KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PROJECT REPORT

ON

STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF DYNAMIC FREQUENCY PLANNING IN

CELLULAR NETWORK
A final year project report submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering

By:
Lakpa Dorje Tamang (42026)
Adhish Singh Bisht (42008)

Submitted to:
Brajesh Mishra

September 2018
 CERTIFICATION

Final Year Project Report

on

Study and Analysis of Dynamic Frequency Planning on Cellular

Networks

By:

Adhish Singh Bisht(42008)

Lakpa Dorje Tamang (42026)

Approved by:

1. Project Supervisor

(Signature) (Name) (Date)

2. Head/In-Charge of the Department

(Signature) (Name) (Date)

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost we would like to express our gratitude towards the Electrical and
Electronics Department as a whole for providing us a platform to sharpen our practical
skills by engaging us in research based projects. We are extremely grateful to our project
co-ordinator Mr. Diwakar Bista for helping us with the resources required for the
initiation and execution of this project.
We are extremely grateful to Mr. Brajesh Mishra, the project supervisor for his time and
suggestions for the betterment of this project.
We are also grateful towards the authors of the various references and literatures from
which we have benefited a lot and broadened our knowledge horizon. Last but not the
least we would like to thank our family members, friends and everybody who have
directly or indirectly contributed in this project.

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 ABSTRACT
Frequency allocation problem in wireless cellular networks has been a major area of
research in cellular communication. Since the use of cellular phones are increasing
exponentially and hence the existing limited frequency is unable to provide services
efficiently. Drop calls probabilities while moving from one base station to another due to
unavailability of free frequency must be taken care of and enhance the performance of the
network. Calls arrive over time and are served by assigning frequencies to them and no
two calls emanating from the same cell or neighbouring cells are assigned with same
frequency. A channel allocation algorithm is proposed which includes a channel
acquisition and channel selection scheme. The proposed dynamic channel allocation
algorithm is based on resource planning model, where a borrow or need not to receive
replies from every interfering neighbor, it can borrow a channel from that neighbor whose
all group members replies with common free channel first. The proposed algorithm
makes efficient reuse of channels and evaluates the performance in terms of blocking
probability. Also, the priority of incoming calls is also taken into consideration and they
are assigned with reserved channels.

ii
 Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................... i
ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................................ii
ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ iv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... v
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................ 1
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Motivation ............................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Problem Description .............................................................................................. 3
1.4 Objectives .............................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................ 5
2.1 Literature Survey ....................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Fixed Channel Allocation .......................................................................................... 6
2.3 Dynamic Channel Allocation ..................................................................................... 6
2.4 Cellular network model.............................................................................................. 7
2.5 Entities within a cellular network .............................................................................. 8
2.5.1 Mobile station ..................................................................................................... 9
2.5.2 Base Transceiver Station (BTS).......................................................................... 9
2.5.3 Base Station Controller (BSC) ............................................................................ 9
2.5.4 Mobile Switching Center (MSC) ...................................................................... 10
2.5.5 Visitor Location Register (VLR) ...................................................................... 10
2.5.6 Home Location Register (HLR)........................................................................ 10
2.5.7 Authentication Center (AuC) ............................................................................ 10
2.5.8 Equipment Identity Register (EIR) ................................................................... 10
2.6 Radio Network Planning .......................................................................................... 10
2.6 The cellular concept and frequency reuse ................................................................ 11
2.7 Selection of frequency reuse patterns ...................................................................... 12
2.7.1 Patterns .............................................................................................................. 12
2.7.2 Factors Of Consideration .................................................................................. 12
2.7.3 Determining cluster size ................................................................................... 13
2.7.4 Implementation ................................................................................................. 13

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 2.8 The mobile environment and interference ............................................................... 13
2.9 The frequency re-use pattern ................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 3 ...................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 15
3.2 System Model .......................................................................................................... 15
3.2.1 Properties and fundamentals of cellular geometry............................................ 16
3.3 The proposed algorithm ........................................................................................... 19
3.4 Explanation of the algorithm ................................................................................... 20
3.5 Flow Chart ............................................................................................................... 21
3.6 Pseudo code ............................................................................................................. 22
3.7 Cellular cluster design.............................................................................................. 22
CHAPTER 4 ...................................................................................................................... 23
4.1 Simulation result and analysis ................................................................................. 23
CHAPTER 6 ...................................................................................................................... 29
6.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 29
6.2 Future Development................................................................................................. 29
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 30

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 ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation Full Form First Used in Page

MSC Mobile switching center 2
BTS Base Transceiver Station 2
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network 2
BSC Base Station Controller 2
VLR Visitor Location Register 2
HLR Home Location Register 2
Ghz Gega Hertz 4
Mhz Mega Hertz 4
3GPP Third Generation Partnership Project 4
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System 4
LTE Long Term Evolution 4
GSM Global System For Mobile Communication System 4
Dmin Minimum Re-use Distance 5
SIM Subscriber Identity Module 11
MS Mobile Station 11
BSS Base Station Subsystem 11
TRX Transceivers 11

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Description Page No.
1.1 Architecture of cellular network 1
1.2 A simple geographical cellular network and interference area of 2
Cellular networks
2.1 Hexagonal cellular model 8
2.2 GSM network architecture 9
2.3 Cellular clusters 12
3.1 Cellular model system 16
3.2 Hexagonal geometry 17
3.3 Co-ordinates for hexagonal geometry 17
3.4 Defining cell neighbors 19
3.5 Flowchart diagram 21
3.6 Cellular design 22
4.1 6*6 cells with randomly distributed users 23
4.2 Blocking probability graph 24
4.3 Graph showing number of channels borrowed during different number
of calls 25
4.4a For t=80s 25
4.4b For t=400s 26
4.5a Less number of priority calls 27
4.5b Large number of priority calls with certain number of calls blocked 28
due to insufficient queue length
4.6 Graph showing number of successful and queue priority calls 28
5.1 Gantt chart 29

