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4.1).
The angle of zero lift α0 is determined by the airfoil shape and wing twist. For a
flat wing
THEME 4 10/5/2008 31
The derivative C αya depends on aspect ratio λ and the sweep angle χ , influence of
taper η on derivative size is weak. The derivative C αya does not depend on wing twist.
C αya :
πλ λ
C αya = , m= (4.3)
α
1+τ + (1 + τ ) 2
+ ( π m)
2 C ya∞ cos χ 0 .5
Here the parameter τ takes into account the wing plan form and depends on η ,
λ , χ 0 .5 . It is possible to assume in the first approximation τ ≈ 0 (in general
τ ≈ 0 ...0 ,24 ),
⎡ ⎤
2 1 ⎥.
τ = 0 ,17 m ⎢η + (4.4)
⎢
⎣ (5η + 1) ⎦
3⎥
(
C αya∞ = 2π − 1,69 4 c = 2π 1 − 0 ,27 4 c . ) (4.5)
α C αya∞ λ
C ya = . (4.6)
1 α
pλ + C ya∞
π
Here p is the ratio of half-perimeter of the wing outline in the plan to span (Fig.
4.2). The significance of the last formula is in its universality and capability to apply to
any plan forms and aspect ratios (it is especially useful for wings with curvilinear edges
or edges with fracture).
THEME 4 10/5/2008 32
It is possible to define parameter p for
a wing represented in fig. 4.2, by the formula
l1 + l2 + l3 + l4
p= , or in case of tapered
l
wing - by the formula
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 2
p = 0 .5 ⎜ + ⎟+ .
⎝ cos χ п .к . cos χ з .к . ⎠ λ (η + 1)
Fig. 4.2.
Let's analyze the influence of wing
(Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.3.
2. With increasing of sweep angle at
half-line chord ( 0 .5 chord line χ 0 .5 ) the
THEME 4 10/5/2008 33
does not influence on value of lift coefficient
Fig. 4.5.
It is necessary to take into account the non-linear effects which occur at flow
about wings of small aspect ratio in dependence of a lift coefficient on the angle of
attack C ya = f ( α ) (Fig. 4.6)
C ya = C ya line + ΔC ya
( )
equal to an angle of the trailing edge deflection α 0 = f ′ x t .e . , z , where y = f ( x , z ) -
∂ f
equation of a surface of a wing, f ′ = , x t .e . is trailing edge coordinate.
∂x
THEME 4 10/5/2008 34
The non-linear additive can be calculated by the formula which is fair at any
Mach numbers (the linear theory of subsonic flow refers only to a linear part of the
dependence).
4C αya
1 − M ∞2 cos 2 χ l .e . ⋅ (α − α 0 )
2
ΔC ya = (4.7)
πλ
At a supersonic leading edge ( M ∞ cos χ l .e . > 1 ) the non-linear additive
disappears and ΔC ya = 0 .
With decreasing of λ the derivative C αya decreases, and the non-linear additive
Fig. 4.7. Character of changing of the non- Fig. 4.8. Character of changing of the non-
linear additive ΔC ya linear additive ΔC ya
The maximum lift coefficient is connected with the appearance and development
of flow stalling from the upper wing surface near the trailing edge and depends on many
factors, first of all, on the characteristics of the airfoil ( c , f , x f , nose section shape),
wing plan form ( χ , η ), Reynolds number Re . The λ value does not practically
THEME 4 10/5/2008 35
influence onto C ya max for wings of large aspect ratio (Fig. 4.9), at that with χ
decreasing α st increases.
