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Philosophy – comes from Greek word philos (means LOVE) and Sophia (means WISDOM). The Ancient Greeks used
this term to refer to a “love for wisdom” and soon applied to science or discipline which uses human reason to investigate
the ultimate causes, reasons and principles which govern all things.
Western Philosophy – primarily concerned with uncovering the truth through systematically argumentation and theory.
- Has greater emphasis on the use of reason rather than faith and an increase focus on man
as an individual
- Led to the development of more scientific, theory-based approach in philosophy and a more
individualistic, self-oriented approach in analyzing the human condition
Sophists – an important group that emerged and influenced learning in Ancient Greece
- Were teachers who traveled throughout the Greece and taught people who wished to learn
- Were excellent public speakers
For philosophos arguments must be based on sound reasoning. Their central belief was that man need not know all
things in the world, but one must continue to inquire and seek to understand and learn about the human condition
1. Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE) - a mathematician and scientist he was credited with the formulation of the
Pythagorean theorem. His work earned him many followers and established a community of learners who were
devoted to the study of religion and philosophy
2. Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) – proposed that everything that exist is based on a higher order or plan which
he called logos. For him, change is a permanent aspect of the human condition and he was credited with the
saying, “no man ever steps on the same river twice”
3. Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE) – devoted himself to studying the causes of natural phenomena. He was among
the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms
4. Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE) – known as an advocate of a simple and virtuous life. For Diogenes,
one should not only talk of virtue but should know it in words and actions. His emphasis on austerity and simplicity
often went to the extreme and was said to have lived like a beggar. He was also known to be vocal critic of well-
known philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. His teaching and views were later developed by his followers and
influenced the development of several schools of philosophy such as Cynicism and Stoicism.
5. Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE) – believed that philosophy could enable man to live life of happiness. His views
gave rise to Epicureanism – a school of philosophy which believes that wisdom and simple living will result to a life
free from fear and pain
6. Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) – considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times. Made great contributions
to the field of ethics. Socrates was a known critic of intellectuals during his time, but he himself did not claim to be
wise and merely considered himself a midwife that helped inquiring minds achieve wisdom. Also believed that
philosophy could enable a man to live a life of virtue. He was credited with formulating the Socratic Method – a
means of examining topic by devising a series of questions that let the learner examine and analyze his knowledge
and views regarding the topic
7. Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) – student of Socrates, wrote down his teacher’s writings and incorporated some of his
own ideas into them. His teachings and writings were considered the foundation of Western philosophy. Plato’s
most significant ideas include his Theory of Forms, which proposes that everything that exists is based on an idea
or template that can only be perceived by the mind, these nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging also
focused his studies on the ideal society and proposed an ideal model of government and society which ruled by
wisdom and reason. He was also known for his dialectic method of inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed
in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Plato’s lasting contribution to learning was his founding of the Academy,
institution of higher learning which was the first of its kind in the West
8. Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) – attended the Academy and was a prominent student of Plato. However, he
disagreed to Plato’s theory of forms and took a different view in interpreting reality. For him, all ideas and views are
based on perception and our reality is based on what we can sense and perceive. This view greatly influenced the
study of the physical sciences. Aristotle was involved in a great variety of disciplines such as zoology, psychology,
ethics and politics. Also proposed a system for the classification of plants and animals. His studies in logic led to
the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise to deductive reasoning – the process by
which specific statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or generalization.
9. Archimedes (287 BCE to 212 BCE) he gained renown for the practical aspects of his philosophical inquiries and
was considered a leading scientist in ancient times. A mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor and astronomer,
Archimedes’ inquiries into mathematics to analyze natural phenomena. He is credited for several inventions such
as Archimedes screw, a devise for raising water and a method for determining volume using displacement.
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
Eastern Philosophy – often described as “wisdom” literature, where stories, sayings and texts encourage people to adopt
an ethical and harmonious way of life. Has great emphasis on social relations and the family and community are
considered a central aspect of life. The goal of eastern philosophy is to achieve a balanced life and find one’s role in
society.
Classification of Eastern Philosophy
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
Wisdom is developed
through practice of the five
main vows: ahimsa (non-
voilence), satya (truth),
asteya (honesty),
brahmacharya (chastity)
and aparigraha (piety)
Branches of Philosophy
1. Philosophy in Human Person – which looks into the nature of man
2. Aesthetics – deals with beauty and what makes things beautiful
3. Logic – deals with correct reasoning
4. Epistemology – discusses the nature of knowledge and knowing
5. Ethics – deal with moral questions and dilemmas
6. Political philosophy – studies government and deals with questions of justice, power and the rights and obligations
of citizens.
7. Metaphysics – deals with questions regarding reality and existence
Man – general term which is commonly used to refer to the human race
- Other related terms include humanity , mankind , humankind
1. Biological Perspectives – considers man as a part of the natural world and a product of evolution
Modern Humans (homo sapiens sapiens) – most successfully adapted species on planet
- With highly developed physical features such as
a. Bipedalism
b. Highly developed hands
c. Smaller jaws and teeth
d. Larger, more developed brains
Culture – considered man’s most significant achievement which sets apart from the evolution of humanity from other
species
2. Psychological perspective – places emphasis on human behavior and thought processes in analyzing human nature.
Man possesses mental faculties that enables him to possess awareness, a sense of self, and the capacity to perceive
and experience.