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page No.
4.1 Simulation parameters 24
4.2 Blocking proobability simulation result 25
4.4a For t=80 secs 27
4.4b For t=400 secs 27
4.5a Less number of priority calls 28
4.5b: Large number of priority calls with certain number of calls 28
blocked due to insufficient queue length

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 CHAPTER 1

1. Introduction
A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land through cells where each cells
include a fixed location transceiver known as base station. Cellular network technology
suppports a hierarchical structure formed by the base transceiver station(BTS), mobile
switching center(MSC), location registers and public switched telephone
networks(PSTN). The BTS enables cellular devices to make direct communication with
mobile phones. The unit acts as a base station to route calls to the destination base center
controller. The base station controller(BSC) coordinates with the MSC to interface with
the landline-based PSTN, visitor location register(VLR), and home location
register(HLR) to route the calls toward different base station controllers.[1]
Cellular networks maintain information for tracking the location of their subscribers
mobile devices. In response, cellular devics are also equipped with the details of
appropriate channels for signals from the cellular network systems.

Fig 1.1: Architecture of cellular network

Frequency allocation is an important problem in the operation of the cellular networks.
The available area for the network is basically divided into hexagonal shaped cells. A
base station is located at the center of the cell. The base station is in-charge of handling

1
cells arising from the mobile hosts situated in its cell. The basestaion is equipped with a
transceiver and operates on low power energy. Each base are connected to the centre
controller called mobile switching cente(MSC) through high speed wired links.
To establish wireless connection among monile phones it is essential to assign
frequencies to them in such a way that no two cells originating from same or the
neighbouring cells are assigned by the same frequencies. Since, we have limited
frequencies in comparision to the number of users, it is necessary to utilize the given
frequency spectum optimally.[9]

Fig 1.2: A simple geographical cellular network and interference area of server

1.1 Background

Transferring information between far spaces across the world always meant a big
challenge in the human history. There was some method during the ancient times and
middle ages, like smoke signals, beacons or piegon posts, but the speed and the reliability
of the information transfer was not most satisfactory.
The first big breakthroughs in the history of worldwide communication was the rapid
spreading of the electrical telegraph networks starting from the middle if 19th century. By
1902, as the result of laying several submarine communication cables, the telegraph
system encircled the world. After that, at the early 20th century, telephone started to take
the place of the telegraph, and by the end of the century, it has become one of the most
popular communication device all around the world.[3]
Early mobile telephone systems resembled broadcast systems, in that powerful
transmitters where used to cover the distance of 20-30 miles from a high tower or roof
top. These systems used analog modulation and the calls in both directions were placed
through a mobile operator.
The second generation(2G) of the wireless mobile network was based on low band digital
data signalling. The most popular 2G wireless technology is known Global System for
Mobile communication(GSM). The first GSM system used a 25 MHz frequency spectrum
in the 900 MHz band. Today, GSM system operates in the 900 MHz and 1.8 Ghz bands

2
throughout the world with the exception of the Americas where they operate in the 1.9
GHz band.
Projections of increasing demand for wide area communications supporting new
applications requiring high data rates led to the development of a new generation of
cellular communication system in the late 1980s and the 1990s. The 3rd generation
system which has become dominant worldwide was developed in the third generation
partnership project (3GPP) and is known as the Universal Mobile Telocommunication
System(UMTS).
The transistion from circuit switched switched mobile service provision to packet switche
is compared with the advent of the Long Term Evolution(LTE) of UMTS. Further growth
in demand for packet data services, fueled by the arrival of mobile terminals with much
more advance capabilities for images, audio, video, email and office applications, led to
the need for a furthur radical step in the radio access network design.[2][3]

1.2 Motivation
In cellular networks, it is purely matter of convenience to receive and make calls at your
leisure, any time and anyplace. The mobile phone has became fascinable and everyday
object.
The main motivation of this project is to examine the performance of the existing cellular
networks to transmit data. This section gives and overviw about the cellular network, and
explanation on the events that occur when a call is made from or to a mobile telephone
and how cellular networks cope with the frequency or channel allocation due to the
increasing demand for mobile phones.
Due to inefficient availability of frequency spectrum different problems like call drops
and blocking of the call when moving from one base station to another and also when
frequency demand is beyond the capacity of cell, cellular networks could not perform in
accordance to the demand of the user. So, frequency allocation schemes are deployed to
overcome such problems and hence increase the reliability of the cellular networks.

1.3 Problem Description

The interference of frequency is a major issue in frequency allocation problem. So, during
frequency allocation, the network operator must take care of avoiding interference among
the same frequencies.[1][6] The major frequency interference that take place in cellular
networks are:
 Self interference: Self interference is due to the interference induced among the
signals that are transmitted from a shared transmitter. The amount of interference
induced depends on the modulation tyoes. The impact of self interference can be

3
 reduced by selecting the physical layer numerology such that operating condition
and implementation technology are taken in account.
 Multiple access interference: Multiple access interference refers to interference
induced among the transmission from multiple radio using the same frequency
resource to a single receiver. Theoretically the pysical layer will allow orthogona
multiple access, however factor such as synchronization error s and effect of
wireless propagation channel will not allow orthogonality to be maintained
practically.
 Co-channel interference: A finite number of channels is available in the cellular
system. So the same channel can be used in different cell. But the channels can be
used simultaneously by number of different cells only if the distance between each
pair of cells using the same channel is greater than or equal to the minimum reuse
distance [2]. Thus, each cell C is associated with an interference neighborhood
INc which is the set of cells whose distance to C is smaller than Dmin.
Inc={C’:dist(C,C’)<Dmin}
From the above equation, if the a channel is available for use by cell C only if it is being
used by any cell in INc. That means if the cell C and C’ uses the same channel and the
distance between the two cell is less than Dmin then the co-channel interference will
occur..
 Adjacent channel interference: Adjacent channel interference is the interference
induced between links that communicate in same geographical location using
neighbouring frequency bands. The transmitter occupying a certain frequency
band also leak energy on frequency adjacent to that band.
The basic interference reduction techniques in cellular communication are:
 Intermodal solutions
 Frequency planning methods
 Genetic algorithms
 Simulated annealing
 Ordering heuristic
 Ant-colony and multiagent optimization
 Artificial neural networks

1.4 Objectives
 To compare fixed and dynamic channel allocation call blocking probability.
 To develop priority based DCA algorithm with concept of reserved channels.
 To develop queuing system for the priority calls.

