rp6c; iiaOvjcyiv JAOVOV.
ei 8e Set Ta ToiauTa SiaTcovetv auTouc; 7 xal ?repl TYJV TCOV o^cav TrpayptaTeiav
YJV
8' auTYjv dttcopiave^st ^al el SuvaTai Ta Y^0Y] (3eXTico Ttoielv TauTa yap
Set {jLavOaveiv auTouc;, aXX* ou^ e^epov axoiiovTac; 6p6&<; Te x a ^P etv >^ a l
xptveiv 6p0c5<; ? coc; 9aat, Ta /P^cr^a >tal Ta (JLY] xp^^^a T ^ v [leXaiv. 6 8' airroc;
TYJV uTToXYj^tv Y)v e^ofjiev Tiepl TCOV Oetov ou yap 6 Zei>^ auTO(; aeiSet xal
TOtc; TioiYjTatc;. aXXa xal pavauaouc; xaXoujiev TOUC; TOIOUTOUC; xal TO TTpaTTetv
looux avSpoc; [JLYJ (jieGuovToc; YJ
Tca
10 27 Music can
C. Ib., 1330 b - !
TYJV 8' avdttcauatv avayxatov Y]8etav elvat (TYJC; yap Sta TCOV TTOVCOV XUTTYJC; taTpeta
TC; eaTtv), xal TYJV StaycoyYjv 6(jLoXoyou[Aevcoc; Set fJiY) (JLOVOV e^etv TO xaXov aXXa
xal TYJV YjSovifjv (TO yap eu8ai(Jiovetv e^ afJt^oTepcov TOUTCOV eaTtv ) TYJV Se
-20
fjtoucrtxYjv TuavTec; elvat 9a(JLev TCOV YjStcrTcov, xal (j;tXYjv
ouaav xal (zeT<x fieXcoStac;
(^Yjal yap xal Mouaatoc; etvat w^poTotc; YjStdTOv aetSetva Sia xal etc; TOCC;
eu9patvetv) 7 coerce xal evTeuOev av TIC; uTcoXcipot rcatSeueaOat Setv auTYjv TOUC;
^5 vecoTlpouc;. oaa yap apXa^ TCOV YjSlcov, ou (jtovov apfioTTet Tcpoc; TO TeXoc;
aXXa xal Tipoc; TYJV avaTuauatv.
d. Ib.,
42
1339 b -i340 a
23
a 40-b 13 , :
to^oto* of
Ou [JiYjv
aXXa ^YjTYjTeov TUOTC TOUTO JJLYJ [xev auptpepYjxe, TtjxtcoT^pa S* auTY^c; the
character
i
ftinrw.wjj is used to indicate intellectual enjoyment.
202 PRACTICAL SCIENCES [632]
Y) 9UCTK; SCTTIV Y)
xaT<i TYJV eipY)(JievY)v XP e ^ av xa ^ SSL [AYJ (Ji6vov TYJC; XOIVYJC; Y)Sov9jc; i34oa
(zeTexeiv dor' auTYJc;, YJC; e'xouai ^avTec; aiaOvjaiv (e'xei Y<*P 71 ^OUCTIXY) TYJV YjSovYjv
9Uo~ixY)v, Sio Tiaaaic; Y)XixiaL<; xal Ttaariv Y)9ecriv Y) XP*) ^ auTYJc; ICTTI Tcpocr^tXyjc;), 5
aXX' opav et TCYJ
xocl ^poc; TO 9)0oc; auvTeivei xal Tupoc; TYJV tjwxV- TOUTO S* av
17) S^Xov, eE TTOLOI Tive^ Ta Y]OY) yiyvofieOa Si' OCUTYJC;. aXXa [JLYJV OTL Y^Y v ^lxe ^ a
jjteXcov auTcov. eTtel 8e aufjtpepyjxsv elvai TTJV (jtouaixyjv TWV yjSetov, TTJV S*
TreplTO xa ^psw opQwc; xal ^iXsiv xal [juaetv, Set SyjXovoTL jJLavOaveiv xal auveGfc- 15
^EdOat, (JLTjOev OUTCO^; cb^ TO xptvetv opOcoc; xal TO xa^peiv TOI^ eTuistxeaiv yjOeai xal
Talc; xaXa<; Trpa^s^iv &m Se 6p.oi(0(JLaTa [JiaXiaTa Tiapa TOC^ dXyjOLvac; ^uaeic;
s
iv TOLC; puO(jioi^ xal TOL^ xal TupaoTYjToc;, STL S dvSpeiac; xal 20
(jLeXecrtv opyyj^;
a<ocppo<ruv7)c; xal TTOCVTOV TCOV evavTtcov TOUTOIC; xal TCOV aXXoav Y]0Lxcav (SyjXov
8e ex TCOV e'pytov [JLeTa(3aXXo(jiev yap TTJV i|>ux>)v axpocofxevot TOIOUTCOV ).
EuOuc; yap YJ
TO>V apjjiovL&v StedTYjxe ^UCTK;. COCTTS axoiiovTac; aXXcoc; SiaTi- 40
OeaOat xal fivj
TOV auTov e'xeiv TpoTuov 7rp6<; exaaTyjv auTcov, aXXa Trpoc; (Jtev
(JLOV7)
TCOV ap(JiovLD>v, evOouoLaaTtxouc; 8' 73 9puyiaTt. TauTa yap xaXcoc; Xeyoudtv 5
ol Tcepl TYJV ^aiSetav TauTTjv 7i9LXoao9Yjx6Tec; Xa|jipavouCTi yap Ta [xapTupta
TCOV Xoycov ei; auTcov TCOV epycov. TOV auTov Se Tporcov e'xei xal Ta Trepl TOUC;
About the third purpose of learning music, which was called Staycrf/), Ar. does
not speak explicitly. But we may admit that this function of music is implied in
the first purpose, or perhaps even in the second.
learn to per- HoTepov Se Set [xavOaveiv auTOUc; (SSovTac; Te xal x^tpoupyouvTac; TQ JAY),
xaOa- 20
form music
^p ^opyjOr] TrpOTepov, vuv XexTeov. oux iSy]Xov SYJ OTI TroXXrjv Sxet Sia90pav
themselves
Trpoc;
\ \ /\ f >/ / ~ v
TO yiyvsauai TIOLOUC; Tivac;, eav TIC; auToc; xoivcovyj TCOV epycov ev yap TI
* \<
[632] POLITICS 203
TCOV aSuvaTcov YJ 'xa.\TC&v s<7TL fJLvj xoLVCovTQCTavTa^ TCOV epycov xpLTac; yevecrOat
xal Set TOU<; 7raLSa<; ex etv T ^v<x SiaTptpyjv, xal
yevearOat xaXoic;, yjv StSoacrL TO<; Tcct,i8foic;
1
TTJV 'Ap/uTou TcXaTayYjv - "the rattle of Archytas" seems to liave been a popular
toy in the days of Aristotle.
SIXTEENTH CHAPTER
THE PSYCHOLOGY
i SOUL AND ITS VARIOUS FUNCTIONS
The aporiai 633 In his first book De anima, according to his usual method, Ar.
begins by stating the aporiai.
IIpcoTov S' IGUH; dvayxaiov SieXeiv Iv TLVL T&V yevcov xal TL EGTL, Xy6>
TtoTEpov TOO*E TL xal oucTLa 7)
TTOLOV 7)
Tioaov 7)
xocL TL<; (ScXXv) T&v StaLp
xaTTjyopLCOV, eTt Se TcoTEpov Ttov Iv Suvafxet 6vT<ov Y] [laXXov evTeXexetc^ Ttc; 25
Js there 1- 8
2.
Jb., 402 b :
one defini-
tion of soul ? SXETUTSOV 8e xal et (JtepiaTV) ^ ajzep-/)^, xal TTOTSpov ofJiosiSy)^ aTiaaa
ou ei Se JIT] 6[ioiSY)(;, TroTepov etSei 8ia9epouaiv 75 yevei.
vuv (xev yap ol
xal ^YJTOUVTC^ Tcepl ^ U X"^ 7ce P >L T ^^ av6p(07TLV7)<; fjtovyj^ eotxaaiv eTTi-
v.
euXapvjTeov OTTCO<; [JIT] XavOavy) TtoTepov sic; 6 Xoyoc; auT7]<; eaTi, 5
S'
xa0a7rep ^wou, 7} xaO' sxaoTYjv Irspo^, olov tTCTrou, xuv6c;, av6pa>7rou, Oeou,
TO Ss: ^coov TO xa06Xou YJTOI ouOev ECTTLV YJ
is soul 3 16
3.
ib., 403 a - :
'
separate AiuopLav 8* ex et xat Ta ^aOv) TTJC; ^u/^^, TuoTepov ECTTL TravTa xoiva xal TOU 403a
existence? ecrTL TL xal TYJ<; ^ U X"^ ^Siov auTTJc; TOUTO yap Xapeiv [xev dvayxatov, 5
g^ VTOc; YJ
ou pa^tov Se. ^atveTai Se TCOV [Jtev TrXetaTCOv ouOev <5cveu TOU acofxaToc; Tr
ouSe Troiecv, olov opy(^(rOai, 0apptiv, 7rtOu[jLiv, oXcoc; at(rOava0ai.
S* otxv I'&tov TO VOEIV t S' <TTi xal TOUTO 9avTao*La Ti? yj [JLTj <5cvu
5
oux evSE/otT av ouS TOUT' avsu arcifzaTOc; slvai. ei (JtV o5v ECJT[ TL TCOV
L
[633] SOUL AND ITS FUNCTIONS 2O5
scrav iSiov auTYJs, oux av elfy x^P"11^* <*XXa xaOdbrep TCO euOel, fj euOii, TuoXXa
auji(3aCvei, olov a7CTea0ai TYJ<; x ^*7^ acpatpac; xaT<i <ray[ryjv, ^ l^evToi y' a^erai
15 O(>TCO /<x>pia0^v TO euOi a^copiaTov yap, eurep ael [xera a<o(jiaT6<; TIVO<; ecmv.
"Eoixe 8e xal T<X TYJ<; ^X^k TCa0Y) Tcavra elvai (jteTa acijxaTOc;,
25 XoyoL evuXot scatv. ciaTe ol opot TOLOUTOC olov TO opyf^eaOai xivyjatc; TIC; TOO
ToiouSl (jcifJiaToc; ^ jjtepoix; 7) 8uva(Jieco(; UTTO ToijSe evexa TOuSe. xal Sta TauTa
634 The problem of the affections of the soul is treated again in re-
lation with the problem of its movement. In this passage the author
states that it would be better not to say that "the soul is angry" etc.,
but the man.
De An. 34 18 Is the s ul
a. 1 4, 408 a -b :
the subject
_,. , ,., , , , , < , , , ^
huXoycoTepov o aTropYjaeiev av TL<; Trepi auTY]^ ax; xivoujjievYjc;, eic; O f its Ta TOtauTa
9ajjtev yap TYJV ^DXVJV XuTreLaOai xaipeiv, Oappelv 9opia0ai, ETI affections?
8 opyt^eaOai TS xal aEaOaveaOai xal SiavoeiaOai- TauTa Se TravTa xivvjaeic;
slvai Soxouaiv. 60ev OLY)0SLY) TLC; av auTYjv xivsiaOai. TO 8* oux SCTTLV avayxatov.
5 etyap xal OTI (JiaXiaTa TO XuTrsiaOai T) /aipsiv vj SiavoeZaOat xivyjoet^ etal xal
SxaaTOv XLvetaOai, TOIJTWV, TO Se xiveiarOai ECTTLV UTTO
Y) 9opeLaOai TO TYJV xapSiav <5)Sl xivelaOat, TO Se SiavostaOai YJ
TO TOUTO
fiev [JilxP 1
e^etvYjc;, OTe 8' OCTT*
exetvY]^, olov Y) (xev aiaOYjaic; dari TcovSt, YJ
C
8e vou<; eoixev eyyiveaOai ouaia o5aa, xal ou 96etpeaOat. (jLaXicrra yap
TI<;
T* av UTUO TTJ<;
ev T& yvjpa afxauptoaeco^, vuv 8* I'orox; OTrep ETTL TOW alaOy)- 20
fjipatvet el yap Xapoi 6 Tupeapury]*; ofifia ToiovSi, pXeTuoi av <5><j7rep
xal 6 veo<;. coerce TO yvjpac; ou TG> TY)V ^ux/jv TL TrevrovOevaL, aXX' ev &, xaOdbrep
ev (jieOaL<;
xal VOGOL<;. xal TO voelv ST] xal TO Oecopstv (xapaCveTai aXXou Ttv6<;
Alyouci SYJ TIVE^ (xeptaT/jv auTTjv, xal aXXq> (Jiev VOSLV aXXto 8e ETUiOufjieZv. T[ 5
oSv &r) TUOTE auve^et TYJV ^UXTQV? ou yap SYJ TO ye ^
p-sptoTT] 7re9uxev;
Soxel yap TouvavTtov (jiaXXov YJ ^UXYJ TO acofia auve^eiv e^eXOouavjc; youv
xal onfjTreTai. ei oOv eTepov TL fiiav auTYjv TTOLEL, Ixetvo jiaXicrT' av
TQ. Seyjaet,
8e vraXiv xaxeivo /)TSLV TroTepov ev 7] TroXufxepI^. e (JLEV yap 10
636 After having discussed in the first Book the views of his pre-
Ta [lev 873 UTCO T&V rcpoTepov TrapaSeSojjieva Ttepl ipu^^ eipyjaOca TraXiv 4i2
s
Definition
ciaTrep e^ UTcap^^ eTiavtoofJiev, rcetpcofjievoi Siopicrat, TI ICTTI ^U^T] xal TIC; 5
av xotvoTaTo^ Xoyoc; auTYJ<;. XeyojJiev SYJ yevo<; ev TI TCOV OVTCOV TYJV ouatav,
el'y)
TauT7)(; 8e TO (xev ax; uXyjv, 5 xa6' auTO [lev oux eaTi ToSe TI, eTepov 8e
s
xal eZ8o<;, xa6' xal TpLTOV TO ex TOUTCOV. ecrTt 8 r\ (xev
YJV r$j\ XeyeTat ToSe TL,
uXyj 8uva[Ai^, TO 8' eZ8o<; evTeXe^eta, xal TOUTO 8&x&<;, TO (Jiev J)(; e7iiaTY]{jL7j, 10
TO 8' ax; TO Oewpelv. ouaLat 8e (xaXtaT* elvat Soxouat Ta acofjiaTa, xal TOUTCOV
Ta 9uatxa' TauTa yap TCOV SXXcov ap^aL TO>V 8e 9uorLxa)v Ta (Jiev e^ei ^COTQV,
s
Ta 8 oux e'^ei,* ^COTJV Se Xeyojjiev TTJV 81' auTOu Tpo97]v Te xal au^atv xal
90i(Jtv. cocFTe Tuav acofjia 9uaix6v jAeTe/ov eovj<;
ouata av ecyj, oucta 8' 15
OUTOX; we; auvGeTT). ercel 8* eaTl <ra)[JLa xal T0iov8l TOUTO, ^COTJV yap lxov ?
s
8 we; uTuoxeifxevov xal uXyj. avayxaiov apa TYJV ^ux^v
[JiaXXov
The form of oua av elvai we elSoc awaaTOc; 9ucrtxou 8uvau.ei2o
[
a natural
body coY)v |X OVTO ^ ^3^' Quota evTeX^xeta TOIOUTOU Spa aco[JiaTO^
[636] SOUL AND ITS FUNCTIONS 207
25 ecmv, avaXoyov 8' 73 {xev eypYjyopaic; TCO OetopeZv, 6 8' UTIVOC; TCO e^stv xal [AYJ
^ First
p to T YJ a to (Ji a T o <; 8 u v a 9001x01! e ^WYJV
~^/ * T 9 />/
<\
./ cntel6cny
9UTOV
aXXa TravTsXco^ aTcXa, olov TO 9\iXXov TcepixapTriou (TX7ra(j(Jia, TO 8e TrepixapTTiov
%
xapTCou at Se pt^at TCO CTOfjiaTi avaXoyov a[JL9(o yap eXxei TYJV Tpo^TJv. ei SY)
5 TI xoivov iid 7raa7](; ^u^<; SSL Xeysiv, eiY] av evTeXe/eia 73 TCpcoTT]
^ux*/] xal TO aco[jLa, coaTcep ouSe TOV xYjpov xal TO cr*/Y](jLa, ouS* oXto<; TTjV exaaTOi)
uXYjv xal TO o5 Y] uXYj TO yap ev xal TO elvai eTrel TrXeova^G)^ XeyeTai, TO xupicoc;
637
This definition implies (i) that soul is the essence of a natural
body, (2) that it is not separable trom body.
9 15 Soul the
a. De an. II i, 412 b - :
is
i5vuv 8* s
4- 5 Not
b. Ib., 413 a :
tir\ \
~ > >/ ? i \ ^ ~ / s\ / , , ~ separable
UTI {lev oOv oux eaTtv YJ tpux"/] xcopiarrj TOU crcajJiaTo^, YJ (xepY) Tiva auTYj^, f rom body
ei (jiepi<TTY) TT^oxev, oux a8Y]Xov.
jx6vov, 9jv auTO 9a(Jtev, olov vou^, aiaOYjau;, XLVYJOTIC; xal aTa(Ti<; YJ
xaTa TOTTOV,
xaTa Tp09Yjv xal Its most
YJ 90ic7K; Te xal afi^^^. SLO xal Ta 9u6|jieva TravTa
Soxei ^yjv 9atveTai yap ev auTou; e^ovTa Suvajiiv xal apxV TOiauTYjv, Si* sen se
TC xal 96i(Tiv Xa(JLpavouai xaTa TOU<; evavTLou^ TOTCOUC; ou yap <5cvco
To (lev oSv ^v Sia TYJV apxV TauTYjv uTrapxet TOIC; ^caai, TO Se ^wov 8ia by sensation
208 PSYCHOLOGY [638]
TYJV ato0Yjaiv 7rpa>TCo<;* xal yap TOC [XYJ xivoiifisva aXXdcTTOVTa T6?cov,
IX^VTa 8*
ato-0yjoriv a>a Xyo{Asv xal ou YJV JJLOVOV.
Mind, or the 24 27
thfnlrin<S
c. Ib., 413 b - :
power Ss TOU vou xal TYJ<; OscopYjTiXYjc; SuvafZEox; ou8v 9avepov, aXX* lotxe
ysvo<; STEpov slvai, xal TOUTO [Jiovov EvSEXETai , xaOdbrsp T&
atSiov TOU 90apTOu.
The five
Twv SE Suva{JL6)v TYJ<; ^UXYJS at Xsx0lo"at TOL^ (JLEV UTtapxouai Tcaciai, xaOaTusp -
psychic
powers ELTTOfiEv, TOLC; SE TIVE<; auTcov, EVIOIC; SE [xta JJLOVY). Suva(jit<; 8* stTrofiEv 0p7CTixov, 30
opEXTixov, aiaOY)Tixov, XIVYJTIXOV xaTa TOTCOV, SiavoYjTixov. UTuapxst 8s TO^
IJLEV 9UTOic; TO OpETmxov (Jiovov, ETEpoic; SE TOUTO TE xal TO ataO^Tixov. EI 8s TO
aiaOY]Tixov, xal TO opEXTixov ops^tt; [JLEV yap 7ri0u[Jiia xal 0u(Ji6<; xal pouXYjai^, 41 4b
/.
'.
b. The higher power cannot exist apart from the lower, the lower
can exist apart from the higher power.
1 - 12
Ib., 415 a :
The higher "Aveu ulv yap TOU GpeTmxou TO aioOYjTixov oux 2<mv TOU 8 alaOYjTixou 4 1 5^
J
'
onespresup- ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
pose the X <0 P t ^ eTat
TO "p 7CT ^
v V Tr^? 9i)TOt^. ruaXiv o aveu (JLEV TOU aTTTixou TCOV aXXtov
e
lower
aia0Y)a0)v ou8fjita U7rapxt, a9Y] 8* avu TWV aXXcov uTcapxet rcoXXa yap TCOV
*
^cicov OUT' o^iv OUT* axoY)v lx ouaiv ^ T o^H-Y]^ ai(i0Y]criv. xal TWV aiaOYjTixcov 5
SE Ta (JLEV ^t TO xaTa TOTCOV XLVYJTIXOV, Ta 8* oux S^et. TXUTaiov Sk xal
IXaxtffTa XoyiafJiov xal Siavotav o!<; (jiv yap uTrap^e^ Xoyior(Ji&<; TG>V ^OapTwv,
TOUTOK; xal TOC XOITTOC TravTa, olc; 8* Xtvov IxaciTOv, ou Traat Xoytajzo^, aXXa I0
(JLEV
ouSe; 9avTaaia, Ta SE TauTY] (JLOVYJ
&(TIV. TTEpl SE TOU OseopYjTixou vou
Xoyo^.
soul f
xal TOL^ aXXoi<; UTrapxst, xal 7ipa>TY] xal XOIVOTOCTY) Siiva|JLi<; EGTI ^DX^ xa0*
YJV uTcapxst TO ^
[640] SOUL AND ITS FUNCTIONS 20Q
20 'ETuel 8' eaTi Tpia, TO Tpecpojzevov xal Tpe9ov, TO JJLEV Tps^ov & Tpe^ETai, xal TO
EGTLV Y) TipcoTY) ^u^Y), TO 8e TpE90[jLEvov TO E'XOV TauTYjv (jcofjLa, & 8s Tpe9STai, Y)
De 34 3
Cp. gen. an. II 4, 740 b -74i a *H yap aunfj ecruv GXyj ^ a :
35 xal el; TJ^ auvic-TaTaL TO Trp&Tov, COOTTE xal 73 Troiooaa 8uva[ju<; TauTO TW
apX^* [Aet^eov SE auTY) saTiv. ei o5v auTY) saTlv Y) OPETTTIXYJ ^OXY), adTYj
xal Y] yevvcoaa xal TOUT' eaTlv Y) 9UCTK; Y) exaaTou, svuTuap^ouaa xal ev
74iaxal ev cooi<; Tracriv. Ta 8* aXXa (Jiopia TTJ? ^DX^^ TOI<; fiev uTrap^et TOL^ 8* oux
T&V ^4>6)V -
2 SENSE-PERCEPTION
641 Distinction between special and common objects of the senses.
Dean. II 6, 418 a 10 - 20 : special and
... TO (JiEv
>\/^/
LOLOV ECTiv
A
exaaTY](; aiauYjaecoc;,
\^>
TO oe
/ ^>
XOLVOV vraacov. Xey<o o
>
common
sensibles
/ > \ /
ZStov (xev o [JLY] evSEXETai, ETepa alaOifjaei alaOavsaOat, xal Tcepl 6 (JLY) ev
olov 6^1^ xP (*) JLaTO ^ t
xa>L <*XOY) 4'^9 OU xa ^ Y e ^ at ? X ^
(jiev E^EI 8ia9opa^ aXX* sxaaTY] ys xpivst Tiepl TOUTCOV, xal oux
15 OTI xpcofjta ouS' OTL fyoyoc;, aXXa TL TO xsxpcoa[Jievov Y) TUOU, Y)
TL TO ^090^ Y)
TUOU. Ta [jLev o5v TotauTa XsyeTai tSta sxaaTOU, xoiva 8e XIVYJCTI^, Yjpefjua, apiOfioc;,
a^^H-a, (jLeyeOo^' Ta yap ToiauTa ouSefjuac EGTIV I'Sta, aXXa xoiva 7raaai<;. xal
20 yap 0:973 xivTjdt^ Ttc; ECTTIV ataBYjTYj xal o^ei.
The same distinction is made by S. Thomas Aquinas, who speaks of sensibilia
propria and communia in 5. th. I, qu. 17, art. 2, and in qu. 78, art. 3.
a. Ib., II 7, 4i8a27 -b 3 :
05 (JLev
ouv ECTTlv Y) ofyu;, TOUT* edTlv opaTov. opaTOv 8* eo~Tl xpcofxa [JLEV,
l
xal 6 Xoyco [JLEV
ECTTIV EITUEIV, avcovufjiov 8s Tuy^avei ov 89jXov Ss ScrTat o Xe-
yo(zev TrpoeXOoGcrt (zaXiaTa. TO yap opaTov ECTTL xp&y.a.. TOUTO 8' eo^Tl TO ETTL TOU
2
30 xa0' auTo opaTOu xaO* auTo 8e ou TCO X6yq> , aXX* OTI ev eauTO) ^xet T& a^Tiov
TOU elvai opaTov. Tcav 8e xpw^a XIVYJTIXOV ICTTL TOU xaT* svepyeiav Sia9avouc;,
4i8bxal TOUT* ECTTLV auTou YJ 9uat<;. StoTiep ou^ opaTov avsu 90>T6^, aXXa Ttav TO
1
He alludes to phosphorescing objects, which can be seen only in darkness.
2
It is visible, not by its essence, but per accidens.
De Vogel, Greek Philosophy IT 14
210 PSYCHOLOGY [6 4 2]
evspyeia, TOU 8ta9avoiiq ^ 8ia9avs<;. Suvdrfiet 8e ev & TOUT* earl xal TO CJXOTO^. 10
TO Se 9to<; olov ^pcofxa eaTt TOO Sta9avoij<;, oTav fj evTeXe^eta 8ta9ave<; UTCO
7cup6(; 7^
TOLOUTOU olov TO &vo) xal yap TOUTCO TL uTrapxei ev xal TauTov.