The influence of λ has an effect as follows for wings of small aspect ratio:
C ya max grows with λ growing from 0 up to λ ~ 1 ; and then decreases - with
increasing of λ . Small values of C ya max ( C ya max ≈ 1,0 ...1,1 ) and large values of α st
( α st ≈ 25 o ...40 o ) (fig. 4.10) are characteristic for wings with λ < 3 . A flow stalling
delays in the latter case caused by influence of vortex structures formed on the upper
wing surface.
section shape. The presence of C ya max low values is characteristic for a wing with the
pointed airfoil nose section which do not depend on Reynolds numbers (Fig. 4.11). The
increasing of C ya max (up to certain values) is characteristic for a wing with the rounded
THEME 4 10/5/2008 36
⎛ 0 .49η + 0 .91 2 ⎞ ⎡ η+2 ⎤
C ya max = C ya max ∞ ⎜ 1 − sin χ 0 .25 ⎟ ≈ C ya max ∞ ⎢1 − sin2 χ 0 .25 ⎥ ,
⎝ η+1 ⎠ ⎢⎣ 2(η + 1) ⎥⎦
where C ya max ∞ is the maximum value of an airfoil lift coefficient;
( )
C ya max ∞ ≈ 39 .3 c exp − 8 c th Re⋅ 10 − 6 at Re ≥ 10 6 .
THEME 4 10/5/2008 37
4.3. Induced drag.
Where C xi ϕ =0 is the induced drag of a flat wing; ΔC xiϕ is the additive to induced drag
1 2 1
C xi ϕ = 0 = C ya lately, where e is Osvald number, e = .
πλe 1+δ
Value of ΔC xi ϕ in contrast to C xi ϕ =0 can not be equal to zero in general at
C ya = 0 (because for non-flat wing various wing cross-sections may have lift
Fig. 4.13. Induced drag of a flat wing Fig. 4.14. Induced drag of a flat wing and
wing with twist
This expression can be received if it is assumed that the sucking force is not
realized on the wing leading edge. The formula can be transformed to the following
form if the non-linear additive is neglected ( ΔC ya = 0 ) we have:
2
C xiϕ = 0 = AC ya , A = 1 C αya (4.12)
In such form the formula is used in practice (it coincides with the formula for a
flat wing of large aspect ratio)
πλ 2
( For a wing of small aspect ratio λ < 1 , C αya = and A = ; comparing
2 πλ
1+δ
with a wing of large aspect ratio A = we shall notice that δ = 1 ).
π ⋅λ
THEME 4 10/5/2008 39
4.4. Wing polar
the polar depends on twist presence on a wing. Therefore we shall separately consider
polar for a flat wing and polar for a wing having twist, and we shall conduct the
qualitative analysis.
for polar:
2
C xa = C xp + C xi = C xp + AC ya . (4.13)
( )
C xp ≠ f C ya . In this case we shall write
2
down C xa = C x 0 + AC ya , where C x0 is the
(Fig. 4.15); in some cases this change is taken into account in parameter A :
2
C xa = C x0 + aC ya 2
+ AC ya ~ 2 = C + AC 2 ,
= C x0 + AC (4.14)
ya x0 ya
THEME 4 10/5/2008 40
0 .95 λ
λ ef = ).
1 + 0 .16 λ tgχ 0 .5
The last polar writing (4.14) is the most
general form, which is fair for any
aerodynamic shapes if not to decipher
parameters C x0 and A . Parameter A has the
name of a polar pull-off coefficient.
∂ C xa
Obviously, that in general A = . Wing
2
∂ C ya
determined by wing twist B = к 1ϕ w . The polar pull-off coefficient does not depend on
wing twist.
Polar equation for a wing with geometrical twist is a square parabola with
displaced peak (Fig. 4.17). It is possible to write down
2
B2
C xa =C−
4A
⎛
+ A⎜ C ya +
⎝
B⎞
(
⎟ = C xa min + A C ya − C yam
2 A⎠
)2 , (4.15)
THEME 4 10/5/2008 41
B2 B
Where C xa min = C − ; C yam = − .
4A 2A
From comparison of polar for flat and non-planar wings (the Fig. 4.18) it is
possible to reveal the advantages of using of a non-planar wing:
Fig. 4.17. Polar for a wing having twist Fig. 4.18. Polar for a flat and non-planar
(for a non-planar wing) wings
The ratio of aerodynamic lift to the drag force obtained by dividing the lift by the
drag is called lift-to-drag ratio K :
THEME 4 10/5/2008 42
C ya
K= , (4.16)
C xa
The lift-to-drag ratio is one of the basic characteristics determining efficiency of
an airplane.