4
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 Literature Survey

The area covered by the cellular network is divided into a set of hexagonal cells. The
bandwidth available for the network is divided into a set of carriers by frequency division.
Each carrier is further divided into a number of channels by time division. Each channel
can support a call. If a carrier is assigned to a cell, then all channels in that carrier are
available for use in that cell. A carrier can be used by two different cells if their
geographic distance is greater than a certain threshold called minimum reuse distance.
Only a finite part of the radio spectrum is allocated to cellular radio, the number of carrier
frequency is limited. This means that it is necessary to re-use the available frequencies
many times in order to provide sufficient channels for the required demand. This
introduces the concept of frequency re-use and with it the possibility of interference
between cells using the same carrier frequencies.[9]
With the fixed number of carrier frequencies available, the capacity of the system can be
increased only by re-using the carrier frequencies more often. This means making the
cells size smaller. This has two basic consequences:
 It increases the likelihood of interference (co-channel interference) between the
cells using same frequency.
 If a mobile station is moving, it will cross cell boundaries more frequently when
the cells are small. When a mobile crosses the cell boundary it must change from
carrier frequency of the cell which it is leaving to the carrier frequency of the cell
to which it is entering, a process called handover. It cannot be performed
instantaneously and hence there will be a loss of communication while the
handover is being processed. If the cell sizes become very small, handovers may
occur at a very rapid rate.
Thus frequency planning is a major issue in the design of the cellular system which must
achieve an acceptable compromise between the efficient utilization of available radio
spectrum and the problem associated with frequency re-use.
GSM is one of the fastest growing cellular communication system in the world. The large
number of users, increasing uses of the mobile services as well as new services force
operators to increase the capaciity offered by the networks. In many of the cellular
systems, increasing the capacity means increasing the avialable bandwidth and using
more effiecient planning of the deployment of the base stations. Common ways to
increase the capacity are the usage of smaller cells, sectorization of the cells and better
assignment of frequencies to mitigate inter-cellular interferences. Smaller cell increase

5
the cost of deploying the network. This is because this scenario requires more base
staions and the network requires more planning in the deployment and frequency
assignment. The main concept of cellular communication is the use of small low power
transmitters and frequencies that can be reused in small geographic areas as possible. The
frequency reuse will be the key aspect of our project.[7]

2.2 Fixed Channel Allocation

Fixed channel allocation(FCA) system allocates specific channels to specific cells. This
allocation is static and cannot be changed. For efficient operation, FCA system typically
allocate channels in the manner that maximizes frequency re-use. Thus, in a FCA system,
the distance between cells using the same channel is the minimum re-use distance for that
system. The problem with FCA is quite simple and occurs whenever the offfered traffic to
a network of base stations is not uniform. Consider a case in which two adjacent cells are
allocated N channels each. There clearly can be situation in which one cell has need for
N+K channels while adjacent cell only requires N-M channels(for integers K and M). In
such a case, K users in first cell would be blocked from making calls while M channels in
the second cell would go unused. Clearly in this situation of non-uniform spatial offered
traffic, the available channels are not being used efficiently.[6][8]

2.3 Dynamic Channel Allocation

To overcome the limitations of FCA, another strategy called dynamic channel allocation
(DCA) in which channels are dynamically assigned to the cells are used. Contrasts to
FCA, in DCA available channels are reserved in a global pool and from there channels
are allocated to the cells on demand as per their need. In DCA, any BS does not own any
particular channels and a channel is released by the BS to the central pool when a call is
completed. In the situations when call density in few cells are higher compare to other
cells in the system, then these high call density cells can be assigned more channels than
other low call density cells. This helps in minimizing the call blocking rate in these high
call density cells. In DCA, channels are allocated in real-time based on the actual cell
conditions by doing real-time computation to make decision about allocation of channels.
Due to its real-time computational requirements DCA are of higher complexity and are
less efficient than FCA. The real-time channel allocation makes DCA, adaptive to
interference and traffic changes. In general, DCA strategies assume that all channels can
be used by any cell or base station (BS) and there is no fixed relationship between the
communication channels and cells. The basic concept of DCA is that each base station
attempt to maintain channel uses pattern similar to FCA, as long as this is compatible

6
with the existing traffic pattern. In general requirements of a good DCA scheme is to take
care of two aspects-- first is to maximize channel uses by maximizing the reuse of various
channels in the system; second during dynamic system implementation minimum
information exchange among BSs should be less. Hence, the DCA strategy should
maintain, as far as possible, the maximum packing of channels.[6][8]
In DCA schemes, contrary to FCA, the number of channels in each cell keeps on
adaptively changing, to accommodate traffic fluctuations. In DCA schemes, during heavy
traffic in a given cell, more channels are made available for that cell and during light
traffic periods in a cell allocated channels are reduced. Those released channels are used
by other cells which require more channels. This channel readjustment process requires a
lot of communication and information exchange among cells. Therefore, a DCA strategy
should be implemented in such a way that it requires the minimum information exchange
among base stations in order to reduce the signaling overhead and complexity. In an ideal
DCA, at any time, a call request should be satisfied, provided that the sufficient channels
are available in the system in any cell. Such an ideal DCA is impractical because, in
general, it would require a real-time reconfiguration of the carrier-to-cell assignment in
the entire cellular network, and hence, turning up into a considerably large signaling
overhead. In a pure DCA scheme, it is assumed that the whole set of channels belongs to
a common pool and the allocations are performed on a call-by-call basis according to
certain frequency reuse criteria, frequency usage and future call blocking probability. The
pure DCA under light loads provides better service quality than FCA in terms of blocking
probability and handoff failure, because of better channel management and utilization.