(Tcofjia
Darkness Aoxel Te TO 90)1; evavTtov elvai TO> axoTei GTI 8e TO axoToc; aT^pyjai^ TTJ^ 18
FtveTat 8' 6 xaT* evlpyeiav ^690^ aet TLVO(; 7rpo<; TI xal ev TLVI TcXTjyT) yap
eaTiv 7]
Tcoiouaa. 816 xal aSuvaTov evo^; OVTO^; yeveaOai ^O9ov eTepov yap TO
TUTITOV xal TO TUTiTOfievov coCTTe TO ^O9ouv Tcpog TL ^096^ TrXTjyf) 8* ou ytveTai
13 4
Voice b. Ib., 420 b -42i a :
OCOVT] 8 ecrri ^(pou ^690^, xal ou TOJ TU/OVTI [Jiopia). aXX' ercel ?cav
TUTTTOVTO^ Tivoc; xai TI xal ev TIVI, TOUTO 8* ecmv euXoyax; av 9covoi7) TauTa 15
avjp,
[jtova oo*a Se^eTat TOV dcepa. TjST) yap TW avaTrveo^evco xaTa^p^Tai y] 9uat<; ITU Siio
epya, xaOaTrep T^ yXwTTY) ITCL TC TT]V yeuatv xal
TYJV StaXexTov, a^v 7] (jiev yeucri(;
avayxatov (816 xal TrXetoaiv U7uapxe0 ^) ^' p[AV)veia evexev TOU eu, OUTCO xal
TO) TTveujJiaTi Te TYJV 6ep(JLOT7jTa TYJV evTo<; d)^ avayxatov (TO 8* afaiov ev eTepoic; 20
avaTTveojievou aepo<;, coaTuep YJ P'/j^, aXXa TOUTCO TIJTCTEI TOV ev T^ apTYjpta ?rpcx;42ia
1
He means his fifth element, the aether, which constitutes the celestial sphere,
in which the heavenly bodies move.
[643] SENSE-PERCEPTION 211
Se TO fry)
Suvacr6ai cpeovetv avaTrveovTa fjnrjS' SXTCV^OVTOC, aXXa xaT^/ovTa- xivet
yap TOUTCO 6 xaTe^cov. ^avepov 8e xal SIOTI 01 ix^ e ? #9<*>voi, ou yip S^ouat
are mute
,
9apuyya.
Tuapa TO aLa67]T7)piov TOUTO elvai eu^ueic; xal d^uec^, Trap' aXXo Se (jiY]Sev ol
25 i
ol Se
(JLSV yap <rxX7]p6o apxoi a9uetc; TYJV Stavotav, (jLaXax6aapxot
De an. II 9, 421 8
b ~422 a 6
:
Sme11 in
15 avaTcvecav, |rf)
avanvetov Se dcXX' exTrveeov TJ xaTex^v TO TcveujJia oux 6a{AaTai,
ouTe TTOppcoOev OUT' eyyiiOev, ouS* av eTrl TOU piuxT^po^ |VTO<; TeO^ xal TO |jtev
eTu* auTo) TtOefxevov TCO aiaOYjryjptco avata0Y]Tov elvai, xoivov TTCXVTCOV aXXa TO
&veu TOU avaicvecv (JLT)
aicOaveaOai I'Stov TCOV avOpcoTUcov SyjXov Se Tretpcofjievoi^.
20coaTe T<X avaLjjta, ejceiSy] oux avaTcveouaiv, eTepav av TIV' al'aOyjaiv S^oi Tcapa
TOK; Xeyofjieva^;. aXX' aSuvaTov, eirrep T^C; OCT^YJC; ataOaveTai Y] yap TOU 6ci9pav-
TOU al'aOTjcri^ xal SuacoSouc; xal eucoSoix; oa9pY](7i^ eaTtv. eTi Se xal 90eip6[xeva
9a[veTai UTIO TCOV iax^>pcov ocrfjicov 69* ^ivTiep avOpco7ro<;, olov ao^aXTOu xal
25 Oetou xal TCOV TOIOUTCOV. 6a9pa(ve(76aL (lev oSv dvayxatov, aXX' oux avaTrveovTa.
eoi,xe 8e TOCC; avOpcoTroi^ Sia9epetv TO alaOirjTYjpiov TOUTO :rp6(; TO TCOV <5tXXcov
Z^cocov, axTTcep Ta ojxfxaTa Trpoc; Ta TCOV crxXY]po96aXfJicov T<X (Jtev yap fyzi 9pay[jux
30 xal codTrep eXuTpov Ta (3Xe9apa, a [JLY] xivyjaa^ (jirjS' avaa7raaa<; ou^ opa- TOC
8e cxXy]po90aX(jLa ouSev iyei TOIOUTOV, aXX' euOeco<; opa Te yiv6(JLeva ev TCO Sia-
9avet* OUTCO^ ouv xal TO 6<T9pavTt,x6v ataGrjTyjpLov TOL(; (Jiev axdXu9e(; elvai,
422acia7rep TO 8fi[Jia, TOI<; 8e TOV aepa Sexopievoi^ SX LV eTttxaXujjLjJLa, o avavrveovTCOV
aTuoxaXuTTTecrOat, Sieupuvo(jtvcov TCOV 9Xeptcov xal TCOV Tiopcov. xal Sta TOUTO
TOC cxva7rvovTa oux ocrfJiaTai ev TCO uypco avayxatov yap 6a9pav0YJvai avaTiveu-
5 aavTa, TOUTO Se Troietv ev TCO uypco dSuvaTov.
646 Taste and touch do not take place through an interposed foreign
body.
212 PSYCHOLOGY [646]
Taste and
touch
De an n Io 422 a 8_lO;
To 8e yeudTov semv (XTTTOV TL xal TOUT' aiTiov TOU (ZY)
elvai ata0Y]T6v 8ia
TOU (jieTa^u aXXoTpiou OVTO<; <TO>(JUXTO<; ou8e yap *)
^
1
exao-Tou UTO TOU ex VT0 ^ XP^(JLa ^ XU JLOV ^ ^O9ov Tuaaxei, aXX oux ^ exaorTov
(
l
exeivcov XeyeTai, aXX' ^ ToiovSi, xal xaT<x TOV Xoyov .
3 THINKING
648 In his third Book De anima Ar. treats nous or the thinking power.
The first stage superior to the senses, namely that faculty by which we
distinguish the object of one sense from that of the other, is discussed
in the following passage.
The-sensus HI 8 - 21
J) e an> 2, 426 b :
Exdo~T7] [Jiev
ouv ataOiQcri^ TOU UTCoxeipdvou auj0Y)TOU eaTtv, uTrap^ouda ev426b
aio"07]Ty)ptcp -fi
xal xpivei Tat; TOU uTroxetfievou aia0Y)TOu Sia- 10
atcrOTjTTjpiov,
a(;, olov Xeuxov (jiev xal (JieXav o^tc;, y^uxu Se xal Tctxpov yeucrti;. O[JLOICO^ 8*
TOUTO xal em TWV aXXcov. siuel 8e xal TO Xeuxov xal TO yXuxu xal SxaaTOv
TO>V ala0Y]Tcov 7rpo<; exaaTov xpivofjtev, TIVL xal aia0av6(ieOa STL Sia^epet;
ea/aTov alaOYjTYjptov avayxY) yap Y^V cxrcTOfievov auTou xpiveiv TO xpivov. OUTS
S^Xov av eiY) STL eTepa aXX-yjXcov. Set 8s TO ev Xeyeiv STL eTepov eTepov yap TO 20
yXuxu TOU Xeuxou. Xeyei apa TO auTo.
The problem was first formulated by Plato, Theaet. iSsa 2 S. Augustine, in .
1
Our nr. 31 9a.
[649] THINKING 213
2
TO S' auTo TOUTOI<; pouXeTat xal TO' 0(JLY]pou WTOIOC; y^P v ^^ S<TTIV((
*
7cavTe<;
coaicep evtoi Xeyouni, TcavTa Ta 9aiv6[Aeva elvai aXyjOT], 73 TYJV TOU avojjioiou
5 Ot^tv aTraTYjv elvai, TOUTO yap evavTiov TCO TO OJJLOIOV TCO 6(jLOtco Yvw P^etv.
b. Thinking is different from perceiving. It is partly imagination,
partly judgment.
27 29
Ib., 427 b - :
428a
';
OTt ouv oux e'cmv Neither
(lev ai'aOyjcrK;, SrjXov ex TcovSe. afo6y)<K<; {Jiev yap Y^TOt
Suvafju^ ^ evepyeia, olov 6^1? xal opaat?, 9aiveTat Se TL xal (lYjSeTepou uTrap-
XOVTO<; TOUTO)v, olov Ta ev TO^ UTTVOII;. etTa accrOvjaK; (lev ael TuapeaTi, 9avTa<rta
10 8* ou. el Se T7J evepyeta TO auT6, Tcaaiv av evS/oiTo TOIC; OyjpioK; 9avTaatav
UTuapxew Soxet S' ou. olov
[jLup(JL7]XL ^ (/.eXtTTT) 7] dxciXyjxt.
elTa at {lev aXyjOetc;
1
Emped. fr. 106 and 108 (Gr. Ph. I p. 61 n. 2, to nr. 113a).
2
From Od. XVIII 136 ff.
214 PSYCHOLOGY [650]
b. What is imagination.
what it is Ib., 428 b 10- 17 , 428b 30-429a
4
:
ETTEiS-y) laTt xivY)0VTO<; Tou8l xtvta0at ETEpov UTTO TOUTOU, Y] 8s 9av- 428b
'AXX*
xtvYjcrtc; Tt(; 8oxc Eivat xal oux <$VEU aLGrOYjaECo^ yfyvscrOat aXX* al<r0avo-
xal
ata0Y)aL(; EGTIV, E'CTTL 8s yivEaOai XLVYJCTIV UTTO TYJ<; Vpysia<; TYJ<;
cl>v
j;,
xal TauTYjv 6[xotav avayxY) Elvai TYJ au70Y)cri, ELY] av auTY) Y] XLVY]CTL<;
OUTS avsu aidOYjaEcog EvSs^ojjLEVY] OUTS IJLY] aL(T0avo(JiVOL<; uTTapxetv, xal TuoXXa 15
xaT* auTYjv xal TTOIELV xal TTOCOT^ELV TO E^OV, xal sIvaL xal aXY]0YJ xal <J;eu8YJ.
Definition EL oOv (JLY]0V (JLEV aXXo I/OL Y) Ta LpY)(JLva Y] 9avTaa[a, TOUTO 8' CTTL TO 30
XE^SV, Y) 9avTao>La av ELY] XLVYJGL^; UTTO T% aLa0Y)aco^ TYJ^ xaT* EvspyELav yiyvo- -
fJLVY]<;. ETUEl
8' Y) O^LC; (JLOcXLCTTa aL<T0Y]O-L^ GTL, Xal TO OVOJJia OCTCO TOU
10 - 13
Thinking De an. Ill 4, 429 a :
'
TOU (JLOptOU TOU TY](; ^ U X^ ^ ^ U X^ XOC L 9?^,
yiVCO<TXl T Y)
tT
faculty
El SY]
CTL TO VOELV &(77Tp TO aLOr0(XVCT0aL, Y] TUaa^ELV TL OCV ELY] U7IO TOU VOYJTOU 42Qa
$1
TOLOUTOV ETEpov. <x7ra0
TL apa SEL ELvaL, 8sxTLx6v SE TOU L8ou<; xal SuvafjiEL 15
1
TOLOUTOV aXXa [JLY] TOUTO ,
xal OJJLOLCOC; E^S^? cocrrcEp TO aL(T0Y)TLx6v Trpo^ Ta
aLa0Y]Ta, OUTCO TOV vouv 7rp6(; Ta VOYJTOC. avayxY] <5cpa, 7rl TravTa VOEL,
*
The mind "becomes its objects" in actual knowledge. Therefore, the thinking
1
power must be potentially identical with its possible objects. Animus est quodam-
modo omnia, as it is formulated later by S. Thomas Aquinas.
THINKING 215
yap av yiyvoiTO, Y) ^ U XP^ *) OEPJJLOS, YJ xav opyavov TI ELY), coaTrep TCO ata6Y)Tixco
vuv 8* ouOEv <mv. xal EU SYJ ol XsyovT<; TYJV ^U^YJV lvai TOTCOV slScov *, uXYjv
8n OUT oXYj aXX* YJ VOYJTIXYJ, OUT VTXXta aXXa 8uva(jii Ta eKS?].
22 - 26
Ib., 429 b :
Objection
'A7TOpY]<Jl, 8* (XV Tl 7
L 6 VOU^ (XTCXOUV CTTl Xal (XTCaO(; Xal (JLYjOfivl
TOU VOU.
a(jLtyY]<;, T^ ouata
cov Vpyia. al yap Ti(jticoTpov TO TTOIOUV TOU
20
f) ^PX^ T ^ SXY)^. TO 8* auTO ECTTLV YJ
xaT* lvpyiav 7ricTTY)[JLY]
TO)
Y)
SExaTa SuvafJiiv XP^ V( J ! ^po^spa sv TCO EVI, oXco^ 8s ou ^pov
(JLEV
ou vosL ^copLaOslc; 8' sarTl [JLOVOV TOuO' STCEP scTTt, xal TOUTO (JLOVOV
VOEC OTE 8*
aOavaTov xal atSiov. ou (jLVY][jLovuo(JLv 8s, OTL TOUTO [JLEV dbraOE*;, 6 SE Tca0Y]Tixo^
25 xal avsu TOUTOU ouOsv VOSL.
vou^; ^OapTO^;,
1
The formula T67to<; elScov does not occur in Plato's Dialogues, but it expresses
fairly well his view of the soul.
2l6 PSYCHOLOGY [653]
it is argued that no material activity can exist apart from a body, and
consequently, that no bodily activity could enter from outside. Exception
is to be made for nous exclusively, for only nous has no connexion with
<
u
" e , ,
ECTTIV
, , ~ * i ~ 2* ' < .counterpart
pTQTOpixv) avTL<7Tp090<; TJQ oiaXEXTtxy) aficpoTEpai yap Trepi O f dialectic
TOIOUTCOV Eialv a xoiva Tporrov Ttva aTravTWV Earl yvcopt^siv xal
57uavTi; yap {JL>cpt TLVO<; xal l^Ta^i,v xai UTrl^iv Xoyov xal a7coXoyLCT0at,
xal xaTYjyopELv y^ipoij<riv. TWV (JLEV ouv TcoXXciv ol (alv Etxy) TauTa Spoiaiv,
ol SE Sia auvY)6iav ajro !?;6)<;. ITTEI 8* afji^OTEpa)^ vS/Tai, 8'TjXov OTL ELTJ
av aura xal O^OTCOLELV St' 6 yap 7UTuy/avouat,v OL T 8ta <7UV7jOiav xal ol
ioaTco TauTO(jiaTOU, TYJV atTiav 0coptv EvSE/ETai,, TO $ TOIOUTOV ^Syj TUCXVTEC; av
Nuv {JLV ouv ol Tac; TE^va^ TO>V Xoyaw auvTtOEVTE^ oXtyov TTETtopixaaiv treatises
1
See M. Dufour's Introduction to Ar/s Rhetoric, Paris 1932, p. 14 f.
2
On
the meaning of the term dialectic in Aristotle see our nr. 435 sub a and b,
*and the text of Top. I i cited there.
3
The enthymema has been defined by Ar. in the Anal. Pr. II 27, 70 a 10- 11 as ,
rhetoric
^^ I If I 355 a2 " 29:
aSuvaTov, aXX avayxv] 8ta TWV xoivcov TroieLaOai Ta^ TriaTSL^ xal TOU^ Xoyou^,
toaTtep xal ev TOCC; TOTTLXO^C; eXsyofxev Tccpl T^ 7upo<; TOUC; TroXXoix;
Ib., 1355 a 38 -b 7 :
OCTOTTOV
J
Xoycov, TOOTO y xoivov EGTL xaTa TravTWv TCOV ayaOcov 7rXv]v apTYJi;, xal
<x8ixco<;.
1
The reference is to Top. I 2, 101 a 28 - 27 IT., where it is said that the subject '
treated in this book (namely, dialectic) is useful for three purposes for intellectual :
training, for causal encounters (vrpcx; Ta<; vTeueu;) and for the philosophical sciences.
[655] THE RHETORIC
d. Its function is not only to persuade, but to see the possible ways
of persuading people about any given subject.
9 14 Its true
10
Ib.,
> ?
1355 b -
... xat OTt XP'1 <TI
,
:
JL0 ^
I <pavepov, xal
t ,,,,,-
on ou TO Tcetcrat
,,,,
epyov auTYjs, aXXa TO
function
iSetv TOC uTrapxovTa 7ct0ava nepl SxaaTov, xaOdbrep xal ev Tat? <5cXXat<;
Ib '' 3^6
1 JD a 1 - 10 14 - 17 19 - 2 -
Three modes
' '
of
i356a Tcov 8s Sta TOU Xoyou Tcopt^ofjilvwv ^t(JTSO>v Tpia etS?) ecrrfv at (JL^V yap persuasion
staw ev T(o ^6st TOU XyovTO, at 8e Iv TO> TOV axpoarJjv 8ia0etvat TTCO^, al 8k
ev auTcp Tq> Xoyco, Sta TOU Seixviivai 7^ 9a(v<r0at Saxvuvat. 8ta [xev o5v TOU
2Tav Xs^Oyj 6 X6yo<; &aT a^i67cicrTov Troi^cai TOV X^yovTa- TO<; yap
7ri(TTS\lo|jiev [jLaXXov xal OOCTTOV, Tiepi TTOCVTCOV (JLSV aTcXw^, ev ol<; 8e T&
(JiY)
ICTTIV aXXa T& ajJicpiSo^slv, xal TcavTsXcoq. Set 8e xal TOUTO cru(/,-
10, i4yovTa. Ata Se TCOV axpoaT6)v 7 oTav el<; ?ra00(; u?r6 TOU Xoyou
ou yap 6pio(ca<; aTroSiSojjisv Ta<; xpiaei<; XuTcoufJievot xal %alpovT<;
xal |jttaouvTe^ 7rp6<; 8 xal (jiovov 7retpaa0at 9a(jtsv Trpay^aTeuecrOat TOU<; vuv
17, 19 Te^voXoyouvTa<;. Ata 8^ T&V X6yo)v TcidTeuoucrtv, ^Tav aX7]0e<; YJ 9atv6(ievov
ex TCOV Tuepl IxaciTa TitOavcov.
TOU cruXXoy[cracT0at 8uva|xvou xal TOU 0ecop9]aat Tiepl Ta ^01Q xal T<X<; apeTou; thics
xal Tpfaov TOU rcepl Ta 7ca0TQ, Tt TS SxacrTOv eaTt TCOV rcaOcov xal Tiotov TI, xal
ex T(VCOV eyytveTat xal TTCO<;. coerce cru(jLpavet TYJV pvjToptxTjv olov 7capa9u<; Tt
2^
TY)^ 8taXexTtxyj<; elvat xal TTJS Tcepl Ta ^07] TcpayfJtaTsfacs, ?)v 8txat6v ecyTi Tcpocr-
ayopeuetv
220 RHETORIC AND POETICS [658]
defending Ilepl Se TCOV OCTE^VCOV xaXou(Jtlvcov TUQ-TECOV e^ofjtevov Icm TCOV eip7](ievcov
written laws ESiai afrrai TCOV Sixavixcov. ial Se TTEVTE TOV
^tSpajxetv yap apiOjJiov, vojioi
auvQyjxai Paaavoi 6pxo<;. TtpcoTov [lev o5v rapl VOJJLCOV siTccofJiEV, TWOS 25
xal TcpoTplTuovTa xal arcoTpETCovTa xal xaTYjyopouVra xal aTuoXoyou-
JAEVOV. 9avsp6v yap OTI, lav (Jiev evavTiog f) 6 yeypa[JL[JLevo^ TW TCpayfJiaTt, T<O
xoivw v6(JLco XP^STSOV xal TOL<; eTrtstxeartv d>^ StxaiorepoK;. xal 8n TO yva>(JLy]
TYJ apiary] TOUT' eaTL, TO (AY) TiavTeXco^ ^pvjdOai TOL<; yeypafJL(Jievoi<;. xal OTL TO 30
[jtev eTTieixec; ael (Jievsi xal ou8e:roTe [zsTapaXXci, ouS' 6 xoivot; (xaTa cpuffiv yap
yovT) (dbioXoysLTat yap OTL sOa^e Trapa TOV TOU KpeovTO^; v6(Jiov, aXX* ou Tiapa
TOV aypa9ov) 35
oil
yap TI vuv ye xaxOe?, aXX' aei TTOTE. >375b
1
TaijT ouv eya) oux e(ieXXov avSpo^ ouSevo^.
xal OTI TO Sixaiov eaTiv aX'/]Oe<; TI xal cruf^epov, aXX' ou TO Soxoiiv OXTT' ou
vofjio^ 6 yeypa(jL[jLevoc; ou yap Trotsx TO epyov TO TOU v6[xou. xal OTI cia?rsp 5
TTjv aycoyijv YJ
TO Sixatov 9appLoai 75
TO au(ji9pov, elja TOUTCO ^p^aOai. xal
i Ta
(jiv 7rpay(jiaTa 9' ol^ TOv) 6 VO(JLO^ (JLTJXETI (JLEVEI, 6 VOJJLO^, 7TtpaTov
TOUTO 87]Xouv xal [iay<rOai TauTT] 7cp6<; TOV v6(jtov. lav SE 6 yeypa[JL[JLvoc; fj 15
Tipo^; TO TTpayjJta, TOTE yvw[JL7j T^ apiaTY) XEXTEOV OTI ou TOU Trapa TOV VOJJLOV
Vxa Sixa^tv EGTIV, aXX' tva, lav ayvovjary) TL Xlyet 6 v6[zo<;, [JLT] iTciopxyj.
xal OTI ou TO aTcXco^ ayaOov alpeiTai ouS^, dXXa TO auT6>. xal OTI ouSev 8ia-
9pi TI (XT]
xLa6at
7] pi7) ^p^aOai.
xal OTI Iv Tai^ aXXai^ T^/va^ ou XuaiTXet 20
elvai, TOUT* IffTlv o Iv TOCC; l7raivou(Jivoi<; vofiotc; a7cayopeuTai. xal Trepl [liv 25
TCOV voficov OUTCO StcopiorOco.
Arguments b. 17 31
about
Ib., 1376 a -b :
**
witnesses niaTco|JLaTa SE TCEpl fiapTupicov [jLapTUpa<; [JLEV jr/) E^OVTI, STL ex TCOV efoc6TOV
Set xptvEiv xal TOUT* ecm TO yvcofAY] T^ apfcrTY], xal OTt oux SCTTIV
[658] THE RHETORIC 221
IXOVTI Si 7rp6<; jr}) Sx VTa ^ Tl fyc fos68txa TOC etx6Ta, xal 8rt ouSiv ocv
Tcepl auTou at 8k rcepl TOU a^tapvjTOuvTos, xat at [iiv Ttepl TOU 7rpdy[xaTO<; at Si
y) dSo^ouvTOc; y^ jisTa^u, xai fidat ocXXat TotauTat 8ta<popa, Ix TCOV auTcov XexTeov
! otcovTCSp xal TOC ev0u(jLy)jxaTa Xyo^sv.
Ilepl 8i TO>V auvGyjxcov TOcrauTy) TOU Xoyou XP^k <TTtv 8<jov au^etv xaOatpetv On contracts
y^
Tcoietv y) a7rtCFTOu<;, eav (JL^V auT<o U7rapx<o<jt, 7CtaTa<; xat xupta<;, STCt Si
TOU afjKptdjiyjTOuvTOi:; ToOvavTtov. 7rp6(; (jtsv o5v TO TttoTa^ y) aTctaTou^ xaTaaxsua^stv
ouS^v Sta9lpet Tyj^ rcepl TOU<; (JtapTupa<; TcpayfjiaTeCai; orcotot yap <$tv Ttvsc; &<rtv ot
?8to^ xal xaTa {ilpo^, xal at (iv cruv6y]xat ou Trotouat TOV v6(iov xuptov, ot Si v6[iot
ioTa<; xaTa TOV vopiov auv6yjxa<;. xal SXcoc; auT^ 6 v6[xo^ auvOyjxy) TI? |(JT(V, &OTS
8cTTt<; dbudTet y) dvatpet duvOyjxyjv, TOUC; vojxouc; dvatpet. Sri 8e TcpaTTSTat Ta TroXXa
TCOV (TUvaXXayfjtaTcov xal Ta exouata xaTa <ruv0y)xa<; ? coaTe axupcov ytyvofilvcov
dcvatpetTat yj 7rp6(; aXXy)Xou^ XP a TC^ V ^
dvOpcoTrcov. xal TdcXXa 8i 8aa apfx6TTt,
15 eTttTtoXyjt; tSetv SaTtv. av S* evavTta $ xal (JLSTOC TCOV a^tapyjTOuvTCov, TrpcoTOv {jt^v,
&7usp &v Ti 7up6<; v6[Jiov evavTtov (jtaxeciatTo, TauO* dp(Ji6TTSt &TOTCOV yap el TOU;
pLev v6(jiot<;, av fxy] 6p0co^ xst[/,evot cbatv dXX* ea(jiapTCoatv otTt0[jLsvot, oux oE6{Jie0a
Setv TretOecrOat, Tatc; Si auv0y)xat(; dvayxatov. et0* 8rt TOU Stxatou saTl |3pa-
2opeuTyj<; 6 StxacrTy)^' oSxouv TOUTO axeTiTeov, aXX* co^ Stxat6Tepov. xal T& [Jtiv
opav, et TC-JQ
evavTtouTat TOt^ xptTat<;, xal 8aa &X>va TotauTa *
xal yap
e60ecopy)Ta
659 Since persuasion is also concerned with the state of mind of the
hearers, practical psychology has part in rhetoric. In book II, ch. 2-11,its
AT. treats the various emotions, in ch. 12-14 the various types of human
character in different ages.
