Morfologija

1. MORPHOLOGY is a sub-branch of linguistics which deals with the internal structure of words.
The elementary unit of analysis in morphology is a morpheme and the highest in hierarchy is a
word. Morphology = morphe (Greek, form) + logia (reasoning), therefore morphology is the
study of form. Morphology deals with varying word-forms (covered by the term
inflection/accidence which refers to the study of changes in the word-form due to different
contexts – INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY) and also with the processes which produce new
words (the term related to the study of word-forming processes is WORD-FORMATION). The
inflection and word-formation are joined in the discipline of language study called morphology.
2. GRAMMAR is the study or use of the rules about how words change their form and combine
with other words to make sentences. It is the system of rules and procedures formulated as
algorithms operating on the inventory of language units.
GRAMMAR OF WORDS is a system of rules in the domain of lexis which can be formulated as
algorithms.
3. - MORPHEME is the smallest language unit which has both sound-form and meaning, exists in
abstracto and what we deal with in reality is in fact its realization (either as a sound-form or a
sequence of graphic symbols) referred to as a morph or an allomorph (which is a lexically of
grammatically conditioned morph variant). In writing, a morpheme is enclosed in braces, e.g.
/s/, /z/, /iz/ are phonetically conditioned allomorphs of the morpheme {present tense} and also
of the morpheme {plural}.
- MORPH is a segment of a word-form which represents a particular morpheme.
-ALLOPHONE