2.4 Cellular network model

The cellular network is regarded as a regular grid of hexagonal cells of radius R. An n*m
cellular network has n rows and m columns of cells. The cell at row r and column c is
denoted by (r, c). Each cell has a geometric center. In the rectangular Cartesian co-
ordinates system with x-axis pointing to the direction of row 0, the co-ordinates (x, y) of
the center of cell (r, c) can be calculated as:
√3𝑅 0
(x, y)= (c, r)( 3 3)
√ 𝑅
2 2

The distance between two cells c1 and c2, denoted by the dist(c1, c2) is defined to be the
Euclidean distance between their centers. Thus, given their Cartesian coordinates c1= (x1,
y1) and c2= (x2, y2), the distance between c1, and c2 is:
√(𝑥1 − 𝑥2)2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2)2

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 Fig 2.1: Hexagonal cellular model

A conservative way to guarantee interference-free carrier reuse is to choose a minimum

reuse distance, Dmin such that two cells with a distance at least Dmin between them can use
the same carrier without interfering each other. The value of Dmin is chosen to meet the
prescribed requirement even in the worst case interference scenario. Since each cell has
six nearest interfering cells, the worst case C/I ratio is given by [C/I]=[(Dmin/R-1)]4/6, if
the fourth power law attenuation is assumed. [7]
Given a cell c, the interference neighborhood of c, denoted by IN(c), is the set of all cells
whose distance to c is smaller than the minimum reuse distance:
IN(c)={c’ |dist(c, c’) < Dmin}
In the above figure shows that an interference neighborhood may contain as many 30
cells if Dmin =3√3𝑅. Two cells in each other’s interference neighborhood cannot use the
same carrier simultaneously due to the interference-free constraint.

2.5 Entities within a cellular network

The figure here shows the architecture of a GSM network. In this section some of the
most important entities and their function in GSM systems have been listed, and
described in brief.[4]

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 .
Fig 2.2: GSM network architecture

2.5.1 Mobile station

The mobile station (MS) is the equipment used to access the GSM network. This is
usually the only part of the system that user can see, and probably the part where the units
differ the most in quantity and available services. Therefore the standard specifies their
interaction with the network strictly. These units are independent of the network
providers. The SIM (Subscribe Identity Module) is as small card, which has to be inserted
in the MS for it to work, except while making emergency calls. The SIM is the link
between operator and the MS. This card uniquely identifies the user of the MS.[4]

2.5.2 Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The base transceiver station (BTS), or more shortly known as the Base Station (BS), is
the entity in the system that handles the communication with the MSs in the network.
Most of the BTSs have several transceivers, and some of the time the different
transceivers communicate on different radio frequencies. Each of these cells contains one
BTS which is uniquely distinguished by its base station identity code called BSIC. The
BTS is in charge of all the communication in the cell. The BTSs are connected to a base
station controller (BSC) through a special interface (A-bis interface).[4]

2.5.3 Base Station Controller (BSC)

One base station controller (BSC) controls many BTS’s. It is the entity that handles part
of the call setup phase and tells each BTS when there is need for handovers between
different cells. A BSC together with BTS that it controls are often referred to as the base
station sub-system (BSS). [4]

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2.5.4 Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
The mobile switching center (MSC) is a switch connected to one or several BSCs. Its
main function is to switch speech and data connections between BSCs, other MSCs and
mobile and non-mobile networks. It is also connected to many different registers that are
used to verify each MS and call in the network.[4]

2.5.5 Visitor Location Register (VLR)

It is integrated with the MSC to reduce the signaling link load between two nodes. It is a
data base containing information about all mobile subscribers currently located in the
service area of one MSC. Each MSC therefore has its own unique VLR. The VLR is
responsible for keeping track of a mobile’s position to the nearest location area.[4]

2.5.6 Home Location Register (HLR)

It is a data base in GSM which stores permanent subscriber’s data. It can be integrated in
a MSC/VLR node or implemented in standalone node. When a subscriber registers in a
new MSC/VLR, the HLR function is to forward the subscriber information to that
particular MSC/VLR. Each time a subscriber changes MSC/VLR service area, it informs
the HLR of its new address so that the user can be reached when there is call for
him/her.[4]

2.5.7 Authentication Center (AuC)

This is a data base which prevents operators from fraud. It provides HLR with
authentication parameters and ciphering keys. It is implemented on external computer,
connected to the HLR. The switch is also in charge of authenticating the mobile.[4]

2.5.8 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

It is the data base that contains mobile equipment identity information and includes list of
stolen, unauthorized or defective MSs. It checks whether MS is stolen and if so, prevents
any calls being made to or from it.[4]

2.6 Radio Network Planning

The objective of the network planning and design is to provide wireless telephony
services in a serving area in the most cost-effective manner. In the case of existing
system, the objective is to expand and augment its facility so as to add new features and
capabilities or increase its capacity in case the system has reached its coverage limit. The
design usually involves determining the number of base stations and their locations that
would provide the necessary coverage in the serving area, meet the desired grade of
service, and satisfy the required traffic growth so that the total startup cost is minimized