222 RHETORIC AND POETICS [659]
01 (JtEV
o3v v*ot TOC Y^Y] eto~lv e7it0u[jtY]Ttxo, xat olot Troteiv <ov av e
xal TCOV TTEpt TO aa)(jta ETitOufjitcov [jtaXtaTa dxoXouOYjTtxot stat Talc; Trepl TOC
OKppoStata, xal axpaTeu; TauTYjc;. eu(jteTa(3oXot SE xal a^txopot Tcpoc; TOCC; 7rt0i>- 5
xal o~9o8pa [AEV EiuOu[Jiouat, Ta^ewc; 8e TiauovTat 6eiat yap at pouXYjaeic;
[Jtta<;,
xal ou (JieyaXat, eoarcep al T&V xajivovTCOv St^at xal Trstvat. xal Ou(Jitxol xal
6^u0u(jioL xal oloi axoXouOstv Tyj opptyj. xal ^TTOUC; eial Toi5 6u[jLoo Sta yap 10
[jtovov. xal [xeyaXo^u^ot OUTE yap UTTO TOU ^tou TCOJ TETaTietvovTat, aXXa
TCOV avayxatcov (SrcEtpot etartv, xal TO a^touv auTOv [jteyaXcov {JLeyaXo^u^ta TOUTO
S' suEXTTtSoc;. xal [zaXXov aipoijvTat TrpaTTEtv Ta xaXa TCOV ai)[X9p6vTG)v
TW yap 7)6et J^coort [JtaXXov r)
TW Xoyto~[juo, SoTt S* 6 (Jtv Xoyiajjioc; TOU oi)(Jt9e- 35
povTOc; Y)
8e apeTY] TOU xaXou. xal 9tXo9tXot xal 9tX^Tatpot (xaXXov TOJV aXXcov
YjXtxtcov Sta TO ^atpEtv TCO <yu^9]v xal (jtYjTuco Trpoc; TO au(X9pov xptvtv (jtYjSlv,
ciaTE [jtYjSE
xal oforavTa
TOUC; 9tXouc;. ?rl TO (jiaXXov xal a9o8pOTpov ajxapTa-
vouat Trapa TO XtXcovEtov 2 T^avTa yap ayav TrpaTTOuatv 9tXouat T yap ayav
xal [jLtaoucrtv ayav xal T&XXa TravTa 6[JLotwc;. xal etSe'vat TravTa otovTat xal 5
Stta^upt^ovTat TOUTO yap atTtov GTt xal TOU rcavTa $yav. xal TOC aStxY)(JiaTa
aStxouotv u^ptv xal ou xaxoupytav. xal eXs7]Tixol Sta TO TravTac; /pYjaTOuc; xal
etc;
u7roXa(Ji[3avtv Tyj yap ainr&v axaxta TOUC; TCEXac; [jieTpouatv, caaT* avac;ta 10
1
The word of Pittacus is unknown to us.
dtyxv.
[659] THE RHETORIC 223
TouvTes 7tpocra0aatv del TO tcrco? xal Taxa, xal TravTa Xyou<rtv OUTCO,
208* ouSv. xal xaxoiqOet*; etatv (m y^p xaxorjOeta TO e-rcl TO xe^P v urco
vsiv TiavTa. ITI S^ xaxtiTuoTCToc eccrt Sta TYJV amcrTtav, <K:rtarTot S4 &' l(z:retptav.
xal OUTS 9iXoucrt a^&pa o(5TS piiaouai Sta TauTa, dtXXa xaTa TTJV BtavTo^ UTTO-
Oyjxvjv xal ^iXouaiv cb(; [jiicry)<JovTe<; xal fuaouaiv d><; 9iXY)aovTe<;. xal {jLtxp6^uxoi
25 Sia T6 TSTarceivoiaGat U7t6 TOU plou ouSevo^ yap jxeyaXoi) ouS^ TrepiTTou, aXXa
TCOV ?tp6<; T^V J3ov ETciGufjiouo'tv. xal dvsXstiOspot svyap TC TOW avayxacov YJ
ouata, apia S xal Sta r?]v IfjLTueipEav tcraaiv &<; xa^ 7rov T ^ xr/jcraaOat xal
pciov TO aTropaXstv. xal SetXol xal TravTa 7cpo9opy)Tixo[' IvavTLtoc; yap
30 SiaxswTai TOLC; v^oi?' xaTS^uyfJtivot yap slatv, ot 8s 9ep[jLoi. &aTe irpo-
coSoTcoCvjxs TO yvjpa<; T^ SeiXfa- xal yap 6 96^0^ xaTa^/u^(^ TIC; <IT(V. xal
91X6^0)01, xal jjiaXtcjTa ini Tyj TsXeuTaia yjptepa 8ia TO TOU OCTTOVTO^ elvat
35 (AaXXov TQ
Set fjiixpo^uxta yap TI? xal auryj. xal 7rp6<; TO au[X9pov
dcXX* ou Ti xaXov, jxaXXov ^ Sei, Sia TO 9^XauTOt elvai T6
7rp6<;
xal to<Ti TYJ |xvY)[xy) [jiaXXov ^ Tyj IXTcCSii TOO yap pfou TO [JLSV XOCTCOV 6X(yov T^
8e 7rapeXY]Xu06c; rcoXu, eVn, 8e YJ [jiev eXTcl<; TOU jxeXXovTO<; YJ Se (XVYJ[JIY) TCOV Tuapoi-
10 xofJt^vcov. fijuep atriov xal TYJ<; dSoXeax^ auToi^. StaTeXoucn yap Ta yevojxeva
XlyovTe^ dva{JU[JivY)arx6[jLevoi yap YjSovTai. xal ol Oufjtol o^et^ |JLV etat-v ao0evet<;
Se, xal at e7ci6o(Jtlat al [Jiev exXeXotTtacnv at Se aa0evei<; eUrfv, coaTe O^T* I7rt6u-
[jLYjTtxol o(>Te irpaxTixol xaTa Ta? l7rt0u[jL(a;, aXXa xaTa TO xepSoc;. Sto xal
el< xaxoupytav, oux etc; fipptv. eXeYjTtxot 8s xal ot yepovTe<; etatv, aXX* oti Sta
20TauTo Tots vlot<;- ot jjiev yap Sta 9tXav0pcomav, ot Se St' a<T0vetav TcavTa
yap otovTat ^yyu<; elvat auTotq TcaOetv, TOUTO 86ev oSupTtxot S* Y)V eXeY]Ttx6v.
Men in
c jh e character of men in their prime. II 14. i^qoa29-b 13
their
r :
prime , , , , ,
UL OE axfjiac^ovTEc; 9avspov OTL (jLETa^u TOUTCOV TO YJUO<; saovTai, ExaTEpcov
TYJV uTtsppoXYjv, xal OUTE o~9o8pa 6appouvT<; (OpaauTY)<; yap T& 30
TOIOUTOV) OUTE Xav 9o(JoufjLvoL, xaXco<; SE Tupo^ a(jL9co E'XOVTE<;, OUTE Team
7CLdTuovT<; OUTE ^aaLV dcTTLaTOuvTEc;, aXXa xaTa TO aXYjOs^ xpLvovTE^ [JiaXXov. xal
OUTE 7cp6(; TO xaXov ^COVTE<; (JLOVOV OUTE 7rpo<; TO au[jL9pov, aXXa Trpoc; afx^co.
xal OUTE 7rp6<; 9LSco OUTE 7rpo<; aacoTLav, aXXa 7rp6<; TO apfJLOTTov. O(JLO[COC; SE xal 1390!)
xal 7rp6<; 7TL6u|jLLav. xal aco9povs<; JJLET' avSpsLac; xal avSpEtoL (JLETOC
. EV yap TOI^ vsoLg xal TOL<; yspoucri StfjpYjTai TauTa- Eial yap ol
JJLEV VEOL avSpELOL xal ax6Xa<TTOL, OL SE TupsapuTEpOL aco9pov^ xal SsLXoL co<; 8s 5
Xa06XoU ELTTELV, OCTa (JLEV SLY]pY]TaL Y] VOTY](; Xal TO y^pac; TCOV C09Xl(JLCOV, TaUTa
a(JL9Co EXOUCTIV, oaa 8* uTrsppaXXouaLv YJ EXXELTCOUGL, TOUTCOV TO (JLETPLOV xal TO
ap(jLOTTov. ax(jLa^L SE TO (JLEV dco(JLa OCTTO TCOV TpLaxovTa ETCOV (JLEXPL TCOV TTEVTE 10
xal TpLaxovTa, YJ
SE ^UXY] Tuspl Ta EVO<; SE tv 7usvTY]xovTa. ?rpl (JLEV
oOv v6TY)TO^
xal yYjpcoc; xal OCXJJL^, TUOLCOV Y]6cov ExacrTov EGTLV, EtpYjcOco ToaauTa.
2 _POETICS
660 The different kinds of poetry defined as various modes of imita-
tion.
definition
of poetry 'ETTOTioLLa SYJ xal Y] T^ TpaycpSia^ 7roLY)<H<;, ETL SE x(o(JicoSLa xal 8L0upa(jLpo- i447
a
Y]
Means of
"i}a7rp yap xal y$&[L<x.Gi xal axY)(JLaoL TroXXa (jLL(JLOuvTai TLVE<;
ol (JLEV Sia TEXVY)^ ol SE SLO: auvYjOELag, ETEpOL 8s SLOC TY^<; 9COVY]<;, OUTCO xav 20
xpco(jLvai (JLOVOV r\
TE auXY]TLX7) xal Y) xL0apL(7TLX'/), xav EL TLVEC; ?Tpat
ouaai TOiauTai TYJV SuvapLLv, olov YJ
TCOV aupiyycov. auTco SE TCO 25
(AST* aXXifjXcov, EtO* sv[ TLVi ysvEL xp<>^Y] TCOV (JL^Tpcov Tuy/avouoa (JL^xpt ^o3 i447 b
[66i] POETICS 225
lovuv. ouS&v yap av E/OIJJIEV ovofxaaai xoivov TOU<; Sa>9povo xal Sevapxou
[Li[LQ\><; xal TOU<; ScoxpaTtxouc; Xoyou<; ouSs si' TIC Sta TptfiETpcov 7) eXeyeicov7
7^
TCOV aXXcov TIVCOV TCOV TOIOUTCOV TTOLOLTO TTJV (jujjiTjcriv rcX7]v ol avOpcoTroi ys
auva7TTovT<; TCO |jiTpco TO TCOIELV eXeysiO7toi,oi><; TOIK; Se ETTOTCOIOIK; 6vo(Jiaoucriv,
15 ou^ co<; TOUC; xaTa (jufjnqcnv 7uoi7)Ta<; aXXa xoivyj xaTa TO (JteTpov TrpoaayopeiiovTsc;.
xal yap av taTpixov 75 ^uatxov J TL Sta TG>V {ASTpcov X9epcoCTiv, OUTCO xaXetv
eicoOaaiv. ouSsv 8e xoivov ECTTIV *0(JL7)pq) xal 'EpiTceSoxXeZ TrXvjv TO (jLCTpov
8t6 TOV {jiev TTOLYJTYJV Sixaiov xaXstv, TOV Se 9i)<rioX6yov jxaXXov ^ TCOIYJTYJV.
23 Ilepl (Jiev
ouv TOUTCOV StcopiaOo) TOUTOV TOV Tporcov. etcrl Ss TLVS^ at Tcacji ^pcovTai
Xeyco &e olov puO^xco xal (Ji^Xet xal (xsTpco, caaTuep >] TS TCOV
7uot7]cn,c; xal y]
TCOV vofjicov xal T]
TS TpaycoSta xal T\ xcofjicpSta'
8e, OTL ai {lev ajjta Traaiv at 8e xaTa [jiepo^. TaiiTa^ [xev ouv Xeyco
TCOV TE^VCOV, Iv ol<; rcoioijVTai TY]V
1 - 14 16 - 19
b. The objects represented. Ib., 2, 1448 a ,
: objects
exacrTT] (jLt(jL7)CCov iEpi TauTa^ Ta<; 8ia90pa^, xal eaTat Tpa TCO
TOUTOV TOV TpoTrov. xal yap ev op^Tjcrei xal auXTjarci xal xiOapiaeL ^CTTL yeveaOat
to TauTac; TOCC; avo(JLoioT7)Tac;, xal Trepl TOI>^ Xoyoix; 8e xal TTJV ^tXo(jLTpiav, olov
E
4 l6 7rap6iSLac; TuoiTjaac; 7upcoTO<; . . .
/ELpouc;. 'Ev SE Tyj auTyj 8ia90pa xal 7)
Poet. ^ 1448 a 19 - 25
!
Manner of
representa-
"ETt SE TOUTCOV TptTT) Sta9opa TO co^ ExaaTa TOUTCOV (jufjnfjcraLTO 5v Tt<;. tion
20 xal 2
yap Iv TOL<; auTOLc; xal Ta auTa (jLi(JLL<r6ai ECTTIV OTE [JLEV aTcayylXXovTa
f/
7) ETEpOV
Tl yiyVOfJLEVOV, COdTTEp 0(JL7)pO<; 7TOLEI, 7^ C0<; TOV aUTOV
Xal (JIT) (JLE-
1
An almost certain correction of Heinsius, adopted by newer editors (By-
water, Hardy). The Ms A (Bekker's Ac ) has jxouaix6v.
by the same means.
2 -
Iv -rot? auTot?
Origin of ^2 a -j^e origin of poetry in general and why men take a delight
general in *t.
Poet. 4, 1448 b 4- 15 :
T [JLOp9a^ TCOV cmfjiOTaTcov xal vxpcov. atTtov Se xal TOOTO, OTI (JiavOavetv
s
ou (jiovov TO^ 91X00^690^ TJ^ICTTOV aXXa xal TOU; aXXot^; 6(Jioico<; aXX ini Ppa/u
tUTOU. 15
origin of 9 - 29
ft The origin of tragedy.J ^^^ a
Ib., 1440 :
tragedy ? , ^ , , N ,
,
l
, , x
ouv arc ap^7j<; auToa^oLadTtXT]^
'
a ITI xal vuv ev TuoXXat^ TCOV TroXecov 8ia[XVi vo[jLi^6(jLva), xaTa (Jiixpov
32 - 37
Comedy 663 a. Comedy. Poet. 5, 1449 a :
1
"It certainly began in improvisations" (Bywater).
2
"As soon as a spoken part came in" (Bywater).
[663] POETICS 227
9 - 20
b. Epic poetry. Ib., 1449 b :
Epic poetry
*
J449b 'H
(jtev
o5v ETCOTUoua
173 TpaycoSta (Ae/pt (*ev TOO <8ia> (jLerpou (jieyaXou (JiifZY]Gri<;
elvai, TauTfl Stacpepouaiv. STL Se TCO JJLTJXSL- TJ [jiev yap ST& [JiaXiaTa raipaTai
OTTO fjtiav TreptoSov yjXiou elvai 73 fjuxpov laXXaTTiv, T)
Se eTTOTroiia a6ptcjTo<; TCO
TpaytoStac;. SiOTrep OCTTI^ Tiepl TpaywSta<; olSe crTrouSata^ xal 9auX7]<;, olSe xal
25 e/ou<T7)c;, -/iSuafjievco Xoyo), X^P^ exaciTOU T&V elScav ev TOLC; [jLopioi<;, SpcovTtov
xal ou St* aTTayyeXiat;, 8t* sXeou xal 96pou Trepatvouaa TYJV TCOV TOLOUTCOV
7ca07)[jLaT(ov xaOapatv.
Aeyco 8e 7]8u<T(JLevov [JLEV Xoyov TOV ex VTa P^^fAov xal apfjioviav xal [AeXos,
30 TO 8e x^pU T ^ etSeai TO Sta (jLSTpcov e'via (xovov TcepaiveaOai xal TuaXiv eTspa
Sta
There has been much discussion on the meaning of the xaOapm<; TCOV
spoken of in this definition. The best interpretation has been given by V. W. Trench,
The place of xdtOapaiq in Aristotle's aesthetics, in Hermathena, Dublin 1938, p. 110-134.
He argues that, in Aristotle's view, the TOxOyjfjuxToc are not as such bad and abnormal,
but should be ordered and brought to serenity, which is accomplished through
melody, rhythm, art-form. Like Pythagoras and Plato before him, Ar. believed
in the influence of music and rhythm on the emotions.
This paper seems not to have been known to Fr. Dirlmeier, who, in Hermes 1940,
again to prove that the genetive TuaOY)(AaT6>v is
p. 81-92, KaOocpaic; TraOr^jtaTCov, tries
a separatwus.
Further recent literature on the subject:
M. Kommerell, Lesting und Anstoteles (Frankfurter wissenschaftl. Beitrage.
Kulturwiss. R. 2) Frankfurt a.M. 1940.
A. Tumarkin, Die Kunsttheorie von Aristoteles im Rahmen seiner Philosophie, in
Museum Helveticum 1945, P- 108-122.
For editions and further litterature, see Bibliography p. 302 and 303.
i45oa
C
H yap TpaycoSia [JL[JLY)CTL^
ECTTIV oux avOpa>7ccov aXXa Trpa^sax; xal (3iou xal
SCTTI, xal TO TeXo<; Tcpa^t^ TK; ICJTIV, oi TTOIOTY)^. elai Se xara (JLEV Ta
1
Text of Bywatcr. The codex A has ^XP 1 M-6vou (x^Tpou jxeyaXou, B
X6you. Other editors read:
(ji6vou fz^Tpoi) (JtgTa
228 RHETORIC AND POETICS [664]
yap ECTTL xal em ^c, ypa9ixYj<;' EL yap TK; svaXsi^EiE TOI<; xaXXi-
xal Xuxoypa9Yjaa<; slxova.
TE
[JLtfjLYjatc; 7rpa^co<;,
xal Sta TauTYjv (xaXicTTa TCOV TipaTTOVTCov. TpiTov
Se YJ Stavota. TOUTO 8' ecm TO Xeyeiv SuvaoOai Ta evovTa xal Ta apfAOTTovTa, 5
1
oTTEp ini TCOV Xoycov TYJ TcoXiTtXYj^ xal pYjTOptxY]<; epyov Icmv ol (isv yap
TO TOIOUTOV SYJXOL TYJV TCpOaipEClV OTTOta Tl^, V 01^ OUX ECTTl, S^AOV 7]
6vo|JLacia(; p[iYjveLav, 8 xal srcl TCOV E[ji[jLTpcov xal sm TCOV Xoycov s^i TYJV 15
YJ
8k o^ic; oVrs/voTaTov 8s xal ^xiciTa oixstov TYJC; TTOIYJTLX^
^u^aycoytxov (JLEV,
YJ yap TYJS TpaycoSta^ SuvajiK; xal aveu aycovo*; xal urcoxpiTcov ECITIV. STL Se
xupicoTepa Trepl TYJV dbrepyacnav TCOV o^ecov YJ TOU dxeuoTuoiou TE/VYJ 20 T%
TCOV 7COIYJTCOV EGTLV.
the story , , ,
O v
OE xaT auTYjv
, x
TYJV 9uortv
,
TOU
; f,
(JLEV
o (istQcov (JLs^pt TOU J 45 la
i
slvai xaXXicov ECTTL xaTa TO (xsyEOoc;, co^ SE a^Xcoc; SiopiaavTac;
i
MuOoc; 8' ecmv el<;, ou/ &aTcep TLve<; otovTai, sav Tcepl eva ^ TcoXXa yap xal
<5c7ueipa TCO evl au(jLpatvi, E^ Jiv Ivicov ouSEV eaTtv EV. OUTCO SE xal Trpa^Et^
evoc; TioXXai etatv, e^ d>v (jLia ou8s(jL[a ytvsTai Tcpa^i^. Sto 7ravT<; soixacTLV
1
l:ul TCOV X6ycov - in the speeches in tragedy.
2
v X6yco corr. Bjrwater. Mss. TCOV (iv X6ycov.
[665] POETICS 229
20 a[AapTaveiv, OCTOL T&V TCOIYJT&V 'HpaxXYjtSa xal 0Yj<TY)t&a xal TO. ToiauTa TTOLY)-
f
fjE-ara 7re7rotY]xa<Tiv oi'ovTat yap s^l el^ Y^v 6 HpaxXYJ^, ^va xal TOV {jtuOov slvat
7rpocTY)xei,v. 6 8' "O(r/)po<;, coaTcep xal TOC #XXa Siacpepei, xod TOUT' eoixe xaXc5<;
?5 ISsLv, -^TOI Sia Texv7)v TJ &ia 9UCTLV 'OS\j(T(ieLav yap TCOICOV oux eTroiYjaev a?uavTa
6o-a auTCp cruvepT], olov TuXTjYTJvai [jtev ev TO> FlapvaCTcrqi, (jLavyjvat Se TrpotTTCoivj-
aa<rOat ev TCO ayepfjicp, &v ouSev OaTepou yevo[jLevoi) cxvayxoctov 9jv TQ eixoc^ OaTspov
yevecrOaL, aXXa Trepl jxtav Ttpa^i-v, otocv Xeyofxsv, -r^v *OSu<rcrei,av
30 6fAOL6><; Se xal TTJV 'TXiaSa. xpvj o5v, xaOaTrep xal ev Ta<; <5cXXai.g
pita jJLijJiTQai? ev6<; ECTTLV, OUTOJ xal TOV (jLuOov, ercel Trpa^ecoc; (jLLjjLTjatc; <JTL,
Te elvat xal TauTTjc; 6X7]^, xal Ta (JLep^) mJvecrTavai TCOV 7rpay[jLaTcov
COCTTS jiSTaTtOefjievou TIVOC; jAepouc; YJ a9aipou(jievou 8ia9peaQai xal xtveiaOai
TO oXov 6 yap Trpocrov YJ (JLY) Tipocrov (JLYjSsv TTOLEL sTrLSyjXov, ouSe (jiopLov TOU
35 6Xou eartv.
L7j yap av Ta 'Hpo^oTOU ei^ fjieTpa TeOYJvaL, xal ouSev YJTTOV av ELY)
TL<; fJLCTa (JLETpOU Y)
(XVU fJLETpCOV aXXa TOUTCp Sta9pl, TO> TOV |JLV Ta yVO-
5 (jLeva Xeysiv, TOV Eola av yevoiTO. Sio xal 9iXoCTO9coTepov xal aTrou&aioTEpov
TCOtYjCTtc; t(7Topta<; eaTtv YJ (JLEV yap TTOLYJCTK; (jiaXXov Ta xaOoXou, Y) S* taTOpia Ta
xa0* exacfTOv Xeysi.
BOOK IV
b. Diels: 30
Cp. SimpL, Phys. 964,
Tov xopu^atov T<OV 'AptdTOTeXoi*^ eraipcov Oeocppacrrov.
His numerous works covered the whole field of Aristotle's studies logic, science :
metaphysics, ethics, politics, rhetoric, poetics. Preserved are his two standard
works on botany, the Ilepl 9UTtov iaTopoc<; and llepl 9UTcov alTicov, several small treatises
[668] THEOPHRASTUS 23!
669 Empirical
r basis of scientific theories. Empirical
basis
a. De caus. plant. I i, i :
671 The phenomenology of plants teaches him that empirical facts Perception
should not be artificially forged into a theory. than theory
Hist, plant. I 3, 5:
a.
, X6y6) 8e oox
232 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [672]
672 Logic.
conversion a
of proposi-
Thcophr. changes Aristotle's indirect proof of the conversion
.
. . . .
(7Tpe<pei,v cpaal xal TT]V xaOoXou cxTco9aTixy]v auTyj, coajcsp avT(TTpe9e xal Y]
1
uTuapxouaa xaOoXou aTrocpaTix'/] xal Y) avayxaia. "OTL 8s avTiciTp^ei, Sst,x-
vuatv OUTCOC el TO A TW B evSe^sTat, (JLTjSevt, xal TCO B TO A evSe
sTcel yap evSs^ETai TO A Tto 1^ (jtyjSevi, OTS IvSe^sTaL [jL7]Sev[, TOTS sv
Moods of the 573 a 'f o Aristotle's four moods of the first figure of the syllogism
syllogism
iheophr. added rive others.
36 -
Alex., .4 w. r. 69, 70,
x
W. :
Bochensky, o.c., p. 56-65, in treating these new moods, states that Theophr.
developed Ar.'s indications in a formalistic sense.
b. Later we find the five moods of Theophr. in Boethius, De syl-
logismo categorico, Patrol. Lat. LXIV, 814 c:
'
Oi Se y eTOupoi auTou (sc. Api<TTOTXou<; ) ot Trepl Eu&Y)[ji6v T xal 0eo9pa-
crrov ou% OUTCOS Xeyouai, aXXa 9aaiv ev Tcadai^ rate; el; avayxaia<; TS xal umxp-
avayxaiou. 'AXXa xal TCO Xoyco TOUTO SSLXVUOUG-LV. EL yap TO B TOJ F uTrapyst.
fjiev TuavTL, ou (JITJV e^ avayxv]^, evSe/eTai TTOTE auTo xal aTro^suyOYJvaL auTou
009padTO<; (JLSV o5v xal EuSyjjjio^ ol ETatpoi auTou xal ev Tfj e^ v8xo(jievy)<;
xal UTrapyoucry]^ [uJEpi ^aalv eaeaOai TO aupiTOpaa^La vS^6(JLvov, oTioTepa av
TO
13 - 1R
Cf. Philoponus, An. f>r. 205, \V. See: Bochcnsky o.c., p. 7<) ff. on "the
rule of the peiorem".
Philoponus.
32 - 3
b. Alex., An. pr. 389, 390, :
Tcepl &v uTceprtOsTai (Jtlv ca<; spcov iTci^sXlaTEpov, ou (jlv 9pgToa aurou
[jia Tuepl OCUT&V eo^pacrTo^ S* auTcov ev TOI? tSiotc; *AvaXuTixoi<;
*
676 Metaphysics.
the First a Theophr.
r admits, with Ar.. one first principle
r r of all.
