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We would first of all, We like to thanks Mr. Vishwas Kumar, Ms. Palak Aggarwal (Lecturer,
Dept. of EE, JNU, Jaipur), for giving us the opportunity to work with this technology.
He has been highly available and highly supportive during the project. We are highly inspired
by his dedication to work, as he made continuous efforts to make this project successful.
We are also grateful to have an opportunity to work with Mr. Devendra Doda (Senior
Lecturer, Dept. of EE , JNU, Jaipur), who had kept us on our toes and guiding us at each
step. We learned not only the technical aspects but also the practical qualities of working as a
team.
Introduction:-
robot is designed to be able to follow a black line on the ground without getting off
the line too much. The robot has two sensors installed underneath the front part of the
body, and two DC motors drive wheels moving forward. A circuit inside takes an
input signal from two sensors and controls the speed of wheels‘ rotation. The control
is done in such a way that when a sensor senses a black line, the motor slows down or
even stops. Then the difference of rotation speed makes it possible to make turns. For
instance, in the figure on the right, if the sensor somehow senses a black line, the
wheel on that side slows down and the robot will make a right turn.
Line follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black
line on a white surface (or vice-versa) or it can be invisible like a magnetic field.
Sensing a line and maneuvering the robot to stay on course, while constantly
correcting wrong moves using feedback mechanism forms a simple yet effective
closed loop system. As a programmer you get an opportunity to ‗teach‘ the robot how
embedded magnets; guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc.
Block Diagram:
TRACK FOLLOWER
SENSOR:-We used Infrared Emitter-Sensor pair for sensing the track. When the
emitter passes over the white surface the light from it is reflected back to the sensor
whereas on black surface light doesn‘t reflect back and thus resistance of sensor goes
high which intern switches off the motor.
MOTOR-In this we used the DC MOTORS which are used to move the follower
ahead.
Circuit diagram
Track follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a
black line on a white surface (or vice-versa) or it can be invisible like a magnetic
field. For many TRUE robotics competitions, which require an autonomous vehicle, a
The robot uses a combination of IR Photo diode and IR-LEDs to sense the presence to
falling on it- greater the light, lesser the resistance and visa-versa. The basic principle
underlying this project is that objects light in colour radiate the light falling on them
while dark coloured objects don‘t. So when the sensors are above the black line the
light emitted by the IR- LED is not radiated by the floor, hence the resistance of the
Photo-diode increases. The opposite happens when the robot back on the white
surface.
In our robot the IR Photo diode is used part of a voltage divider circuit. The circuit
whose resistance can be changed. In our project, we will be using 500k presets, that
is, we will use presets whose resistance can be changed from 0K to 500K.
When the robot is on white surface the
During both the cases it is necessary to adjust the 500K preset in such a way that, when
the robot is on white surface, voltage at Vout is <0.8V (so that the voltage at the emitter
of the transistor is LOW) and when the sensor is on the black line the voltage is >0.8V
(so that the voltage at the emitter of the transistor is HIGH). For controlling the two DC
motors, I have used the L293D motor driver. The reason I used this is that it has high
noise immunity (that is, it considers voltages up to 1.7V as LOW), perfect for a robot
The pins 4, 5, 12 and 13 are connected to ground. Pin 8 is the motor power supply pin
and is connected to Vcc (9V) along with Pins 1, 16 (the two enable pins) and Pin 9.
The left and right motors are connected to Pins 3, 6 and Pins 14, 11 respectively. Pin 2
(Input A), Pin 7 (Input B) and Pin 15 (Input A), Pin 10(Input B) are the input pins for
controlling the left and right motor respectively. The truth table for controlling the
In both the sides of the robot two sensors are used to sense the presence the line. The
output of both the sensors of each side are connected together and connected to an
LED. So that, the LED glows even when one of the sensors detects the line. The
output of the left sensor is connected to Input A (Pin 2) of the left motor and the right
sensor to Input A (Pin 15) of the right motor. When the robot is on white surface only
one (Pin 7 and 10) input pin in each channel is high. The Pins 2 and 15 are low as the
sensors are on white surface. Hence this makes the robot move forward. When the left
sensor is on the line, Pin 2 is high. But Pin 7 is also high. Hence the left motor is
switched off as both the inputs are HIGH (refer to the truth table above).But the right
motor is still turning forward. This brings the robot Back on the white surface.