10
and rate of return is maximized. The network planning process and design criteria vary
from region to region depending upon the dominating factor, which could be capacity or
coverage. The design procedure itself is not the only process in the whole network design,
and has to work in close co-ordination with the planning processes of the core and
specifically the transmission network. The frequency planning is the last step in the layout
of the GSM network, prior to tackling this problem the network designer has to address
some other issues: where to install the BTSs or how to set configuration parameters of the
antennas (tilt, azimuth etc.), among others. Once the site for BTSs are selected and the
sector layout is decided, the number of TRXs to be installed per sector has to be fixed.
This number depends on the traffic demand which the corresponding sector has to
support. The result of this process is the quantity of TRXs per cell. A channel has to be
allocated to every TRX and this is the main goal of the automatic frequency planning.[3]

2.6 The cellular concept and frequency reuse

The radio access part of the cellular network is considered as the essentially importance it
is the direct physical radio connection between the mobile equipment and the core part of
the network. In order to meet the requirements of the mobile services, the radio network
must offer sufficient coverage and capacity while maintaining the lowest possible
deployment costs. One main issue in cellular system design reduces to one of economics.
Essentially there is limited resource transmission spectrum that must be shared by several
users. Unlike wired communications which benefits from isolation provided by the
cables, wireless users within close proximity of one another can cause significant
interference to one-another. To address this issue, the concept of cellular communication
was introduced, where a given geographic area is divided into hexagonal cells. The
minimum distance necessary to reduce co-channel interference is called re-use distance.
The re-use distance is defined as the ratio of the distance D, between cells that use the
same channel without causing interference and the cell radius, R is the distance from the
center of a cell to the outer most point of the cell in case where the cells are not circular.
Typically spatial separation, either in the distance, angle, or polarization of
electromagnetic field is exploited for frequency re-use. In such system capacity per unit
area most be sufficient for the density of users and there usage patterns.[7]

11
 Fig 2.3: cell cluster

2.7 Selection of frequency reuse patterns

2.7.1 Patterns
A pattern is a number of cells grouped together, with each cell allocated a certain number
of channels, which are pairs of two frequencies to enable full duplex communication this
entire group of cells is known as cluster. One cluster serve a complete set of frequencies
ranging from the entire allocated spectrum of the operator. The cluster pattern is then
repeated throught the required coverage area. Patterns come in fixed numbers, and are
derived from the formula, N=𝑖 2 + 𝑖𝑗 + 𝑗 2 .

2.7.2 Factors Of Consideration

Factors to consider when selecting patterns include co-channel interference, which is the
radio interference caused by placing two cells, which have been allocated the same
channel, too close together. This causes deterioration of signal quality in severe cases,
might cause a call to be temporarily or permantaly disconnected, affecting the grade of
service of the oprator. The longer the re-use distance, the smaller the co-channel
interference level will be. However, a re-use distance that is too long increases the
number cell per cluster, which in turn resuts in lower re-use effiency and less system
capacity. Thus, the frequency re-use patterns should be determined taking into
consideration both the co-channel interference level and re-use efficiency.

12
2.7.3 Determining cluster size
The formula N=𝑖 2 + 𝑖𝑗 + 𝑗 2 is used to derive possible values of a cluster size. However to
find more accurate values given certain conditions, the formula given below is used
instead.
𝐶 𝐶 𝑃0 𝑅 −𝛾 1
= 𝑁 = =
𝑁
𝐼 ∑𝑖=1 𝐼𝑖 𝑃0 ∑𝑖=1(𝐷𝑖 ) −𝛾 𝐷𝑖 −𝛾
∑𝑁
𝑖=1[ 𝑅 ]

This formula takes into account the desired carrier power(C), the signal power of
interference (I), the radius of the cell (R), the frequency re-use distance (D) and path loss
exponent (γ). Using this formula and the respective parameters, operators can then better
plan their coverage areas by fine tuning those factors.

2.7.4 Implementation
In the course of preliminary planning and operator would have thoroughly searched upon
and determined appropriate operational parameters such as the coverage radio of the cell,
placement of the cells, and most importantly, the selection of the frequency re-use
patterns. After being allocated a spectrum of frequencies from the respective regulator,
the operator will have to implement the plan by first determining the number of channels
it can provide. Then, the operator distributes the channels evenly among the cell cluster.
The total number of cells required for the desored coverage areas is then calculated and
the chosen cluster pattern is repeated throughout the coverage area.
Due to the prevalence of frequency re-use there is rarely a need to create an enviroment to
simulate application. The main problem that frequency re-use eliminates is the limitation
of the allocated spectrum width to accomodate a higher number of mobile subscribers.
Once operators have chosen to implement frequency re-use, therre will be an essential
need to strategically plan the distribution of cells and channels, and hence decisively
select a frequency re-use pattern.

2.8 The mobile environment and interference

Radio or wireless path normally described in wireless systems corresponds to the radio
link between a mobile user station and the base station with which it communicates. It is
the base station that is, in turn, connected to the wired network over which the
communication signals will travel. Modern wireless systems are usually divided into
geographical distinct areas called cells, each controlled by a base station. The focus here
in on one cell and the propagation condition encountered by signal traversing the wireless
link between the base station and the mobile terminal. The link is made up of two way
path: a forward path, downlink from base station to mobile terminal, backward path,
uplink, from mobile terminal to base station. The electromagnetic signals generated at
13
either end will often encounter obstacles during the transmissions, causing reflections,
diffraction and scattering of the waves. The resultant electromagnetic energy reaching an
intended receiver will thus vary randomly. As a terminal moves, changing the condition
of reception at either end, signal amplitude will fluctuate randomly, resulting in fading of
the signal. The rate of the fading is related to the relative speed of the mobile with respect
to the base station, as well as the frequency of the signal being transmitted.