4. Rules (lexis & syntax)

5. Grammatical words (functional, empty)
GRAMMATICAL WORDS are pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions and conjunctions.
They are known as functional words, functors or empty words. These words constitute a closed
class and their number is finite. Some authors call grammatical words morphosyntactic words.
6. LEXICAL PARADIGMS refer to sets of words which share the same root morpheme (like, liking,
likely, unlikely, likelihood, unlikelihood) or which share the same derivational suffix (booklet,
coverlet, cutlet, droplet, starlet). The minimal number of members which constitute a paradigm
is two (let-letting, cut-cutting, orange-oranges, toy-toys).
7. - PREFIX is an obligatory bound morpheme which does not realize a lexeme and which precedes
the base. There are 2 types of prefixes: those not correlated with any independent word (and
that would be in line with the definition of a prefix) – un- , dis- , mis- , de- , en-, im-, ir-, il-, in-,
non-, a- - and those which are correlated with functional words, i.e. prepositions and
preposition-like adverbs, e.g. out-, over-, up-, under-. This latter category of prefixes is termed
 SEMIBOUND PREFIXES – they can occur both as independent words and as derivational prefixes.
Prefixes which shift a word to another category are called class-changing prefixes, e.g. be- in
befriend. Prefixes which do not change the word class of a word are called class-maintaining
prefixes, e.g. arch- in archbishop. Classification of prefixes can be based on different principles.
Diachronically, prefixes can be classified: as native: un- and as foreign: uni. Synchronically they
can be classified: according to the word-class of a prefixal derivative: noun-forming, verb-
forming, adjective-forming…; according to the type of the base to which they are added:
deverbal, (re- in reconsider), denominal (ex- in ex-boyfriend), deadjectival; semantically prefixes
can be mono- and polysemous, e.g. like- has one meaning, and –ery 4 meanings; according to
the generic denotative meaning there are: negative prefixes (un-, non-, in-, dis-), reversative
prefixes (un-, de-, dis-, e.g. untie), prefixes of time and order (fore-, pre-, post-, ante-, ex-), prefix
of repetition re-, locative prefixes (sub-, inter-, intra-, trans-, circum-); there are prefixes of
degree and size (hyper-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super-, sur-, ultra-, under-); there are prefixes of
attitude (anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-); number prefixes are: bi-, di-, poly-, multi-, semi-, tri-, uni-
, mono-; there are also stylistically neutral (un-, im-, pre-, re-) and stylistically marked prefixes
(pseudo-, quasi-, uni-, ultra). Some new prefixes (for neologisms) are: anti, be, bin, contro,
electro, ergo, extra, hydro, super, quadri… PREFIXAL DERIVATIVE is a word which is the output
of the word-forming process of derivation by means of a prefix.
- SUFFIX is an obligatory bound morpheme which does not realize a lexeme and which follows the
base. Suffixes can have lexical or grammatical meaning in which case they are called
inflectional. Classification of suffixes is the following: according to the part of speech formed
there are noun suffixes (-er, -dom, -ness, -ee, -ery, -ance); there are adjective suffixes (-able, -
less, -ful, -ic, -ous); there are verb-forming suffixes (-en, -ify, -ize); there are adverb-forming
suffixes (-ly, -ward, -wise); according to the base to which the suffix is added they can be:
deverbal (-er, -ing, -ment, -able), denominal (-less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some), deadjectival (-en, -ly, -
ish, -ness); according to semantic criteria they can denote: the agent of an action (-er, -ant, -
ist), collectivity (-age, -dom, -ery), diminutiveness (-ie, -let, -ling); from the point of view of
stylistic reference they can be: stylistically neutral (-able, -er, -ing) and marked (-oid, -ish);
according to the degree of productivity, there are suffixes which are highly productive, e.g. –er,
-ness, -able and there are those which are less frequent, e.g. –ure, -ft; suffixes can be divided
into 2 categories: class-changing and class-maintaining suffixes. Some suffixes can be
polysemous (-ful) and others can have only one meaning (-ent). Some suffixes can be
homonymous, e.g. –ly (adverb- and adjective-forming suffix). There is synonymy in suffixes (-er
and -ist). As to their origin, they can be native (-ness, -ish, -dom) or foreign (-ation, -ment, -able).
SUFFIXAL DERIVATIVE is a word which is the output of the word-forming process of derivation
by means of a suffix. Examples of suffixal derivatives would be suffixal verbs (darken), suffixal
nouns (princedom), suffixal adverbs (downwards)….inflectional suffixes; inflection(question
no.15,16)…SUPERFIX OR SUPRAFIX refers to suprasegmental internal modification of a base
(ex’port and ‘export).
8. Grammatical paradigm
9. Content words
LEXICAL WORDS include: nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. They are also known as full
words or content words. These words carry high information content and are syntactically
structured by the grammatical words. Lexical words are open-class words and their number is
potentially unlimited.
10. - Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone to function as words are called free
morphemes. They comprise simple words (i.e. words made up of one free morpheme) and
compound words (i.e. words made up of two free morphemes).
- Bound morphemes are morphemes that can only be attached to another part of a word
(cannot stand alone).
11. Simple vs. complex words and morphemes
WORDS can be monomorphemic/simple and polymorphemic/complex. Words are elements
which have positional mobility – they can change their position within a syntagmatic chain
without producing ungrammatical output. All words do not have an equal mobility potential.
The morphemes as word constituents appear in a rigidly fixed sequential order – they cannot
change their position freely without producing ungrammatical output. Words are the elements
of structure which resist interruption by the insertion of other language material. Other
language material can be inserted at word boundaries.
12. Transparent vs. opaque
TRANSPARENCY – characteristic of a lexeme which refers to its analyzability. A word is
transparent if it is clearly/unambiguously analysed into its constituent morphs (washable = wash
+ able meaning ‘that can be washed’). OPAQUE is a characteristic of a lexeme which refers to its
analyzability. A word which is not clearly analyzable into its constituent morphs is said to be
opaque (carriage, bondage, dosage, barrage, pocketful, bagful, mouthful, plentiful, teaspoonful,
businesslike, warlike, trickery, weaponry, gadgetry, bitter, bizarre, bilateral).
13. BASE or operand is any item to which affixes can be added. Roots and stems are special kinds
of base.
14. ROOT is that part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes
have been removed. In words which are composite there can be 2 or more roots (lemon-
squeezer). Sometimes the root can be an obligatory bound morph (tele in telephone) or there
can be 2 bound morphs as roots (telegram, telegraph, telescope). The root has both synchronic
and diachronic relevance (spect in respect, suspect, prospect…; press in pressure, impress,
suppress…; vert in divert, introvert, convert, revert).
15. See 16.
16. INFLECTIONAL SUFFIX is a suffix which has a grammatical meaning. As to their distribution all
inflectional morphemes in English are suffixes. In English there are 9 inflectional morphemes
which mark different grammatical categories: {s1} ‘plural’, {s2} ‘third person singular present
simple tense indicative’ {s3} ‘genitive’, {d1} ‘past simple tense’, {d2} ‘past participle’, {ing1}
‘present participle’, {ing2} ‘gerund’, {er} ‘comparative degree’, {est} ’superlative degree’. The
number of inflectional suffixes is not equal to the number of grammatical categories and some
suffixes are actually portmanteaus – they represent more than one category. INFLECTION is the
process the output of which are all the word-forms of that lexeme which occur in syntactically
determined environments; in English inflection involves a stem and an inflectional suffix.