Principle
Metaph. I 6 Ross-Fobes:
Me^pi (ilv SY) Totircov olov (ScpTto^ 6 X6yo ocpx^v TS jcoieov (jiav TCCXVTOW xal 5a 5
rJ)v evlpyetav xal TVJV ouafav a7toSio6<; 7 STL 8k (JLY) StaipeTov [xyjSs Tcoodv TI X^ycov
aXX' obrXcoc; l^atpcov dc, xpe^TTO Tiva (jtepiSa xal 0etoTlpav OUTCO yap (xaXXov 10
f/
aTCoSoT^ov ^ TO SiatpeTov xal (jtsptaTiv ^atpST^ov. A[jia yap ev u^>)XoT^pcj)
Ib., II 7-9:
T6 8k [XEToc TaGT' ^Sv) X6you SstTai 7iXeiovo<; irspl TYJ<; 89g<ysco(;, ?co(a xal 15
TIVCOV. 'E7cei89j TrXeico Ta xuxXixa xal al <popal TpoTrov Ttva uTcsvavTtai, xal T6
dvYjvuTOv xal oS X^P LV acpavec;. BITS yap iv T& xivouv, <3tT07UOv T6 frJ) TravTa ITJV
auTYjv SITE xa6* SxacTTOV ^Tepov at T* apxocl TcXeiou^, >S TO a\i[X9(ovov auTtov
20
et fjiif] Tt<; Xeyot xa6* 6(zoi6TV]Ta xal (jteTa9opav, !(JKJ/OX' av et?) Ta xivoifxsva.
fj
8" fijxa Soxei xal xCvTrjai^ urcdlpxstv ^o>7) yap TOI^ S^oucriv, 0^9* xal al ^
[676] THEOPHRASTUS 235
5 opl^etc; 7cp6<; Ixacrrov, axTTuep xal TOL<; coou;, ercel xal at aia6Y)(jei<; xataep ev
TCO 7cacix eiv oSaai 81' eTepcov OJJLCOC; <5><; ejJupuxoK; yiyvovTai. EL 8* ouv TYJ<;
xo-
a. How
should we conceive the first principles ? What is the reason
of everything ? How
far does the ordering of the world reach, and why teleology
does it stop at a certain point?
Ib., IV 14-15:
6b n&s 8e TTOTS XP>] xal 7uoia<; ra^ ap^a^ UTToOeaOai Tax'
25 TUOTepov a{Ji6p9ou^ xal olov Suvafjiixaq codT^ep oaoi TOP xal yyjv,
<*>S ptaXiCTTa Seov TauTa^ 6)pt(T0ai xaOaTtep ev T<O Tifjiaico 9Y]atv TOI<; yap TI[JLICO-
;a TOCTOIS otxeioTaTov Y]
xal TO a>pia6ai. OaiveTat 8e xal ev Talc;
TOC^LC; XotTratc; (j/sSov
Xeiv OUTCO
xaOaTrep ev ypa(JL[xaTtX7J xal (JLOUGLX^ xal T
2uvaxoXou6et Se xal T<X (jieTa Ta^ apxok. "Eri Se xal xaTa Ta<; Texva<; of
5 atvrep T7)v 9\iaiv (jti(jLouvTai xal Ta opyava xal Ta aXXa xaTa Ta^ apx^^- Ol (Jiev
15, To9Y](iiv 'HpaxXetTO^, [6] xocyfjio^. XaXercov Se TiaXiv a5 TO TOIK; Xoyoix; exa-
<TTOK; TrepiOeiivai Tupoc; TO evexa TOD auvayovTac; ev aTraai xal ev ^cooic; xal
xal ev auTT) aaTepwv Ta^ei xal
'
TuojJupoXuyi. *n:Xy]v et aufjtpaLvei TT)
7bpiop9a<; TravTota^ xal TcoixiXtac; yiyveaOai TCOV Te Tuepl TOV aepa xal TYJV y9jv.
7
Iiv SYJ [jteytcTTov Tive^ TrapaSetyjxa vroiouvTai Ta Tuepl Ta^; capa^; Ta^ eTeiou^; ev
5 ale; xal Z^wcov xal 9i>T&v xal xapTccov yeveaeic; olov yevvcovTOc; TOU Y]Xiou. Kal
TauTa {lev evTauOa TTOU ^YjTet TY]V axe^tv, a9optcj[JL6v aTuatToiivTa fJiexpt TTOOOU
TO TeTayfjievov, xal Sicx TI TcXeov aStivaTOv YJ ei? TO xe ^P ov [AeTa(3acyi^.
2^ TeXeuTav ;), xal SYJ via TW (JLYJ Soxetv lx etv OUTCOC;, dcXXa Ta [lev (7i>(JL7TTO){JiaTixco<;
1
Corr. Diels. Mss. oap?.
230 TPIE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [677]
J
TOC 8 avayxY) Tivl xaOoacep 'v TS Tol<; oupaviou; xal ev TOI^ Trspl TYJV yyjv TrXetociv.
*
Tivo<; yap Ivexa at 90801, xal avappoiai OaXaTTY)? p) TLVOC; ai TTpoxtopYjcreK;] 73 lob
dva?;7)pav(Tei<; xal uypoTTjTe^ xal oX<o<; 7rp6<; a*XXoT* aXXo (jLETa^oXal xal 90opal
xal yevecreu;, [yj at piev ev auTTJ TYJ yyj aXXot,co(7ei<; xal [AerapoXal yiyvovTai
2
?rp6<; aXXoT* aXXo [/.eOtCTTafJisvcav] xal eTepa 5* oux oXiya Tcapofioia TOUTOIC;; 5
S* ev auTOtc; TOIC; ^wot^ T<X (JLSV coaTrep [latocia xaOaTtep TOL<; appsdtv ot
xal TOL<; 0'/)Xeaiv YJ Tupoecrt^ ei'Tcep (JLTJ aup^SaXAsTaL, xal Trtoycavo^ 8'
evioi<; Y] oXcac; xal Tpa oux oXtya Xa(3oi 10,
Tpt^cov Sx^uai^ ev Ttat Tovrot:- . . . i
TI^ av TotauTa. Kal TO {jLeytciTov STJ xal (laXiaTa Soxouv rcepl Tac; Tpo<pa<; xal
yeveaeK; TCOV ^wcov ouOev6(; yap TauO* evexa aXXa aufjmTOjfJiaTa xal Si* eTepac;
'
avayxa<;. "ESet yap etTuep TGUTCOV x^P tv ^ L XOCT(^ ^auTa xal a><jauTCO. 20
OTI TYJV 9uaiv <elxoc> ev aTraatv opeyeaOai, TOU aptCTOD xal 9' &v iia
(JLETaSiSovai TOU ael xal TOU TSTayfjisvou ax; 8* auTwg xal ejul TO>V
TO [jL7rpoaOev TYJV 9apuyya TOU oi(T09ayoi), TifJticoTepov yap. xal EV TTJ [Lie-/] 10
xoiXia TY;<; xap8ia<; T'/]v xpacriv aptaTYjv, OTL TO (jieaov Ti(JLta>TaTOv.
8e xal oaa xoarfiou xaptv el yap xal YJ ope^i^ OUTCO<;, aXX* exeivo y*
SLOTL TroXu TOou^ UTuaxouov ouSe 8e^6[Jievov TO eu, (JtaXXov 8e TroXXw TrXetov
principle explicitly.
a. De
cans, plant. I i, i:
7)
8e (sc. 9UCTL;;) ael Tcpoc; TO peXTtcrTOv 6p(jia.
Cp. on Aristotle ib. 33 (our nr. 430). The vsame is said by Minucius Felix,
Oct. XIX 9.
1 2
Seel. Ross. Seel. Usener.
3
Corr. Ross. Transl. "of animate things themselves there is only a minute part
:
whose existence is actually better than its non-existence would be" (Ross-Fobes).
[679] THEOPHRASTUS 237
yap avOpcorcot . . .
VOJJIL^OIKH elvai Oeov TrXvjv 'AxpoOotT&v, 005
aOeooc; yevo[ievou<;
Cf. Cic. in De fin. V 4, 1 1, who says, referring to Ar. and Theophr. Vitac autern :
681 He
corrects Ar.'s conception of movement: movement occurs Movement
in every category, not only in that of substance, quantity, quality
and place.
0. ev TO> Tcpo>TCj> TO>V sauTOu Oixjtxcov xal xa0* sxaaTov yevo<; TCOV xaTYj-
yopta>v T7]v xivyjaiv GscopstaOat 97)071 ypa^cav OI>TO><; jrepl 8e xtvvjdea)^ TOV (Ji^v
xaOoXou xal xoivov Xoyov ou xa ^ 7UOV aTioSouvai xat eiTistv, ox; evepyeia T^
a
Thinking
movement
534 Theophr. explains thinking as a movement of the soul.
9paaTOV ev TCO TcpcoTco TCOV ITepl xtvyjaeco^ auTou XeyovTa OTL at {lev 6p!!;ei<;
xal xal opyal acofiaTixal xtvrjaetc; eial xal aTto TOIJTOU TTJV apxV
e7ri,0u[JLLaL
e'xouatv, oaai 8e xptaei^ xal Oecopiat, TauTac; oux e'cmv ei^ eTepov cxvayayetv,
aXX* ev auT^ Tyj ^u/7) xal Y] ap^'J] xal YJ evepyeia xal TO TeXoc;, ei Se STJ xal 6
in itself.
omnis nostra pergit oratio. Quocirca vereor commit tere ut non bene pro-
visa et diligcnter explorata principia ponantur: nee tamen ut omnibus
probentur nam id fieri non potest sed ut iis qui omnia recta atque
,
Tfl ayopa, xal ax; TroXXol eTriSTjfJLOuGri ^evoi, xal TTJV 0aXaTTav ex Aiovuaicov
elvai, xal el Tcoi-yjoreiev 6 Zeu<; 8Sa>p TcXetov, T<X ev T^ yyj (3eXT[<o aea6ai,
Theofficious b XIII,
man
<Y)> Tcepiepyia So^ei slvai 7tpoa7ruiY)<TL<; TIC; Xoycov xal
^;,
6 Ss Tiepiepyoc; TOIOUTO<; TI^ <olo(;> eTuayylXXeaOai a (iv) Suvy)(reTai
xal 6[jLoXoyou[JLevou TOU 7rpay(JiaTO<; Sixaiou elvai
exTcietv xal Sietpyeiv TOIX; [jiaxofJLevoix;, xal ou<; ou ytyvcoaxei xal aTpaTroO 5
Y)yy)<Taa0ai, etTa (JLYJ SiivadOai eupelv ol TropeueTai xal TOV <TTpaTY)y6v TrpoaeXOwv
TXUT7](ja(T7)c; 7Tiypa^ai 7ul TOU T dvSpo^ auTY)^ xal TOU TraTpoc; xal
TO [xvYJ[jia
T^^ (JtTjTpcx; xal auTYJ^ <T^> yuvaixo^; Touvojxa xal TroSaTTT) EGTL, xal 7rpoa7UL-
OTI OJJTOL 7uavTc; xpv)(TTol yjaav xal ofivuvat (JtXXcav ELTOLV Tupoc;
OTI xal 7rpoTpov
The c. XVII,
grumbler
>;
EaTiv 7] fjL(ji^t[Jioi,pia ETUT^YJCTL!; Trapa TO TrpoaYJxov Toiv SSo(ivo)v, 6 SE
(jLE[jnj;t(JLOLpoc;
TOioaSE TI<; olo^; 7 aTuodTEiXavTo^; (lEptSa TOU 9iXou, EITCELV Tcpoc; TOV
xal UTTO T?)^ ETatpa^; xaTa9tXou(Jievo^ EITTECV ))6au[JLa^a) EL au xal OCTTO TT)(;
^ux% ouTd) (JLE 9iXt(;(( xal TW Ail ayavaxTEtv, ou SIOTI <ou/> Get, aXXa 8t6Tt5
GaTSpov xal Eupwv Iv Tyj 6Soi paXXavTtov etTretv waXX* ou 07)<raup6v supYjxa
ou87roT(( xal 7rptajJivoc; dvSpaTToSov S^iov, xal TcoXXa SEYjOslq TOU 7i(oXouvTo<;
))0au(jLa^a) EtTTEtv 6 Tt uyi(; OUTCO aiov EcovTjfjiata xal 7up6(; TOV suayyEXt-
oTt* ui6<; aoi ysyovEva EITTEIV OTf av 7rpo<70yj<;' xal TTJ^ ou(ita<; TO
TTECTTtv, aXYjO?] spt<;<( xal StxTjv vtXYjaac; xal Xa[3o)v 7iaaa<; Ta<; ^Y)90U(; 10
eyxaXetv TCO ypd^avTi TOV Xoyov, coc; TcoXXa TrapaXsXotTTOTt TCOV Stxatcov xat
epavou Etavex0VTOc; rcapa TCOV 9tXcov xal 97)aavTo^ Ttvo<;- lXapi(; ta0t,
xal 7rco<;;(( stTCEiv ))OT Set Tapyuptov aTcoSouvat sxdaTCO xal X^P^ TOUTCOV
co<; Upyry)[JLvov;
[688] DICAEARCHUS 241
2 D1CAEARCHUS
688 Suidas s.v. i Life and
Aixaiapxos (fr. Wehrli) :
Panaetius
. . .
scmperquc habuit in ore Platonem, Aristotelem,
. . .
Tusc. Doctrine
a. Cic., I 10, 21 (fr. 7 W.) :
Ol fxev (JiY)
elvai TYJV <Jwx^3 v e'cpaaav, co<; ol Tuepi TOV Meaayjviov Aixatap^ov.
Nemesius, De nat. horn. II, Patrol. Gr. XL, p. 537 (fr. n W.) :
avTt TOU xpaoiv xal (jujji^wviav TWV dTOLxeicov. Ou yap TYJV ex TCOV 966yycov
<Ti)VLciTa[JLevY)v, aXXa TTJV ev TCO (rcofjiaTL 0ep(jLcov xal ^i>xpcov xal uypcov xal
y)p<ov evapfjLoviov xpaaiv xal aofjicpaMav pouXerai Xeysw- AvjXov Se OTI xal
TOUTCOV ot (Jiev 'ApKJTOT^Xiqs Si; xal 5
ocXXoi TYjv fyvyjiv ouaiccv eZvoci XeyoixsLV.
avoucriov.
The same doctrine is attested in a few words by Plut., Plac. IV 2, 5; Stob., Eel.
I 49, i, and Theodoretus, Gr. aff. cur. V18 (fr. 12 a-c W.).
Divination 692
In spite of this naturalistic doctrine of soul D. is said to have
acknowledged divination in dreams.
a. Galenus, Hist. phil. 105 (fr. 13 a W.) :
Superiority 594 Against Theophr., 1). defended the superiority of the fiioc; ?upax-
to the pco<;
(The ancient Romans did not strive after cleverness in words, not ever
X6yco 9iXoao9etv. aXX* elvai TY)V <709tacv TOTS youv eTUTYjSeucriv gpycov xaXcov,
Xpovco Se X6yoov oxXix&v yeve<T0ai Te*xvY)v. xal vuv piv TOV mOav&c; 8iaXex0vTa
[jieyav elvai Soxetv 9&X6cro9ov, ev Se TOL<; TcaXai /povoig 6 aya06<; (Ji6vo<; ^v
5 9iX6ao90(;, el xal [XT] TreptpXeTCTOU^ xal o^Xixoix; daxocTO Xoyoix;. ou yap I^YJTOUV
exetvot ye ei TuoXiTeuT^ov ouSe TTCO<;, aXX* evroXLTeuovTo auTol xaX&<;, ouSe ei
9iXoao9La, which escapes the notice of the people). Kal yap TOI><; ev Tat<;
avaxajJLTCTovTa^ TreptTcaTeLv 9aaiv, <!><; eXeye Atxaiapxoc;, OUXCTL Se TOIK;
aypov ^ Trpo^ 9iXov paSt^ovTa^. OJJLOIOV S* eorTl T<O 9iXo(T09eov TO TroXiTeiieaOai.
youv OUTC Pa0pa Oelc; oure et 0povov xaOtcra^ o(J6' copav SiaTpi(39j<;
TrepiTuaTou TOLC; yvcoptfjioi^ TeTayfxevirjv 9i)XaTTO)v, aXXa xal 7rat<ov ore
xal au(JL7uiv6>v xal auaTpaTeuofievoc; evioi^ xal auvayopa^cov, TeXo<; Se
xal SeSefievoc; xal mvoav TO 9ap|JLaxov e9LXoCT09ei, rcpcoTO^ a:ro8eta<; TOV (3iov
xal 7rpay(Jiaaiv
695 An important work of D. was his Bto<; 'EXXaSoc;, which is cited The
V
rather frequently by later writers (Wehrli, fr. 47-66). of mankind
cerent. In quis primum non sine causa putant oves assumptas et propter
utilitatem et propter <p>laciditatem. maxime enim hae natura quietae
et aptissimae ad vitam hominum. ad cibum enim lacte et caseum adhi-
bitum, ad corpus vestitum et pelles attulerunt. tertio denique gradu a 15
vita pastorali ad agri culturam descenderunt, in qua ex duobus gradibus
(levo^ TOIX; TraXaiouc; xal eyy^ Qe&v 973(11 yeyovoTa^, peXTtaTou^ TS ovTa^ 9iiaei
xal TOV (ScpiaTov e^yjxoTac; piov, <5>^ XP U(IO ^ V yevoc; vo(jLt^ea0ai 7rapa[3aXXo[JLvou<;
Nam veteres verbo tenus acute illi quidem, sed non ad hunc usum
popularem atque civilem de re publica disserebant. ab hac familia magis
istamanarunt Platone principe, post Aristoteles illustravit omnem hunc
civilem in disputando locum; Heraclidesque Ponticus profectus ab eodem
Platone Theophrastus vero, institutus ab Aristotele, habitavit ut scitis 5
;
2
in manibus tcnebam et hercule magnum acervum Di-
IlsXXrjvatav
caearchi mihi ante pedes exstruxeram. o magnum hominem, et unde
multo plura didiceris quam de Procilio 3 KoptvGiov et 'AO-yjvaicov puto .
me Romae habere. mihi credas, lege te hac doceo, mirabilis vir est.
1
Hesiodus, Erga 116 ff.
2
Whether this TleXXYjvatcov TroXiTeta was a work of D. or not, is uncertain. I-
may have belonged to Aristotle's collection of 158
3 Procilius is unknown to us.
[696] DICAEARCHUS 245
697 D. seems to have considered a mixed constitution to be the best. The best
constitution
Photius, Bibl. 37 (fr. 71 W.):
M
Hv auTol TcoXiTefcav eiaayouaiv (sc. post-Platonic writers among whom
8*
As it appears from a quotation in Athen. IV 141 a ff. (fr. 72 W.), the work in
which D. expounded this theory was entitled Tpi7uoXiTix6<;.
698 a. Like Aristotle and Eudoxus of Cnidus, D. taught the spherical Form of the
r ^
arth
form of the earth.
Martian. Capella VI 590 f (fr. 108 W.) . :
3 AR1STOXKNUS
Ytoc; MvYjaiou, TOU XOCL 27Civ0apou, {Jioucrixou, OCTUO TapavTog TYJC; 'IraXiac;.
Se ev MavTtveia ^iXocrocpo^ yeyove xal fJLOiKnxfj eTCtOlfjievo^ oux
, cxxoudTY]<; TOU TE
Trarpoc; xal AajxTupou TOU 'Epu0patoi>, etTa
Atticus had an administrator of this name. Probably this person is meant here.
246 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [699]
ev TOCS axpoarocts TOU; 'ApL<7TOTeXoo<; e^ovTOc;. Y^Y ove ^ ^TCI TCOV *AXeJ;avSpoi)
'
xal TCOV xp
(jLETSTreiTa vcov > &$ elvai daco TYJ^ pia'
OXi>[Ji7uaSo<; *, atiyxpovos
HS
p ^ of ^OO
in several later
a. He wrote
a life of Pythagoras, traces of which can be found
works (Wehrli, fr. 11-25).
In his work on the Pythagorean bios he explains the ancient taboos
in a rationalistic sense. Cp. our nr. 24b, d.
Life of Ar- fo pj e a i so wro t e a life of Archytas (Wehrli, fr. 47-50) and another
of Socrates of Socrates (W., fr. 51-60), in which he opposes the hot temper and
TYJV TOU stSou^ iStoTTjTa. yLveaOai Se TUOU TOUTO, OTS (JLYJ opyt^oiTo, 5
STS Se (pXe^OetT] UTTO TOU 7ra0ou^ TOUTOU, SSLVYJV elvat TYJV acr^7)[jLO(TUV7)v. ou&ev6<;
Feypacpe yap toSl TraXiv Tcepl auTou IIop9upio<; : ev Se TOt^ Trepl TOV (3iov
Ta [Jtev
aXXa evixoXov, xal [Jiixpac; Seojievov Tiapaaxeuvjc; eic; Ta xaO* 7)(Jiepav
yeyev^aOaL. Tupo^ Se TYJV TCOV cx9poSi(Tia)v /pyjaw a^oSpoTepov (Jtev elvai, aSixiav
Se {JIT] TrpoaeLvai. ^ yap Tatc; ya^eTaic; 7^ Tat<; xoivatc; ^p^aOai (jLovaLc;. Siio Se
(j^etv yuvalxag afjia, SavOiTTTTTjv [Jiev TTOXLTLV xal xoivoTepav TUCO^;, MupTto Se 5
'ApicrreiSou OuyaTptS^v TOU AuaifJiaxou. xal TTJV (lev SavOtTCTcrjv TrepiTrXaxecaav
Xa(3eEv, e^ ^ eauTto Aa(JL7rpoxX^<; eyeveTo. T*/JV
Se MupTto yajjico, e ^j<; Seo9po-
viaxoc xal Meve^evoc;.
The same is told Or. a1J. cur. XII 174, who used the same source.
by Theodorctus, f
Cp. Plut., Aristides 27: Ay^Tpioq 8* 6 <I><xX7)peu<; xal Iepcovu(jLo<; 6 *P68ioc; xal
c.
J
701 De
Herodoti malign. 9, 856 c, qualifies this kind of gossip
Plut.,
as a species of the genus xaxoifjOeia. Fr. 55 W. :
1
336-333 B.C.
[7Ol] ARISTOXENUS 247
'Eyyix; 8e TOUTCOV eialv ol Tolc; 4/oyou; ercaivouc; Tivac; 7tapaTiOvTe<;, co^ ejcl
ScoxpaTOix; 'Api(7T6!;evo<;, dbraiSeuTov xal a[jia0YJ xal axoXacrc-ov eiTcaw, ETDr)-
veyxev waSixta ou 7rpoa9jv x "ia7i;ep yap ol aiiv TLVL Texvv) xal SSLVOTTJTL
&' .
appear from what he tells about Plato (fragments of his Life of Plato,
W. 61-68).
(sc. AioviMTiw) TOU TrapaatTsiv UTTO atpuiac e^eTrsae, xal TraXiv 'AOyjva^e 91x6-
(jievoc; xal 9iXoTcov/]C7ac;
xal Trapaaxeuaaac; sauTov a00t(; SeuTepw aroXo) eTteTrXeoo-s
Tyj SixeXia xal ^eiTrvyjaac; TiaXiv oXiyaq 7)(JLepaq UTTO apiaOiac; e^CTueae. xal
auTT) T] cu[JL9opa HXaTcovi Tcepl SixeXiav 6[jioLa Soxsi ysveaOat, ryj NIXLOU.
avToixoSojJieiv auToi Ttvac; IlepLTcaTOv ^evou<; ovTac;. ocovTai ouv eviot, TauTa
St,a TravToc; eu9Y)(JLOi>VTO<;
xepl 'ApLdTOTeXouc; Xeyetv auTov, 'ApiaTO^evou 'Apt-
703 His doctrine of the soul is cited on a level with that of Dicaearchus Soul
1
Wchrli cites the text up till here.
248 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [703]
videmus in musicis?
0ei7) yap &v TI<; cl> evSo^ov TO UTUO l7rrcoxpaTou<; Xeyofjievov ev laTpixTJ xal
TO UTUO 'Ap)i[jLY)Sou<; ev yeto(jiTpia xal TO UTTO 'ApiaTO^evou ev
b. Diog. L. V 75:
AY)[JLYJTPIO<; OavoaTpaTou OaX7]peii<;. OUTOC; yjxouae (Jtev eo^paaTOu-
yopcov 8^ Trap* 'AOyjvatoic; TYJ(; 7roXeco<; e^YjyifjaaTo ITYJ S6xa, xal eixovov
aiv al
[705] DEMETRIUS OF PHALERON 249
[Ta Tcpo^] So^av eLXYj90Ta em cro9ta. TOUTOV fjtev Syj TUpavviSoc; eTrauare AyjfjiTjTpioc
6 'AvTiyovou.
13
b. Synccllus 274 d, p. 521, Bind. (fr. 17 W.): Law-giver
'
6 OaXvjpeix; eyvcopi^eTO TpiTtx; vofjioOeTTjc; 'AOvjvYjat, OUTOC;
c. Cic., D^ leg. II 25, 63 (fr. 135 W.) tells us something about I).'
igitur sumptum minuit non solum poena sed etiam tempore, ante lucem
enim iussit efferri. sepulcris autem novis finivit modum, nam super
ioterrae tumulum noluit quod statui nisi columellam tribus cubitis ne
altiorem aut mensam aut labellum, et huic procurationi certum magi-
stratum praefecerat.
Wilamowitz, AY. und Athen, 1 p. 363, speaks of "die segcnsreiche Verwaltung
des Demetrios" and states: "So tiber Athen zu herrschen hat D. bei Aristoteles
gelernt: er 1st der vo^oOeTix&s dcvyjp, den die Politik erzogen hat. Gerade an Athen
hat sie ihre praktische Probe bestanden".