2.9 The frequency re-use pattern

The reuse pattern using cluster of 3 cells is proposed, where each of three cells uses a
different subsets of available channels. Each cluster of the cell uses the same channels in
this manner. Cells that use the saame frequency are far enough apart that the interfering
signal received in any cell from co-channel cells are much weaker than the signals that
originate within that cell. For planning purposes, the cells are considered to be hexagonal,
although in practice there shapes are determined by the radio coverage and they are
irregular. For N cells, frequency reuse, the distance between the co-channel cell is
D=𝑅√3𝑁, where R is the cell radius. In most systems the interference is much stronger
than the noise , and the SINR is approximately equal to the carrier to interference ratio or
C/I, which is used in following equation. The most significant interference comes from
the six closest co-channel cells.
𝐶 1 𝐷 𝛾
= ( )
𝐼 6 𝐼
Where γ is an emperically determined pathloss exponent. For free space, γ=2. For sub-
urban and urban areas γ can be as high as 5 or 6, but typically between 3 and 4. For
proposed system model N=3 and γ is taken to be 4. Thus D=3R and the C/I ratio is
calculated to be:
𝐶 1 3𝑅 4
= 6 ( 𝑅 ) =13.50 (power ratio) or
𝐼

10log10(13.50)= 11.3033 dB

14
 CHAPTER 3

3.1 Methodology
To carry out this project in well and systematic manner, we have followed a predefined
steps so that the analysis can be done in well manner. The methodology for developing
this project are:
 Study of cellular network technology, its background and the problems to
overcome.
 Study about the integrities of the cellular system.
 Different Dynamic Channel Allocation strategies like Geometric strategies, BDCL
strategies and distributed strategies were studied.
 Radio network planning pre-requisites were thoroughly studied and the frequency
re-use pattern in a cellular network was studied. Different terms were defined in
the process with the respective examples.
 Studied about the dynamic borrowing of channels from the co-channel cells and
the effect of interference arose from the adjacent neighbors.
 A new priority based DCA algorithm was built up.
 Cellular network model was built in MATLAB and its interfering neighbors were
studied, how the minimum re-use distance affected the channel borrowing process
was also taken in account.
 Flowcharts and pseudo codes were developed for simplification of coding in
MATLAB. Finally, simulation parameters were assumed and respective coding
was done to achieve our objective.
 Proper analysis and debugging were done for optimization of the obtained results.

3.2 System Model

Consider a geographical area divided into 6*6 hexagonal cells. Each cell having radius of
R. The distribution of channels among the cells in the system, based on the resource
planning model with cluster size 3 is assumed. The cluster size 3 means all channels in
the allocated spectrum are assigned in three adjacent cells, if a channel is being used in
any cell, then none of the remaining two adjacent neighboring cells can use this channel.
The considered minimum reuse distance (Dmin) is 3R, therefore the number of cells in
interfering neighbors is 6. If a channel r is being used in a cell then none of its interfering
neighboring cells can use r. When a MS wants to set-up a call it sends request message to

15
its immediate BTS, if there exist some free primary channels in the requesting cell then
the BTS will pick one in such a way that there will be no co-channel interference and
channel utilization is maximized.
If a channel is allocated for supporting the communication session between the MS and
BTS, then two cells can use the same channel only when physical distance is not less than
the threshold distance Dmin, otherwise their communication session interferes with each
other i.e. co-channel interference. Some of the channel selection schemes use resource
planning model to get better channel re-use for which the prior knowledge of channel
status is required. The rules for using resource planning model are as follows:
 The set of cells is divided into a number of disjoint subsets such that any two cells
in the same subset are physically separated with at least a minimum reuse
distance. The set of channels are also divided into equivalent disjoint subsets.
 The channels in the disjoint subsets are primary channels of cells in the subset and
secondary channels to another subset.
 When all primary channels are exhausted, then a cell requests the secondary
channels.

Fig 3.1: cellular model system

3.2.1 Properties and fundamentals of cellular geometry

Let Radius of each cell = R
Let Distance between center of adjacent cells = d
Let Distance between centers of Co-channel Cells = D

16
Step 1: To find the relation between radius of cell (R) and distance d

Fig 3.2: Hexagonal geometry

From the figure 3.2,
CI = R/2; OI = d/2 and OC = R …………………. (1)
By Pythagoras theorem,
OC2 = OI2 + CI2……………………………… (2)
From (1) and (2),
𝑑 2 𝑅 2
R2=( 2 ) + ( 2 )

Making d the subject of the formula,

d= 𝑅√3
The figure 3.2 shows the most convenient set of coordinates for hexagonal geometry. The
positive halves of the two axes intersect at a 60° angle, and the unit distance along any of
the axis equals 3 R. The radius is defined as the distance from the center of a cell to any
of its vertices. Based on this, the center of each cell falls on a point specified by a pair of
integer coordinates.

Fig 3.3: Co-ordinates for hexagonal geometry

17
The first thing to note is that in this coordinate system the distance d12 between two
points (U1,
V1) and (U2, V2) respectively is:
d12 2 = (V2 – V1)2 + (U2 – U1)2 + 2(V2 – V1) * (U2 – U1)*cos60………… (3)
= (V2 – V1)2 + (U2 – U1)2 + 2(V2 – V1) * (U2 – U1)*1/2…………….. (4)
= (V2 – V1)2 + (U2 – U1)2 + (V2 – V1) * (U2 – U1)…………………… (5)
Therefore,
d12 = √[(V2 – V1)2 + (U2 – U1)2 + (V2 – V1) * (U2 – U1)]………………… (6)