Similarly when the right sensors are on the line, the right motor is switched off until
This circuit works fine for black line following and using the robot as a photovore and
obstacle avoider, for following white line and for using the robot as a photophobe,
there is a slight change in the circuit. The left sensor output is connected to Pin 7 and
The rest of the circuit remains unchanged. When the robot is on black surface (when
following white lines), the input pins 2 and 15 are high. This makes the motors turn
forward. When the left sensors are on the line the output goes low and stops the motor
until the sensors are back on the black surface. Similarly, when the right sensors are
2.2.1. Capacitor:
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
Fig.8 Capacitor
This are of different types which includes- multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc,
aluminium electrolytic.
Coding:- Value of capacitor are read from their body. An electrolytic capacitor
contains its value along with unit as well as voltage specification. Whereas in disk
type if two digits are present, these are read as Pico-Farads. An example: 47 printed
on a small disk can be assumed to be 47 Pico-Farads. But, in case three digits are
present the first two are the 1st and 2nd significant digits and the third is a multiplier
code. Most of the time the last digit tells us how many zeros to write after the first two
digits.
2.2.2. Resistor:
its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with
Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel-chrome).
Fig. 9 Resistor
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the
maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include
the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current, and
above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment
designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating
their power.
Theory of operation:
law:
V=I*R
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the
This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a
400 ohms, a current of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R.
2.2.3. Transistor
A Transistor is a semiconductor which is a fundamental component in almost all
electronic devices. Transistors have many uses including switching, voltage/current regulation, and
A transistor controls a large electrical output signal with changes to a small input signal. Since a
large amount of current can be controlled by a small amount of current, a transistor acts as an
amplifier.
The most common type of transistor is a bipolar junction transistor. This is made up of three layers of
a semiconductor material in a sandwich. In one configuration the outer two layers have extra
electrons, and the middle layer has electrons missing (holes). In the other configuration the two outer
layers have the holes and the middle layer has the extra electrons.
Fig.11 Transistor
2.2.4. LED(Light Emitting Diode):
LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode (LED)
is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward biased P-
N junction there is, with in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a
recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy
possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another state. The process of
LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are
displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown
through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and
also in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.
Fig. 12 LED
LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!).
The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round
LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are
very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.
2.2.5. L293D IC MOTOR DRIVER
Features:
Thermal Shutdown
High-Noise-Immunity Inputs
at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loads
such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as well as other high-
transistor sink and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with
enable input is high, the associated drivers are enabled, and their outputs are active
and in phase with their inputs. When the enable input is low, those drivers are
disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state. With the proper
data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable for
current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. The term photodiode can
be broadly defined to include even solar batteries, but it usually refers to sensors used
to detect the intensity of light IR Photo diodes are semiconductor devices responsive
incident power. Photodiodes can be used to detect the presence or absence of minute
quantities of light and can be calibrated for extremely accurate measurements from
works on the reflection criteria. IR LED and Photodiode is placed adjacent to each
other. When no IR light falls on the IR Photo diode the resistance of the diode falls
When any reflecting surface (White surface) comes near to IR LED and IR Photo
diode pair the reflected light of IR LED falls on the photodiode which rapidly
Features of photodiode
2. Low noise
4. Mechanically rugged
6. Long life
Fig.14 IR Pair
Fig. 15 Working of IR pair
APPLICATION:
disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls
2. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors
A direct current (DC) motor is a fairly simple electric motor that uses electricity and
a magnetic field to produce torque, which turns the motor. At its most simple,
a DC motor requires two magnets of opposite polarity and an electric coil, which acts
The most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use
from the DC source—so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.
The brushed DC motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the
electrical magnets. .It works on the principle of Lorentz force , which states that any
low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are
Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary
electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This
design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication
of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of
brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency.
Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed
controllers.
DC motors are used for a variety of purposes, including electric razors, electric
car windows, and remote control cars. The simple design and reliability of
a DC motor makes it a good choice for many different uses, as well as a fascinating
Fig. 16 DC Motor
CONCLUSION
batteries. There are certain advantages of this robot. They are as:
Apart from advantages there are some disadvantages too. They are as follows:
Robots take the place of many humans in places like factories. So the people have
to find new jobs or be retrained. So a MAJOR disadvantage is that the robots take
Another disadvantage is that there is quite a high initial cost for the robot and the
software and equipment that you need to use with the robot
REFERENCE
World Congress 2009, Incheon, - Page 69 Jong-Hwan Kim, Shuzhi Sam Ge,
organising behaviours ... - Page 164 Vito Trianni - 2008 - 189 pages
3. www.projectdesignline.com/howto/207800773
4. www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/lab/ad.asp?url=/EFYLinux/circuit/Augu
st2007/CI-01_Aug07.pdf&title=Mobile%20Detector
6. Kuchta, R.; Stefan, P.; Barton, Z.; Vrba, R.; Sveda, M, ―Wireless temperature data