250 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [707]
Later in 708 His life was a good example of those sudden changes of Fate
disgrace
which happened not unfrequently in those days.
OUTCK; axotiaac; OTI ra<; stxova^ auTou xarecrTps^av 'AOvjvaloi, aXX* ou TYJV
Thebes AyTai d xai, Z\Y)(ji7)Tpio<; o vPaXY)pu<; OTE TYJS TtaTptocx; ^7i:<j xai TOpi
0y)fia<; aSo^wv xai Ta7Tiva TcpaTTCov 8i9)yv, ou^ Y)8O)c; iSiv TCpoaiovTa KpdcTYjTa,
XUVLXTJV xai Xoyoix; Tpaxet^ TrpoaSE/ofJiEvo^. VTUXOVTO<; SE Trpaax;
TOU KpaTTiToc xai 8taXy6VTOc 7Cpl cpuy^c <oc ouSfiv EVOI xaxov
)6Sv xai appat<ov a7U7]XXay[JLvov,
SE 6appLv Icp* lauTW xai Tyj SLa6ai TrapaxaXouvTOt;, yjSLOJV yv6(jivo<; xai
avaOappTjaac; Trpo^ TOU^ 9tXou<; EITTE :
cpu TWV 7rpa^cov EXELVCOV xai aa^oXicov
St' ac;
avSpa TOIOUTOV oux yvw(jiv.
TYJV oixoufjievYjv fhpXtoc, xoci TTOLoijfievo^ ayopaafjiou^ xai, [ieTaypa9a<; ITU TeXoc;
^Yayev, oaov 9* eauTw, TYJV TOU paaiXeox; TupoOeatv. TrapovTcov o5v Y)[ji&v
Josephus, ylrfv. Apionem II 45 tells that Ptol. Philadelphus sent Demetrius with
two other persons to translate the Jewish Law. This story is probably invented
by Jewish authors.
Further testimonies in Wendland's eel. of Aristeas' Epist., 1900, p. 90 ff.
711 a. Cicero mentions him as one of the very rare persons who Cicero's
Cic., De I
i, 3 (fr. 73 W.):
off.
Et id
quidem nemini video Graecorum adhuc contigisse, ut idem utro-
que in genere laboraret sequereturque et illud forense dicendi et hoc
quietum disputandi genus, nisi forte Demetrius Phalereus in hoc numero
252 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [711]
A fragm. 713 jjie following passage from his Ilepl TU/^ is cited by Plutarch
n ^s Consolatio ad Apoll. c. 6, p. 104 a (fr. 79 W.) :
r/
00ev 6p0co<; 6
6 S* 0X^0^ 06 p^paios aXX*
xal OTI
288-285 B.C.
[715] STRATO OF LAMPSACUS 253
716 V
59-60 mentions several works of Str. on logic.
Diog. Laert.
Works
6Xiyou<; TcpoaTtOyjaiv xal auTo<; ev aXXoi<; xal 6 STPOCTCOV ev T> rcepl TOU TupOTepou
xal udTepou [Jtovopi,j3Xi6), apxouvTac; Se Trpo^ eiaaywyviv xai TOUC; exTeOevTa<;
o!6{xevo<;.
The same is told in the Scholia in Ar., p. 87 a 37 Brandis (fr. 28 W.).
l
b. Simpl. in Ar. Categ., p. 423, ff. Kalbfleisch (fr. 27 W.):
Kai ZTP<XT<OV Se 6 Aa(jL^axY]voc; ev TW Tuepl TOU TrpoTepou xai u^Tepou [JLOVO-
Pipxtw TroXXoix; a7UY)piO[JiY)<7aTo TpoTuou^, ouc; VO[JLI^CO SuvaTOv elvou UTu6 TOU<;
TCVTE TOIX; evTOtuOa XeyofJievou^ avayayetv olov fiepLafjiov exetvcav 8vTa^. UTUO
fiev yap TO TCO Xpovcp TipoTepov TaxOiQ^eTai TO dcTeXec; TOU TeXecou Xeyop.evov,
ea^aTOv ev Tiaari TO TeXoc; TO 8e OCUTO xal UTCO TT]V Ta^tv. eTi Se UTT*
5 8i6TL
TauTa xat UTTO <TO> T^ a^ta xal Suva[xei xal T^ 9uaret TrpoTepov eaTiv, o3 e
[JL7) TupoTepov, olov (jLovaSo^ YI 73 apTtou xal TrepiTTOu.
SuaSoc; xal TrXYJOoug
TauTa yap ouSe avTiaTpe9ei xaTa TYJV TOU elvai axoXouOTjatv coarcep ouSe ^
auTtov. TrpwTov Se xal TCO XPovw xal Tfj dc^ta, &v TO epyov TrpoTepov,
254 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [716]
olov TO dyaGov TOU xaxou. TO (zev yap crcor/jpiac;, TO Se 90opa<; aiTiov, TrpaiTOv 10
Se TO elvai TOU 96eipea0ai xal XP^ V<P xa * <*ta. Tcparrov Se
Tfl 9uaei c!><; (JLYJ
avTKTTpe^ov xaTa TTJV TOU elvai dxoXouOyjaiv, feep SuvaTov elvai OaTepou (JLYJ
9uaiv TcpoTepov TOU Trapa 9uai,v xal 6 v6|jio<; T^<; Trapavofjita^ xal YJ e^i^ T^^ 15
CTTp7]Gra)(;. UTUO Se TO T^ aSta TtpoTSpov xal TO Suvafiei TOCTTOITO av Ta TW
TifJiicoTepco cruyyevecrTepa, a><; TO TUOCTOV TOU TTOIOU TCPOTOCTTOITO av, SLOTL TO ptev
Tuoaov [jispoc; TT^<; ouala^, TO 8k. TTOIOV ou. xal d TO (JLEV [jieTexet yevlaecoc; xal
90opa<;, clac;
6 ^povo^, TO Se ou, cl)^ 6 TOTCO^, xal TO (JLSV ^coptaTOv, TO Se ou
aveu (jiev yap aicrOrjaecoc;
elvat TTJV ^U^TJV dcSuvaTOv, aveu Se eTTtOufJiia^ elvai 20
SuvaTov. xal TO afieps^ TOU fiepiaTOu ap^yj yap 6[zoioTpov, tiaTS xal xuxXou
TO xevTpov. xal TO [JiaXXov TOU TupoTepou (jLeTex ov ^^ T ^> atStov (Jiev TOU ayaOou,
TO 96apTov Se TOU xaxou xal TO apTiov SuaSoc;, TO Se TiepiTTOv TpiaSo^. xal el
TO (lev (jtevei XP^ VOV ^ lv oc, TO Se ou (Jievei, olov awfjia xivyjaeax; xal ^povou. UTTO
Se TO Ta^et TrpoTepov eHrj av TO TOU (jteTa^u TipoTepov, udTepov Se TO TOU pteTa^u 25
Tyj
uaTepov. UTTO Se <TO ev> TOL<; avTLCTTpe9ouatv ax; aiTiwSe*; TupOTepov av eirj TO
aToixetov xal yap aO xal TO fiepog TOU oXou, a)<; TO TieTrepacrptevov TOIJ aTietpou,
xal et OaTepov ex 0aTepou, olov 6 yjytic/.Qc> TOU avSpiavTo^ uXixov yap xal
s
OUTO<; atTLov. OTL Se xal <TO> auTO xaT aXXo xal aXXo xal TrpoTepov xal ucrrepov
'
elvai SuvaTov, xal auTO<; 6 STPOCTCOV eveSe^aTO, TOV XP^ VOV xa L TOV TO^OV 30
vrpoTepa xal ucrTepa aXXvjXcav 8eixvu<;.
Strato, qui det isti deo immunitatem magni quidem muneris. sed cum
sacerdotes deorum vacationem habcant, quanto est aequius habere ipsos
deos negat opera deorum se uti ad f abricandum mundum quaecumque
:
;
sint, docet omnia effecta esse natura, nee ut ille, qui asperis et levibus 5
et hamatis uncinatisque corporibus concreta haec esse dicat interiecto
inani: somnia censet haec esse Democriti, non docentis, sed optantis,
ipse autem singulas mundi partes pcrsequens quicquid aut sit aut fiat
TO GScop ei^ TO xevTpov, xal et TL<; TO uScap, TOV aepa, xal ei TOV aepa, TO
'O Se STPOCTCOV e'jjLTiaXiv e^coOev [Jiev (sc. TOU TcavToc;) (JL7]Sev elvat xevov,
SvSoOev Se SuvaTov elvai.
The meaning of the above statement may appear from the following
passages of Simplicius.
20 Diels
Simpl., Corollarium de loco, in Ar. Phys. p. 618,
b. (fr. 60 W.) :
Ol Se urofJieTpov auTo (sc. TO xevov) TO) XO<T(JLIXW <7a>(jLaTt TCOIOUCTI, xal Sia
TOUTO T^ [Jiev eauTou cpuaei xevov elvat Xeyouai, 7re7iX7)pa)cr0ai, Se auTo ato(/,aTcov
aet, xal (JLOVT) ye Tyj eTrtvota Oeo)peZa0ai co<; xaO* auTo u^eaTax;, olol Tive<; ol
TroXXol Toiv IlXaTCOVLxciv 9LXoCT09COv yeyovaai, xal STpaTCova Se olfjiai TOV
yeveaOai TYJ
256 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [719]
c.
10 Diels
Simpl., Phys. 693, (fr. 65 a, W.) :
'O STpaTtov
i/lvTOi Aa(juj;ax7)v& TO xevov
8eixv\ivai TteipaTai, OTI &m
SiaXai(3avov TO Trav a&jjia, aiaTe [JLTJ
elvai <juvex<;, Xeycov STL oux av Si' uSaTog
>] aepo<; 7]
aXXou aco(JiaTO<; eStivaTo SiexTriTrreiv TO 9&<; ouSe Y) 6epjju$TY)<; ouSe
#XXY) Suvapuc; ouSejJua crcofjiaTixY]. TU(O<; yap av at TOU YjXtou axTtvec; 8ies7ui7CTOv
The same argument for the existence of a void is used by Hero in his
Pneumatica (fr. 65 b, W.).
"ETi Ss xai TauTY) 9avep6v a><; ev TO> (JSaTi uTrapxet xeva, TO) TOV e[jipaXX6-
fievov olvov eic; TO uScop opacrOai xaTa yvaw sic; icavTa TOTCOV TOU G8aTO<; x^po^vra.
TOUTO Se oux av eyiveTO (JLYJ OVTCOV ev TO> (JSaTi xsvaiv. <pepTai 8e xai TO 90)^; TO
STepov Sia TOU ETepou OTav yap TK; rcXeiouc; a^fl Xu^vouc; avravTa 9COTi^eTai
5
jiaXXov, T&V auycov TCOCVTV] 9spo(jisvcov Si aXXvjXow. [aXXa [JLYJV xai Sia x a Axou 5
xai aiSyjpou xai TCOV aXXtov a7iavTa>v SiexTriTUTSi aco[JiaTO)v, xaOaTiep xai TO
eTri TYJ<; vapxY]*; TTJC; OaXacraiac; yivofjievov.]
e
O Se Aa(JLvj;ax7)v6c; XTpaTtov oux OCTUO TOU [JLsyeOou<; (JLOVOV auve/^ TTJV
xivy]<riv elvai 97)ariv, aXXa xai xaO' eauTYjv, coc; ei Siaxo7cs[y), GTCXCTEI SiaXa(Jt(3avo-
xai TO (JieTa^u 8uo aTaaeov XIVYJCTIV o5aav aSiaxoTrov. xai TTOCTOV Se TI,
, 7) xivvjaic;
xai SiaipeTov ei<; aei SiaipeTa.
api6fji6<;, OUTOJ ye av xai TO (JLTJXO*; apiO(jLY]TOv eKv] (xai yap xai TOUTO
Tuoaov aXXo xai &XXo ec7Ti) xai TCOV aXXcov TWV xaTa auvexetav yivojievcov
[721] STRATO OF LAMPSACUS 257
10 Xal TO [ZeV TCpOTepOV TO 8k UCTTEpOV, OXTTS Xal TOU ^POVOD 617) OCV
en Se api6(JLOu (zev oux &m
yeveo^ xal 96opa, xav TOC apiOfjiYjTa (pGeipyjTai, 6
Se ^povo(; xal ytveTat xal cpOsipeTai owe^ta^. xal TOU [jiev apt0[/.ou avayxaiov
elvai TcavTa T<X jxepv) ([JIT] yap oucrcov T<OV Tpuov (jiovaScov ouS' av Y] Tpia<; efrr)),
TOU 8e xP^vou aSuvaTov. SaTai yap 6 TrpoTepoc; ^povo<; xal 6 uaTepo^ <J(Jia.
TO auTO IcrTai {jLova<; xal vov, etrcep 6 xpo vo ^ api0(/.6<;. 6 (JLEV yap xp^vo<; ex
TCOV vuv ativOeToc;, 6 Se aptOfJio^ ex [JLovaSwv.
1- 2
Cp. Ar.'s definition of time in Phys. IV, 219 b (our nr. 510a).
A fact which, for the rest, did not remain unobserved by Ar. Cp. Phys. IV 221 b 7 ,
where he says: 'ETTEI 8* larlv 6 xp6vo<; [A^Tpov xtvTjdewg, ^arai xal 7)pe(jda<; [JLSTPOV xara
Xpovov, ofjioiax; Se xaOyjaOat xal xaOeuSstv xal fjLYjSev TrpaTTCiv xal TioXuv xpo v o v
5 9a{jLev xal oXtyov. oiv (jiev IOTTI, TO Ttocrov TioXu, TioXuv ^povov, J>v Se oXtyov,
oXtyov. xpovoc; yap TO ev exaorTO^ TOUTCOV TTOCTOV. 816 xai 9aaiv ot (jiev ppaSeco^;
ol e Ta^eo)^ TOV auTov, cl><; av exadTOtc; ^aivyjTaL TO ev TOUTOK; TUOO-QV.
u {Jiev yap elvat 9a(Jiev, ev &> TO TCOOTOV a^' ou ^p^aTO xal ei<; 8 eT
[/.ev
elvat xal eXaTTCo ^povov Xeyo[xev, OaTTO) Se xal (3pa8uTspov xp^vov ou Xyoj/.ev.
Tupa^^ ^ V Y^p xal xv7j<7i<; eo^Ti 0aTTO)v xal (3paSuTpa, TO Se TUOCT&V TO ev &
1 5 Y) 7rpai<; oux eaTt OOCTTOV xal (SpaSuTepov, aXXa TuXeov xal eXaTTov
xal xpovo<;. yjfjiepa Se xal vu, ^Yjat, xal JJLYJV
xal eviauTO<; oux edTi xpov
Xp6vou [JLepyj, aXXa Ta
(Jiev
6 cpcoTtajioc; xal Y) axia<n<;, Ta Se Y) TY](; aeXY)VY)<; xal
TOU vjXiou TcepioSoc;, aXXa ^po^o^ ^crTl TO TTOGTOV ev $ TauTa.
DC Vogel, Greek Philosophy II 17
258 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [721]
Definition d. Scxtus, Math. X (= Adv. phys. II) 177 (fr. 7ga W.):
Aiorcep HrpdcTCov 6 (pu<rix6<; arcocrTac; TYJaSs TTJS evvotac; e'Xeye xpovov uTrap/siv
xal [Jiov9j<;.
tuentur, quac in totum corpus diffusa et ubique ipsa, velut flatus in calamo
per cavernas ita per sensualia variis modis emicet, non tarn concisa quam
dispensata. 10
Mindidenti-
fied with
b. Cp. Sextus, Math. VII (= Adv. log. I) 350 (fr. 109 W.):
T, > < t , , , , / * ,
,
\
~ n' <
the senses ftou 01 [lev oia9pst,v auTYjv (sc. TYJV ftiavoiav) TG)V aiaUyjaecav, to^; 01
ot Se auT/jv elvai T<X<; aiaOyjasic;, xaOdcTrsp Sta TIVCOV OTT&V TCOV aicr07]T7]puov
TY]^ ^u)r^^. Xeyet oOv sv TW Tcepl xivyjaecac; TTpoc; aXXo^ TcoXXotc; xal
asl yap 6 vo&v xivetTai coaTrep xal 6 op&v xal axoiicov xal oa<ppaiv6[ievo<; 5
evepyeia yap 7] vovjaic; TYJ^ Stavoia*; xaOaTrep xal Y] opacri^ T^ o^ewc. xal Trpo
TOUTOU Se TOU pTjTou yeypa9ev : eTtel oOv daw al TtXeLaTat, TWV xivyjaecov al
aural, a<; Y) ^UXY) xa6* auTYjv TS xiveLTai Siavoou(JievY) xal SLC, UTTO TWV aiaOyjorcwv
exivY)(h) TrpOTEpov. STJXov Se SCTTLV Sera yap (JLYJ TipoTSpov scipaxe, Taura ou
Siivarai voelv, olov TOTUOU^ 7) XifJieva^ 7) ypa9<x<; y) avSptavTa^ y) avBpcoTrouc; y)
10
T&V &XX(OV TL TCOV TOIOUTGW.
6 9uatx6(; ou [JLOVOV T<X<; s7n,Ou|jLia^ aXXa xal Ta<; XiiTrac;, ouSe TOUC;
[724] STRATO OF LAMPSACUS 259
xal TOUC; 906vou<; xal Tar; emxaipexaxia^, aXXa xal TTOVOU<; xal Y)Sova<;
xal aXyY)86va<; xai 8Xco<; Tuaaav aiaOvjaiv ev 173 ^Xfl auviarTaaGat 9a[Jievo<; xal
5 T7}<; ^^X^^ T(* TOiauTa TravTa elvai, ^Y) TOV rcoSa TCOVOUVTOW YJJJLWV OTav Trpoa-
ava<pepo{jLevY)<; TYJV ataQTjaiv aXyvjSova xaXoofxev. coc; 8s TYJV (pcovvjv TOIC; axrlv
eXxo(JLVY]<; ETC' execvo TTJ<; ^DX^^ a^' o3 TceTUovOe. SLO xal TTpoGrxo^avTe^ auTixa
Ta<; O9pu<; auvayofjiev, TW TuXTjyevTi {Jioptco TOU yjysfjiovixoi) TYJV ataOyjaiv o
a7uo8i86vTo<;, xal TrapeyxoTTTO^ev eaO* OTE TO Trveujjia* xav Ta
1 5 SiaXafJipavYjTat,, <Ta^> X8 ?^ cr^oSpa me^ofjiev, EaTa[xevoL Trpo^ TYJV SiaSoaiv
TOU TcaOouc;, xal TYJV TrXTjyyjv ev TOIC; avaia6Y)Toic; GXipovTec;, tva JJLYJ
auvaieL Tupoc;
TO ^povouv aXyyjSwv yevyjTat. TauTa [xev ouv 6 STpdcTtov em TuoXXot^ co<; etxo<;
TOIOUTOL^.
5 xal [leTaOet xal Si,a>xei TCOV Tupoiejjievwv exaaTOv avaXeyofxevo^ yj xal XeXexTai
1
vou<; 6p^ xal vou<; axouei, TaXXa xco^a xal TU9Xa -
).
ox; TOU Trepl Ta ojjLfxaTa xal &Ta TraGouc, av {JLYJ Trapyj TO 9povouv, accrOyjatv ou
TTOIOUVTO^.
"Ycrrepov Se xal TOU TuepucaTou TcpoaTac; eSeiTtvi^e TOUC; 91X01)1; aXa^oveia xai
TuoXuTeXeia TroXXyj ^pco(jisvo<;. Xcoplg yap TCOV 7uapaXa(jipavo[Jievcov et<; aura 5
COCTTS TroXXoix; oppcoSetv xal pouXo[Jievou<; Tcpoaievai Trpoc; TT]V StaTpip^v ava-
xoTUTeaOat. Oii yap Eva cuppuevTec; eTil TO auTO TYJ<; ecoc; 6p0pou yevofJLevTjc;
Tuepl llXaTCova xal XTreuatTUTrov, aXX' iva ^atvtovTat xal TO Oetov TI(JLCOVT^ xal
Xoytac;.
<X
A SY] TravTa yeyovev SeoTepa Tiapa ToZ<; ucnrepov TCOV TE ^XaviSo^v xal
,
xa0a 9Yjai,v Ep(jii7U7roc;. aXXa xal yi>(jLva<7Ti,xcoTaTO<; eysveTO xal
3
TO acofjia TY)V TS Tiacrav v/iaiv aOXY]TtxY]v eTu^aivcov, coTo6XaSia<; xal
(JL7UVY]<; cov, xaOa 9Yjai,v 'AvTtyovoc; 6 KapiiciTLOc;. Sia TOUTO 8e xal TraXaZaai
TCX T* Iv T^ TuaTpiSt 'IXtsta xal <T9aipccraL.
Delphic amphiktyones who honoured him with a laurel wreath etc. for
the sake of his great efivoia and 9iXoTi[jua towards the God and the sanc-
3
tuary at Delphi (Dittenberger, Sylloge ,
nr. 461) the first from a list of
;
1
Cp. Wilamowitz, Antigonos von Karystos, p. 78 sqq.
Symposia on common account.
2
8 A boxer with cauliflower ears.
[727] LYCO
those who erc^Scoxav eL; TYJV aroynqptav TYJ<; 7i6Xeto<; xal TYJV cpuXaxvjv TYJ<;
xaTa TO ^7)9i(j|ia TOU SYJJJLOU (ib. nr. 491).
728 Lyco
J seems to have been more a rhetor than a philosopher.
him exclusively
if
as a 9pacmxo<; av/jp
More a
rhetor than
and a P hilos P her
a. Diog. Laert. praises
for a certain paedagogical talent.
axpax; ouvTSTayfievos. e9aaxe yap Seiv Trape^eu^Oat, TOL<; vraial TYJV aiSca xai
c; TOIC; ITTTCOU; fJiucoTca xal x a^ lv ^ v T ^ ^' ex^pacTixov auTOu xal
-
aXX' STT* auTou TOU av0p(o7cou xaOaTrsp sTul TOU SevSpou TCOV
Xeyo[jLva)v exaaTov ISei OecopetaOat. TOUTO Se OTL sv (jiev TCO Xyeiv yXuxuTaTO^
^jv* Tuapo xai Tivec; TO ya[X(JLa auTou TCO ov6(iaTi TipoaeTLOearav.
We have a fragment of L. in the work of the rhetor Kutihus Lupus (II 7; Wehrli,
fr. 26), which is indeed remarkable from a stylistic point of view.
729
His view of the highest good appears from a passage in Clemens, what he
Strom. 11, c. 21, 129, 9 (Stahlin II, p. 183), fr. 20 W.: "the end"
Aiixcov 6 IlepLTraTTjTixo^ TTJV aXyjOivvjv x a P^v T ^ ^ u X*te T^Xo^ eXeyev elvai,
(be; Aeuxipioc; TYJV 7ul TOU; xaXol<;.
Wehrli rightly remarks that, for Lyco, the "true joy of the soul" is
730
Probably Lyco was succeeded by Aristo of Ceos, the author of a
great characterological fragment preserved in Philodemus' Ilepl xaxicov X.
731 After Lyco, whose chief interest seems to have been in rhetoric,
A. develops another side of Aristotle's inheritance, namely, the description
of types of character. The first part of the fragment in Philodemus'
EL xaxuov X (col. X-XXIV; first part till XVI 27) deals amply with
This quality is not dealt with by Ar., cither in the Eth. Nic. or in the Eth. Eud.
Theophr., Char. 24, defined it as xaTa9p6vy]at<; TIC; TrXrjv <XUTOU TWV <5cXXcov.
As to A., he considers uTrspy^avia as a great fault, because it underestimates
our dependence on TUX"*) and on our fellow-men. Thus, he protests against the
Stoic idea of autarkeia of the individual.
The first part of our fragment seems to have been written in a pro-
treptical style, as may appear from the following passages.
A fragment a Philodemus, 0. xaxiwv X, X
from the
col. ^o-XIII 8
v (fr. 13 I-IVW.):
work "On 'Eav TCOTE ai>vaio~0av7)Tai, (iTG>pi6[Jievo<;, (JLETapLTTTetv TTJV Siavoiav em
relieving
g^poaGe TaTrsivaxrcLc; UTTO Ttfc TU/^, etTcoTS yeyovaaiv -- xal
TOCC;
arrogance
1 '
^po ocpOaXptcov TO TYJ<; TU^^ eTpoxXive<;
l
xal o^uaTpooov xal em
2 1
TO EupiTiiSou Xeysiv 8 xal Aiovuaio<; ou xaxw^
,
l
xal svapycoc;, ov Tpoirov auTo<; StsTsOv]
-- (jLVTjfjioveiisLv
7Capa{XTpLV ai)TOV (AY) TTpO^ TOl)^ TTEVECTTEpOUC; aXX(X 7Tp6^ TOOC; XaO' Xa<TTOV XI
1
destitution of Wehrli.
* 2
Fr. 420 Nauck .
8
To relieve from.
[73 1] ARISTO OF CEOS 263
/XavU evoxXst, xw^oTepov S' ^Tcep eav Trapt&v xal avapaXX6(JL8vo^ Sta-
T], TrapaTrXyjafcox; xal TOV 90ovepov XDTTEL (lev TaXXoTpia TWV ayaOciv,
2
b. "Greatness of soul" is to be separated from arrogance.
Philodemus, ib., col. XV, 1. 22-33 (fr- 13 VI W.):
Kal Staipelv (jieyaXo^uyiav U7uep7)9avia<;, aXXa [JLT] <TU(jL9iipeiv clx; ev xal
xaOtevai rceSa^ CL<; TTJV OaXaTTav xal TaXXa Trotel'v a Trepl auTou Xeyouatv
71
TO Oeoix; e^ avOpcoTicov eauToix; yeyovevai Soxetv xal TaXX* oaa ytveTai Trepl
TOU^ aveSTjv u7usp7)9avoijvTa<;.