Using this we can easily verify that the distance between the centers of adjacent cells is
unity and the length of a cell radius R is:
1
R= In general, as we showed before if the distance between the centers of adjacent cells
√3

is d, then:
𝑑
R= ............. (7)
√3

Step 2: To find the distance between the centers of large Clusters (D)
Let us have a cell at (0, 0)
Let us have Co-channel Cell at (i, j)
By using Distance formula between two cells (as described before and assuming the
previous coordinate system);
D2 = ((i-0)2 + (j-0)2 + i*j) …………………….. (8)
D = √[((i-0)2 + (j-0)2 + i*j]……………… (9)

Step 3: To find the radius of the cluster (Rc)

𝐷
RC = ……………………. (10)
√3

√(𝑖 2 +𝑖𝑗+𝑗 2 )
RC = ……………. (11)
√3

Step 4: To find the number of cells in a cluster (K) (i.e. cluster size)
K = Cluster Area/Cell Area……………… (12)
Single Cell Area = 6 * (Area of 1 triangle with equal edges R)
1 𝑑
= 6*[2 𝑅 ∗ 2 ] ………………….. (13)

We have that d =√3𝑅. Therefore:

1 √3𝑅 3√3
Single Cell Area = 6*[2 𝑅 ∗ ]= ∗ 𝑅 2 …………………. (14)
2 2

18
Following similar reasoning the cluster area is:
3√3
Cluster Area = ∗ 𝑅𝑐 2 …………………. (15)
2

Combining equations (12), (14) and (15)

K=Rc2 /R2 ………………… (16)

By substituting (11) and d=𝑅√3, in (16)

K= 𝑖 2 + 𝑖𝑗 + 𝑗 2 ………….. (17)

Step 5: To find Co-channel Reuse Ratio / Factor (Q)

Q= D/R …………. (18)
Substituting equations (17), (9) and d =√3𝑅 in (18)
Q=√3𝐾 …………………. (19)

3.3 The proposed algorithm

The cells are divided into 3 linear disjoint subsets i.e. A, B, C. Each of these 3 cells uses a
different subset of the available channels. Each cell has 6 neighbors. Consider a total of
18 channels available, hence each cell has 6 primary channels with the following channel
numbers.
Subset A: 6 channels
Subset B: 6 channels
Subset C: 6 channels

Fig 3.4: Defining cell neighbors

A cell, say A3, needs a channel to support a call request. It first checks free primary
channels, if available it picks the least and marks it as used channel and supports that call
immediately. Otherwise A3 changes to search mode and sends request to all its interfering
neighbors, Nx (i.e. B1, C1, B3, C3, B5, and C5). When a cell in Nx receives a request
from A3, it sends a reply Px-Ux=Bx , where Px are the primary channels in that cell, Ux
are the channels in use and Bx are the unused channels which can be borrowed. When A3
receives reply messages from Nx , it selects a channel randomly from the largest Bx or if
two or more Bxs are equal, it selects a channel from the first to arrive.

19
A3 takes confirmation of selected channel to the lender which marks this channel as an
interference channel; the channel cannot be used until it is returned by the borrower. The
call is blocked if no free available channel is left.

3.4 Explanation of the algorithm

A channel allocation algorithm includes a channel acquisition and a channel selection
scheme. Most distributed DCA algorithms are based on non-resource planning model in
which a borrower needs to consult with every interfering neighbor in order to borrow a
channel. The proposed algorithm makes efficient reuse of channels. The purpose of this
scheme is to assign channels in such a way so that channel utilization is maximized at the
same time maintaining the voice quality. The calls are divided into two category: normal
calls and priority calls. For normal call that generates in a cell the following algorithm
takes place.
 Channel acquisition: The task of channel acquisition phase is to collect
information of free available channels from the interfering cells and ensure that
two cells within the minimum reuse distance do not share the same channel.
 Channel selection: The channel selection phase is concerned with choosing a
channel from the number of available free channels in order to get better channel
utilization in terms of channel reuse. The acquisition phase of the distributed DCA
algorithm consists of two approaches namely search and update. In search
approach, when a cell requires a channel, it searches from all it co-channel
neighbors to find the currently free available channels from which it selects one
channel according to the underlying selection scheme. In the update approach, a
cell maintains information about free available channels. When a cell requires a
channel, the channel selection scheme is used to pick one available channel and
confirms with its co-channel neighboring cells whether it can use the selected
channel or not. After that, when a cell acquires or releases a channel at any time, it
informs its interference neighbors so that every cell in the system model always
knows the available channels of its interference neighboring cells. Fast carrier
returning should be used to increase channel utilization by returning the borrowed
channels as soon as possible. Consider a cluster size of 3 cells for example. The
number of channel sets is divided into 3 channel disjoint subsets. When a cell
needs to borrow a channel, it has to send request message to its 11 co-channel
neighbors.
For priority calls 3 reserve channels are assigned to each subset. Then if the number of
priority calls do not exceed the number of available channels then, they are served by the
reserved channels. But if the number of priority calls in the cells are more than the

20
available reserve channels then those calls are queued for certain amount of time and then
provided with channel access after the termination of previous priority call.

3.5 Flow Chart

Fig3.5: Flow chart diagram

21
3.6 Pseudo code
Partition coverage area and assign channels to cells.
on {call arrival,}
{
if ( primary channel available ) {
use smallest channel
}
else {
if (secondary channel available )
{
borrow largest from neighbor with maximum free channels
}
else {
block call
}
}

3.7 Cellular cluster design

The 6*6 cellular cluster with random number of users deployed in a particular cell was
obatined by simulation.

