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Keywords: Characterizing the compressive strength of atmospheric ice is very significant to understand the ice shedding
Atmospheric ice phenomenon. For this purpose, several tests were carried out in order to study the behavior of atmospheric ice
Brittle failure under compression and tension, and under different experimental conditions.
Ice shedding Ice was accumulated in a closed loop wind tunnel in order to simulate the natural processes of atmospheric
Empirical failure criterion
icing. Four temperatures were considered (−20, −15, −10 and −5 °C), the wind speed inside the tunnel was
set to 20 m/s in order to obtain a mean volume droplet diameter of 40 μm, and a water liquid content of 2.5 g/
m3.
An empirical failure criterion for the atmospheric ice was proposed based on the experimental observations,
taking into account the porosity, strain rate and temperature.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hicham.farid1@uqac.ca (H. Farid).
1
www.cigele.ca.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.11.013
Received 11 April 2016; Received in revised form 29 October 2017; Accepted 20 November 2017
Available online 22 November 2017
0165-232X/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Farid et al. Cold Regions Science and Technology 146 (2018) 81–86
0.014
2.1. Atmospheric ice preparation
0.012
Strain (%)
The technique adopted to prepare atmospheric ice has an aim to 0.01
reproduce the natural atmospheric icing process, specific conditions to
generate this process were created in the atmospheric icing research 0.008
wind tunnel at CIGELE Laboratories (Eskandarian, 2005; Kermani, 0.006
2007). Although the process has been detailed in a previous work by the
0.004
same authors (Farid et al., 2016), explanation of the experimental
procedure and setup seems important for the sake of clarity. 0.002
Three independent supply lines provided air and water to the noz-
0
zles. Distilled water was injected into a cold airstream through nozzles 0 50 100 150 200
located at the trailing edge of a spray bar. Air speed, water and air flux,
all were controlled to generate droplets with a mean volume droplet Time (s)
diameter (MVD) of 40 μm and a liquid water content (LWC) of 2.5 g/
Fig. 2. Strain-time plot for a strain rate of 10− 4 s− 1 at a temperature of − 5 °C.
m3. A computer program allowed the control of these different para-
meters. Atmospheric ice was accumulated on a rotating aluminum cy-
linder (78-mm diameter and 590-mm length) making 1 rpm making the Plotting the strain versus time validated the claim that the specimen
thickness distribution of ice uniform. The cylinder was carefully strain rates were constant during tests, this is shown in Fig. 2 below.
cleaned with hot water and soap before each set of experiment. Then it In order to assure the results reproducibility, each test was repeated
was placed at the middle of the test section of the wind tunnel. The a minimum of five time, more details about the presented results are
distance between the cylinder and spray nozzles was large enough for available in (Farid et al., 2016).
the droplets to reach kinetic and thermodynamic equilibria.
The time needed to grow a sufficient thickness of ice on the cylinder
varied depending on accumulation conditions such as air temperature, 2.2. Microstructure observation and porosity evaluation
velocity and liquid water content, it ranges from 2 to 4 h, sometimes up
to 8 h. The atmospheric ice specimens were prepared at four different Compared to other types of ice, atmospheric ice shows relatively
temperatures: − 20, −15, −10, and − 5 °C. high porosity and lower densities depending on the type of the accre-
The specimen orientation according to the accumulated ice is illu- tion regime. In the present study, a Micro CT (Computed Tomography)
strated in Fig. 1. Once a thickness of about 60 mm was obtained, has been used to quantify, with better accuracy, the porosity in the
prismatic blocks were cut using a warm aluminum blade in order to prepared samples (Farid et al., 2016).
avoid any mechanical stress. Then, the blocks were machined into cy- Based on the binary images presented in Fig. 3, one can note the
lindrical shape with a diameter of 40 mm and a length of 100 mm. influence of the accumulation temperature on the porosity, as tem-
These specimen dimensions were adopted in order to avoid any influ- perature decreases, pores become smaller and their distribution become
ence of the grain size on the compressive behavior of the ice (Schwarz more uniform. The obtained values of porosity were 0.288 ± 0.079%
et al., 1981). at − 5 °C, 1.062 ± 0.082% at − 15 °C and 2.253 ± 0.089% at
Before each test, the ice specimen ends were cleaned and smoothed − 20 °C.
to assure their parallelism. The specimen were fixed against the stain-
less steel platen using a thin piece of paper, the use of paper relax the
triaxial stress field in the end of the specimen, and allowed to the test 3. Experimental results
system to transfer the axial load perfectly.