C ya
For a flat wing K = . (4.17)
C x0 + AC y2a
C x0
C ya opt = .
A
We shall receive the formula for calculation of maximum quality having
C x0
substituted C ya opt = in expression (4.17). We get
A
C x0
A 1
K max = ; K max = .
2 2 AC x 0
⎛ C x0 ⎞
C x0 + A⎜ ⎟
⎝ A ⎠
THEME 4 10/5/2008 43
The value of K max is increased with increasing of λ , decreasing of C x0 and δ
(δ = 0 for elliptical distribution of chordwise). We shall notice, that
1
K max ⋅ C ya opt = and does not depend on C x0 .
2A
C ya 1
For a non-planar wing - K = and K max = .
2 2 AC x 0 + B
C x0 + BC ya + AC ya
It is easy to find values of K max , C ya opt , α opt graphically. It follows from fig.
4.20 that it is necessary to conduct a beam tangent to polar from origin of coordinates to
search K max . The values of C ya and α in tangency point will correspond to C ya opt
and α opt .
between them.
THEME 4 10/5/2008 44
C ya cr .s .
aerodynamic loading spanwise it is convenient to use relative value C ya сr .s . = .
C ya
Fig. 3.5). Let's consider a flat wing. The influence of λ , χ , η is shown on the
following diagrams (Figs. 4.21, 4.22, 4.23).
Loading is distributed spanwise more regular with increasing of aspect ratio λ
.At λ = ∞ and for an elliptical wing C ya се ÷ = 1,0 . Refer to fig. 4.21.
The increasing of sweep angle χ causes growth of loading in a tip part and
reduction in root cross-section for a swept-back wing ( χ > 0 ). Refer to fig. 4.22.
The influence of wing taper η is similar to sweep χ effect : there is loading
growth in wing tip cross-sections with taper η increasing. Refer to fig. 4.23.
THEME 4 10/5/2008 45
⎡ C αya ∞ ⎤ 1− z
2
2 ⎛
C ya cr .s . = ⎢ 1 + ( 3 + τ )⎥ − ⎜ 1 − cos χ 1 ⎞⎟ ( 1 − z ) ; 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 ,
⎢⎣ πλ ⎥⎦ 3 μ + 1 − z 2 b( z ) ⎝ 4⎠
C αya ∞
Where μ = b( z ) , C αya ∞ = 2π − 1,69 4 c , the values of parameter τ = f (λ , χ , η )
4λ
are taken from the reference book or calculated.
Chords are distributed spanwise for a tapered wing with straight-line edges as
η − (η − 1) z
follows: b( z ) = 2 .
η+1
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 2 1 ⎥, m = λ 1
Approximately τ = 0 .17 m η + ,η= .
⎢
(5η + 1) 3 ⎥⎦ C αya ∞ cos χ 0 .5 η
⎣
4.7. Flow stalling.
Different values of C ya cr .s . along wing span are the reason of flow stalling in one
of cross-sections in which the local value C ya max cr .s . is reached. For example, the flow
flow stalling will begin in that place, where the true angle of attack comes nearer to
critical.
Fig. 4.24.
THEME 4 10/5/2008 46
In general the position of flow stalling spanwise on a tapered unswept wing can
be determined by the formula z stall ≈ 1 − η , for swept tapered wing the position of
stalling spanwise is determined by the following dependence
1−η + a ( 1 + a ) 2 − (1 − η ) 2
z stall ≈ , a = π η (1 − cos χ 0 .25 ) .
1 + a2
For improvement of wing aerodynamics at high angles of attack it is necessary to
create a condition of simultaneous flow stalling spanwise, i.e. uniform distribution of
loading spanwise It can be achieved by geometrical twist application. It is necessary to
apply wash-in to rectangular wing for the purpose of increasing loading in tip cross-
sections, wash-out is used for unswept wing, in this case tip cross-sections are unload.
(It has be noticed, that for a wing with the elliptical law of chords distribution spanwise
without geometrical twist all cross-sections have an identical C ya cr .s . , because
Vi = const and real angles of attack α real = const are identical for such wing
spanwise).
THEME 4 10/5/2008 47