Fig3.6: Cellular design

22
 CHAPTER 4

4.1 Simulation result and analysis

The cellular network was simulated in MATLAB. The minimum re-use distance (Dmin),
radius of cell (R), carrier to interference ratio (C/I) was calculated and the plotting of the
interference neighboring cells for a particular cell was done accordingly. Random number
of users were deployed within the cellular network. The figure below shows the 6*6
cellular network with interfering cells of cell ID 8, 16 and 29.
Table4.1: Simulation parameters

Simulation parameters Value

Cellular network 6*6
cells
Cellular cluster 7 cells
Radius of each cell 2
Total number of primary channels 18
Total number of channels in each subset 6
Total number of reserved channels 6
Total holding time for priority calls 80 sec
400 sec

Fig 4.1: 6*6 cells with randomly distributed users

23
One of the most important characteristic of a cellular network is that a certain number of
calls will fail to establish an initial connection. Two measures can be stated for dealing
with unsuccessful call attempts: the never serviced new calls, and the delayed successful
calls (waiting for initial connection). The blocking probability is one of the most
important characteristics for the performance of a cellular network. When a new call
arrival occurs and the network cannot allocate a channel then we say that this call is
blocked. The blocking probability Pbl is calculated from the ratio.
𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠
Pbl =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑
The table shown below illustrates the blocking probabilities of the proposed DCA scheme
and FCA scheme which is currently being used by cellular network operators in the
country. These results were generated by simulating the program code testdca.m in
MATLAB.
Table 4.2: Blocking probability simulation results

The results in given table were used to plot the blocking probability curve in the figure
below for comparison of the DCA and FCA frequency reuse schemes.

24
 Fig 4.2: Blocking probability graph
In this graph we can see that the blocking probability for same number of calls in the
same cell leaded to different call blocking in fixed (static) and dynamic algorithm. This
shows that the call blocking in fixed channel allocation is much more than in dynamic
channel allocation. This is due to the channel borrowing concept in dynamic algorithm,
which utilizes the concept of frequency re-use from its co-channel cells and minimizes
the blocking of the call. The same frequency can be used in the different co-channel
neighbors, which remain within the minimum re-use distance Dmin.

Fig 4.3: Graph showing number of channels borrowed during different calls
The table 4.4a and table 4.4 b shows the simulation under various holding time for the
priority calls. Since we kept the threshold 300 seconds for the priority calls. In the first

25
case, we entered t=80 secs which is below threshold time (300 secs), so the queue calls
were not assigned with the channel. But in the second case we entered t=400 secs which
is greater than the threshold time, so the at least one ongoing call is dropped and the
queue call is assigned with that channel.
Table 4.4a: For t=80 secs
Description Value

Total number of calls received 153

Total number of borrowed channels 8

Number of calls blocked in DCA scheme 5

Number of calls blocked in FCA scheme 73

Number of successful priority calls 11

Number of priority calls in queue 7

Number of priority calls exceeding holding time 0

Number of queue calls in progress 0

Table 4.4b: For t=400 secs

Description Value

Total number of calls received 166

Total number of borrowed channels 14

Number of calls blocked in DCA scheme 11

Number of calls blocked in FCA scheme 95

Number of successful priority calls 5

Number of priority calls in queue 6

Number of priority calls exceeding holding time 0

Number of queue calls in progress 6

26
 Table: 4.5a: Less number of priority calls
Description Value

Total number of priority calls received 7

Number of reserved channels borrowed 4

Total priority calls in queue 0

Total number of blocked priority calls due to insufficient queue length 0

Table: 4.5b: Large number of priority calls with certain number of calls blocked due to insufficient queue
length
Description Value

Total number of priority calls received 43

Number of reserved channels borrowed 3

Total priority calls in queue 12

Total number of blocked priority calls due to insufficient queue length 7

In the table 4.5a and 4.5b, we see that for less number of calls generated in first case and
higher number of calls generated in the second case respectively. We have set the
threshold for queue length =12, so for if the priority calls are less in numbers then the
calls are not blocked but if the priority calls exceed the queue length then, the remaining
calls are not provided with service. Hence, due to insufficient queue length the calls are
forced to be blocked.

27
 Fig 4.6: Graph showing number of successful and queue priority calls
The above graph shows that during 14 priority calls in a reference cell, we have 6 calls
successful and 8 calls in queue. Similarly for other number of calls particular calls are
given channel access and some are kept in queue and those queue calls will be allocated
with the reserve channels after the termination of the ongoing calls.

28
 CHAPTER 6

6.1 Conclusion
In conclusion, this report has described the process of selecting frequency reuse patterns
and implementing them in mobile networks. It has discussed the required considerations
in proper planning, and the key factors in determining appropriate parameters to build a
feasible and robust network. The proposed channel allocation algorithm makes efficient
reuse of channels using resource planning model with reduction of the cluster size. The
simulation results shows that the blocking probability of the proposed DCA algorithm is
significantly less than that of FCA algorithm. The divergence between simulation results
and real network behavior is affected by the structure of the implementation algorithms
and the corresponding research of real network conditions like new call arrival schemes,
user movement, etc. We have also discussed the channel assignment to the priority calls
with some reserve channels in case of emergency. Since frequency resource is limited so
it is not possible to assign channels to every calls, and call blocking in such case is
obvious. But those same reserve channels are if re-used same like normal channels in the
co-channel neighbors then channel optimization is much more feasible. A deeper research
requires full customizable software with high level of adaptation in real network
specifications and behavior.

6.2 Future Development

As the selection of frequency reuse patterns is more of a concept and process rather than a
technology itself, the continued development into this area is dependent on the individual
standardization bodies or manufacturers who develop the standards. The results obtained
are promising but not conclusive. Comparison with other dynamic frequency allocation
algorithms is warranted. A solution similar to the one demonstrated here might one day
be considered by a cellular provider or implemented in an actual cellular network. In
future as these cellular networks become larger and more complex, extra functions could
be added to the proposed algorithm. These would include mobile environment effects and
different base station locations for a better generalization of the proposed algorithm and
extra functions for more reliable testing and frequency assignment. An algorithm to get a
more self-calibrating network of base stations could be developed to deploy the network
that has implemented the frequency planning algorithm proposed in this project.

29
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