1
It was Euripides who, by the (p06vo<; of his enemies which had passed over
into eTTixaipexaxlcc, was driven to Archelaus.
2 Which is often translated by "pride".
3 The title is mentioned by Philodemus in col. X, 1. 10-11.
264 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [732]
*
'0 8* auOa8y)<; Xsyofjisvo^ EOLXE (lev elvai (JLE&XTCK; l oWjascoc; xal u?cep-
2
7)9avia<; xal U7rspo^ia<;, (JIETEXCOV 8s xal 7roXX9j<; etxaioT7]TO<; TOIOUTOS yap
.
3
scmv, 9Y]CTlv 6 'ApfarcGv, olo<; sv ^u^pov aiTEtv JJLY)
7cpoavaxpiva<; TOV aufJipepTjxoT', EL xaxEivto cruvaplaxei, xal
Tfj [Jiax<T>pa 0sp[ji6v ?)
-- TratSa Tupia-
(JLEVO<; (jLYjSs Toovofjia TcpoaeptOTvjom [JITJT' auToc; OeaOai, xaXetv Se nctiSa. xal
[Jty] Xeyeiv TTCJC; e^st, [jL7]S auroc; cmffxercTOfzevo*; Ttva TOLOUTO TI TCpoc'spWT^crai
5
xal ypa90)v ITCKTTOXYJV TO ^atpstv (JLT] Tcpocrypa^at, (XYjS eppwaOat TcXeuTatov.
he XVII I7-XVIII
b. Description of the auOexaaToc;. Ib., col. TI
'0 8' auOexaaTo*; ou ruavu (JLSV eixaco^ eaTtv ouS* aXoyo(; cocrTrsp 6 au
Si' o?Y)aiv Se TOO (JLOVO^ 9povLv iSLoyv(0(jLov(ov xal TtsiOojJievoc; ev aTtaaiv xaTOpOco- 20
J
cjetv. a(jLapT73(jG0ai S ,
av ETepou xpiasL Trpod^pYjaTjTaL, fJLTex wv Se xal fouep-
eyco Xeyetv xav (jL(ji97)Tai TIC;, uTrci^eLStcov ))'E(jLe cru;(( xal 7rapaxXyjOel<; 7il
(JLOVOV, Ta 8' auTO^ 7n,voy)aa<; a9 auToij. xaaTi TOLOUTOC; ou (JLOVOV olov 'i
XsysLv, aXXa xal xaTadxsua^stv oJxtav xal TrXocov SC auToij xal /copl<; a
TOVOC; xal ypa9iv <ruvOy]xa<; ai)T(p 80(JLva^ IfjiTTEtpta^ VOJJLLX^ xal
laTpEUEiv, [JLY] [Ji6vov EauTOv, imyzipzlv 8s xal aXXou<; xal 9UTijiv xal
Ta [jLaXtaO* UTUO TWV TE^vtxcoTaTcov xaTOpOoufjisva xal vauay&v
EV aTracri |jnr)8'
OUTCO TuauEaOai T^ aTcoTrXYj^ia^ olo^ SE xal TWV
TiavTcov aa^fAovELv xal TOIK; xaTaysXcovTac; arcEtpouc; X^ystv. -
2 8
Presumption. Thoughtlessness. Bathing-tub.
[732] ARISTO OF COS 265
Wehrli remarks that the list of characters dealt with by A. was probably longer
than our fragment in Philodemus, and that, in this case, the work of A. gave a
complete description of human characters, which formed "eiii bedeutendes Zeugnis
peripatetischer Erfahrungswissenschaft auch auf ethischem Gebiete".
7 ARISTO OF COS
Y)f/,a<; Nixia<; 6 xal Tupavvyjc'a^ Kcpcav, xai 'AptoTcov 6 axpoacrajjievo^ TOU Ttepi-
lie is probably the same who is mentioned by Sextus Kmp., Adv. math. II 61,
as a yvcbpL^o? KpnroXaou, and by Quintilianus II 15, 19 as discipulus Critolai.
LXXI, 1.
7-8:
TO
:ruth, may appear from the following lines, in which we are reminded
)f Plato's definition of rhetoric as a kind of xoXocxeta OTL TOO Y)8o<; GTO-
266 THE EARLY PERIPATETIC SCHOOL [735]
<5cveu TOU PSXTC<TTOU (Gorg. 464 6-465 a). Cp. 4640: ou yvouo-a Xyco
aXXa
1
Our nr. 198c. 2
Text of Wehrli. *
Col. LXXXIII, 1. 8-10.
4
Attention.
Ar., Rhet. 1355 b 36 makes the distinction between ^vre/voi and I&TSXVOI 7u(aTei<;
5
(our nr. 657a), and deals with etx6q, oYjjjLetov and Texfr/jpiov as means of proof
6 The man who knows his subject is here indicated by the terms 6 TrapTjxoXouOyjxcoc,
and 6
[735] ARISTO OF cos 267
"hypnotized".
NINETEENTH CHAPTER
THE EARLY ACADEMY
T SPEUSIPPUS
List of 737
members of Diog. Laert. Ill 46 gives the following list of disciples of Plato.
Organisation 733 jf^ Academy seems to have been organized as a Biacroc; for the
of the School p ,
cult of the Muses.
Cp. Wilarnowitz, Philol. Unters. IV 263 if., and our next iir.
1
348-345 B.C.
[739] SPEUSIPPUS 269
c. His reply to Diogenes, who told him that life was not worth
living in such a bad state of health.
SxaciTov. avei> Se T&V St,a90pcov oux elvai exacrTov eiSevai ou yap (Jf/)
xal T7)v Statpeatv xal TOIX; 6pi,a{JLou<;' STuexstpet yap OI>TO<; Seixviietv, we; oux
SCTTLV aTcoSouvai, opKJfJiov Tivoc;, Xeyeov ax; 6 GeXcav 81,'
6pia(JLOiJ TrapaciTYJaaL TYJV
TI aSiivaTov.
(xev xal IIXaTa>v STieuaiTCTtoc; Se, STrel T&V TrpayjJLaTCOv Ta jxev ataOvjTa,
270 THE EARLY ACADEMY [742]
TOC 8e VOY)T(X, TCOV (lev VO7JTCOV XplTTjplOV cXs^EV elvai TOV 7Ul(7T7)[Jl(Mx6v X6yOV,
TCOV Se aiaOvjTcov TTJV e7ucrn]|JiovixYjV ataOvjaiv. e7tt(7Ty)[JiovixY)v 8e
a><T7rep yap ol TOO auXvjTOU Y) TOU ^aXrou SaxTuXoi Texvixrjv [lev ei/ov evepyeiav, 5
5
oux ev 0cuToi 8e 7rpo7)you[zevco<; TeXeioujievyjv aXX <ex> TTJ.; 7rpo<; TOV Xoyicrfjtov
auvacrx^aeax; a7uapT^o(jievY]v, xac co^ 73 TOO {JLOUCTIXOI) OLlaQfiGic, cvepyeiav [lev
cxvTiXTjTiTixYjv TOU TS Y)p[jio<T(jievou xai TOU avap(JtoaTou, TauTTjv Se oux
aXX' ex Xoyiajiou TreptyeyovuLav, OUTCO xal 7] e7rw7T7][JLOVLXY) atorOyjaic;
,
Doctrine 743 the One from the Good and took the cvolution-
a jj e
separated
_
of the first . _ ..
. . ,
_ _ , . .
principles ary point of view the Good can, according to his teaching, not be at
:
the beginning but only at the end of being, as its perfection, reached by
a process of development.
aTuepjJia eaTiv, aXXa TO TeXeiov olov rcpoTepov SvOpcoTrov av 9aiY] TI^ elvai TOU
(Fr. 34 e Lang) :
c. A reason why he denied that the One is the Good, was that, in
this case, multiplicity would be the bad.
Ar.,Metaph. N 4, 1091 b
30 - 35
(fr. 35 a Lang) :
XouOvjaai SOXEL.
<o<; TOUTO T7]v TOU TtXifjOou^ o5aocv 9u<Tiv ? ol Se Toi vl 7cX9)6o(;. yvvo>VTai yap
ot apiOfjiol TOL^ [JLv x TV);;
TOU avLCTOu SuaSo^ TOU [JiyaXou xal (Jiixpou, TW S*
oua-tav xal ap^a^ xacrTy]<; dcXXa^, ETTEiaoSicoSy] TY]V TOU TcavTO<; ouatav
(ouServ yap 7] Tpa T^ Tpa aufxpaXXETai, ouaa r\ [LT\ oucra) xal ap^ac;
Ta SE ovTa ou ^ouXETai 7uoXiTUcr6ai xaxojc;. oux ayaOov TtoXuxotpa-
viY) E!(; xoipavot; aT6>.
Speus. and Plato on the one hand, and between Speus. and Pythagorea-
nism on the other. From the latter Speus. differs in this way, that Pythag-
oreans did not separate their numbers from sensible things, while Speus.
did (Fr. 42 c Lang).
Ol o5v a{JKpOTpou<; cpaalv Elvai TOUC; apiOjjLoiic;, TOV fiv ^ovTa TO 7rpoTpov
[JiEV
xal ii(TTpov TOCS tS^a<;, TOV SE {JiaO^fJiaTixov Tuapa TOC<; iSEa^ xal Ta aia07)Ta,
*al x^p^^o^? afJicpoT^pou^ TCOV alcr67]T(ov ol SE TOV [xaOyjfjLaTtxov [xovov apiOfjiov
slvat TOV TrpwTov Ttov ovTtov xEX^opiajx^vov Tcov ataOrjTcov. xal ol IIuGayopEioL
y va, TOV [jLa07)(JLaTtx6v, TrXrjv ou xsxcopi(T(JLvov aXX* EX TOUTOU
:>uata<;
272 THE EARLY ACADEMY [746]
Next geom. 74^ a. In his hierarchy of being, then, there followed after the One
next soul 'the numbers, then geometrical magnitudes, and next soul.
Tac; ouata^.
35 and 12
b. Asclepius in Metaph. 377, 379, Hayduck (Fr. 33 d Lang)
adds to this:
Nous xal TcaXiv aXX7]v oucjtav vou xal aXXyjv
xaxov, oux ev aopicrTta Se fiovov xal olov uXyj^ ei'&si, xaOarcep Ta TYJC;
afJia0s<TTaToi>. Eix^ yap oi jcepl TTJC; 0X73^; ouata<; XeyovTS^ ciavrep
TL TO TifJtiov TTOISL TO TTspl T7]v Toij fjieaou /copav, Ta 8' axpa xal exaTe-
v. Ta [JLev
ouv ovTa xaXco^ eTu^ev ovTa. 5
immortality 743 He considers the soul as immortal, even its irrational part.
13
Olympiodorus in Plat. Phaed. p. 124, Norvin (Fr. 55 Lang) :
1
I give the text as it is read by Ross-Fobes. Several corrections have been
made in it.
[748] SPEUSIPPUS 273
ol Ji
TYJ<; aXoyiac;, a>^ T&V (JLEV TraXai&v SevoxpaTY)<; xal Sraiiawnros, TCOV
749 Speus. wrote several works on ethics. A few traces of them have Ethics
remained in later writers.
19
a. Clem. Alex., Strom. II 22, 133; Stahlin (Fr. 57 Lang): eudaimonia
p. 186,
STCEUOWTCOC; TS 6 FIXdcTcovo^ a8eXcpiSoii<; TYJV suSaifJiovtav 9Y)dLv e^iv elvai.
TeXetav ev TOU; xara cpiio-tv e'xoucriv >] ei,v ayaOcov, ^^ STJ xaTaaTacrEax; <5c7uavTa<;
b. Like Aristotle and other Academics, Speus. did not consider its relation
quod est idem virtus. Et, si omne beatum est cui nihil deest et quod in
suo genere expletum atque cumulatum idque virtutis est proprium,
est,
certe omnes virtutis compotes beati sunt. Et hoc quidem mihi cum
Bruto convenit, id est cum Aristotele, Xenocrate, Speusippo, Polemone.
Sed mihi videntur etiam beatissimi.
1
Lang reads dc^X u a conjecture of Bernays).
(
2 The meaning of these words is uncertain.
DC Vogcl, Greek Philosophy II 18
274 TIIE EARLY ACADEMY [750]
xaxov, ayaOov. avayxY) ouv TYJV Y]8ovY)v aya66v TI elvai. <!><; yap ZTceiiaiTrTcos
IXuev, ou aufjipaivei 73 Xuai<;, cocrTrep TO fiel^ov T<O eXaTTOvt xal TW Ecrco evavTiov
1
ou yap av ^at*/] oTrep xaxov TL elvat TYJV YjSovyjv .
2 ~ XENOCRATKS
The man
and his
751 a. Diog. L. IV 6; 7-8:
,_ ^,
ovw cuve/wpouv 'AOvjvaioi. Kal S'/) xai, auTapxeaTaToc; T)V. 'AXe^avSpou youv
au^vov apyiipiov arcoaTeiXavTo^ auTco, Tpia^tXta^; 'ArTixa^ acpeXa>v TO
XOITTOV a7re7re(jnj;ev, CLTTCOV exeivco TiXsLovwv Selv 7rXetova<; Tpe9OVTi. aXXa xal
'
TO UTT' 'AvTtTcaTpou TTej^Oev (Jiyj TcpoaeoOai, coc; 97jaL Mupcoviavo^ ev
b. Cp. Index Acad. col. VI, Mekler p. ^9:
s
01 8 ev 'AxaSiQf.ieta XeyovTai Trpoxptvat, TOV SevoxpaTYjv ayaaOevTec;
T7]V G(09pOGTUV7]V.
25 years. AieSe^aTO Se STreuatTCTiov xal a97)yY)aaTO T^ a^oX^c; TTCVTC xal etxocriv STY).
1
"that pleasure is essentially evil".
[752] XENOCRATES 275
TTai.
T7]v SE Q-UV0ETOV xal So^aaTYjv, cov aL(j6y]T7]v (JLEV Etvai TYJV EVTOC; oupavou, vo7)TY)v
SE TcavTCOv TCOV EXTO^ oupavou, So^aaTYjv SE xai a\iv0Tov TTJV auTOU TOU oupavou.
5 TOUTOV E^OVTCOV TOV TpoTuov, Tvjc; fjisv IxTcx; oupavou xal voY)T% ouaia(; xpiTYjpiov
TYJ<;
SE [JLIXTTJ^ TTJV So^av xal TOUTCOV xoivcoc; TO [JLEV Sta TOU 7rtaT7][jiovLxoi)
25
Simpl., in Ar. Categ. y 6 b; Schol. in Ar. 47 b Brandis (fr. 12 H.):
Ol yap Tuepl SevoxpaTYjv xal 'Av&povixov rcavTa T<O xaO' auTO xal TG> Tcpo<;
TI 7r5piXa(jt,pavet,v Soxouaiv, coerce TtepiTTov elvai xaT* auToix; TOCTOUTOV TCOV
ysvcov
15
b. Aetius, P/ac. 23; Dox. p. 288 b
I 3, (fr. 28 H.):
SevoxpdcTTjc; aoveaTavai TO Tiav ex TOU svo^ xal TOO asvaou, aevaov TYJV
His 757 From these two principles proceed first Numbers, not ideal
of being but mathematical Numbers, identified by Xenocr. with the Ideas ;
17
b. Asclepius, p. 379, Hayduck, explains this passage in the
following lines :
'EvTeuOev zic> TOV HevoxpaTTjv obroTeLveTai, xat 973(7^ OTI Ta sl'Sy) TO>V Trpay-
T<X fjieye0Y) xal 8cra TOUXUTOC y.i%pi TTOCTOU (yevvaxri), olov YJ Trpcoryj
The meaning of this doctrine is, that all geometrical bodies should be finally
reduced to very small and indivisible lines. Thus, Simplicius says, commenting
on Ar.'s Phys. I 3, p. 142 Diels:
*Q<; oOv 6 llXdcTtov ETUTreSa slTcev elvai Ta Ttp&Ta xal eXa/iaTa awjxaTa, OUTGX; 6 Eevo-
xal auTa<; ouaa<;
15
Philoponus in Ar. Phys. I 3, p. 84,
c. Vit., says that Xenocr.
admitted his hypothesis of indivisible lines in order to avoid Zeno's
consequences of indefinite division (Fr. 44 H.) :
"Ori xal TTJ ZyjVGivo^ dbropta Si* 735 xareaxeiia^e xal ev eivai TO ov xal axi-
VYJTOV ex TT^ iii aTceipov TO(JLTJ<; TWV [jieyeOwv, xaxco^ eveSoaav ^s^Sco^ UTTO-
0^|jievoi. [JIT]
elvai ere' aTieipov Ta (Jiey0Y) SiaipeTa. evSeScoxaai yap OTI ei m
aTreipov ia (JLeyeOyj SiaipeTa eirj, [ry)Te xivvjaiv elvai [X7)Te elvai TI xupico^ ev,
xai Sia TOUTO (jirjSe TroXXa, erceiS'/] TO TcXvjOo^ ex TroXXaJv (AovaSwv. evOev 6
avfjpei TTJV ere' oaueipov TO>V [jieyeOwv TO^YJV.
759 Definition
Soul is defined J Xenocr. as a self-moving
by * number. of Soul
ex plained takes an intermediate place between the Ideas (Numbers) and sensible
things.
4
Simpl., in Ar. De an. I 2 (404 b 27 ) p. 30, Hay duck (fr. 64 H., the
beginning) :
b. A
similar explanation is given by Philoponus, in Ar. De an.
4, (408 b ) E ii (fr. 65 H., 1. 24-29):
32
I
"EXeyev ouv apiOfjtov (alv TYJV tJ^xV Sta TO TcXyjpcojjia eiSwv elvat, TYJV
xal Xoyou ex TCOV Xoycov TTOCVTCOV yap ev eai)T^ TOIX; Xoyou^; l^et we;
api0(JLoi><; Se Ta ei'Sv] exaXouv co^ eipyjTai, xal auTO(; youv ev TOL<; e
xal ei5
SYJ ol XeyovTe^ TTJV ^O^TJV TOTCOV eLScovcc. apL6(ji6v (jiev
ouv Sta TOUTO
xivouvTa Se auTov Sia TO aOTo<o6v auT% ou yap 69* eTepou auTyj TO ^v, 5
ev6(; 6ptovTO<; TO TcXv^Ooc;, xal T^ obteipia 7repa<; evTiOevToc;, YJV xal SuaSa xa-
Xouaiv aopt-aTOv. TOUTOV Se {JLYJTTO) ^U^TJV TOV api0[/,ov
elvat TO yap xivrjTtxov 5
xal Ti XIVTJTOV evSetv auTW TOU Se TauTOu xal TOU eTepou au[JL[Jn,yevTG)v, &v TO
jjiev ICTTL xtvYjaeoi; apx?) xal (JLeTapoXv)^, TO Se (JLOVYJ^, ^^xV yeyovevai, (JiYjSev
}),
el [ilv Tpe<peTai, UTCO aacofxaTou Tp^erat TOC yap
auTYjv ouSev Se acofjia UTUO aacajjiaTOU TpecpeTai, oux apa cr&fjux
Xenocr. held the immortality of the soul, not only of its logical
b.
part, but of the whole. Ar. opposes X. in the following lines of his De
anima (Fr. 73 H.) :
'
cTe Y) TlXarcovoc; cov x 03 ? 10 "^ sXeyev
(jLaOY)T-/)<; 1 slvat
762 Xenocr. seems to have held that Soul penetrates the universe, Gods and
descending from the higher regions of being to the inferior ones, so
that not only the heavenly bodies are ensouled, and therefore divine
beings, but also the elements of the sensible world. Moreover, he admitted
the existence of half-divine beings (daemons) in the lower world, which
take an intermediate place between the gods and men.
1
Aetius, Plac. 1 7; Dox. 304 b (fr. 15 H., second half :
0eov 8* elvai xal TOV oupavov xal TOIK; aaTepa<; 7ci)pa>8ei<; 'OXuf^Tuoix; Oeouc;,
xal Tpou<; dopaTou^. apecrxei Se xal auTw <6eia^ Tiva<;
i>7ro<TX7)voi><; Saifjiova^
2
&ova(xei<;> xal ev^ivjxeiv TOL<; i>Xixoc; vcoi-xjzioK;. TOIJTCOV 8e TTJV (Jiev <8ia TOU
aepoc;
f<f
1
The first part of this fragment has been cited supra, under nr. 756a.
2
Better: <6et<x<; TIV<X<; elvoti 8uvdcjxei<;>.
280 THE EARLY ACADEMY [764]
32
Ar. De caelo I 9, 279 b (fr. 54 H.):
M
Hv 8e Tive<; (3oy)0eiav eTii^eipoiiai <ppstv SOCUTOU; TCOV Xey6vTCov <$c96apTov
[jLev elvat yevofievov Ss (TOV XO<T(JLOV), oux EOTTIV aX7)0Y]<;* 6(Jioi<o<; yap 9<xa& TOL<;
T<X 8iaypafJi|JiaTa ypacpouai xal acpou; eipvjxlvai icepi TYJ<; ysveaeog, oux <*><;
Quid ergo aut hunc (Critolaum) prohibet aut etiam Xenocratem ilium
gravissimum philosophorum, exaggerantem tantopere virtutem, extenu-
antem cetera et abicientem, in virtute non bpatam modo vitam, sed
etiam beatissimam ponere?
Plutarchus, Comp. dm. c. Luc. i, opposes Xenocr. together with the Stoa to
Epicureanism.
[766] XENOCRATES 28l
sapientes solos reges, solos divites, solos formosos ? omnia, quae ubique
essent, sapientis esse? neminem consulem, practorem, imperatorem,
nescio an ne quinquevirum quidem quemquam nisi sapientem ? postremo
solum civem, solum liberum? insipientos omncs peregrines, exules,
10 servos, furiosos? denique scripta Lycurgi, Solonis, duodecim tabulas
nostras non esse leges ? nc urbes quidem aut civitates, nisi quae essent
?
sapieatium
768 Virtue not only in actions, but in the intention of the heart.
Interior
character of
Ael VaY hisL . X IV 42 (fr.
v 05
^ H.) '
:
, c , e
TS e<; a (jiY)
Set x^P^* pXrcovTa, xal e<; ou<; [JLT]
Set TOTCOIK; 7rapi6vTa.
xpu'j/a<;, eaTe 6 Sitoxcov a7i^X6ev. eTrei Se YjXeuOepcoaev aurov TOU 96^00, aTcXwaac; 5
TOV xoXTUov a9^xe TOV Spvtv eTTetTrwv OTI (JLTJ e^eScoxe TOV lxeT7)v.
3 UERACLIDES PONTICUS
A disciple 771 a f{ e js mentioned among Plato's disciples in Diog. Laert.
Ill 46 (our nr. 726), in the Index Acad. col. VI, p. 33 Mekler, and by
Strabo XII 541.
b. He edited, as others did, Plato's lecture TT. TayaOou.
eXeyev ev TOL^ Tcepl TayaOou Xoyoic;, ol<; 'ApiaTOTeXyj^ xal 'HpaxXeiSyjc; xal
'EaTiatoc; xal (icXXot TOU nXaT(ovoc; eTatpoi 7uapayev6(Jievoi aveypa^avTO Ta
prjOevTa aivtyfjiaTwScoc;, coc; eppy)6yj.
5
Head of the c Suidas says that Plato left him as head of the School during his
^
Academy . .
*
Od. X 383-385-
HERACLIDES PONTICUS 283
Speus. and Xenocr. accompanied the Master to Sicily (Plut., Dio 22; Diog.
L. IV ii).
Supposed that the statement is true, the meeting with Speusippus here mentioned
must have taken place during Plato's second stay in Sicily (367-364), while the
T<X TTXaTcovo? ly)Xcoxet. certainly implies that he knew Plato and heard him lecturing.
That he heard Aristotle too, refers doubtless to Aristotle's lectures in the Academy.
Cp. Strabo XIII 610, who says of Hermeias: yevoptevo^ &' 'A(hf)v7)criv YjxpoaaaTo xal
UXdcTcovcx; xal
Probably, after his return to Pontus, Heracl. held a school there, as may appear
from Diog. Laert. VI T 166, where it is said of a certain Dionysius, called 6 MeTa0-
Y^xouac S^, xa6a 973(11 At,oxX9j<;, Trpcorov [JLEV 'IlpaxXetSou TOU TroXiTou,
xal MeveSTjjxou, TeXeuraiov 8k Zrjvcovo<; (fr. 12 W.).
pX6fJL[Aoc xal ce(jLv6^. Oeperat S' aurou <yoyYpa(JL[JiaTa xaXXurrdc TS xal aptaTa.
Follows a long list of his works, among which many dialogues on ethical subjects
are mentioned.
Ethical jj b describes these dialogues
Diog. b in the following
6 lines.
dialogues
Ib., 88-89 (fr- 22 W.):
Toiirtov TOC plv xofjiixcac; rceTrXaxev, ax; TO Tcepl YjSov^ xal Tiepl
TOCSe Tpaytx<x)<;, &c, TO Tcspl TO>V xa6' a8y]v xal TO Trepl euaepeia^; xal TO Tcepl
e^ouata^. EGTI S' auTco xal (JLCCTOTY]^ TIC; OJJLIXTJTIXT] cpiXoaocpwv TE xal
Other works ytxcov xal TuoXtTixcov dvSpwv 7rp6(; aXXyjXou^ SiaXyo(jLev6)v. aXXa
<mv auTOu xal 8iaXXTixa. aXX<0(; T' v aTtacii TrotxtXoc; T xal St7]p[Jivo<; 5
<rci xal
b. He shares Plato's view that the universe, the planets, the earth
and the heaven arc gods.