3. Economic Perspectives - focuses on man’s ability to engage in productive activities in an effort to meet his wants
and needs.
- considers man as a productive being; his primary goal is to produce and engage in labor
Economic Man (homo economicus) – driven by rationality and self-interest in his desire to possess wealth.
1. The person as an “autonomous being” – holds that a human being is considered a person if he/she possesses
the ability to determine his/her life through “reasoned free choice”
- Assumes that man possesses reason, the capacity for reflection and the ability to engage in
decision making
2. The person as a unified individual – asserts that human being has the inherent capacity to function as a person
- Emphasizes the potential of the human being and recognizes that each human possesses the
means to achieve his/her capabilities
3. The person in relation to others - asserts that human being becomes a person through interactions with other
human beings.
Proposed varied ideas on the nature of the spirit according to Greek philosophers
1. Plato – the human mind is immortal and persists after the death of the body
- believed that spirit is composed of three parts
a. Logos – mind or reason
b. Thymos – emotion
c. Eros – desire
2. Aristotle – regarded the soul as integrated into the human body; the soul is the part of man’s essence which enables
him to achieve his ultimate purpose
Physicalism – believes that physical processes determine the state of the mind
Idealism – holds that mental processes and thought are the only reality
Monism – argues that the human being is composed of elements that are neither physical nor mental
Dualism – believes in the distinctiveness of the physical and mental nature of man
Avicenna – argued that self-awareness and consciousness exists even if the body is deprived of its senses
Rene Decartes – proposed that the mind and body exist as two separate entities which interact with one another
St. Thomas Aquinas – believed that the soul is the first actuality of the body; for there to be a body, there should first be a
soul
- The soul has substance but has no physical or concrete form, and is able to exist even without the body
St. Augustine –considered the soul the driving force which governs the body and defines the human person
1. Trichotomic view – holds that man is composed of three essential parts: body, soul (defined as the component
which gives man life and will) and spirit (enables man to establish connection with God)
2. Dichotomic view – views man as composed of the body and the spirit
3. Psychosomatic unity – asserts that man is of single or unitary constitution and that the body and spirit are
inseparable and integrated.
God – is acknowledged as the Supreme Being which governs all existence and the center of faith and devotion of a religion.
Theism - the belief in the existence of a God or several deities
Monotheism – believe in a single God.
- Its characteristics includes the following:
a. Omniscience – God is all-knowing
b. Omnipotence – God is all-powerful
c. Omnipresence- God is ever-present
d. Benevolent – God is perfectly good, just and all-loving
e. Divine Simplicity – all attributes are integrated and embodied by HIM – God is not just good: He is goodness
itself
f. Eternal – God is timeless and has no beginning and end
1. Ontological Argument – contends that since man, a rational being, is able to conceive the notion of a Supreme
Being, then it holds to reason that such Supreme Being exists
2. Teleological Argument – focuses on the purpose a God would play in the universe. Also argues that a Supreme
Being is necessary for the continued existence of an orderly complex universe
3. Cosmological argument – takes into account the nature of existence and the universe and recognizes the
existence of God as an explanation of how things came to being in our reality
St. Thomas Aquinas – proposed several arguments which point to God as the prime mover, the first cause of existence
and the source of being of reality and the universe
Gottfried Leibniz – based the belief on the existence of God on the principle of sufficient reason
- All facts and events must have an explanation
4. Moral argument - holds that man’s ethical nature is brought about by the existence of God. Consider God a
necessary being for the universe and all existence to make sense
Immanuel Kant - proposed that human transcendence is based on rationality. Humans are able to comprehend certain
abstract concepts that have no equivalent physical object or sensory experience.
Jean-Paul Sartre – considers the person’s ability to comprehend and relate to objects and beings outside of his own self
as an indication of transcendence. For him, transcendence lies in the ability of persons to relate to people, things and
experiences in a meaningful manner.
Environmental philosophy – is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and humanity’s
place within it.
- Major issues tackled are humanity’s role in the natural world, the interaction between nature and human
activities and humanity’s response to environmental challenges
Anthropocentrism – the belief that humans are the central and most significant species on the planet. This holds that
humans are considered the primary cause that drives changes in the environment
Deep ecology – sees the natural world as being maintained by the interrelationship among living organisms and that every
living thing on the planet is dependent on each other for survival
- Regards human interference as a significant threat to the natural world and all living things
Gaia Hypothesis – suggest that non-organic elements on the planet play a significant role in maintaining balance in the
environment as they interact with living organisms to regulate the various systems that enable life to continue thriving on
Earth.
Environmental Ethics – emerged in 1970s and advocated human responsibility and action with regard to environmental
issues.
- Emphasizes key ideas that combine philosophical, pragmatic and theological perspectives
a. All nonhuman elements of the world, including animals and natural resources have intrinsic value and
should be preserved
b. The preservation of the environment is beneficial for humans, as it will continue to provide for the present
and future generations
c. Man has responsibility to safeguard the planet as it has been entrusted to him by God
Social Ecology – applies an ecological and ethical approach in analyzing society and sees a relationship between social
problems and environmental problems
Environmental justice – refers to the fair distribution of environmental benefits, as well as the burden of meeting
environmental challenges
Environmental aesthetics – originally discussed concepts of beauty in nature but has recently been increasingly influenced
by environmental concerns
Environmentalism – has also become an important issue in international politics as governments and international
organizations have devoted efforts to discuss environmental issues and formulate plans to address them.