Once prepared, cylindrical specimens have been tested on uniaxial For each experimental condition (temperature and strain rate), the
compression at the same temperature at which they have been accu- stress versus strain curves were plotted, and the compressive strength,
mulated. As strain rate in natural ice shedding is not more than which corresponds the maximum stress reached before failure, was
10− 2 s− 1 (Kermani et al., 2007), hence, four strain rates were chosen recorded.
for the experimental tests: 10− 4 s− 1, 10− 3 s− 1, 10− 2 s− 1 and Fig. 4 shows the evolution of compressive strength of atmospheric
10− 1 s− 1. The considered strain rates were calculated by dividing the ice as a function of strain rate for three temperatures: −20, − 15 and
test system cross head speed by the sample's length. The test system is − 5 °C. The compressive strength of ice increases until it reaches a
considered infinitely stiff, so the system's compliance was negligible maximum value, which is then followed by a decrease as the strain rate
during the compressive tests (Farid et al., 2016). increases. This transition characterizes the ductile-brittle transition,
after which, the brittle failure takes part as dominant mode of failure,
and the ice fractures without apparent plastic deformation.
Ice specimen Fig. 5 illustrates the evolution of the compressive strength as a
function of temperature at different strain rates. The highest values of
atmospheric ice compressive strength were obtained for a temperature
of − 15 °C. After this temperature is reached, the compressive strength
Aluminum cylinder decreases, which is related to the presence of more pores and cavities at
temperature lower than − 15 °C. The evolution of porosity versus
temperature is showed in Fig. 6.
Porosity increases as the accumulation temperature decreases. This
Atmospheric ice can be mainly related to the accretion mode; as temperature decreases,
supercooled droplets reach the accumulation surface and freeze im-
mediately upon contact, air particles get trapped in the interstices
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of accumulated atmospheric ice and the specimen cut. during this process, which therefore increases ice porosity.
82
H. Farid et al. Cold Regions Science and Technology 146 (2018) 81–86
Fig. 3. Binary image of cross sections of atmospheric ice at − 20 °C (left), − 15 °C (center) and − 5 °C (right).
-3 -1
10 s
10-2 s-1 7
illustrated in Fig. 4, can be represented by a distribution similar to the
10-1 s-1
normal law, taking into account the influence of strain rate and por-
6
osity, we can derive the following expression:
5
2
4 α ⎛ 1 log (ε )̇ − n ⎞ ⎞
σc = exp ⎜− ⎜⎛
f (η) ⎠ ⎟
⎟
3 f (η) 2π 2⎝ (1)
⎝ ⎠
2
where ε ̇ is the strain rate, η is the porosity, f(η) is a linear function of the
1
porosity η, α is a constant depending on temperature, its dependence on
0 temperature being evaluated using a temperature shift function, and n
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
is a strain rate sensitivity factor. The average relative error between the
Temperature (oC)
model and experimental results are satisfactory, as shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 5. Compressive strength evolution as a function of temperature. Nonlinear regression was used for fitting the Eq. 1 to the experi-
mental results in each temperature. The results are presented in the
Table 1.
2.5 The values obtained of the parameter α (alpha) were always close to
the creep activation energy of ice (ranging between 45 and 90 kJ/mol
2 (Schulson, 1999)). Which promote the hypothesis suggesting that this
parameter could be related to the activation energy. Since this hy-
Porosity (%)
83
H. Farid et al. Cold Regions Science and Technology 146 (2018) 81–86
Data at T = -20 °C Fig. 7. The empirical failure criterion versus experimental data.
9
Data at T = -15 °C
8
Data at T = -5 °C
7
Compressive strength (MPa)
Model at -20°C
6 Model at -15°C
Model at -5°C
5
0
1.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.00E-03 1.00E-02 1.00E-01 1.00E+00
Strain rate (s -1)
Table 1 80
Different parameters presented in the failure criterion as a function of temperature. 70
60
α Parameter
Temperature n f(η) α 50
40
− 5 °C −6.71 2.99 33.14
− 15 °C −5.87 3.22 67.31 30
− 20 °C −6.98 3.35 54.65 20
10
0
The introduction of these type of functions requires the determi- -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
nation of the activation energy of atmospheric ice in different tem- Temperature (oC)
peratures, which needs to further detailed investigation and was out of
the scoop of this study. (a): Evolution of parameter α as a function of temperature
f(η)
− 20 °C). In order to assure the reproducibility of the experimental 3.15
results, as well as to verify the prediction capacity of the failure cri- 3.1
3.05
terion in other ranges of temperature, the failure criterion parameters f 3
(η), α, and n have been identified using non-linear regression based on 2.95
Fig. 8(a)–(c) at −10 °C. The obtained values of the f(η), α, and n -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
parameters are presented in Table 2. Temperature (oC)
A separate set of experimental results at − 10 °C was used to com-
pare the predicted values of compressive strength of atmospheric ice (b): Evolution of parameter ( ) as a function of temperature
using the failure criterion with test results. Fig. 9 illustrates the ex-
perimental data at −10 °C versus the predicted values by the failure Temperature (oC)
criterion. -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
Fig. 9 shows an acceptable fitting between the failure criterion and 0
the experimental data, the average relative error being 14.52%. -1
n Parameter
-2
4.3. Sensitivity analysis -3
-4
In order to investigate the effect of the parameters α, f(η) and n on -5
the failure criterion, a sensitivity analysis has been performed by ran-
-6
ging each of these parameters between a value of +20% and − 20%
-7
from its identified value (values in Table 1), while the two other
-8
parameters were set constant.