Cic., N.D. I 13, 34 (fr. 112 W.):
Ex eadem Platonis schola Ponticus Heraclides puerilibus fabulis
refersit libros, et tamen modo mundum turn mentem divinam esse putat,
errantibus etiam stellis divinitatem tribuit sensuque deum privat et eius
formam mutabilem esse vult, eodemque in libro rursus terram et caelum
rtffert in deos.
777 Heracl. held the rotation of the earth round its own axis. Rotation
of the earth
a. Aet. Ill 13, 3 (Dox. 378 a 10 ) = fr. 105 W. :
The text has been reproduced under 44b, and is cited here again for the sake
of its utmost interest.
Heath, Aristarchus of Samos p. 252, suggests that the views attributed by the
Doxographi to Ecphantus the Pythagorean (who is, for the rest, unknown to us)
were expressed in a dialogue of Heracl. and put into the mouth of Ecph., repre-
sented as a Pythagorean.
Ar. admitted the possibility that both the heaven of the fixed stars and the
fixed stars themselves are at rest Sta TO ysyovevat Ttva^, &v 'HpaxXstSY)^ TS 6
IIovTixcx; 9jv xal 'AptaTapxo^, vo(Jii^ovTa<; aco^eaOai T<X (patvojjieva TOU (jiev
oupavou xal T<OV (ScaTpaw 7]pe|JiouvTCOV, TYJC; Se y9j<; rapl TOIK; TOU icnrjfjtsptvou
Rotation of 778 Heracl. seems to have held also the theory that Mercury and
Mars Mars rotate round the sun, a theory which occurs later combined with
that of the epicyclia, as it may be seen in Theon of Smyrna, p. 186,
17-187, 13 Killer.
The passage is explained by Heath, Anstarchus p. 257 f. The same theory is
mentioned by Chalcidius, Tim. c. no, pp. 176-7 Wrobel. It occurs again in Ma-
crobius, Somn. Sc. I iy; Vitruvius, Architect. IX i (4), 6; Martianus Capella VIT1
854, 880, 882.
444 and 452 Heiberg, and chiefly of Phys. 292 Diels. It is not accepted by
Heath, who follows Tannery in rejecting the name 'HpaxX. 6 IIovuxoc;
in 1. 21 of the last mentioned passage of Simplicius, as a gloss 2 .
xaO' oaouc; SuvaTov TpoTroug Taura aTcoTsXeZcrOaL T<X cpouvofjieva, oiaTe eoixevai
T^ xaTa TOV lvSe}(6[jLvov TpoTuov atTioXoyta TTJV rapt TCOV TuXavcofxevcav 4<TTp6>v 20
7upay|jLaTetav. Ato xal TrapeXOcov Tt^ 97]crtv 'HpaxXetSyj^ IlovTixoc;, OTt xal
By the TI<; in 1. 21, according to Tannery and Heath, Aristarchus of Samos is meant.
Atomic ygo His atomic theory differed from that of Democritus in that
Heracl. makes his oyxot TraO-yjTot, i.e. capable of being worked on by
each other.
a. Dionys. ap. Euseb., Praep. ev. XIV 23, 3 (Dox. 252) = fr. 119 W. :
'
5 <XT6[AOU<; [jteTOvofjiaaavTec; ajjiepYJ 9aaiv elvai <rco(jiaTa TOO TravToc; fipY), e &v
aStaip^TCOv OVTCOV auvTiOerai TOC TTOCVTOC xal etc; a StaXueTat. xal TOUTCOV
TCOV afjiep&v ovo(JiaT07roi6v AtoSwpov ysyovevai. "Ovo[jLa Se, cpaatv,
aXXo 'HpaxXeiSv)^ Oefievoi; ExaXsasv Syxou^;.
On Diodorus, cf. our nr. 232 (Diodorus Cronus).
*~ b. Sextus, Math. X (= Adv. Phys. II) 318 = fr. 121 W.:
*E^ eSo^aaav TYJV
aTreipcov 8' TWV
7rpay(JiaTG>v yevsatv 'Ava^ayopav ol Trepl
TOV KXaJ^ofJieviov xal AvjfJLoxptTov xal 'ETttxoupov xal aXXoi 7ra(jLTcX7)6eL(;, aXX'
6 (jiev 'Ava^ayopac; e^ 6(Jioi6)v TOC<; yevvcofjievoic;, ol Se Tuepl TOV ATjfjioxpiTov xal
781 One of the chief works of Heracl. was his books II. (jiouaix^^. Musicoiogy
An important fragment of these is preserved in Plut., De mm. 25-103.
Another passage is cited in Athenaeus XIV 624 -626 A. For the rest,
Philodemus, DC mus. col. XXII I 30-XXIV 4 may give us some idea
of the contents of Heracl/ work (fr. 163 W.). The text runs:
"A fJi^vTot ALoyevyj<; xaTavovjcravTa^ Yj[jLa<; <T>avayeYP a jl JL ^ va 7ra P
97)<rtv, ( {
>
'HpaxAei&T) Tcepi TrpeTiovTO^ (JisXou^ xal dbrpejcou*; xai, appevcov xal [jiaXaxcov
y)0cov xal Trpa^ewv apfjtOTTOUcrcov xal avap[i6aTtov TCH<; u7roxeL(Jivoi<;
ou fjiaxpav aTC7)pTY)[JievYjv 9iXoao9ia(; YjyYjaeaOai TO) 7rpo<;
TTJC;
5 TOU PLOD /pyjatfjieueiv TTJV (JLOIXTIXYJV xal TTJV Trepl aur/jv 9LXoTe
782 Heracl/ Abaris was a kind of life of a saint, which became the The Abaris
SOCUTOIK; xal ^etpo^Oeic;, SyjXov ECTTLV 7](juv. Oii yap (JLOVOV TOC AidcoTceia (JioOapia
xal T<i<; TTOIYJTIXOU; U7ro0e<yet<;, xal TOV *'Apaptv TOV 'HpaxXeiSou, xat TOV Auxcova
TOV 'Ap<rreovo<; Siep/ofxevoi, [aXXa xal] TOC rcepl TWV ^DX<OV SoyjiaTa {JLe^iy^eva 5
(jtuOoXoyta
H.' name 733 On the whole, Heracl. was a celebrated and much read author
in later Antiquity, up to the Christian era. Varro was greatly influenced
Xeyei xal riXaTCOvo^ auTov axoucrai. yev6(Jievov yap ITCOV Tptcov TUOU xal ei'xocri
s
xaTa^QevTa 8' etc; TOV Hetpaia 6ay)(jiepa& avievat 'AOyjva^s xal axouaavTa TCOV
TioXiTaic; v6(JLOi)c;, co^ 97](JLv "Ep(jLt,7r7ioc; ev TeTapTT) Trepl TG>V eTCTa <709c5v, xal
b. He died at the age of 53, before Plato. Diog. L., ib., 90:
Se TpiTov aycov xal TuevTTjxocTTov
785 He rejected
J J of the Ideas in
the theory its Platonic form. interpreta-
tion of the
786
In ethics, too, he held a view very different from Plato's, namely pl *asure
jjiev
o3v TYJV YjSovyjv TayaOov weT* elvat Sia TO TravO opav e9ie(xeva
xal eXXoya xal #Xoya, ev Tracrt 8* elvai T& alpeTov eTTtetxe^, xal TO
xpaTiaTOv TO Se TCOCVT' eTil TauTo 9epeaOai jJLYjvueiv co<; rcaai TOUTO
(exaaTov yap TO auTco ayaOov supiaxeiv, 6a7cep xal Tpo9Yjv), TO
YJ
TraaLV ayaOov, xal oi5 TTOCVT* e9ieTat, TayaOov elvat ercLciTeiJOVTo 8' ot Xoyot
1
The passage referred to sub 596c.
5
Sta TYJV TOU 7]6ou<; aper/jv [jiaXXov 73
Si aurou^. Aia9spovTto<; y*P eSoxei aa>9pcov
slvai ou SY) co<; cpiXoc; TTJ<; YJ&OVYJ<; eSoxet Taika Xeyeiv, aXX* OUTOX; S^etv XOCT*
aXvjOeiav.
TETapTov, OTOCV Ta TOU TrpcoTOU xal TptTou laaxi^ TroXXaTrXaaia TWV TOO
xai TSTapTOU ICTOCXK; TroXXaTrXaortcov xaO' oTiotovouv TuoXXaTrXaaiaajjiov
sxarepov exaTEpou 73 ajjia UTuspeyy] YJ afjia foot 7) "/] ajjia eXXetTCT) XyjcpOevra xaraX-
Xv]Xa.
On the importance of this definition see Heath, Aristarchus p. 191.
His b
Secondly, he discovered the method of exhaustion, which is
2.
by Eucl., Elem. X i.
The method is explained in Cantor's Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Mathema-
tih I
2
229, 254, 257 f. Heath, Works of Archimedes p. XLVUI ff. Zeuthen, Hist.
; ;
His curve He
c J means
by of a complicated curve, the problem of
3.
solved, v
for doubling
a cube doubling the cube.
Eutocius in Archim. Sphaer. et cyl. 66, 12 Heiberg:
(E(5SoJ;o<;) cpyjcrlv ev 7Upooi(jitoi,<;
Sia xajJLTuuXov ypa(Ji(Ji&v aiiryjv (TYJV supsaiv)
Cf. Proclus' account of the problem, in Eucl. Elem. I 213, 3-7. reconstruction A
of Eud.' method has been ventured by Tannery, Mem. de la Societ6 des Sciences
de Bordeaux, 2e srie, II (1878), 282 f., and by Kiinssberg, Eud. von Knidos II, 55 f.
Heath treats the question shortly in his Avistavchus, p. 190 f., and again, in his
Apollonius of Perga, p. XXII f.
[789] PHILIPPUS OF OPOUS 2QI
176 'AXXa [iY]v Set 9avYJvai ye Tiva e7uaT7)[jnqv YJV ex* v <*<><?<>$ Y^Y VOIT> ^v ^
OVTGX; ct)v xal [JIT] [JLOVOV &oa6[Jievo<;. tScofJisv Syj. ^aXeTUco (jiev yap Xoyco
d Tcaaiv 7c^ipou(Jisv, er^pav 7cape T<OV eipyjfjtevcov eupclv, Y] ao^ta (^ev Xeyotr'
av ovT6) TC xal elxoTco^, 6 Sc Xapwv OUTS pavautroc; OUT' Y)XtOio<; earat, (T090C;
8e xal aya06<; SL* auTY]v TcoXtTY]^ TS xal ap^cov xal ap^ofjievo^ evStxw^ SaTai
afxa xal efjL{jLeXy]<;. xaTtSco(jiev STJ rauT7]v TrpcoTTjv, TI^ TTOT* ex TTJC;
T^V apiOfjiov Soucra TtavTl T^> OVYJTO) yvet TOUT' av Spaaeiev Oeov 8* auTov
YjyEiaOai Set ysyovEvai; Tiva SYJ xal O~|JIVUVG>V TUOTC Xeyco Oeov, oi MsyiXXs TS
xal KXetvia; a/eSov Oupavov, ov xal StxaioTaTov, obc; au[Ji7ravTc; aXXoi Sai[jiovEc;
a(jia xal OEOI, Ti[Jiav TE xal eu^eaOai 8ia9p6vT6)c; aurco. TO Se xat TWV aXXcov 5
acTiov ayaOwv TTOCVTCOV 7][Aiv auTov yeyovevat, 7uavT(; av ofjioXoyoifzev Souvai
Se ajjia xal <xpi0[Ji6v Yjfjietc; ys OVTCOC; auTov 9a[zev, ITI Se xal Scodeiv, eav TK;
auvaxoXouOeiv. sav yap IT] TIC; Im Oscoptav 6p6v]v TTJV TOU&, SLTC xoa^^vb
oXufjLTiov ei'TS oupavov ev TjSovyj TO) Xeyetv, XeyeTCO (JLEV, axoXouOetTCo Se
071:73
auTov xal Ta ev auTW aTpe9(ov aaTpa Tcaarac; Sie^oSoix; &pa^
TroixtXXcov
TE xal Tp097]v Tuaaiv Tuape^eTai,. xal TYJV aXXyjv Se ouv 9p6v7j(jLv, d><; 9ao(Jiv av, 5
auv dcpLOjJuT) TuavTt, xal TaXX* ayaOa TOUTO Se [isyiaTov, sav TIC; TT]V a
auTOu Soaiv Se^afJievoc; eTus^eXOy] Traaav TTJV TuepioSov.
"ETI Se afJLixpov eTravsXOovTSc; TTO^C; TOLC; Xoyotc; ava(JLV7]aOoj[jLv OTL xal
Moral 791 Second, the greatest virtue is, according to our author, piety,
it is learned by learning astronomy. To this purpose mathematical
studies studies are necessary.
2 5 1
Epin. 989 b -9go b 990 c -g9i a
l
a. ;
:
OVY)TCO yEvsi, TOUTO S* OTt, Si* aptaOiav TYJV (jtsyiCTTYjv ev Talc; apiaTaic;
9ucTi xuptcoTaTov xal SuvaTov co<; olov TE xaXXiaTa xal Spicra [/.aOeEv, ei
SiSaoxoi TI<;. aXX' ouS* av SiSa^eiev, ei (JLTJ GECX; u^'/jyoiTo si T* ouv StSaaxot,
5 xaTa TpoTcov E (JLYJ Spco TO TOLOUTOV, xpelTTOv [JLT] jjiavOavetv. Ofjia)<; S' ex TCOV vuv
Xeyo[jieva)v avayxT) jxaOetv TauTa xal (JLE Xeyeiv TYJV TOtauTY)v TS xat aptcrTyjv
e 9\iaiv. TcstpcojJLsOa STJ TCO TS Xoyco Sis^eXOeiv a T' scmv xal ola xal ax; Set (JtavOa-
^r% xaTa Suvafitv TYJV T' efjiyjv TOU XeyovTOc; xal TYJV TCOV SuvafJtevcov elcraxoucrai,
TOIK; TOIOUTOUC;, oiov Suajjia^ TE xal avaToXa^; 7reaxe(JL[jLvov, aXXa TOV TCOV
OXTCO TcspioScov Ta^ 7rTa TcspioSou^, SL^t,ouay](; TOV auTcov xiixXov exa<7T7]<;
b OUTCOC; oux av paS[co^ TCOTC Tuaaa 9\io"t<; Ixav/j yevotTO
d)c; OecopYJorai, [JL'/J
Oau-
c 5 |jia(TT7)<; [jLTX OU(7a 9uaco^. Aio [jLa07]{JLaTCjjv SEOV av LTJ
TO [jtEyiciTov
5
T xal TupcoTov xal apL0(jLc7iv auTcov aXX ou acopiaTa ^OVTCOV, aXXa 0X73^ T*^ TOU
7Tpl,TTOU T Xal apTLOU yV(7CO(; T XOCl SuVa[JLCO<;, OGTJV 7Tap^Tat 7Cp6(; T7]V
d TCOV OVTCOV cpuaiv. TauTa 8k (jia66vTL TOUTOI^ 595^? EGTIV o xaXouai (JLv cr9oSpa
6[JLOicocrL<; 7up6(; TYJV TOV 7U7C&cov {^otpav yyovula laTLv Sia9av/j^ o SYJ Oaujjia
5 oux avBpcoTULVov aXXa yyovo<; OLOV 9avp6v av yiyvoiTo TCO Suva(jLvco GUVVOEIV.
(JLT(X S TaUTYJV TOU^ Tpt 7)U^7][JLVOU^ Xal T^ (TTpa 9UCTt, 6[JLOLOU<; TOU^ Se
avofjLOLOUc; au yeyovoTa^; Tpa TE/VY] O(JLOLOL, TauTY) YJV SYJ crTp0[JLTptav Ixa-
e Xsaav ol TrpocrTu^sii; auTyj o Se OELOV T' ECTTIV xal 9au(jLaaTOv
yyovoTc;
eyxaOopcoai TE xal StavooufjLEvoLg Jx; Tuepl TO StTrXaciLOV
aTp9O{ivr]<; al
SuvaptECoc; xal T% E svavTta^ TauTY] xa()' ExaaTYjv avaXoyiav ElSo<; xal
99 T aTUOTUTUOuTat Tuaaa Y] 9ucrLc;.
TauTa [JLv ouv STJ TauTT] ytyvEaOco TE xal E^ETCO cru(ji7ravTa TO S' ETU TOUTOLC;
TsXo^, zlc, Osiav yV(Kv a(jia xal TY)V TCOV opaTcov xaXXtaTTjv TE xal 6ioTaTY)v
9ucnv LTEOV, ocrrjv avOpcoTroic; OEOC; SScoxEV xaTtSeLv, T^V OUTTOTE SVEU TCOV vuv
JLYj
xaTiScov 7Tuy]Tat TI? paaTcovy) TcapaXapELv.
792These things are certainly not against the spirit of Plato's philo-
sophy, at least in his later years. Cp. the following passages:
a. Ebin. 08 1 e 3 - 6 :
The souls 0|
,
the celestial
No|Jiiaai SE SYJ Sst TraXiv T<X xaT* oupavov t^cocov y^VY), o SYJ 7:av xp^ 9avai bodies
294 THE EARLY ACADEMY [792]
good Aio xai vuv y)fjicov a^ioovTcov, yu/)<; ou<77)<; ama<; TOO oXou, xai TravTcov |
aiCT0av6(ji0a ysyovoTa, {JLSTOC Se TOUTOU^ xal UTTO TOUTOK; SYJ<; 8ai[Jiova<;, a^piov c
8e yevo^, S^ov ISpav TpiTYjv xal
Polemo 793 The next generation of the School turned from mathematics
to ethics.
Diog. L. IV 16:
IIoX[xa>v OiXoofTpaTOu (xev fy ulo<;, 'A07)vouo<;, TCOV Svjfjitov OftqGev. vo<; 8'
cov axoXaaToc; T xai 8iaxe)O)[Jievo<; ?)v OUTOX;, (Scrre xal rcsp^epsiv apyiipiov
7tp6<; Ta<; sTOt(jtou^ Xii<iei<; TCOV eTuiGufJitcov aXXa xal ev TCHC; aTevcoTro^ Stexpu
xal ev 'AxaSrjfjieia Trpo^; xtovi TIVI TptcopoXov eup0Y] 7upo(T7re7uXacT{xvov
Sia TYJV 6(jio[av Tyj TupoeipYjfJievY) 7upo9a(nv. xat TTOTC auvO[ievo^ TOIC; veot^ 5
xal eaTe(pavco(Jievo<; etc; TYJV EevoxpaTou<; fj^e axoXvjv 6 8J: ouSev SiaTpa-
elpe TOV Xoyov 6[jioco<; v^v Se Trepl acocppocriivyj*;. axoijov SYJ T^ (Jteipaxiov
<5cXXoi)<; xal auTo<; SiaSe!;aa0ai TYJV (ixoXvjv, apa(ievo<; dbro TTJS SXTY)<; xal SexaTYjc;
TO xal exaTOcrTYJg 'OXufjuciaSoc *.
TI TOU TroiyjTOii auTw Te xal KpanQTi, TOV (JLSV auvSiaTtOeaOai 3 TOV S* iaa xal ,
[jiy]
axouerat. xal oXco<; 9jv TOIOUTO^ olov MeXav0io<; 6 ^coypa9o^ ev TOLC
97] ai
Tiepl ^o>ypa9ix7](; 97]al yap Seiv auOcxSetav Tiva xal axXvjpoTTjTa TOI^ epyoi^
i o emTpe/etv, 6(Jioieo<; Se xav TOO^ ^Oeaiv.
c. His main interest was more turned to practical life than to theory.
Diog. L. IV 18:
SiaXexTtxou;
795 The doctrine of the rcpcoTa xaTa 9\i(TLv is expounded more fully The theory
1
316-313 B.C.
2
The hollow of the knee.
3
Came under the impression.
296 THE EARLY ACADEMY [7953
quae prima data sint natura, appetat asperneturque contraria. In his primis 5
naturalibus voluptas insit necnc, magna quaestio est. Nihil vero putarc
esse praeter voluptatem, non membra, non scnsus, non ingenii motum,
non integritatcm corporis, non valctudinem, summae mihi videtur
inscitiae. Atque ab isto capite fluerc necessc est omnem rationem bonorum
et malorum. Polemoni et iam ante Aristoteli ea prima visa sunt 10
cjuae
paulo ante dixi. Ergo nata est sententia veterum Academicorum et
Peripateticorum, ut linem bonorum dicerent secundum naturam vivere,
id est virtute adhibita frui primis a natura datis.
virtue the 796 Virtue was, according to Polemo, the first and absolute condition
'dithmTo
* happiness, while exterior goods were considered by him as being not
happiness absolute conditions.
28 2
Clem., Strom. II 22, 133, 7 (St. II, p. 186, -i87, :
Grates 797 Of Crates, Polcmo's successor in the School, we know very little
for certain. Diog. speaks about his intimate friendship with Polemo
and his relations with Grantor.
Diog. L. IV 21-22:
TraTpoc; (jiev v^v 'AvTtyevoix; <'A0Y)vaZo^>, OpiaCTio^ 8k TG>V
xal epcofievo^ FloXefJicovoc; aXXa xal SisSs^aT TY)V
Kal ouTG)^ aXXvjXco 89iXsiTV]v COCTTS xal ^OJVTS ou (JLOVOV TCOV
Ssu(jiaT6)v, aXXa xal [JtexP^ ^X ^ v avaTuvo*^ e^cofjioicoaOyjv aXXvjXotv xal Oavovre
TTJ? auT7]f; Tacp^^; exoivcovsiTTjv. o(kv 'AvTayopa(; etc; a[Ji9co TOUTOV ITCOIYJCFS 5
TOV TpOTTOV
%
.a. Diog. L.
24: IV
KpavTtop HoXeuc; 0au[ia^6[Jivo(; sv T^ lauTou TraTpiSi aTcvjpev etc; 'A6if)va^
xal SevoxpaTOix; SiYjxouae IIoXejJiGM auaxoXa^wv. Kal xaTeXtrcev u7
et<; [jLUpiaSac; <TTI^COV TpeZ(;, 6v Tiva Ttvsc; 'ApxeoriXaco
Diog. IV 27:
Kal xaTecrps^e Tupo rioXejJLcavoc; xal KpaT7]TO^.
01 8e Tcepl TOV KpavTopa (JtaXiaTa TTJC; ^u^c; I'Stov uTuoXafipavovTec; epyov elvat
TO xpiveiv TOC Te VOTQTCX xal TOC aia07}Ta, Ta<; Te TOUTWV ev auTOt^ xal
5 Ta auTa xal oiaauTcoc; exouaav, xal TY]V Trepl TOC acajjiaTa 7raOY]TLX*r)v xal
CTL Se TY]V TauToij xal TOU eTepou, Sia TO xaxeivcov exaTepav
xal
Some authors have been cited who call health the highest good. S. continues:
The highest 8* EiTuav auTTjv urcapxeiv, ou xai TrptoTov, TE a7uo TYJS 'Axa- 5
'AyaOov (JLTJV
oi'
SY)[Jita<; xal 01 dbri TOU IleptTraTOU. Ssiv yap UTisXapov ExaaTcp TCOV ayaOcov TYJV
oixEiav T<xj;iv TE xal aiav aTrovefieiv. SvOev xal 6 KpavTCop su; Sfj^aaiv TOU
(TTOV TCOV ayaOcov Trapiov xal TCOV TupcoTeicov avTL7uoioii(jLevov ^xetv, eu0u^ xal
XpstcoSy]^ et[jLl VOCTOUCTI, xal uyiatvouari, xal ev (jiev eipyjvy] Tcapex^ TOC TepTuva,
sv 8e TcoX(jLoi(; veupa TCOV Tipa^scov ytvofjiatw. TOUTCOV yap &r) TCOV Xoycov axoi- 54
vi 8' LfjLEpoc;,
EV 8'
voov ?uuxa
TYJ^ uyE^a*; Y]8y] VIXCOOYJ^, ETTOCV EtaEXOv] Y) avSpsta TcoXu aTL90<; apicTT^cov xal
1
Jftas XIV 216.
2 1 6.
2
Eur., Phoen. 558 and Electra 944.
3
Eur., fr. 714 Nauck.
[802] GRANTOR 2QQ
Ou yap Sycoye (TU(/,9epofJLat rot<; TTJV ayptov 6{jLvoG<rt xat (ixXYjpav aTcaOetav,
!fc> xal TOU SuvaTou xal ToG <ru|jL9epovTo^ o5aav a9aipy](TeTat yap Y)|JLCOV
auTTQ TTjv sx TOO <piXs!'<70ai xal 9tXel'v euvoiav, 7)v TiavTOc; [JtaXXov
avayxatov. To
Se Trepa TOU {JLSTOOU 7uapex<pepea0ai xal cruvaii^eiv Ta
Tuapa ^liatv slvai 9^3 (Jit, xal UTCO TYJC; sv yjfjitv 9aiiX7j^ ytveaOat S6^r]<;. Aio xal
TOUTO (Jisv eareov co<; pXa^epov xal 9auXov, xal aTrouSato^ avSpcxatv
7rp7uov TTJV Se (jLeTpLOTraOetav oux ocTcoSoxijiaaTeov. M9] yap voaoL[jLev,
6 'AxaSyjfjLal'xo^ Kpavrwp, vocryjaaarL Se TrapstYj TI^ al'cr0Y]ai^, etr' oOv TS(i-
VOITO TI TCOV Y)(jieTepo>v, SIT' (XTCOCTTUWTO TO yap ava>Suvov TOUTO oux aveu [jieya-
Xcov syytvsTai (iiaOcov TW dvOpcoTcco T07)picoa0ai yap eixo^, sxet (JLEV aa>[JLa
TOIOUTOV, evradOa Se
How may be seen in Cicero, Tusc. Ill 6, 12:
far the quotation goes,
Nee absurde Grantor qui in nostra Academia vel in primis fuit nobilis,
ille,
'minime', inquit, 'adsentior iis, qui istam nescio quam indolentiara magno opere
laudant, quae nee potest ulla esse nee debet. lie aegrotus sirn; si' inquit 'fuero,
sensus adsit, sive secetur quid sive avellatur a corporc. nam istuc nihil dolere
non sine magna mercede contingit inmanitatis in animo, stuporis in corpore'.
legimus omnes Crantoris veteris Academici de luctu est enim non magnus ;
esse dicebant recte secusne alias viderimus atrocitas quidem ista tua ;
Cr.'sname
as a moralist
393 Horatius, Epist. I 2, 4 mentions him as a moralist on a level
with Chrysippus:
qui quid sit pulchrum, quid turpe, quid utile, quid non,
planius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore dicit.
Plut. quotes it together with the young Aristotle's tale of Midas and
Silenus in the dialogue Eudemus (see our nr. 41 7a).
A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY
I ARISTOTLE
A GENERAL EDITIONS
Aristotelis opera cdiditAcadcmia regia Borussica, vol. I -I I (Greek text) recogn.
J. Bekker (Berlin 1831). Vol. Ill contains the Latin translation, vol. IV the
scholia, vol.V the fragments cd. by V. Rose and the index of H. Bonitz.
Anstotelis opera omma Graece et Latine ed. Firinin-Didot, 5 vol., Paris 1848-1874.
Aristote, Le plaisir. (Eth. Nic. VII 11-14, X 1-5). Introd., traduction et notes par
A. J. Festugiere. Paris 1936.
Text and by H. Kackham (Loeb
2
transl. Class. Libr.) i947-
H. H. Joachim, The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle. Oxford 1951.
J'ohtuu Aristotelis Politico, recogn. O. Immisch, Teubner 1929.
Text and transl. by H. Kackham (Loeb Class. Libr.) 1932.
The Politics of Ar. with Introd., two Prefatory Essays and Notes by W. L. Newman,
4 vol., Oxford 1887-1902.
translated by K. Barker. With introduction (important) and notes. Oxford 1941 .
C TRANSLATIONS
The works of Aristotle translated into English, under the editorship of W. D. Ross,
12 vol., 1908 ff. =
1928 ff., Oxford Clarendon Press.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 303
-
Aristote, La Mdtaphysique, trad, et notes par J. Tricot. Paris 1948.
- 2
Organon, vol. I -VI, trad, et notes par J. Tricot. Paris i939-*46, i947-i95o.
De I'dme, trad, et notes par J. Tricot. Paris 1947.
-
Of the same author: De
-
la Generation et de la Corruption,
Les Mettorologiques, 1941.
2
i95i.
-
--
J.
Traitd du del suivi du Trait6 pseudo-aristotejicieii Du Monde, 1949.
Parva naturalia suivi du Traite ps.-ar. De Spiritu, 1951.
Tricot,Aristote, La Mttaphysique. Nouvelle edition entierement refondue,
avec cornmeiitaire, 2 vol. Paris 1953.
fjie <ehrschrif ten dcs Aristoteles, hrg., iibertragen u. in ihrer Entstehung erlautert
!
Jos. Owens CssR, The doctrine of being in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Toronto 1951.
On the theory of the Unmoved Mover(s) see our nr. 410.
L. Olle-Laprune, Essai sur la morale d Aristote, Paris, 1881. Ethics
M. Wittmann, Die Ethik des Aristoteles, Regensburg 1920.
A. Goedeckemeycr, Aristoteles' praktische Philosophic, Leipzig 1922.
304 BIBLIOGRAPHY
von Pontos.
B GENERAL WORKS
H. Chcrniss, The Riddle of the Early Academy, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1945.
A general work on the Early Academy is shortly to be expected of Ph. Merlan
(T953).
Damon 704 a
Demetrius of Phaleron 398, p. 4 n. i; Hackforth, R., 596 a, n. 2
705-713 Hardic 483 a, n. 2
Demetrius Poliorcetes 706 Harward, J., 789 b
Democritus 471 a; 474; 717 a; 780 Heath, Sir Thomas, 517 c, n. 3; 772 b;
Dicacarchus 688-698 777 a; 778; 779; 787; 788 a, b, c
Diels, H., 483 a, n. 3 Hegel 412
Diodorus, the historian, 705 c; 740 a Hegemon, a poet, 661 b
Diodorus Cronus 780 a Helena 574 c
Diogenes Cynicus 739 c Heliodorus 566, p. 130 n. 6
Diogenes Laertius 399 b, c; 401 a, p. 7 Heraclidcs Poiiticus 696 a; 733; 737;
n. 4; in ch. XVI II and XIX fre- 771-783
quently cited Heraclitus
Dionysius Halicarnassensis 398 cited in DC part. an. I 5, 406; 474
Dionysius, 6 ^TaO(/.svo<; (an apostate of in Theophr.' Metaph., 677 a
Stoicism) 772 a Hermias 398, p. 3 n. 3, p. 4 n. i;
Dionysius, a painter, 661 b 399 b, c; 771 d
INDICES
Musaeus 632 c
lamblichus 418 b, 419; 420-423; 748; Myrto 700 d
775 a
Jmmisch, O., 624, p. 194 n. i Neleus 401 a
Isocrates 419 Nemcsius 691 761 a ;
Trench, F. W., 664 a; see also bibliogr. 727 b; 729, 731; 732; 735 c; 772 b
P- 304 Wendland, P., 710 b
Trendelenburg 395 Wilamowitz, 399 a, c; sub 706 c; 726 a
Tumarkin, A., 664 a n. i; 738
Tyrannion 401 a, b
Xanthippe 700 d
Xenocrates 398, n. 3; 404, n. 2; 409;
tJberwcg 410 737; 739 b; 748^; 749 d; 751-770;
771 c
Varro 695; 783
Verbeke, G., 414 Zarathustra 424 a
Vcrmchren 602, n. 2 Zeller, E., 396, p. 3 n. 2; 401 a, p. 7 n. 4;
Vitruvius 778 483 a, n. 3; 739 a; 792 c
Vollgraff, W., 399 c, n. i Zeno of Citium, 695 a sub 772 a ;
II SUBJECTS
Abaris 566, p. 140 f., n. 6
the of Heracl. Font., 782 Analytics
abortion 627 b See 'AvaXimxa
abstraction angels 431 a
See d^poupeaii; See also 8oct[jLcov
atheism character
Ar. on428 b;, forming of the by actions, 567-
Theophrastus, 679 b 570;
autarkia by the influence of music, 632 d ;
being
See 6v, and elvoci 765-767; 796;
See also 802 b
Eternal b., see
well-being, see comedy 663 a
biological research compositum
with Aristotle, 398, n. 4; 405; 413 (form and matter) 484; cf. 406,
works 469; 500-501 the end;
biological
See further auvOerov, a6vOeai<; and
body
relation with the soul in the Exote- cruvoXov
evil
settled by law, 628;
in general, 629;
no among the dctSia, 556 c;
value of music for overcome by the good, 792 b
630; 632; ,
t BY til
object of 432 a, b;
, 487 b, c;
See further legislation, and vofjtoq applied m., 488;
lawgiver 784 See also geometry and yeco^eTpioc
See also 706 (vo[io0ry}<;) matter
lectures, See uXy) and UTTOXEI^EVOV
Aristotle's , 400 mean
legislation Sec JJLSCTOV and ^ea6TY)<;
presupposes responsibility, 579 b; means
of Demetrius of Fhaleron, 706 c; TOC rcpoc Ta TEX?) 577 b
of Kudoxus, 784 a medicine
Lesbos 398 n. 4; 405 n. 2; 413 history of , 407;
library, studies of in the Lyceum, 407
Aristotle's , 401 Mercury
life rotation of , 778
and death, 417 a, c; 422 b; metaphysics
three main types of --, see (Sioc;; the name, 402, p. g, sub V;
a phenomenology of human , 659 the work, tb.\ 403; 404;
logic as opposed to empirical research
place of in Ar.'s system, 432-434 406; 409 sub 3;
See further: logical treatises; chronology of the M., 409; 411;
of Theophrastus, 672-675; 413; 414;
of Strato, 716 object of m. 432 a-d; 519-524
logical treatises opposed to physics, 491 cp. '523 a; ;
481-505;
II, Theophr. opposes Ar.'s theory of
I1I-IV, 506-512; the 676 b ,
science with n. 5
See further state providentia
Dicacarchus a great writer on ---, denied by Strato, 717 b
696; psychology
Demetrius of Phaleron combined Aristotle's -
, 413
phil. with 711 , In the Eudetnus, 416-418;
Politics 402 (third group Vll i); Pro/r.,418b;422b, c;423b;
date, 403, 404, 409; 413; ---
Metaph. A, 418 c;
Pol. I, 608-612; Ethica Nic. X, 418 d;
II, 613; the De Anuva, 633-653;
614-620;
Ill, practical in the Rhetoric, 659
IV, 621-625; Pythionikai
VII-VIII, 626-632 list of the , 398, p. 4, n. i
polytheism 518
See also 792 c Quality
of propositions, 443 a
potency the category of ,
see TCOI^V
and actuality, 479 c
See further Suva[zt<; [quantity]
quantitative division of propositions,
practical sciences 443 a
See science
the category of , see TTOCTOV
premiss
See TTpOTOCCU; Reincarnation 775 c
knowledge of the first es, 455 b; religion
cp. 465 philosophy of , 426-430
II SUBJECTS 317
vice
104 ff. ;
764 voluntary
Grantor's 800 and involuntary acts, 575 a-e
commentary, 799,
time
defined by Aristotle, 508-512; Wisdom
by Strato, 721 = first phil., 519;
Topica in the Epinomis, 790
Early date of the , 413; 414; witnesses
435 a, b; 445 a, b; 464 c Ar., Rhet. I 15, 658 b
Ta a, 579 a
Tuepl T&V xocO' YJV, a dialogue of a. atTiov 457 a, 458;
Heracl. Pont., 773 b See also 8i6Ti
TO a LTIOV 463 b ;
of a proposition, 443 b
of a syllogism, 447 b;
;
apx"^ eo> oux a., 465 ; T6 ^v Tfj 9uasi TTcxau, 519, p. 105
110 about particulars, 545 a See also aya06v
TO xaXXiaTov xal (Jt'/)
ev apxfj elvai
TCOV YtYv JL
{
^ vcov > 627 b 743 a
a7uoxp6T7)(jLa 566, p. 138, n. 2 ocppyjv
a7uoXai>cmx6<;, the supreme Principle called by
, 566, p. 138 (1095 b 16-22) Xenocr., 756 a
'OfjtYjptxa, 398 p. 4, n. i
l ,
479 a
in metaphysics, 520 429 b;
a7i6cpavmc; 440; 442 a- c T6 e? apxrjc alreiTai, 452 d; 454;
aTu6 ? aaic; 440; 442 a- c, 445 b definition of a. in logic, 460 a ;
practical rules, 574; X6yot dt7r& TCOV cov and STrl Ta<; a<;,
responsibility, 575
- 579 ; 566, p. 137, with n. 3;
choice, 576-578; pi* (with Theophr.) 676 a;
objections to this theory, 580; Strata's doctrine of at, 718;
p., 605 c;
object of philosophical amazement, superiority of the p. 0ecop7}Tix6<;,
519, p. 105 (982 b 13 f.) 606-607;
732 a 6 repays, ou TTO^OLC;, 610 a (1254
732 b a 7);
aura pavauGFOt; x. dtyopalos ,
626 b (1328
aura Ta TipcoTa ) ... T , v -~ a 39);
(the Ideas) 421 a
6T*-i*dbcp#ij{ The 0ecopy)Ttx6q with Thcophras-
680 b;
tus,
See Si aura and Sc' auTrjv Opposed by Dicaearchus, 694;
c
yeXotoc;
T6 TYJS ^j 760 b T6 TOU ala/pou ioTt, ji6ptov, 663 a
TOC e <*><;, 463 a, with n. i, p. 60; II. <reo)<; x. 90o pas, 402 (third
465, p. 64 sub III; group, II 3);
cf. 487, subb; 488 a Ar.'s theory of becoming, 476-480;
582 a; 639 a, b; 641; 646 II. coov y. see >a;
paia y. 90opa, 498e
and ;
545 a ;
582 a; 643 b
a ptoc; not suitable for citizens,
626 b (1328 b 39); a necessary propacdeusis for philo-
TO v ou |jtTXt T^? 7r6Xeco<;, 626 b sophy, 752 b;
(1329 a 20); 096Spa yeXotov 6vo[ia, 791 a (Epin.
v gpyov defined, 629 b 990 d 2)
yewpyoi 626b (1329 a 35 if.)
of the atoms, 718 a yvj see earth
617; 620 yiyvea0at 476
YJ? 643 b yvcopijxot;
a, piaio?, 575 a, b yvcapifji^Tepa 458; 470; 519; 566
yvo>at<; 456 a; 465
three pfoi, 566, p. 137 f. (Eth. Nic.
1095 b 15 - 1096 a 10) ; the nous a tabula rasa 651 c
0ecopy)Tix6<;, 419; 566, p. 138
(1096 a 4-5); instance of special dtpxafc, 460 b ;
Ill GREEK WORDS 323
TI ,
642 b
;, 762; Siaqpopa
^ UX*) 767 b
^
IxaoTou Y) part of the definition 464 c ;
auXXoYio|i6<; $
;
T6 _, 457 a; 462; 519, p. 103; 566,
7) 7)
the counterpart of rhetoric, p. 137 (i95 b 7)
654 a; both are dvTtXoyixafc, 655b $6a
opposed to iTrtaTYjfjLTj, 457 b;
T& , a power of the soul, 639 a with Xenocr., 754, 1. 7
8iavoia SouXefca see 8ouXo<;
general term for intellectual activity, SoGXcx;
432 a; TL ^^ UX OV >
610 a;
a function of the soul, 639 b ; TOIOUTO?, 610b, c;
in tragedy, 664b; aperif) Tt<; ou, 611
with Strato, 722 b;
cp. vpyeiai TTJ<; ^ux^Ci 723 ; (a6pt<jTO<;)
= T& (jtya xal (j.txp6v, 744;
Hepl T. v, a work of Xenocr., sub Xenocr. called the god, 756 a;
751 c dc6piaTos, in Plato's lecture II.
Taya0ou, 77 lb
x. irjSovYjv x. vouv x. Traoav
alpo6(j.eOa 566, p. 142 (1097 b) , ; and evlpyeia, 479 c ;
cp. 570 a, p. 146 (1105 a 32), Trpo- 8. defined and explained, 548-550;
aiporjjjLevoc; St* aura Suvdqjiei, 484; 548 C; 553;
alpeTa (TOC xaXa xal oTrouSata 605 a )
most ouafou are SuvapLsiq, 546 a;
8. subsequent to "energy", 554;
jv so5ai(Aovav ael aipoujxeOa , good and bad 8., 556;
566, p. 142 (1097 b); ^ 5Xyj 636 ,
T6 I.
559 a
,
*xpov> 449b 45Qa 451a
' '
7UpOTaCTl<; 6.
^
rj
455 ;
463 Y] !cm, 664 b;
ev 7Tpaei
with Theophr., 685; 686 a;
1\ TTJV TOU 7iavT6<; ouatav Tcotouot, 745 b with Speusippus, 749 a-d;
Titetx^ 589 ; CFToixetoc TYJS <;,
794 c ;
TOL ITTIEIX^ a>g 8ixai6Tepa, 658 a (1375 relation with virtue 749 b-d; 765-
a 29) 767; 796, 801
,
399 a;
in Ar.'s De anima, 639 a; el ^tXcov (6
SeYjcreToci ), 604;
with Theophr., 684 6 XOCTOC vouv ivepywv, 607 d ;
605 c;
pto?,
xal a, 757 a, b; 758 a, b TToXis, 626 a, b (1329 a 23) ;
6 (J7uou8ato<; 767 , ;
T& eft TJV xal TO eu TipaTTeiv in //*. in tragedy not of primary impor-
A ic.
r
566, p. 137 (1095 a 19);
I 4, tance, 664 b
in the Politics, 608 b; 610 a; 511 c; 721 b
TXO<; ir6Xeco<; r6 eu TJV, 619 b;
T& T]V the characteristic of animals,
638 a, b; 640; T6 the beginning of philosophy,
TrXeovax&s Xlyefat, 638 a; 519, p. 105 f. (982 b ff.) n
Y) epjnqvefac Ivexev TOO eft (vjv), 643 b Oea{xaTa, exet 0. (= the Ideas) 417b
c7)a Oeto<;
402 (third group, IV 1-5); a TWV TUCTTY](ACOV, 519, p. 106
have ocEaO-yjai?, some of them also (983 a 5 ff.) ;
6paT&s ,
428 b;
TO ,
724 a, 1. 13 6 xal Y) cpuau;, 502; cp. ad 427.
Life and character, 516 a, b;
ocl xal XuTuat as object of virtue and Cp. 519, p. 105 f. (l7TiaTY)[JLY) T}V (JUxXwiT'
vice, 572 (110705, iioSbiff.); av ^xot Oe6<;), and 607 b;
the test of virtue, 569 a, b; T. u7c6XY)^iv i^v ^OJJLEV TC. TWV 0eojv,
xaxia
6 XOCT& vouv ivepycov, 607 d 573; 580 a, b; cp. xaxa or al
461 TupdtTTeiv, 579 and (jLoxO'qpfoc,
a, ib.
Ilepl cov, see Philodemus
Y) emaTY)[ry), 519, p. 104, 105 f; xaxo-/]0eia 659b (1389 b 20); 701
524 (Tpeis 9 1X0009 iou 0. ) ; xax6v
$) evfpyeia, 606 a ; no among eternal things, 556 b, c ;
xaTTjyopoujjLevov >
xivouv 494 a;
TrptoTov , 513-518; 555b; 7) TTpay^aTeta, 434
T& in Theophr.' Metaph., 676 b c;,a function of the soul, 639 b
X6yo<; 440; 442 a- b;
of young children, 628 in the sense of 9avTaapLa, 465, with
xoiva remark II, p. 64;
(basic truths in the sciences) 460 b ;
6 TOO TI fy elvai, 493; 494b;
6
(sensibilia communia), 641 ; 497 a, b, cp. 536 b-c; 539, 540;
lOeaoaTo TO 6v, 740 a 541 b; 545 a;
xotpavo<; 515 c; 745b; v jz6vov <5tvOpco7ro<; ^x et 609b-,
See also 429 b the (theory) must be based on
facts, 669. See also at
ITUI et (xeyaXcov a(jLapTY)fia-
TWV, 422 b ,
632 b (i339a28ff.)
iv 776 b
Mayoi 424 a
Ilepl x6a[jLou, 402 (third group, sub II) ;
7\
xar* #v0peo7rov, the ra fjiaOrjpLaTtxa, 487 a
606 b (1177 b 26); with Speusippus, 745
cf. 519 (Metaph. A 982 b 28 ff.)
b
;
Ill GREEK WORDS 329
1
In Theophr. Metaph., 677 b; cp.
678 a, b in poetics, 661 a; 662 b; 663 b;
ya xai 664 a; 666
r t> _ (jnxp6v
744 Time defined as xivrjaeax;
x. {JLOVYJS, 721 d
sub 727 b 6v
572 (i 107 b 1 7); JJL7)
(louaelov 739 a
572-574
the intermediate place of soul in the
as a part of education, 630; 632
hierarchy of being, 760 Aristoxenus a great authority in
l/.ea6Ty)<; TK; ojjuX'/jTixY), 773 b
-YJ, 704;
a necessary propaedeusis for philo-
a TWV elSwv, 529 b 532 a
sophy, 752 b
;
MeTeeopoXoytxa
Ilepl a work of Heracl. Pont.,
402 (third group, II 4) ;
<;,
781
date 405;
469 579 a, b
(introduction to the )
782
,
)
51 la, b 519, p. 105 (982 b 19);
6 rrjs TpaytjjStas, 664 b, 665 b
51 lc 499 d
330 INDICES
tiXT) 7),
541 d ;
moral principles needed for founding
Suvdt(jiei TTOX; Icrri ra a 6 vous, 651 c ;
an 609 b, the end; ,
'O(jLoioc, 740
516 a; 6(jLOto5ci0ai, 0eqi 680 b
Y) voO Ivlpyeia e&8ou{jLOva, 606 a, b 6[ia>vu(jLO(; 436 a
6 xaTa T&V vouv Pto<;,6 06 b (i 178 a 7) ; three kinds of 6{jLcovuiia, 566' p. 140 f.,
6pt<j(jt.6<; 657 a
461; 464; 536b-c; 537; 539;
541c; 542; 545a; TWV TotouTcov
impossibility of 741 b , 664 a
opo<;
term of a syllogism, 446 447 452 ; ; ; the vou<; 652 (the end)
,
^ U X*1 T0 ^ T0 ?5 756 a;
to peXTtaTov, 498b, 609b TO Ix TOU 756 b
v6? ouveaTavat,
See also TVO<; gvexev
7rapa8ety(Jia, TrapaSety^ocTa 456 a
oupavto<;
774b
TO eWo? xal T6 493; 497 a;
,
dcxtvY)TO<;, 524 ;
7TSptTT6v TToXtTeia
the supreme Principle called by at, 402 (third group, sub VII);
Xenocr., 756 a the A0. TToX., ib.\
definition, 656;
<ov TO: 7)0Y), 659 b it is olov 7rapacpu<; TI TTJ? 8iaXexTiX7J?,
576-578 657 b;
a see Problemata a demonstration of rhetoric as
(in logic) 445 a /
)
658
Garepov,
T& TrpcoTov ou ,
743 a
402 (first group) 403; 413; ; 419-423
TtpoOirapxetv TCX a T&V yeXoCcov, 605 c ;
627 a ocl6piov ,
774 b;
see syllogism dcrc6 TCOV elq ^Tepa ra TTITTTELV, 775 C
ai>[z(:kp7)x6<; (accidens) aco^etv
Tiocpa TO CT. (a kind of sophism) 468 c; Tot 9aiv6fjteva, 777 b; cp. 779
in Ar.'s theory of becoming, 478- CTcocppoauvrj
480; 572 (i 107 b 5-6); 582;
the 7rp6<; TI fe'oixe au^(3epY)x6Ti TOO ov- of Xenocrates, 751 b;
TO<;, 566, p. 139 (1096 a 21 f.) ITepi <;, a dialogue
of Heracl. Pont.,
oupLTu^paajjLa (conclusion) 449 b 773 b
au(iTCTto|jLoc 499 a
(JLTJ rcpoq TO xpivetv jryjSev, 659 a T& v TCO pio> xaTaTiauaai, 753 b
(1389 b i); TexvoTioda 627 a, b, c
?rp6<; TO aufjL9^pov coaiv, 659 b (1389 TeXeioua0<xi 453 a
b 36) T^Xeto? of a syllogism, 447 b; 449 d;
(avayxata) 41 9 b 450 a;
472 b TrpcoTov elvat TO v, 743 a
the composition of a natural
,
490 b; 493; 494;
TXO<;
object, 406, the end; xal oQ Svexa, 498 a
^) 9u<jt(; ;
{xaXXov alpeT^v TO ,
630 the "end" of practical or political
life, 566, p. 138 (1095 b 22);
8oxei iv in the table of virtues, 572 (1107
?) eu8ai(iovfca Tfj fj elvai,
606b (1177 b 4);
b 26 ff .) ;
cp. 519, p. 104 (981 b 20-25) tAe'yiaTov TCOV CXTO<; ayaOtov, 583
acopia (1123 b 20)
relation with the soul, 413, 417 c;
422 b; 423; 633d; 634; 635; life a 422 b; 802; cp. 417 a
,
x6<; 697
T6 TCOV cov 7rXyj0o<; 66 lb
432 a-d;
Is a substance c; ? 535
Does Tpel? at OeoiprjTixat, 524 ;
belong to the definition
?
the object of first phil., ib.\
540; 541; individuating principle,
Soxet OaufiaaTac; YjSova? ex etv
541 a; 7) >
,
675 a 9p6vY)CTts 420 ;
464
590 ; ;
the 9p. has the arbitrium of what is defined as the "energeia" of the
good: 420 a; 571 b (noyai) $i<X9avq, 642 b
Ouaixa 9COTOE ./]<;
TOC 402 (third group, II i) 470;
, ) f
774a
See further Physics and 9i>aix6<;
Theophrastus' 681-682
ir^<; ^u/^c;, 729
ol 471 a Xaptevreg,
ol , 566, p. 137, 138
6 opposed to the
,
the excess near to
(67ieppoXif))
486-487; opposed to the meta-
Xo^u^ta, 572 (no7b23); sub
physician, 491 727 b
(pucrixa (acojjuxTa), 406; 486-487;
490 b; 757 b; QfjLaTLCTinfc, 566, p. 138 (1096 a 5 ft.)
with n. 4
Yj 9ucjixVj, 432b; 487b; 490 a; 495;
523 a; 524 j, 612
Theophr. Ouaixcov 86at, 668 striven after ou
Strato surnamed 9., 714 knowledge is eo><;
761 b
9uaet and XOCT<X 9u<nv 481; 482 b;
T^XVTJ compared with see
T& XOCTOC v gjceaOat TO> XOCT<X X6yo?, 440;
717c 86a and ,
465
r6 xara ^v 794 a, c;
TOC TTpcora xara v, 795 opposed to truth, 557-559
v Tat? 9avTaatat<;, 650 a, b
a aco(jt.a 9uatx6v 6pyavix6v, 636 ;
in rhetoric, 735 b, c
cp. 638 a TQL 9u6[zevoc TtavTa Soxei ^rjv
; ; Ilepl TOU ou<;, a work of Xenocr.,
on the "soul" of plants, 639 and 751 c
640 641 643 ;