As presented in Fig. 10, at −5 and − 15 °C, the failure criterion is
sensitive to the parameter n and α, while it is less sensitive to f(η). At a (C): Evolution of parameter n as a function of temperature
colder temperature of − 20 °C, the failure criterion is highly sensitive to Fig. 8. Evolution of the empirical failure criterion parameters with temperature.
the three parameters.
84
H. Farid et al. Cold Regions Science and Technology 146 (2018) 81–86
Table 2 Table 3
The failure criterion parameters identified at − 10 °C. Summary of results from uniaxial tensile tests at the different conditions (Mohamed &
Farzaneh, 2011).
n f(η) α
Strain rate T = − 5 °C T = − 10 °C T = − 15 °C
− 6.52 3.11 46.83 (s− 1)
Tensile strength Tensile strength Tensile strength
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
7 Data at -10°C
4.44E-05 1.42 1.44 1.50
6 Model at -10°C 0.000111 1.42 1.43 1.45
Compressive stregnth (MPa)
3 1.6
2 1.4
0
Since the failure criterion has been calibrated for temperatures
1.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.00E-03 1.00E-02
ranging from − 5 to − 20 °C, and for strain rates higher than 10− 4 s− 1,
Strain rate (s -1)
and since we were more concerned about characterizing the atmo-
spheric ice under ice shedding conditions, these intervals of tempera- Fig. 11. Evolution of the failure criterion and comparison with the experimental data for
ture and strain rate constitute the range of its validity. tensile strength.
Table 4
4.4. Tensile failure criterion Parameters presented in the failure criterion as a function of temperature for tensile tests
data.
Ice shows brittle failure at a relatively slower strain rate in tension
Temperature n f(η) α
than in compression (Mohamed & Farzaneh, 2011). The proposed
failure criterion, presented in Eq. (1), has been verified in the case of a −5 °C − 314.66 76.79 731,708
tensile stress state in the brittle regime (for a strain rate higher than −10 °C − 303.33 94.86 41,366.9
10− 4 s− 1) using experimental data from Mohamed and Farzaneh −15 °C − 309.91 91.93 70,932.8
n n n
α α α
0 2 4 6 0 5 10 0 5 10
Compressive Stregnth (MPa) Compressive Stregnth (MPa) Compressive Stregnth (MPa)
85
H. Farid et al. Cold Regions Science and Technology 146 (2018) 81–86
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
(a) (b)
1.8
1.6
Tensile strength (MPa)
1.4
1.2
1
Model -15°C
0.8
Series2
0.6
Series3
0.4
Series4
0.2
0
3.00E-05 3.00E-04 3.00E-03
Strain rate (s -1)
(c)
Fig. 12. Validation of the failure criterion: (a) − 5 °C, (b) − 10 °C, (c) − 15 °C.
17.72% for temperatures − 5, − 15 and − 20 °C respectively. Farid, H., Farzaneh, M., Saeidi, A., Erchiqui, F., Jan. 2016. A contribution to the study of
The proposed failure criterion was validated in the case of tensile the compressive behavior of atmospheric ice. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 121, 60–65.
Farid, H., Saeidi, A., Farzaneh, M., 2017. Prediction of failure in atmospheric ice under
stress state, the obtained results showed a good correlation between triaxial compressive stress. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 138, 46–56.
experimental data and the values obtained using the failure criterion. Farzaneh, M., Nov. 2000. Ice accretions on high-voltage conductors and insulators and
related phenomena. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 358 (1776),
2971–3005.
Acknowledgement Farzaneh, M., 2008. Atmospheric Icing of Power Networks. Springer Science & Business
Media.
The present work was carried out within the frame work of the Farzaneh, M., Chisholm, W.A., 2009. Insulators for Icing and Polluted Environments.
Fuheng, H., Shixiong, F., 1988. Icing on overhead the transmission lines in cold moun-
Canada Research Chair on Atrmospheric Icing Engineering of Power tainous district of Southwest China and its protection. In: IWAIS, pp. 354–357.
Networks (INGIVRE). The authors would like to thank all the sponsors Hamza, H., 1984. Critical strain energy as a failure and crack propagation criterion for
of the project (Hydro-Québec, Hydro One, Réseau Transport ice. In: Proc. IAHR Int. Symp. on Ice Problems.
Kermani, M., 2007. Ice Shedding from Cables and Conductors – A Cracking Model of
d'Électricité (RTE), Alcan Cable, K-Line Insulators, Tyco Electronics,
Atmospheric Ice. University of Quebec at Chicoutimi.
Dual-ADE, and FUQAC) whose financial support made this research Kermani, M., Farzaneh, M., Gagnon, R., Sep. 2007. Compressive strength of atmospheric
possible. The authors also thank Mr. Pierre Camirand and Xavier ice. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 49 (3), 195–205.
Bouchard for the experimental setup. Michel, B., 1978. Ice Mechanics. Presses de l'université Laval.
Mohamed, A.M.A., Farzaneh, M., Sep. 2011. An experimental study on the tensile
properties of atmospheric ice. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 68 (3), 91–98.
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